Biographical Notes

Antoine Arnauld (1612-1694), philosopher, theologian, logician, and grammarian. He was a central Jansenist figure and became the leader of Port-Royal after publishing his first book, De la fréquente communion (1643). Professor of Philosophy at the Sorbonne from 1641 to 1656, he was expelled by instigation of the Jesuits, with whom he was engaged in an intense political and theological dispute, which led to the inclusion of his work in the index (1663). In spite of the hostility of his colleagues of Port- Royal to modern thought, especially to Cartesianism, Arnauld adopted a basically Cartesian stance. A brilliant polemicist, he wrote, through Mersenne’s mediation, the Fourth Objections against Descartes's Meditations (1641). He also conducted a twenty years long philosophical and theological debate with Malebranche. He corresponded with Leibniz in two crucial moments in Leibniz's intellectual development: the elaboration of his early physics (1670-1671) and the elaboration of his mature metaphysics (1686-1690). The latter interaction, initiated with Leibniz's submission to Arnauld's consideration of the Discourse on Metaphysics (1686), yielded a sharp polemical correspondence, which remains to this day crucial for understanding Leibniz's central metaphysical views. Arnauld cooperated with Isaac Le Maître in the first translation of the Bible into French. Apart from an extensive theological work, Arnauld co- authored two books that were influential in the 17th and 18th centuries: Grammaire générale et raisonnée (1660), with Lancelot, and La logique, ou l’art de penser (1662), with Nicole.

Pierre Bayle (1647-1706), philosopher, historian of ideas, and polemicist. His writings were marked by his sharp critical ability, which led to a sceptical attitude and, ultimately, to fideism. Born a Calvinist, he converted early in his life, under the influence of the Jesuits, to Catholicism and then back to Calvinism – a sure indication of a searching mind. Since 1675, he taught Aristotelian Philosophy at the Protestant Academy of Sedan, at the invitation of his friend, the Calvinist theologian Pierre Jurieu, with whom he later held a bitter theological, political, and philosophical 455

456 Biographical Notes controversy. After the closing of the Academy (1681) – one of the initial steps in the suppression of religious tolerance in France, which culminated with the revocation of the Edit of Nantes (1685) – he went into exile along with many other Huguenots and settled in Rotterdam, where he was a professor at the Ecole Illustre until his death. Bayle held a basically Cartesian philosophical stance, especially regarding dualism, and favored Malebranchian occasionalism as a solution to the problem of the interaction between mind and body. He corresponded with Leibniz (1687-1702), and his critique of Leibniz’s “bizarre” hypothesis of pre-established harmony in the article “Rorarius” of his Dictionary provoked Leibniz’s reaction and led to a controversy that culminated in the Théodicée – which is largely an attempt to refute Bayle’s contention that there is no possible conciliation between faith and reason. He founded and edited the important journal Nouvelles de la République des lettres (1684-1687), where he stimulated a critical exchange of ideas in all disciplines. His densely argued Commentaire philosophique (1686) remains a mainstay of the doctrine of religious tolerance and his Réponse aux questions d’un Provincial (1703-1706) argues for the views with which Leibniz most directly contends in the Théodicée. Bayle’s most influential work was the Dictionnaire historique et critique, first published in 1696, followed by many expanded and revised editions.

Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet (1627-1704), theologian, preceptor of the royal dauphin since 1670, Bishop of Meaux since 1681, was the éminence grise of Louis XIV’s religious politics. A prolific writer and scholar, he became a member of the French Academy in 1669. A sharp polemicist, very influential in Catholic policy, he was a severe doctrinal critic of Protestantism, against whom he wrote a series of fundamental texts, among which: Réfutation du catéchisme du pasteur Ferry (1655), Histoire des variations des Églises protestantes (1688), Avertissement aux protestants (1689-1691). He defended the view that there is a sharp contrast between the perennial truths of the Catholic Church and the unsteady course of Protestant doctrine, which demonstrates the superiority of the former. In his Relation sur le quiétisme (1698), he attacked Fénelon and Madame de Guyon and contributed to the papal condemnation of quietism in 1699. He wrote a Cartesian-inspired philosophical treatise, Traité de la connaissance de Dieu et de soi-même (publ. 1741), and his non-theological work of most impact in his time was the Discours sur l’histoire universelle (1679). He corresponded with Leibniz from 1692 to 1701, mainly debating the question of the reunification of Christian churches.

Bi ographical Notes 457

Louis Bourguet (1678-1742), whose earlier interest was in ancient languages and the history of the alphabet, became later on a natural scientist and member of the academy of sciences of Berlin, as well as a professor of philosophy and mathematics in Neuchâtel. He corresponded with some of Leibniz’s correspondents, through whom he got in touch with Leibniz in 1709, and remained his friend and correspondent until 1716. Their correspondence covered a broad range of topics, including cosmological issues and an interesting critique by Leibniz of the second edition of Newton’s Principia in a letter from 1715. Bourguet defended in some publications Leibniz’s scientific and metaphysical views, and studied carefully the Théodicée, about which he asked for and obtained clarifications.

Gilbert Burnet(t) (1643-1715), theologian and historian, of Scottish origin. Studied in Aberdeen, Amsterdam, and Paris. Ordained as a priest of the Scottish Church in 1665, he becomes professor of theology in Glasgow in 1669. Since 1673 in London, where he was close to John Wilmot’s Catholic party, he had to leave England in 1683, under James II. He worked out an agreement that permitted William and Mary’s return in 1688. An active supporter of the new Protestant regime, he was appointed Bishop of Salisbury in 1689 by William of Orange. An important figure in Queen Anne’s court, he was the teacher of her son, the Duke of Gloucester. Burnet was a member of the Royal Society already in 1665 and was influenced by the “Cambridge Platonists”. Being familiar with many religious denominations, he had a tolerant orientation and defended the acceptance in the high clergy of non-conformists. His An Exposition of the Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England (1699) contains a clear doctrinal statement that the German theologians from Berlin and Hanover considered useful for the unification of all the Protestant churches. Among his other works are The History of the reformation of the Church of England (3 volumes, 1679-1715) and An Enquiry into the measures of submission to the Supreme Authority (1688).

Thomas Burnett of Kemeny [Kemnay] (1656-1729), a relative of Gilbert Burnet, was a jurist and amateur philosopher, who traveled throughout Europe. In the 1690’s he established close links with Princess Sophie of Hanover and corresponded with her and with Leibniz (from 1695 to 1715). Through him Leibniz’s attempts to contact Locke and his circle were conducted, with the help of Richard Bentley. Thomas Burnett met Malebranche in Paris and was arrested in the Bastille in 1702 due to his family links with Gibert Burnet. Leibniz intervened for freeing him. He

458 Biographical Notes supported the House of Hanover’s claim to the throne of England, which Leibniz considered his great opportunity to realize his unfulfilled dream to move to London.

Girolamo Cardano (1501-1576), physician, mathematician, physicist, astrologer. Well known physician, whose services were solicited by princes and noblemen, he was the first to give a clinical description of typhus and held a chair of medicine in Pavia. His pantheistic naturalism bore the mark of neo-platonic influence, and his books on philosophical subjects were widely read. His work in algebra is a landmark in the history of mathematics. His Ars magna sive de regulis algebricis contains the solution of the cubic equation due to Niccolò Tartaglia. He was the first to provide the rudiments of a calculus of probabilities, in Liber de ludo aleae. He had the ability to write on scientific and philosophical subjects in a way accessible to a wide audience, as in De subtilitate rerum, Practica arithmetica et mensurandi singularis, and De proportionibus, numerorum, motuum, ponderum, sonorum, aliarumque rerum mensurandarum.

Hermann Conring (1606-1681), physician, politician, naturalist. After studies in Leiden becomes professor of natural philosophy and then of medicine in Helmstedt. Although not a professional jurist, he is considered the founder of the history of German Law. Thanks to his broad European perspective, his services as an advisor of princes and kings were sought, including by Louis XIV. Served also as a doctor of Queen Christine of Sweden and was a supporter of Harvey’s theory of blood circulation. An Aristotelian who valued and practiced experiment, he was a vigorous opponent of hermetic, cabbalistic, astrological, and other tendencies he considered non-scientific. In Church politics, he was a Lutheran favorable to the irenic Helmstedt theologians. Through Christian von Boineburg, minister of the Duke of Brunswick, Conring got in touch with Leibniz and was instrumental in his appointment in Hanover. In their correspondence they discuss a variety of juridical, medical, theological, metaphysical, natural philosophy, and epistemological topics. He calls into question Leibniz’s notion of a demonstration as a definition- based chain of substitutions, an objection that leads Leibniz to further thoughts about his conception of analysis. They also diverge in natural philosophy. Whereas Conring espouses a mechanist mathematical reductionism, claiming that all properties of natural things are quantities, so that natural philosophy is a “concrete mathematics”, Leibniz acknowledges a qualitative aspect of nature and denies that all properties of bodies are quantifiable – even movement. In his vast intellectual production, part of Bi ographical Notes 459 which is collected in 7 volumes (1730), Conring employed many pseudonyms.

Honoré Fabri (1608-1688), a Jesuit, was a well-known natural scientist, philosopher, and theologian, professor of philosophy and mathematics in Lyon, and member of the Jesuit Minor Vatican Penitentiary, in charge of Inquisition-related activities. A free mind, he criticized Descartes for his doctrine of ‘subtle matter’, Huygens for his account of the rings of Saturn as explaining the planet’s origin, Pascal for his criticism of the Jesuits, and Pope Clement IX for the so-called ‘pax clementina’, which Fabri considered to be fraudulent vis-à-vis the Jansenists. He intervened in favor of Galileo, indicating the possibility of a non-literal interpretation of the biblical passages that were argued by the Church to contradict the Earth’s motion. For his defense of probabilism against the Canonists he was jailed for a short period in 1672. Although he was rehabilitated, his book on this topic remains in the Index. Leibniz appreciated his work, which he studied and annotated, and corresponded with him. Fabri’s major scientific work is Physica, id est scientia rerum corporearum (Lyon, 1669), to which many other titles could be added, such as Tractatus physicus de motu locali (Lyon, 1641), Tractatus duo, quorum prior de plantis et de generatione animalium, posterior de homine (Paris, 1666), and Philosophia universa (Lyon, 1646), where he undertakes to bring together a philosophical and a scientific general outlook. His theological views are expressed in Pithanophilus sive Dialogus de opinione probabili (Rome, 1659) and Apologeticus doctrinae moralis Societatis Iesu (Lyon, 1670) – to whose second edition (Köln, 1672), he adds a refutation of Pascal’s Provinciales [a copy of which was annotated by Leibniz (A VI 4 2626-2637)].

Hugo Grotius [de Groot] (1583-1645), Dutch jurist, diplomat and politician, theologian, poet, is best known as the leader of the modern conception of natural law and the founder of the “law of nations”. An erudite humanist, Grotius edited works of Euripides, Strobaeus, Martianus Capella, and others, and was receptive to the ideas of Francisco Suárez. Henri IV of France called him “le miracle de Hollande” and introduced him to his Conseil d’Etat. He received a doctorate in Law from the University of Orléans, was appointed in 1609 historian of the General States, was Pensionary of Rotterdam, and since 1617 permanent member of the Netherlands State Council. He took part in several political, juridical, and theological controversies. His political career came to an end when he was condemned to life imprisonment at the age of 35. In 1621 he escaped from

460 Biographical Notes prison with the help of his wife and spent the rest of his life mostly in Paris, where he became a central figure of the circle of late-humanist scholars, which included Mersenne, Fabri, and many others. It was there that he wrote his famous book De jure belli ac pacis (Paris, 1625), which had a lasting impact – among others upon Leibniz – as the founding document of modern natural law and international law. He influenced Leibniz not only for his legal and political ideas, but also as an important early figure among the scholars who worked for the irenic ideal (cf. his De veritate religionis christianae, Leiden, 1627).

Franciscus Mercurius van Helmont (1614-1699), a renowned physician who served as a resident several aristocratic families, in England and other countries. His medical and diplomatic duties allowed him to be in touch with several scholars throughout Europe and to contribute to the circulation of ideas, some of them esoteric. He developed the doctrine, due to Paracelsus, of the archeus as the vital principle, and elaborated a monadology similar to Leibniz’s, whom he thus anticipated. According to him, the physical and spiritual world are composed of monads and is ruled by a cosmic ‘sympathy’; the monads are indivisible and eternal, but capable of development and improvement. Leibniz, who had studied his works and had met him in 1671 and 1680, invited him, prompted by Electress Sophia, to visit Hanover in 1694 in order to expound his system, which drew from Platonic, alchemist, Rosicrucian and Hermetic sources. He was closely associated with Lady Anne Conway, who introduced him to the Quakers, some of whose beliefs he adopted. Among his works, Alphabeti vera naturalis Hebraici brevisima delineatio (Sulzbach, 1667), The Divine Being and Its Attributes Philosophically Demonstrated (London, 1683), Opuscula philosophica (Amsterdam, 1690).

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), an Oxford graduate, was a public figure and a systematic philosopher. In the service of the Earls of Devonshire as financial manager and tutor, he traveled with the young heirs in the continent, especially to France and Italy (1608-1610, 1634-1637) and met leading thinkers of the century, including Bacon, Galileo, Mersenne, Gassendi, and perhaps Locke. Exiled in France (1640-1651) by virtue of his support of English royalists, he returned to England under Cromwell. But his views on the separation between Church and State were opposed by the royalists and, along with his critique of both Anglicanism and Presbyterianism, temporarily allies under the Restoration, led to his condemnation for heresy and endangered his safety. A stern polemicist and skilled rhetorician, Hobbes criticized Descartes’s Metaphysical

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Meditations, engaged in a mathematical dispute with the Oxford mathematicians John Wallis and Seth Ward, and held a long debate on freewill with the Anglican Bishop John Bramhall. He developed a comprehensive philosophical system, encompassing political philosophy, law, epistemology, and natural philosophy under the umbrella of a materialist metaphysics. The young Leibniz admired his work and corresponded with him briefly in 1670-1671. He was particularly interested in Hobbes’s nominalism, which assigned to language a constitutive role in reasoning, but criticized the relativization of truth this position led Hobbes to endorse, and was not satisfied with Hobbes’s way of dealing with the relationship between reason and faith and the determinism that his materialism was charged by Bramhall to entail. Leibniz, a partisan of natural law theory, also opposed Hobbes’s contractualism.

Pierre Daniel Huet (1630-1721), member of the French Academy and preceptor of the Dauphin, was in his youth an enthusiastic Cartesian, who appreciated the innovative character of Descartes’s ideas. Later he became a strong critic of Cartesianism, on the grounds that he didn’t accept that the cogito and the lumiere naturelle can function as criteria of the achievement of certainty. In this spirit, he published a Censura philosophiae Cartesianae (Paris, 1689), which is presumably the book to which Leibniz refers in Chapter 38. His critique of Cartesianism is the reason why in his time he was considered a skeptic and his positions dangerous for religion. Arnauld, for instance, finds a close similarity between Huet’s Demonstratio evangelica and La Mothe le Vayer’s De la vertu des payens , and warns against its dangers (Œuvres, III, p. 400). But in fact, along with the fallible nature of human knowledge, Huet insisted that experience grants knowledge in the midst of uncertainty, and was thus closer to the ‘mitigated skepticism’ of Gassendi. His “historical method”, designed to end theological controversies by determining the truth of historical claims through the attempt to find the most ancient points of agreement between several peoples and traditions, instantiates his ‘scientific’ approach. Leibniz appreciated this method, not without some criticism thereof (see Introductory Essay, Section 4). In general, Leibniz’s assessment of Huet was, as indicated in Chapter 38 and in the correspondence with Nicaise (GP II 533), much more nuanced than that of his contemporaries. Huet’s posthumously published Traité de la faiblesse de l’esprit humain (Paris, 1722) makes clear indeed that his skepticism was far from radical. Leibniz and Huet held a long correspondence between 1673 and 1695 (partially published in GP III 1-22).

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Daniel Ernst Jablonski (1660-1741), theologian, uncle of Comenius, was the Bishop of the Moravians, to whose exiled congregation he helped throughout his life. He studied theology at Frankfurt-on-the-Oder and Oxford, specializing in Biblical philology. Reformed preacher at Magdeburg (1683), court preacher at Königsberg (1691) and Berlin (1693), he was ordained Bishop in 1699. With the transformation of Brandenburg into the State of Prussia, Jablonski made it his main goal to unify all the (evangelical) Protestant denominations under the leadership of Prussia – the so-called ‘Unionist’ movement. He worked in close cooperation with Leibniz and Molanus for this purpose. He also cooperated with Leibniz in another project, the creation of the Academy of Sciences in Berlin, founded in 1700 and inaugurated in 1711, with Leibniz as president. Jablonski was the Academy’s first vice-president and in 1737 became its president. He made a careful edition of the Old Testament (1720) and thanks to him the Berlin edition of the Babylonian Talmud was printed.

Isaac Jaquelot (1647-1708), from a Huguenot family, educated as a priest. After the revocation of the Edit of Nantes flees to The Hague, where he acquires a reputation as a preacher. But after the publication in 1690 of a two volume critique of Jurieu’s – leader of orthodox Calvinism in Holland –attack on Socinianism, Jaquelot has to flee once more. He is finally invited by Queen Sophie Charlotte for the position of Chaplain of the Prussian court in Berlin. Through her, Jaquelot becomes acquainted with Leibniz, with whom he met several times and corresponded from 1702 to 1706. He opposed Leibniz’s doctrine of pre- established harmony, which he believed to be inferior to Malebranche’s occasionalism, on the grounds that it “multiplied beings without necessity and created a thousand difficulties” (GP III 482) and suppressed free will (GP III 441). A sharp polemicist, he published a critique of Bayle’s doctrine of the incompatibility of faith with reason, Conformité de la foi avec la raison, ou Défense de la religion contre les principales difficultés répandues dans le Dictionnaire Historique et Critique de M. Bayle (1705), Bayle’s reply in the second volume of his Entretien de Maxime et de Thémiste (1707) being followed by Jaquelot’s Entretien de Maxime et de Thémiste, ou réponse à l’examen de la théologie de M. Bayle (1707). His critical review in the Journal des Savans of a book defending Descartes’s demonstration of God’s existence, “Examen d’un écrit qui a pour titre : Iudicium de argumento Cartesii pro existentia Dei petito ab ejus idea” (1701) provoked a flurry of debates in the pages of this and other journals. Probably it was also a topic in the conversations Jaquelot held with Leibniz, in which they had discussed the Cartesian proof earlier. They certainly also Bi ographical Notes 463 discussed the proper way to refute Bayle’s views on the relationship between faith and reason; yet, though both agreed on the need to refute Bayle, their strategies of argumentation differed substantively.

Joachim Jungius (1587-1657), natural scientist, logician, mathematician, educator, physician. Professor of mathematics in Giessen (1609-1614), studied medicine in Rostock and Padua. Professor of logic and natural philosophy in the Hamburg’s Gymnasium (1629), resigned due to conflicts with the administration and the clergy over allegations of his Calvinist tendencies, and devoted his time to research. He was the founder of the first society for the research of nature – Societas Ereunetica – in northern Europe. Its aim was to transform the investigation of nature, with the help of empirical work and a new mathematical ‘heuretics’, into an axiomatic science. His ‘empiricism’ comprised a new empirical methodology for science (Protonoetica), with the help of which chemistry was to lead to the discovery of the elements of the natural order. Jungius’s logic was anti-scholastic and he defended the independence of logic from metaphysics, as well and the application of mathematics to natural science. Although most of his writings remained unpublished, Jungius was a reputed philosopher, whom Leibniz ranked among the most important thinkers of the century. In his life he published very little – notably Geometria empirica (1627), the first three volumes of the textbook Logica Hamburgensis (1638), and Analysis logica apparentis demonstrationis libri VI (1652); his disciples published posthumously some of his manuscripts in physics and biology. In the 20th century a renewed interest in his work has yielded the publication of more so far unpublished material, e.g., additions to the Logica Hamburgensis (J. Jungius, Logica Hamburgensis, ed. by R. W. Meyer, Hamburg, J. J. Augustin, 1957) – including some of the manuscripts Leibniz was so eager to examine, which were rescued from the 1691 fire in Vagetius’s house, where they were stored. For the remaining manuscripts, see C. Meinel, Der handschriftliche Nachlass von Joachim Jungius in der Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek Hamburg, Stuttgart, Hauswedell, 1984.

Jean Le Clerc (1657-1736), born into a Calvinist family in Genève, studied theology and philology; since 1684, professor at the Remonstrant seminar of Amsterdam. Sided with other rationalist critics of the Reformation ideology, but criticized Richard Simon’s (and Spinoza’s) contestation of Moses’ authorship of the Pentateuch. Translator of the Bible and editor of the works of Er asmus in ten volumes and of Grotius’s De veritate religionis christianae, Le Clerc was also editor of three journals:

464 Biographical Notes

Bibliothèque universelle et historique, Bibliothèque choisie, Bibliothèque ancienne et moderne. The 80 volumes of these journals were an important forum for debates, in which the best minds of the time participated. His major work is a study of methods of critique of sacred as well as profane, old as well as recent texts, the Ars Critica (1697; 8th ed. 1778). Philosophically, he was basically a Cartesian, but he was an admirer of Newton and a friend of Locke. He was also a critic of Bayle, especially on religious issues. Leibniz was familiar with his work, which he often mentions, not always in agreement with him.

Nicolas Malebranche (1638-1715), priest, philosopher and scientist. After a scholastic education in high school and the Sorbonne, entered in 1660 the Oratory, an order created for increasing the religiosity of Catholic priesthood. Until he discovered and read in 1664 Descartes’s Traité de l’homme, Augustine was the major influence in his intellectual development. Through Descartes, he turned his intellectual efforts to philosophy and science. Life in the Oratory granted him plenty of free time for research and writing. He acquired the best scientific knowledge available at the time (for example, he studied the new infinitesimal calculus with the Marquis de l’Hopital), worked in microscopy, and was elected in 1699 a member of the Académie royale des sciences, where the influence of his ideas was remarkable in the controversy they provoked between two ‘parties’ – the malebranchistes and the anti-malebranchistes. Basically a Cartesian, his deep religious background led him to attempt reconciling faith and reason, which in turn implied reformulating the emblematic Cartesian theses: the founding status of the cogito, the immanence of ideas in the thinking subject, the origin of eternal truths. In his best known book, De la recherche de la vérité, où l’on traite de la nature de l’esprit de l’homme, et de l’usage qu’il en doit faire pour éviter l’erreur dans les sciences (Paris, 1674-1675 ; first published in 2 volumes, followed by several thoroughly revised and expanded editions), he elaborates the anti- conceptualist, Platonist-sounding doctrine that the objectivity of knowledge is ensured by the fact that our thought is performed through the ‘vision in God’ of ideas, rather than by ‘modifications of the mind’. This, and other philosophical ideas of Malebranche provoked intense critical reactions, notably by Simon Foucher (in his Critique de la recherché de la vérité, 1675) and by Antoine Arnauld (in his Des vrayes et des fausses idées, 1683), to which Malebranche reacted promptly and rather violently, yielding prolonged polemics (especially in the second case; cf. Dascal 1990a). Malebranche corresponded with Leibniz on several topics, ranging from physico-mathematical issues (e.g., the Cartesian principle of the Biographical Notes 465 conservation of the quantity of movement, of whose mistake he persuades Malebranche) to theological issues such as grace and salvation. On the issue of mind-body causality, Leibniz’s doctrine of pre-established harmony was intended to be a more reasonable alternative than Malebranche’s occasionalism; yet the latter did not vanish as easily as Leibniz had expected, and remained for quite a while a vigorous idea, supported and developed by many.

Gerhard Wolter Molanus (1633-1722), Lutheran theologian, a student of Georg Calixt and a friend and collaborator of Leibniz. He studied theology at Helmstedt and in 1659 was appointed professor of mathematics at Rinteln, and of theology a number of years later. He held various ecclesiastical positions: director of Hanover’s consistory (since 1674), abbot of Loccum (since 1677), and was the advisor of the Electors of Hanover on religious affairs. In this capacity, he participated in the inter- confessional colloquia held in the court of Hanover with the aim of advancing the irenic project of reunion between Protestants and Catholics. Born in the midst of the Thirty Years War, he witnessed its catastrophic consequences and was strongly motivated to find the way to avoid this in the future. He was the head of the Protestant committee that negotiated with the Catholics, represented by Rojas y Spínola and Niels Stensen, under the surveillance of Bossuet. In this capacity he prepared the protocols of the meetings and wrote two important documents: Regulae circa Christianorum omnium ecclesiasticam reunionem and Cogitationes privatae. The irenic method developed by Molanus consisted in two fundamental points: convening a truly ecumenical council with the participation of theologians and clergy from the various Christian confessions, whose decisions would be binding and would replace, on some points, those of the Council of Trent; and the acceptance by the Protestants of the Pope’s Christian primacy, a right stemming from Christian tradition. In the wake of the failure of the Protestant-Catholic nearly twenty years of negotiations, he turned his efforts to the union of the Protestants, which the Queen of Prussia, Sophie Charlotte pressed for. In all these endeavors Molanus worked as a partner of Leibniz, with whom he shared the irenic ideal, was in intense contact, and sometimes even engaged in co-writing detailed proposals for overcoming difficulties disclosed in different stages of the negotiations.

David Vincenz Placcius (1642-1699), was born and passed away in Hamburg, studied briefly with Johannes von Felden in Helmstedt and then in Leipzig with Jakob Thomasius, becoming then Leibniz’s fellow student.

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Returning to Hamburg he practiced law until he became in 1675 a Professor of Rhetoric and Moral Philosophy at the town’s Gymnasium. His writings include poetry, literary history, law, and philosophy. He was one of the defenders of the natural law approach and basically followed Aristotle’s ethics. His many publications include, among others, De interpretatione legum (Orléans, 1665), Institutiones medicinae moralis (Hamburg, 1667), Accessiones ethicae, juris naturalis, et rhetoricae (Hamburg, 1690). Leibniz was familiar with his work, which he discussed in a sustained and varied correspondence.

Samuel Pufendorf (1632-1694), leading natural law philosopher and jurist in Germany. Studied theology and law at Leipzig, politics and moral philosophy at Jena, and completed his studies at Leiden. His first book, Elementorum Jurisprudentiae Universalis Libri Duo (1660) made him known and he was invited to occupy the first chair of natural and international law in Germany, at Heidelberg, where he developed natural law theory along lines that diverged from Grotius’s. In 1668 he became professor of international and natural law at Lund, where he wrote his eitght-volumes magnum opus, De jure naturae et gentium (1672), which had a huge impact for over a hundred years. Leaving academia, Pufendorf became court historian in Stockholm from 1677 to 1688, and then he occupied a similar position at the court of the Elector of Branderburg, in Berlin. As a political historian, his horizon transcended the scope of his duties and revealed a global European perspective. His De statu Imperii Germanici (1667), published under a pseudonym, undertook to show the inconsistencies of the dual structure of the Holy Roman Empire, with the emperor in Vienna and the Electors in Germany sharing power and sovereignty. Leibniz, contrary to him, considered these inconsistencies merely apparent and viewed the structure of the Empire as a model for a federative state. Leibniz also diverged from Pufendorf in the field of natural law and the controversy between them in fact went beyond specific issues in any given field, expressing rather different perspectives in law, politics, theology, and history (see Döring, Forthcoming).

Petrus Ramus or Pierre de la Ramée (1515-1572) was one of the most widely read Renaissance humanists, among whom he enjoyed much prestige due to his outspoken anti-Aristotelian stance. His M.A. dissertation, Quaecumque ab Aristotele dicta essent commentitia esse (Paris, 1536) had immediate impact and its ideas were further developed in Aristotelicae Animadversiones and Dialecticae Partitiones (both published in Paris, 1543). He undertook to replace formal Aristotelian logic by a new, Biographical Notes 467 rhetoric-based “dialectics”, which he considered to be closer to natural argumentation and more useful for discovery. The Sorbonne’s reaction to his ideas led to their condemnation by royal decree (1544). He was rehabilitated by Henry II and held a chair at the Royal College of Paris (1551). His prolific production includes also Institutiones dialecticae (Paris, 1543), Platonis epistolae latinae (Paris, 1549), Ciceronianus (Paris, 1557), Scholae gramaticae (Paris, 1559), Scholae dialecticae (Basel, 1559), and much more. His work was very influential in his time.

Nicolas-François Remond was ‘Chef des Conseils’ of the Duke of Orléans, Regent of France after Louis XIV’s death. His brother, Pierre Remond de Montmort, a mathematician, member of the Académie des Sciences and of the Royal Society, author of a treatise on games, also corresponded briefly with Leibniz. After reading the Théodicée, Nicolas- François became an enthusiastic supporter of Leibniz, describing himself as his faithful disciple. The correspondence between them, initiated in 1713, continued until Leibniz’s death. Remond was associated with other Leibniz supporters in Paris, including Varignon who was very active in the Leibniz- Newton struggle about the calculus. Remond was in fact an important link between Leibniz and what was going on in England at the time, especially through the Venetian Conti who became a close friend of Newton. But his interests were quite broad, ranging from mathematics and politics to literature and philosophy, and he informed Leibniz about what was going on in the Republique des Lettres.

Gilles Personne de Roberval (1602-1675) was an influential physicist and mathematician, creator of a balance that bears his name, and leading figure in the research on infinitesimals that led to the development of the calculus. He was a founding member of the Académie des Sciences and a friend of leading scientists of his time, such as Marin Mersenne, Jean Gallois (editor of the Journal des Sçavans), Etienne and Blaise Pascal, Christian Huygens, Pierre Gassendi, and Pierre de Fermat. A severe critic of Descarte’s Discours de la Méthode, as well as of his mathematics, he sided with Fermat in his acrimonious polemics with Descartes. In January 1675, Leibniz discussed with him in Paris the mistakes in Descartes’s Geometry and in November-December, after his death, examined the manuscript he had left of his Elementa geometrica. Jean Galois, with the support of Colbert and the Duke of Chevreux, proposed Leibniz for the chair of Roberval in the Académie des Sciences (Müller and Krönert 1969: 37, 39-40). He authored a Traité de Méchanique des poids soustenus par des puissances sur les plans inclinéz à l’horizon (Paris, 1636) and edited 468 Biographical Notes

Aristarch of Samos’ De mundi systemate, parties et motibus eiusdem (Paris, 1644). His posthumously published works include Traité de Géometrie (publ. 1996), Les principes du devoir et des connaissances humaines (publ. 1992), Traité des indivisibles (publ. 1987).

Cristobal Rojas y Spínola (1626-1695) was Bishop of Thina from 1666 to 1686, when he was appointed by Emperor Leopold Bishop of Wiener-Neustadt. Throughout his life, he endeavored to bring about the reunification of the Christian churches. For this purpose he traveled widely and held reunification meetings with leading Lutheran theologians, e.g., G. W. Molanus, a close associate of Leibniz. Rojas y Spínola’s treatise Regulae circa christianorum omnium ecclesiasticam reunionem (1683), reprinted many times, formed the basis for the meetings held in Hanover in 1683. Leibniz’s relations with Rojas y Spínola began in 1679 and continued virtually until the latter’s death. Leibniz regarded highly Rojas y Spínola, and even considered writing his biography – one of the many projects he didn’t carry out. For more information on Rojas y Spínola, see R. Mäumer (1999).

Faustus Sozzini (Socinus) (1539-1604), following his uncle Laelius Socinus (1525-1552), was an anti-Trinitarian theologian, whose doctrine influenced the rise of English Unitarianism and represented a major contribution to the rationalist trend in 17th century theology. Denounced by the Inquisition in 1559, he took refuge in Zürich. From 1563 to 1574 he lived in the Medici court in Florence, where he developed his doctrines, which he defended in public controversies in Switzerland in 1574. Since 1579 he lived in Poland, where he was the leader of the anti-Trinitarian community of the ‘Polish Brothers’ until 1683, when he took refuge from persecution in small Polish villages. In the turn of the century, the so-called Raków Catechism, spelling out the Socinian creed, is elaborated and translated into several languages (published in 1630 as De vera religione). The Polish Socinians were forced into conversion or exile by the Polish Diet, and dispersed throughout Europe; communities survived in several regions up to the 19th century. Socinus is a ‘rationalist’ interpreter of Christian faith, according to Leibniz’s classification in Chapter 2, because he argued, in many polemical writings, against those who do not employ their own reason in establishing the articles of faith relevant for salvation. Among his works, De Sanctae Scripturae Auctoritate (ca. 1580), Refutatio libelli, quem Jacobus Vuiecus Jesuita anno 1590 polonice edidit, de divinitate Filii Dei et Spiritus Sancti (1594), Christianae religionis

Biographical Notes 469 brevissima institutio per interrogationes et responsiones, quam Catechismum vulgo vocant (ca. 1603).

Francisco Suárez (1548-1617), philosopher, theologian, jurist. His education was oriented towards an ecclesiastic career: he studied Canonic law, philosophy and theology at the University of Salamanca. He then taught philosophy and theology in several universities: Salamanca, Valladolid, Alcalá, Collegio Romano, and Coimbra. A Jesuit who contributed significantly to the revival of scholasticism, his initial work is a famous commentary on Thomas Aquinas’s Summa Theologica, published in 1590. In his most important philosophical work, Metaphysicarum Disputationum tomi duo (1597), he developed an original conception of metaphysics, defending the thesis of the ontological and epistemological primacy of the individual. This operates a radical transformation of metaphysics with anthropological and political implications, for it leads to the assertion of the value of human nature and the autonomy of civil society. In this respect, Suárez is a precursor of the Christian natural law theorists. Leibniz discusses his conceptions of matter and form in the Disputatio Metaphysica de Principio Individui (1663; A VI 1 12), and of cause in the Preface to Nizolius (1670; A VI 2 418) and in Chapter 2, paragraph 28), as well as in his later writings. Suárez’s Opera omnia comprises 28 volumes (ed. Vives, Paris, 1856-1861).

Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus (155/160 B.C. – after 220 A.D.). Early Christian author from Carthage, born in a pagan family, had a good intellectual upbringing, especially in Law, which is manifest in his writings after conversion. A masterful Latin writer and well versed in Greek, he created about a thousand neologisms designed to express Christian concepts. He combated Gnosticism, but became a leader of Montanism, whose last “tertullians” returned to Christian orthodoxy in 438, under the influence of Augustine. About thirty of his writings have been preserved. Among them, the Apologeticum, addressed to the magistrates, which contests the legality of lawsuits against the Christians and affirms that the human soul is naturally Christian. In De praescriptione haereticorum, he denies the heretics the right of using the Scriptures and argues that faith and reason are incompatible. Although he does not expressly employ the formula “I believe because it is absurd” (credo quia absurdum est), usually attributed to him, he defends the view that faith does not need the support of philosophy: “it is believable because it is foolish, … certain because it is impossible” (credibile est quia ineptum… certum est quia impossibile). Leibniz refers often to his juridical thought and makes 470 Biographical Notes use of his terminology; he also compiled approvingly what he considered to be important elements of his Eucharistic ideas (“De locis Tertulliani circa Eucaristiam”, 1677-1680; A VI 4 2533-2539).

Christian Thomasius (1655-1728), son of Jakob Thomasius, Leibniz ’s teacher in Leipzig, was a philosopher and jurist, who taught at Leipzig and Halle, where he was one of the founders of the new university. He was in volved in several controversies, including with his former student Gabriel Wagner, with the Pietists, and with the doctrinarian orthodoxy prevalent in Leipzig. Thomasius, influenced by Pufendorf, adhered to natural law theory, to which he was an important contributor. A critic of the aristocracy’s culture mondaine, he defended however a strict separation of Law, politics and theology from ecclesiastical authority and faith. He corresponded occasionally with Leibniz, who was well informed about his work, of which he was often critical. In addition to his juridical works, he wrote about a wide range of topics, and was considered by Diderot, along with Bruno, Cardano, Bacon, Campanella, Descartes, Hobbes, Leibniz, Le Clerc, and Malebranche, a representative of eclecticism, “that philosophy which is so reasonable”, whose practitioners exercise “the most beautiful prerogative of humankind, the freedom of thinking by oneself” (Encyclopédie, article “Eclectisme”).

Johann Gabriel Wagner (1660-1717), studied in Leipzig and Halle under Christian Thomasius. While a teacher of philosophy in the Hamburg Gymnasium, he got in touch with Leibniz in 1696, and ever since they had a substantive philosophical relationship. Little is known about his life, except that he frequently got into trouble. The last known report about him is by a scholar from Göttingen, who writes in 1717 that Wagner came to see him “in a pitiful shape” (Jaumann 2004: 694). As soon as he obtained his doctoral degree, he launched a virulent critique of his teacher’s Christian Thomasius’ s Introductio in Philosophiam Aulicam (1691), titled Discursus et dubia in ChTh Introductionem in Philosophiam Aulicam (1691), which he signed with the pseudonym ‘Realis de Vienna’. The rift between them deepened after further attacks by Wagner on Thomasius’s (whom he ironically dubbed ‘the Socrates of the Germans’) subsequent work. This is only an example of Wagner’s character and sharp polemical attitude, which also prevented him from obtaining steady employment. In Hamburg he was expelled from the Gymnasium due to the weekly criticism he leveled in his Vernunftübungen against traditional forms of thought. An independent and original mind, historiographers now view him as an important figure in the German ‘Radical Enlightenment’ of the late 17th and

Biographical Notes 471 early 18th century, a member of what Herder in 1794 called “the society of our invisible ones” (Jaumann 2004: 695), whose work is part of the ‘clandestine’ philosophical literature of the time. He did indeed express and forcefully argue for what were quite radical positions in his time, such as a version of materialism defending the priority of physics, a cultural nationalism claiming the superiority of the Germans’ understanding over that of all others and of German as a scientific language, as well as a peculiar theory of mind. In spite of all this, Leibniz corresponded with him until 1708 and supported him materially and morally on several occasions. Wagner’s (i.e., Realis de Vienna’s) publications also include Responsum philosophicum ad Christiani Thomasii quaestionem de definitione substantiae (1693), Prüfung des Versuchs Vom Wesen des Geistes (1707), Meditatio de gravitatis et cohaesionis causa (1712).

Erhard Weigel (1625-1699), a mathematician, inventor and philosopher, was a highly esteemed teacher of Leibniz in Jena, where he was professor of mathematics. It is said that another of his famous students there, the jurist Samuel Pufendorf, developed his conception of natural law on the basis of one of Weigel’s lectures. For Weigel, mathematics was the complete model for all thought, thus occupying the position of a General Science or Universal Mathematics –ideas later developed by Leibniz, albeit along different lines. Weigel elaborated the Pythagorean doctrine that numerical relationships underlie everything and applied it to, in addition to natural philosophy, moral philosophy and moral pedagogy, as well theology. He created an ‘art of calculating’ for the learning and practicing of moral virtues, demonstrated mathematically the mystery of the trinity, and applied his pan-mathematic view to numerous other subjects. Among his writings, Synopsis jurisprudentiae mnemoneutica (1669), Idea matheseos universa (1669), Pancosmos aetherus et sublunaris (1670), Universi corporis pansophici Pantologia (1673), Arithmetische Beschreibung der Moral-Weisheit von Personen und Sachen (1674), Compendium logisticae (1691).

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Abandonment, 244, 342, 343-344, Agreement, lxi, 47, 81, 112, 125, 348, 351-353, 355, 394 161, 193, 199, 218, 228, 230, Absolutism, 6 251, 260, 261, 329, 334, 335, Abstract, 18, 90, 121, 126, 153, 380, 393, 394, 395, 403, 413, 271, 276, 278, 338, 340, 384, 438 see also Consensus 390, 445 Alchemy, 170, 271, 303, 460 Absurdity, lxviii, 81, 183, 186, 210, Algebra, 97-98, 103, 134, 136, 354, 415, 424, 425, 446, 469 137, 141, 216, 228, 260, 264, Academy, liii, lxii, 278, 442 267, 275, 276, 280, 281, 296, edition, xvii, xxii, 29, 35, 41, 89, 379, 384, 114, 147, 168, 178, 225, Allegation, 71, 154, 155, 260, 235, 243, 251, 300, 309, 390, 463 340, 342, 347, 351, 355, Alphabet 370, 372, 455-457 of human thoughts, 102, 119, Accident, 184, 220, 223, 265, 120, 122, 217, 264 345, 411 Ambiguity, xlvii, 10, 20, 22, 23, Accommodation, xxxix, 26, 249 29, 62, 79, 80, 121, 143, 146, Action, lvi, 6, 51, 57, 116, 137, 179, 207, 257 163, 191, 200, 243, 268, 387, Amphiboly, 80, 89 399, 409, 411, 438 Amplification, 76, 388 legal, 40, 70, 165, 286, 287, Analysis, xxxii, xlv, lxii, 33, 41, 343-347, 352, 354-355, 84, 86, 90, 91, 93, 94, 99, 102, 395-397 103, 116, 119, 132, 135, 140, moral, 40 141, 202, 214-217, 220, 221, principle of, 15, 340 223, 229, 235, 263-267, 271, Ad hominem, 201, 205, 210, 313 272, 275, 276, 279, 280, 286, Adept, 170 296, 302, 325, 366, 371, 384, Admonition, 175, 195 430,433, 443, 458 see also Adversary, xxxi, xlii,, lxv, lxvii, 3, Resolution 51, 62, 72, 111-114, 117, 143, Ancestor, 346, 347 145, 146, 148, 156, 158, 159, Ancient, xix, xlii, lii, 18, 31, 87, 163, 173, 201, 204-206, 210, 125, 160, 188, 218, 228, 232, 249, 319, 354 233, 314, 345, 374, 401, 405, Affection, 17, 85, 144, 153, 387 431, 439, 448, 457, 461 Agent, 40, 289 Anglican, 359, 370, 399, 415, 461 free, 186 Animal, 26, 139, 184, 384, 385, 436 legal, 289, 396 seminal, 436 moral, 40 Antagonist, 306, 307

483 484 Subject Index

Antecedent, 9, 11, 12, 83, 198, of conversation, 5, 147, 170, 262, 409, 416 171, 185, 298 see also Antichrist, 257, 318, 331 Conversation Apodictic, 47 of cunning, 136 Apostate, 51, 362, 370 of defining, 272, 281, 439 see Apostles, 53, 308, 333, 334 also Definition A posteriori, 84, 85, 97, 222, 229, of dialogue, xvi, liv, lv, lix, lxv, 271, 272, 425, 441 26, 72, 167, 431 see also Apparence, 50, 181 Dialogue Appearance, lxviii, 82, 104, 106, of discovery, see of inventing 172, 181, 183, 193, 222, 224, of disputing, xxx, xxxi, xliii, 426, 437, 438 1-6, 10, 36, 66, 145, Apperception, 197, 389 see also 155-157, 217, 226, 248, Consciousness 286, 297, 298, 415 see also Application, 46, 168-173, 182, Disputatio, Disputation, 197, 199, 204, 235, 267, 268, and Dispute 424 see also Attention of divination, 136, 402, 413 A priori, xxvii, 84, 85, 94, 96, 97, of exegesis, 381 114, 222, 229, 266, 271, 424, of experimenting, xxxvii, 378 425, 441 of expounding, 386, 430 see also Arbitrariness, lxvii, xxxi, l, lxiii, 7, Method, expository 68, 84, 86, 91, 132, 134, 189, of formulae, 136 310, 327, 355, 416 of interpreting, 70, 71 see also Argumentation, xxi, xxi, 2, 3, 25, 29, Interpretation 39, 49, 65, 70, 77-92, 125, 144, of interrogating, xxxiv, xxxvii, 163, 218, 221, 239, 321, 323, 36, 37, 378 341-357, 416, 436, 451, 463, 467 of inventing, xix, 93-98, 121, Aristotelian, xxx, 70, 78, 80, 90, 130, 135, 136, 275-283, 91, 147, 157, 199, 218, 240, 368 264, 279, 377, 387, 388, 429, of judging, 93, 121, 135, 213 see 433, 455, 458, 466 also Judgment Arithmetic, xxxiii, 19, 22-24, 115, of legislating, 289 see also 116, 119-128, 137, 180, 186, Legislation 214-217, 225, 228, 264, 267, 275, mnemonic 136 see also Memory 281, 296, 368, 379, 382, 384, 440 of practice, 384 binary, 120, 125, 126 of speech, 31, 86, 135, 147, 173, Art 482 see also Rhetoric of characters, 220, 263-269 see of subtlety, 220, 380 see also also Characteristic Subtle of combinations, 94, 96, 220, of thinking, see Thinking, art of 224, 275, 278, 430, 433 see of understanding, 134, 375 also Combinatory of verifying, 40, 430 Subject Index 485 Assertion, 2, 15, 30, 50, 210, of reasons, xxvii, 6, 15, 22, 36, 70, 382, 393 71,124, 126, 160, 181, 200, Assumption, lxii, lxiii, 84, 105, 201, 241, 242, 263, 267, 290, 178, 199, 210, 216, 241, 280, 318, 323, 344, 353, 436, 404 290, 371, 401, 419 Baptism, 314, 340, 412, 417 Astronomy, 82, 138, 229, 375, 452 Barbarian, 86, 123, 126, 130, 307, 405 Atheism, 237, 239, 306, 307, Beauty, 143, 147, 148, 169, 185, 370, 425 186, 193, 195, 264, 315 Attention, 3, 20, 39, 43, 59, 71, Begging the question, 294 144, 157, 165, 172, 176, 194, Being, supreme, 29, 30 197, 257, 383, 414 Believe Audience, liv, 3, 30, 51, 52, 62, change of, xlv, 241-245 124, 147, 148, 158, 198, 201, obligation to, 41-47, 325 204, 380 Believer, xxi, xxvi, lxvi, 13, 53, Authenticity, 10, 145, 158, 197, 366 317, 332, 333, 339, 340 Authority, 4, 7, 36-38, 51-53, 56, Benevolence, 351, 378, 400 76, 78, 121, 194, 210, 259, Bible, 56, 148, 159, 190, 362, 453, 296, 336, 344, 406, 419, 455, 459, 462, 463 see also 421, 470 Scripture of Church, 56, 63, 160, 161, Body, 11-14, 37, 50, 138, 183, 223, 197, 247, 255, 257-260, 265, 269, 302, 359, 436, 438, 317-319, 325-327, 332, 456, 465 333, 335-337, 339, 340, Bookkeeping, 130, 215, 379 402, 453 Brabeum, 50 divine, 49, 52, 134, 421 institutional, 7, 16, 51, 191, 335, Cabbala, 119, 120, 220, 264, 355, 356 298, 458 of judge, 53, 56, 345 Calculation, xlii, lxvii, 19, 21, 22, moral, 56, 63 105, 141, 180, 217, 266, 280, public, 16, 36 296, 379 of Scripture, 53, 152 Calculative, lxvi, lxix, 141, 198, way of, xxxix 208, 214 Axiomatic, 134, 141, 209, 241, Calculus, xxxi, xxxiii, xxxv, lx, 360, 463 lxiv, lxix, 29, 66, 93, 102, Axiomatization, 140, 371 106, 123, 129, 134, 141, 148, 213, 215, 216, 241, 264, 267, Balance see also Scales 290, 301, 385, 389, 458, of law, 35-40 464, 467 of reason, xxxi, xliv, lxvii, Calvinism, xxv, xxvi, 24, 26, 259, lxviii, 7, 8, 19, 20, 30, 262, 319, 321, 399, 414, 415, 417, 89, 168, 173, 179, 248, 433, 442, 451, 453, 455, 462, 463 263, 372 see also Church, Reformed 486 Subject Index

Canonist, xxxiv, 38, 40, 161, 459 Character, 95, 103, 120, 121, 135, Cartesianism, xxxii, lx, lxii, lxvii, 220, 271, 272, 277, 278, 24, 29, 103, 127, 141, 198, 209, 294, 296 211, 214, 216, 237, 259, 374, Characteristic 375, 387, 389, 433, 443, 446, numbers, 119-127 448, 455, 456, 461, 462, 464 universal, 93, 217, 263, 271, Casting 277, 286, 295 see also Art of lots, 17, 20, 24 of characters out nines, 22, 24, 141, 267, 281 Charity, 52, 56, 61, 90, 125, 155, Casuism, 40, 324, 414, 429, 430, 433 169, 190, 192, 243, 244, 256, Category, 85, 91, 121, 122, 223, 320, 333, 337, 346, 442 see 376, 377, 387 also Principle of Catholicism, lvii, 7, 16, 24, 41, 55, Cheating, 36, 143, 183, 228, 392 152, 153, 154, 161, 167, 198, Christ, 5, 9, 12, 13, 14, 38, 53, 56, 201, 241, 243, 248, 253, 261, 103, 160, 164, 174, 243, 247, 305, 309-327, 329-340, 415, 249, 252, 254, 257, 312, 323, 416, 451, 455, 465 see also 332, 334, 368 Church, Catholic Church Cause, 13, 199, 332, 411, 471 Catholic, 8, 62, 63, 162, 243-245, Certainty, xliv, lxvii-lxix, 7, 14, 28, 250, 252, 255-261, 314, 31, 36, 42, 46, 52, 61, 62, 82, 330-335, 337-340, 405, 414, 86-88, 113, 124, 125, 133, 453, 456 141, 158, 169, 177, 179, 181, of England, 399-417 183, 194, 198, 210, 233, 264, Fathers, xix, 61, 148, 159, 160, 266, 267, 271, 275, 276, 279, 364, 447 280, 290, 296, 316, 326, 331, Gallican, 254, 260 337, 348, 392, 401, 402, 410, Greek, 161, 245, 340 412, 420, 424-426, 452, 461, Latin, 161, 244 469 see also Necessity and Oriental, 318 Uncertainty particular, 244 absolute, lxvii, lxviii, 226, 231, primitive, 149, 151 371 413 Reformed, xxvi, xliv, 10, 14, 23, geometrical, 153, 178, 265 24, 54, 245, 251, 318, logical, 222, 425 405, 462 metaphysical, 222, 223, 366, 436 Roman, see Catholic moral, 16, 185, 223, 365, 366 true, 63, 201, 259, 313, 319 physical, 223 universal, 63, 244, 245, 252-254, Chance, 4, 17, 18, 24, 37, 43, 95, 260, 362, 415 97, 106, 176, 183, 185, Clarity, lxv, 79, 80, 134, 141, 143, 186, 204, 264, 267, 288, 147, 158, 206, 207, 280 329, 402 Clashing, xxxix, xlvii, 50, 141, 205, Chaos, 436, 437 249, 256, 290, 327, 342, 395, 423 Subject Index 487

Class, 63, 99, 103 Concession, xxxix, 14, 30, 143, Classification, 94, 130, 166, 266, 163, 210, 248, 256, 257, 260, 286, 287, 289-301, 376, 468 323, 329, 336 Coexistence, xxiv, xxvii, 243 Conciliation, xxi, xxv, xlviii, lix, Cogito, 209, 211, 461, 464 60, 88, 167, 168, 252, 265, Collegiant, 442, 443 275, 405, 413, 415, 416, 421, Color, 52, 101-104, 138, 220, 311, 456 see also Moderation and 363, 438 Reconciliation Combinatory, 30, 94, 96, 99, 103, Conclusive, 59, 125, 135, 217, 341, 129, 155, 208, 287, 325, 356 356, 357 see also Art of combinations non-conclusive, xlvii, 214, 319 Communication, xxiii, xxiv, xxviii, Concordance, 265 lxii, lxvi, 30-32, 89, 121, 126, Concrete, 75, 90, 143, 298, 323, 140, 143, 221, 323, 330, 359, 390, 458 438, 448 Condemnation, xxviii, 8, 240, 253, oral, 2, 4, 52, 53, 154, 298, 302, 380 254, 305, 307, 308, 317, 327, written, lv, 2, 4, 11, 53, 72, 192, 340, 409, 414, 427, 453, 456, 204, 232, 264-266, 348, 460, 467 350, 361, 365, 382, 394 non-condemnation, 261 Communion, 244, 245, 249, 255, 256, Condescension, 86, 249, 253, 256, 316, 320, 330, 333, 334, 338 260, 323 Companion, lvi, 191, 195, 231, 282 Condition, 27, 88, 107, 108, 175, Compensation, 126, 148, 158, 183, 213, 247, 258, 334, 393 207, 289, 300, 441, 447 Confession, Augsburg, 155,162, Complaint, 67, 69, 77, 158, 287-290, 250, 251, 260, 261, 335, 300, 305, 381 416, 442 Complexity, lxii, 33, 91, 102, 121, Conflict, xxiii, xxiv, xxxix, liv, 5, 122, 209, 220, 221, 224, 225, 14, 18, 30, 31, 87, 88, 92, 144, 266, 312, 323, 342, 377, 379, 161, 163, 210, 244, 248, 256, 387, 403 302, 318, 323, 327, 340, 401, Composition, lxvi, 91, 98, 224, 413 409, 414, 453 Comprehensible, 123, 238, 239, Confrontation, xxi, xxvii, l, lvi, 298 see also lxix, 177, 305, 415, 421 Incomprehensible and Confusion, xliii, lxiii, lxvi, 1-6, Intelligible 12-14, 132, 138, 174, 206, Computing, lxix, 21, 22, 24, 88, 213, 215, 221, 235, 259, 279, 91, 126, 135, 241, 263, 372 295, 440 Concept, xxi, xxviii, xxxii, xlvii, lvii, Congruence, li, 265, 394, 413 75, 84, 86, 91, 102, 103, 119, Conjecture, xxxv, lxiii, lxiv, 36, 120, 134, 141, 217, 219-221, 75, 81, 86, 87, 89, 233, 263, 223, 224, 240, 271, 295, 302, 267, 269, 322, 348, 351-353, 325, 371, 373, 414, 432 431, 435-443 488 Subject Index

Conscience, 35, 38, 95, 155, 183, religious, 8, 16, 51, 55, 63, 225 188, 206, 242-245, 256, 311, sacred, 49-54 319, 321, 331, 430, 433 semi-mathematical, 381 Consciousness, 38, 43-45, 157, theological, 156, 218, 271, 311, 324 see also 305-308, 379, 459, 461 Apperception theoretical, 16, 68 Consensus, xxix, xlviii, l, li, 16, 53, Conversation, lv, lvii, 26, 72, 121, 61, 132, 210, 218, 348, 393, 130, 147, 167-169, 174, 247, 396, 403, 413 380, 462 see also Art of Consequent, 9, 11, 83, 87-89, 158, conversation 165, 180, 197, 409, 413 Conversion, 125, 196, 199, 259, Conspiracy, 318, 357 412, 468, 469 Contender, xxix, xxxix, xli-xliii, Conviction, 3, 31, 32, 145, 146, xlv, xlvii, lx, lxiv, 49-54, 55, 173, 177, 178, 186, 192, 194, 146, 248, 259, 301, 403 see 195, 202, 279, 254, 300, 306, also Opponent, Proponent, and 315, 316, 378, 382 see also Respondent Persuasion Contest, xlii, lxiv, 49-52, 62, 124, Correspondence, xxiv, lii, liii, 145, 404 lxxi, 89, 101, 138, 285-303, Context, 67, 77, 79, 90, 101, 248 341-357 Contingency, xxxiii, lvi, 35, 36, 63, Corruption, 170, 173, 306, 410, 144, 185, 211, 265, 266, 380, 412, 417 381, 384, 400, 402, 403, 410, Council 411, 417, 426, 448 Ecumenical, xxiv, 151, 250, 254, Continuity, 3-5, 192, 220, 287, 257, 329, 333-335, 338, 334, 413 465 Contract, 36, 40, 70, 108, 166, 288, general, 162, 251, 252, 255, 391-397 333-335 bare, 391, 395 Lateran, 162, 239, 240, 250, dressed, 391, 395 260, 339, 340, 425 formal, 391 legitimate, 251, 255, 262, nude, 132 325-327, 329, 335 quasi-contract, 396 of Basel, 260, 339 Contradiction, xx, l, 9, 30, 60, 84, of Carthage, 340 88, 141, 173, 180, 185, 201, of Florence, 155, 254, 337, 340 205, 221, 259, 265, 362 see of Jerusalem, 253, 261 also Principle of of Constance (Konstanz), xli, Controversy, see also Contest, 260, 363, 369 Debate, Discussion, Dispute, and of Lyon, 337, 340 Judge of of Nicaea, 314, 339 perplex, 345, 347 of Palestine, 307, 308 see also of philosophical, 7, 271 Jerusalem Subject Index 489

of sages, 6 Debate, xx, xxiii, xxiv, xxvii, of Trent, xxxix, xli, 53, 199, xxviii, xlii, xliii, xlv, xlvii, 245, 250-253, 255, 260, liii, lxiv, 5, 7, 8, 27, 28, 35, 261, 262, 318, 321, 322, 36, 47, 50, 65, 143, 145, 325, 329, 336, 465 146, 158, 196, 199, 201, universal, 255 214, 248, 260, 302, 305, Creativity, 116, 141, 275 312, 315, 321, 323, 341, Creature, 61, 186-188, 194, 362, 355, 359, 386, 389, 391, 437, 438 400, 415, 416, 421 Crime, 183, 237, 288, 356, Decision, xxxi, xxxix, lix, lxix, 2, 357, 401 4, 7, 8, 17, 19, 49, 56, 58, Criticism, xx, xxx-xxxii, xlii, lvii, 65, 66, 69, 81, 92, 134, 147, lviii, 8, 9, 22, 40, 73, 81, 98, 196, 207, 228, 233, 252, 102, 126, 129, 161, 173, 197, 253, 255, 257, 262, 320, 224, 237, 240, 260, 291, 325-327, 329, 334, 335, 345, 294-297, 302, 323, 324, 361, 357, 371, 380, 381, 409, 362, 371, 373, 375, 388, 401, 416, 425 415, 416, 420, 443 Declaration, 32, 63, 154, 162, Crowd, 332 230, 251-253, 257, 258, 342, Culpability, 243, 288, 305, 344, 357, 361 345, 409 Decree, 53, 69, 161, 254, 260, Cult, 165, 172, 189, 196, 256, 257, 262, 333, 403, 404, 410, 412, 310, 338, 362, 412 see also 414, 416 Rite Deductive, xxxi, xxxiii, xliv, lxviii, Cunning, 151, 255, 352 see also lxix, 65, 93, 198, 213, Art of 371-373 see also Conclusive Curve, 33, 94, 97, 98, 103 and Demonstrative algebraic, 97, 98, 103 Definition, 21-23, 29, 31, 32, 46, transcendent, 94, 97, 98, 103 47, 56, 78, 80, 84-86, 90, 91, Custom, 9, 27, 71, 81, 129, 129, 132-134, 218, 220, 170-173, 180, 260, 261, 343, 271-273, 280, 302, 322, 345, 401 325-327, 366, 383, 385, 438, 440, 443 see also Art of Damnation, 319, 320, 322, 333, defining 334, 414 indefinable, 21 Data, xxxiii, xxxvii, xlii, 28, 125, Deliberation, 3, 8, 37, 38, 124, 126, 138, 214, 217, 226, 227, 231, 147, 156, 158, 173, 225, 226, 235, 264, 267, 268, 269, 276, 228, 230, 235, 403 290, 296, 385, 430 Demonstration, 15, 30, 31, 44, 83, Death, 175, 176, 188, 227, 229, 84, 108, 134, 217, 239, 275 344, 435, 467 see also Proof 490 Subject Index

Demonstrative, xlvii, lxiii, lxiv, Disposition, 80, 109, 154, 205, lxvi, 1, 32, 47, 86, 130, 209, 232, 234, 245, 288, 321, 351, 218, 231, 233, 264, 277-279, 393, 416 286, 366, 372, 425 Dispute non-demonstrative, lxviii, 136, disputation, xxix-xxxi, xxxiii, 198, 426, 440, 452 lxviii, 5, 24, 49, 62, 218, Deontic, 41 228, 248, 259, 266, 269, Determination, 42, 77, 102, 199, 355, 388, 419, 431 265, 339, 411, 413 disputing see Art of Devotion, 62, 174, 177 formal, 146, 380, 382, 389 Diaeresis, 91, 93, 286, 287 meta-disputation, 5 Diagram, xlvii, 98, 133, 134, 156 mingled, 1-6 Dialectics, xxx, xxxi, xxxiii, undisputable, 180, 190, 196 xxxvii, xlvii, liv, lxv, 5, 30, Distinction, lxviii, 1, 5, 53, 78, 80, 66, 73, 75, 76, 89, 90, 136, 89, 90, 94, 129, 138, 140, 140, 146, 157, 214, 226, 216, 141, 151, 158, 163, 196, 199, 218, 342, 366, 373, 388, 218, 230, 238-240, 258, 265, 419-427 266, 289, 312, 316, 320, 327, Dialogue, xx, li, liv, lv, lxv, lxvii, 340, 356, 380, 387-389, 414, lxxii, 25-28, 30, 72, 156, 419, 433 167-200, 256, 307, 359 see Divinity, 10, 51-53, 154, 184, 199, also Art of dialogue 207, 224, 238-240, 249, 254, Dichotomy, 98, 287 see also 266, 311, 314, 320, 322, 337, Diaeresis 362, 366, 401-403, 409, 447 Didactics, lv, 116, 220, 300 Division, xlvii, 91, 98-100, 103, Digests, 68, 73, 77-79, 90, 264, 116, 145, 155, 157, 220, 287, 276, 397 288, 291, 376, 377, 388 see Dioptrics, 278 also Diaeresis Director, xlvii, 1, 3-5, 38, 389 Dogma, lxvii, 151, 154, 161, 168, Disagreement, xxiv, 2, 7, 10, 151, 220, 253, 260, 322, 333, 401, 162, 250, 258, 335, 396 416, 443 Discourse, xxviii, 3, 5, 11, 30, 32, Dominican, 40, 402, 414 146, 224, 380, 382, 392 Doxastic, 41 Discussion, xxiv, xxviii, xxxix, xliv, lvi, 3, 20, 38, 49, 75, Eclecticism, 271, 387, 390, 445, 470 155, 161, 202, 206, 213, 238, Edit of Nantes, 247, 456, 462 241, 247, 248, 256, 259, 261, Education, xxviii, 5, 51, 190, 253, 262, 311, 312, 314, 318, 326, 261, 296, 297, 313, 369 see 335, 343, 391, 416, 423, 436 also Didactics and Pedagogy Disjunctive, 11, 12, 14, 85, 88, 99 Efficacy, 68, 72, 229, 333, 391-395 Disorder, xxxix, xliii, 65, 214, 332, Elector, xxix, liii, 251, 260, 261, 354, 343, 380, 381, 436 360, 362, 367, 369, 372, 460 Subject Index 491

Elements, xx, xliii, lvi, lxii, 78, 86, Ethics, xxviii, xli, 83, 90, 126, 144, 99, 133, 134, 138, 153, 167, 148, 149, 163, 164, 183, 196, 180, 181, 215, 217, 286, 289, 199, 237, 265, 305, 308, 323, 350, 363, 366, 437 370, 384, 427 see also Virtue of thinking, see Thinking Ethos, 199 Ellipsis, 66, 96 Etymology, xlii, 10, 79, 141, 371 Eloquence, 37, 315, 333, 365, 380, Eucharist, xli, 53, 314, 334 405 see also Rhetoric Evangelical, 10, 14, 16, 404, 405, Emperor, 152, 154, 186, 197, 199, 415 see also Lutheranism 247, 248, 251, 257, 260-262, Evidence, xxxiv, lx, lxii, lxvii, 19, 295, 330, 338, 341, 362, 363, 53, 62, 81, 148, 157, 205, 207, 364, 447, 466 209, 210, 341, 346, 347, 356, Empirical, 27, 75, 90, 105, 384, 371, 436 436, 463 Evil, origin of, 403, 410, 424 Encyclopedia, xxxvi, xli, 39, 67, Evolvent, 97, 98, 103 102, 129-141, 213, 219-224, Examination, 19-22, 124, 192, 265, 231, 236, 288 310, 311, 319, 321, 334, 347, Éndoxa, 218, 430 351, 431, 433 Enthusiasts, liii, 197 Excommunication, 24, 313, 317, Enthymeme, 92, 182, 288, 321, 432 319, 334 Enumeration, 66-68, 94, 96-98, Expectation, 109, 111, 114, 115, 100, 103, 138, 156, 180, 228, 153, 195, 345 235, 288, 377 Experience, 32, 38, 59, 60, 117, Enunciation, 80, 95, 132, 134, 220, 124, 132, 134, 135, 140, 221, 222, 224 172, 179, 181, 189, 209, Epicureanism, 185 233, 242, 268, 276, 277, Epistemology, xxvii, xxxii, xxxiv, 280, 296, 297, 311, 319, xlv, l, liv, lvi, lviii, lxii, lxiv, 366, 401, 436, 441 lxvi, 6, 8, 101, 105, 106, 117, Experiment, xxxiv, lxiv, 22, 45, 47, 141, 163, 219, 224, 235, 50, 84, 91, 123, 132, 133, 138, 370, 453 207, 227, 229, 264, 276, 381, Equilibrium, lxviii, 168, 179, 222 437, 458 Equity, xlv, 148, 166, 183, 204, Expounder, xlv, 206-208, 400-403, 207, 291, 338, 348, 356, 397 406 see also Judge of Error, xxvii, lxiii, lxv, 19, 21-23, 61, controversies 82, 125, 182, 228, 242-244, 250, Expression, 84, 89, 137, 206, 266 252, 253, 277, 316, 339, 379, Extensional, xxxi, 385 384, 385, 401, 423 External, xlvii, lxii, 30, 43, 56, 63, Essence, 12, 13, 131, 186, 259, 313, 150, 181, 179, 197, 241-245, 321, 334, 379, 393, 396, 414 312, 383, 436, 438, 448 Establishment, xxxix, l, lxiii, 261, Extraordinary, 18, 51, 169-171, 359, 360, 363-367, 371, 426 191, 194, 248, 254, 322, 436 492 Subject Index

Facility, 21, 91, 117, 229 see also of dialogue, li, liv Feasible of disputation, xxxiii, 62, 380 Faith see also Believer of disputing, 36, 146, 155-157, fundamental article of, 11, 13, 226, 286, 298, 381, 389, 423 161, 237, 312, 314-316 of reasoning, 2, 135, 182, 435 matter of, 170, 196, 250, 251, Formal, xxxiii, xxxvii, xlvii, liv, 259, 326 lxvi, 13, 66, 69, 70, 78, 93, mystery of, 8, 11, 14, 53, 238, 98, 99, 105, 129, 140, 144, 239, 314, 364, 420-422, 146, 152, 198, 209, 210, 214, 426, 471 230, 238, 240, 263, 269, 271, question of, 9 301, 305-307, 319, 320, 327, Fallacy, 143, 157 329, 342, 357, 379, 381, 388, Falsity, xxxi, lxviii, 12, 143, 389, 391, 432, 451 149-152, 181, 210, 220, Formalism, lxv, lxvi, 144, 198, 388 238-240, 265, 291, 350, 351, Formalization, xxxi, xlvii, 198 401, 420, 422-425 Formula, xxiv, xlviii, 12-14, 61, Feasible, xxix, 116, 117, 194, 207, 66, 94, 102, 134, 136, 228, 230, 275, 281, 385, 441 289, 317, 322, 335, 403, 469 Feeling, lxvii, 12, 26, 43, 174, 177, Fortune, 50, 52, 67, 83, 171, 178, 197, 231, 243, 311, 313, 319, 186, 263, 267, 354, 368, 386, 320, 362 402, 403 Feudalism, 73 Freedom, xxix, lvi, 86, 90, 132, Fiction, 164, 185, 238, 341-357 186, 257, 265, 361, 369, Fideism, 443, 453, 455 400, 401, 409-412, 416, 417, Figure, lxiii, 12, 21, 80, 96, 103, 120, 447, 462 133-135, 137, 141, 194, 215, Fundamental, xxix, xlv, xlvii, 10, 221, 239, 278, 281, 308, 378, 66, 84, 95, 99, 102, 126, 164, 379, 431, 432, 436, 440, 441 185, 219, 260, 286, 303, 305, Force, xlii, xlv, 6, 37, 38, 42, 320, 329, 331, 332, 359, 372, 49-51, 59, 62, 73, 75, 78, 79, 380, 420, 421 see also Faith, 120, 126, 134-136, 217, 268, fundamental article of 288, 317, 323, 335, 343, 344, 351, 353, 366, 392, 396, 402, Game, 24, 83, 146, 153, 301, 326, 432, 438, 439, 440 377, 380 Forget, xxxix, 3, 4, 45, 58, 205, Generation 206, 307 of animals, 435 Form of plants, 103 in form, 19, 23, 65, 66, 125, spontaneous, 442 180-182, 226, 379, 380, Genus, 23, 80, 85, 87, 95-100, 103, 432 see also Formal 115, 287, 288, 376, 377, 384 of computing, 22, 135 see also Species dialectical, xxxi, 66, 146 Geography, xlii, 82, 137, 139 Subject Index 493

Geometry, xxxiii, 33, 39, 103, 125, formal, 319, 320 136, 137, 171, 178, 179, 186, material, 316, 319, 320 215, 221, 264, 275, 275-281, Hermeneutic, xxxvi, xli, xliii, lxvii, 371, 389, 400, 440 7, 8, 30, 35, 56, 66, 77, 160, Globe, 137, 139, 179, 436, 437 214, 261, 360 Glory, 50-52, 61, 125, 140, 175, Hermetic, 119, 453, 458, 460 190, 191, 193, 195, 207, 232, Hermit, 168-170, 172, 199 294, 410, 439 Heuretic, 286, 300, 463 Gnostology, 220 Heuristic, l, lxvi, 65-74, 93-104, 129, Good, 4, 12, 26, 51, 63, 125, 148, 143-162, 163, 209, 287, 303 166, 178, 193, 207, 210, 255, Hierarchy 315, 382, 401, 403, 424, 439 ecclesiastic, 154, 255, 333, 338 common, 5, 6, 82, 89, 193-195, epistemic, xxxv, 166 207, 403 History, xix, xli, xlii, lii, 10, 63, 81, Grace, 52, 170, 172-176, 195, 196, 126, 139, 231-235, 364, 366, 199, 207, 311, 313, 314, 319, 376, 382, 439, 452, 453 331, 333, 337, 378, 401, ecclesiastic, 56, 339, 362, 370 411-414, 416, 417, 453 of logic, 429-434 Holy Habit, liii, 11, 59, 158, 189, 196, Ghost, 176, 252, 255, 257, 261, 205, 350, 387, 404 313, 316, 332, 333, 335 Happiness, xxiv, lxiii, 37, 42, 46, Scripture, 51, 53, 249, 250, 252, 52, 78, 119, 129, 130, 139, 257 see also Scripture 166, 174-176, 182, 187, 188, Trinity, 239 see also Trinity 190, 195, 199, 216, 217, 219, Virgin, 257 227, 235, 308, 332, 442 see Homiletic, 199 also Unhappiness Honesty, 27, 83, 164, 186, 204, Harm, xxviii, 108, 109, 121, 149, 323, 348 151, 164-166, 190, 248, 256, Hope, xlii, lix, lxiii, 4, 18, 49-52, 280, 289, 317, 356, 368, 380, 62, 105-117, 130, 131, 153, 394, 397, 421 154, 180, 183, 192, 194, 215, Harmony, xxi, l, 126, 190, 197, 248, 267, 296, , 339, 350, 369, 199, 251, 330, 424 402, 439, 442 pre-established, lvi, 421, 438, Huguenot, xxiii-xxvi, 54, 309, 440, 447, 456, 462, 465 456, 462 universal, l, 190, 424 Hypothesis, lxiii, 15, 30, 32, 41, Hatred(s), 17, 154, 190, 307, 402 47, 84, 86, 132, 138, 209, 213, Hebrew, 10, 86, 159, 303, 364 215, 217, 221, 337, 371, 411, Heresy, 51, 61, 155, 206, 237-239, 416, 435-438, 456 244, 247, 249, 250, 253, 260, 313-316, 320, 326, 333, Idea, lxv, 18, 29, 89, 91, 116 338-340, 425, 460, 469 Idolatry, 308, 364 494 Subject Index

Ignorance Infinite, lx, lxvii, 29, 84, 88, 156, invincible, 151, 306, 307 183-185, 215, 239, 242, 279, sin of, 306, 307 280, 313, 385, 413, 421, 424, Illness, 170, 174, 192, 227, 402 437, 448 Imagination, lxiv, 116, 134, 137, 141, In foro interno, 245 see also 170, 189, 281, 364, 430, 445 Internal Immortality, 223, 425 Inherent, 71, 86, 99, 238, 239, 342 Impartiality, 5, 28, 59, 63, 65, 72, Injustice, 4, 5, 159, 165, 245, 321, 201-208 344, 423 Impersonate, 177 Innovation, 29, 53, 141, 215, 230, Implicit, 51, 56, 89, 91, 135 426, 433, 461 see also Reform Improbability, 14-15 Inquiry, xxx, xxxvi, lxii, lxiii, 21, Imprudence, 344, 350 163, 177, 217, 302, 378 see Inclination, lxviii, lxix, 11, 12, 15, also Research 19, 42, 81, 124, 168, 173, 181, Instauration, 213, 214, 216 206, 222, 291, 338, 396, 411, Intellect, 325, 326 416, 437 Intelligence, 37, 50, 163, 268, 348, Incomprehensible, 238, 240 see 365, 416, 423 also Unintelligible Intelligibible, 75, 119, 129, 138, Incredulity, 177, 189 201, 238, 305, 419, 420 Index, 23, 51, 96, 97, 130, 133, Intensional, 384 181, 215, 216, 357, 416 see Intention, 87-89, 150, 151, 243, also Inventory 244, 261, 335, 336, 342-344, Indication, xxxv, 53, 76, 145, 223, 348, 350, 352, 393, 394, 405, 267, 281, 290, 431 see also 406, 410, 413, 425, 433 Sign Interest counter-indication, 76, 145, 290 particular, 4, 41, 129, 141, 219 Individual, 6, 17, 52, 75, 85, 103, self-interest, 191, 193, 365 130, 139, 197, 245, 265, 291, Interlocutor, 32, 170, 323 336, 445 Internal, xlvii, 56, 63, 174, 181, Induction, 14, 15, 102, 132, 198 316, 319, 411, 438 Inesse, 238, 265 see also Inherent Interpretation, 7, 8, 14, 30, 56, 66, Infallibility, xxxix, xliv, 8, 16, 77-92, 197, 254, 261, 290, 19, 21, 52, 53, 57, 59, 83, 297, 453 see also 189-192, 259, 311-314, Hermeneutic 332-335, 381 Intolerance, 443 Inference, xxxi, 9, 14, 82, 89, 92, Intuition, lxii, 198, 231, 235, 266, 135, 141, 179, 197, 198, 226, 432 see also Knowledge, 276, 286, 291-295, 357, 366, intuitive 373, 378, 379, 388 Invalid, 59, 69, 82, 83, 141, 157, Infidel, 308, 310, 313, 425 340, 349, 351-354, 401 Subject Index 495

Invention see Art of inventing Justice, lii, 4, 6, 39, 65, 77, 90, 95, Inventory, xlii, 96, 215, 235 see 164, 183, 186, 187, 190, 313, also Index and Repertoire 321, 323, 346, 355, 356, 366, Investigation, lxii, 35, 36, 39, 86, 397, 409, 412, 413 93-96, 100, 123, 138, 139, 170, 181, 183, 210, 226-229, King, liii, liv, lviii, 18, 24, 116, 232, 373, 378 see also 186, 260, 318, 361-363, 369, Research 372, 404, 422, 449 Invincible, 151, 240, 250, 253, Knowledge 255, 305-308, 419, 422-425 adequate, 221 Irenic, xlv, li, 153, 162, 260, 325, advancement of, xvi, xxi, xxiv, 329, 340, 458, 460, 465 xxx, lix, lxii-lxv, 93, 126, Irrational, 18, 24, 323, 384 see also 140, 235, 389 Rational a posteriori, 222 Irrelevance, xxvii, 65, 155, 198, certain, 42 253, 376, 381 clear, 351, 353, 389 Isostheneia, lxviii, lxix, 6, 168 demonstrative, 253 distinct, 14, 322, 389 Jansenism, xxxiii, 40, 196, 261, doubtful, 14, 281 305, 310, 315, 321, 402, 414, empirical, 27 448, 455, 459 foundation of, lxii, 140, 209 Jesuit, xxiii, xxv, 40, 54, 196, 198, of God, 170, 171, 306, 308, 409, 237, 260, 261, 305-308, 319, 416 321, 327, 354, 402, 414, 433, historical, xxxvi, xli, 253 442, 448, 453, 455, 459, 469 human, 181, 214, 216, 217, 271, Jew, 26, 159, 253, 261, 364 see 276, 348, 447, 461 also Hebrew intuitive, 89, 266, 416 Judge of controversies, xxviii, middle, 416, 417 lxvii, 7-23, 25, 49, 55-63, 201, model of, xxxiv 297, 298, 312, 335, 381, 451, obscure, 13, 219, 424 452 see also Expounder of oneself, 319 Judgment, 4, 16, 23, 37, 50-53, 57, probable, 1 62, 71, 99, 103, 106, 145, 164, topical, 223 165, 174, 204, 208, 210, 251, useful, lxiii, 130, 131 258, 275, 286, 300, 329-339, 357, 378, 382, 402, 430-433 Labyrinth Jurisconsult, 75-76, 378 of continuum, 413 Jurisprudence, 19, 36, 37, 67, of disputes, 172 68-69, 75-76, 77-92, 103, of freedom, 413 164-165, 234, 272, 286, 289, Language 322, 335, 341-357, 366, 381, adamic, 120 391-397 formal, 263 496 Subject Index

philosophical, 220, 266, 272 Loci, xxxvi, xlvii, 136, 357, 377, symbolic, 259, 263 378, 388 see also Topoi universal, 119-127, 277 Logic Law applied, 286, 290 canonic, 78, 469 formal, 451 Carolingian, 349 history of, 373, 429, 430, 431 civil, 78, 289, 343, 394 modal, 41, 453 codification, 77 natural, 141, 373, 382 common, 352 new, 105, 225-230, 342, 452 criminal, 106 pure, 385 feudal, 72, 73 of the contingent, 35, 36 international, 341, 355, 356, Logistics, 137 460, 466 Logocritics, 300 natural, 1, 89, 217, 345, 350, Logometric, 36 391-397, 460, 466 Logos, 199, 401 Roman, 40, 78, 90, 92 Love Laziness, 172, 173, 191, 225, 234, of God, 56, 63, 189, 193, 206, 268, 401, 402, 413 314, 319, 320 Legislation, 65, 90, 341, 356, 395 pure, 321, 438 Legislator, 39, 77-82, 87, 89, 90, 261, self-, 165, 166 342-346, 352, 353, 356, 395 Lutheranism, xliv, lvii, 162, 197, Libertine, 233, 425 247, 251, 259, 261, 321, 323, Library, xxviii, xxxii, 76, 97, 130, 399, 404, 405, 414, 415, 442, 185, 300, 363 458, 465, 468 see also Lie, 120, 148-152, 160, 161, 238, Evangelical 240, 330 Light Machine, xix, 98, 184, 186, 189, divine, 176, 311, 322 203, 368 see also Mechanics enlightenment, 203, 470 Turing, 102 illumination, 103 Magic, 120, 170, 201, 220, inner, 179, 311, 322 354, 389 natural, 198, 421 Majority, will of the, 17 Likelihood, 5, 15, 35-38, 61, 106, Malevolence, 161, 345, 394 153, 179, 185, 186, 191, 194, Maliciousness, 306-308 233, 254, 265, 311, 327, 344, Maneuver, xlv, 3, 327, 330, 426 353, 361, 431 see also Manichean, 401, 419-421, 426 Probability Manipulation, 120, 124, 126, 143, Limitation, 76, 92, 94, 165, 260, 148, 388 267, 377, 388 Mark, 140, 221, 267, 277, 280, Literal, 9, 80, 215, 459 281, 333, 411 see also Sign Litigation, 65-74, 166, 335, 345, visible, 62, 202 346, 357, 431 Materialism, 373, 461, 471 Subject Index 497

Mathematics, xix, xxxiv, lx, 29, 88, of concessions see Concession 105, 122, 129-133, 136, 137, of condescension see 140, 189, 196, 199, 226, 232, Condescension 275-280, 285, 359, 360, 363, empirical, 105, 463 365-368, 371, 379, 381-384, 388, of enumeration, see 389, 413, 426, 432, 441, 458 Enumeration pure, 384-386 of establishments, 29, 359-372 universal, 93, 217, 231, 265, 471 see also Establishment Maxim, xxi, 36, 39, 70, 180, 191, expository, 400, 404 206, 207, 235, 308 see also incontestable, 66, 182, 279, Principle 365, 370 Meaning, xxxvi, xlii, l, lxv, lxvi, of inventing, 70, 130, 133, 368 9-15, 21, 30-32, 36, 47, 77-79, see also Art of inventing 82-91, 123, 135, 147, 164, provisional, lxiii, 261 266, 292, 313, 318, 331, 366, of reunion see Reunion 431 see also Sense summarizing, 230, 406, 415 Mechanics, xxxii, 20, 66, 102, 103, Metropolite, 333 137, 138, 141, 187, 217, 227, Military, 51, 37, 81, 89, 126, 137, 229, 234, 384, 389, 448 163, 217, 234, 267, 289 Medicine, 39, 66, 67, 70, 75-76, 103, Mind, xix, 5, 50, 124, 154, 174, 145, 170, 171, 217, 225, 228, 175, 187, 204-206, 227, 233, 232, 233, 240, 267, 277, 373 253, 268, 277, 294, 331, 338, Melancholic, 178 364, 365, 388, 406, 452 see Memory, 44, 45, 122, 133, 136, also Soul 147, 171, 188, 205, 232, 268, Miracle, 18, 52, 53, 125, 170, 174, 344, 349, 430 257, 416, 448 Metamorphosis, 265, 436 Misery, 176, 182, 190, 192, Metaphor, 7, 13, 16, 30, 80, 102, 195, 196 126, 158, 198, 213, 217, 275, Misunderstanding, xli, lxv, 158, 290, 389, 413, 415 249, 259, 381 Metaphysics, xxii, lvii, 29, 30, 37, Modality, 41, 116, 117, 153, 198, 90, 123, 126, 178, 217, 234, 221, 283, 453 264, 265, 276-279, 359, Moderation, xxvii, xxviii, xlv, 366, 387, 388, 400, 414, li, lix, 17, 27, 38, 46, 149, 439-441, 448 153, 192, 201-203, 207, 238, Metempsychosis, 265 330, 335, 337, 386, 394, Method 404-406, 423 a posteriori, 84, 85, 97, 271, 299 Mohammedan, 172, 233, 245, 364, a priori, 84, 85, 97, 222, 271 401, 413, 415 of colloquia, xxiv, xxv, xxx, 38, Monad, l, 102, 359, 436, 438, 51, 72, 228, 230, 249, 258, 448, 460 259, 262, 465 Monomachia, 18 498 Subject Index

Morality, xxiv, li, 16, 40, 42, 46, moral, 41, 47, 439 56, 63, 75, 87, 139, 143, 144, physical, 47 148, 151, 158, 161, 163-165, Negotiation, xxii, xxiii, xxviii, 170, 172, 185, 189, 197, 199, xxix, xxxix, xliv, li, lvii, 55, 217, 223, 240, 245, 276-278, 63, 73, 143, 152-154, 162, 280, 305, 308, 324, 365, 366, 201, 234, 241, 247-262, 323, 410, 413, 414, 417, 421, 430 325, 329-340, 399, 416, 465 Motivation, xxii, xxxi, lxiv, 42, Noematic, 298 155, 166, 187, 189, 193, 232, Nominalism, 269, 387, 461 316, 318, 320, 442 Nomothetics, 67, 82, 90 Movement, l, liv, lxii, 33, 75, 126, Noology, 220 137, 193, 237, 278, 316, Norm, li, lii, 8, 19, 23, 40, 51, 148, 438, 440 see also Mechanics 199, 225, 228, 261, 287 perpetual, 178, 227, 230 Notion Mundane, 169, 177 adequate/inadequate, 220, 221, 266 Mystery, lxvii, 119-121, 125, 150, clear/obscure, 220, 221, 266 203 see also Faith, mystery of confuse/distinct, 220, 221, 266 Mystical, liv, 150, 167, 199, 259, suppositive/intuitive, 266 264, 333 Number, 19, 70, 96-98, 105-117, 119-127, 131, 156, 264, 265, Name, xx, xxxiii, 84, 176, 220, 266, 276, 290, 314, 368, 377, 273, 313, 376, 395, 396, 415 379, 380, 384, 387, 439 see Nature, xxxiv, xxxvii, 21, 37, 75, also Casting out nines and 82, 96, 104, 120, 125, 129, Characteristic numbers 141, 172, 179, 184, 185, 188, 189, 195, 268, 306, 307, 374, Obedience, xxiv, 45, 57, 160, 251, 378, 379, 395, 410, 425, 448, 252, 289, 317, 319, 320, 332 458, 463 Objection, xxi, xxxix, lvi, lxii, lxv, Necessary lxviii, 19, 66, 102, 124, 150, concept of, 42, 318, 410, 417, 157, 202, 298, 309, 310, 313, 452, 453 354, 420, 458 condition, 275, 280, 281, 283, invincible, 240, 422, 424, 425 326, 332, 336, 373, 422, 424 Obligation, 9, 69, 154, 164, 177, conclusion, lxvii, 14, 19 198, 230, 289, 344, 391-397, domain, lxvi, 36, 380 404, 409, 424 principle, 71, 356 to believe, 9, 41-47, 58, 241, proposition, 31, 83, 88, 448 245, 325 truth, lxix, 30, 185, 211, 242, Oblique, 85, 286, 291-295, 378, 388 265, 312, 318 Occasion, xix, xxxiii, 10, 67, 148, Necessity see also Certainty 152-155, 175, 229, 247, 333, geometrical, 41, 47, 185 348, 350, 391, 403, 406 see hypothetical, 41, 411 also Opportunity Subject Index 499 Occasionalism, 456, 462, 465 Paralogism, lxv, 83, 237, 266, 279, Omission, 2, 11, 21, 36, 182, 230, 378, 388, 441 255, 288, 350, 381, 432 Particle, 126, 135, 136, 141, 437 Onomatopoeia, 134 Passion, lxiv, 16-18, 90, 137, 173, Operation, lx, 21, 22, 24, 102, 119, 176, 192, 352, 387, 401 126, 141, 144, 180, 223, 224, Pathos, 199 268, 300 Peace, xxii-xxvii, liii, liv, 16, 26, 38, Opponent, xxxi, xxxix, xlvii, 50, 155, 162, 196, 227, 228, lxvi-lxviii, 46, 147, 158, 247-251, 255, 262, 331, 336, 163, 204, 249, 263, 298, 338, 355, 356, 361, 369, 386, 323, 330, 380, 381, 387, 394, 399, 402, 406, 422, 452 404, 406, 415, 419 Peasant, 12, 13, 25-28, 171, 227, 379 Opportunity, xxix, 143, 152, 174, Pedagogy, 5, 390, 471 182, 189, 190, 217, 312, 336, Perception, 12, 43, 52, 81, 207, 209, 345, 348, 367, 378, 386, 421, 220, 222, 278, 311, 315, 333, 451 see also Occasion 374, 376, 416, 430, 437, 438 Optics, 124, 137 apperception, 197, 389 Order see also Disorder Perfection, 30, 39, 67, 84, 94, 97, demonstrative, 372 125, 133, 139, 171, 183, 186, of discovery, 95 187, 190, 195, 219, 234, 239, expository, 404 249, 264, 268, 269, 279-281, geometric, 201 313, 383, 385, 393, 396, 410, mathematical, 363 420, 421, 424, 425, 442 natural, 21, 121, 133, 463 imperfect, 73, 80, 151, 184, 228, religious, 17 388, 417, 422 Organon, 33, 122, 268 Performativity, 397 Orthodoxy, 305, 462, 469, 470 Peroration, 3, 4 Other’s place, xlv, xlvii, lxvi, 20, Person, xlii, 9, 11-13, 15-18, 50, 51, 140, 158, 163-166, 168, 196, 80, 81, 109, 148, 157, 170, 177, 199, 248, 330, 406, 413, 427 183, 193, 196, 227, 229, 238, 288, Outcome, 105-117, 210, 301, 402 289, 317, 318, 332, 335, 336, 348, Ownership, 245, 342, 341-357, 396 351, 352, 354, 364, 393, 423 see also Usucaption Persuasion, 3, 26, 41-45, 51, 52, 56-59, 62, 63, 90, 125, 129, Pact, xxxix, 70, 108, 159, 337, 140-144, 146, 147, 152, 153, 391-397 see also Contract 157, 158, 163, 167-170, 174, Pagan, 233, 245, 308, 320, 362, 175, 178, 179, 183, 191, 195, 364, 401, 411, 414, 447 199, 244, 247, 249-251, 253, Pansophia, 202, 208 259, 281, 300, 311, 323, 329, Paradox, lxiv, 45, 117, 147, 148, 346, 362, 424, 436, 445, 465 158, 172, 173, 195, 202, 320, see also Conviction, Power of 385, 423 persuading, and Rhetoric 500 Subject Index

Petition, 287-290, 427 Politics, 1, 3, 4, 6, 25, 37, 40, 56, Philosophy 78, 82, 83, 90, 98, 102, 105, Ancient, 439, 448 163-165, 189, 199, 218, 225, Greek, 439, 447, 448 see also 228, 230, 233, 235, 247, 260, Aristotle, Plato, Skepticism 272, 285, 305, 318, 327, 329, Irish, 447 330, 341, 349, 359, 361, 363, Modern, xxx, xxxii, 415, 425, 370, 371, 397, 399, 414, 415, 433 see also Arnauld, 420, 455-461, 466-470 Bacon, Bayle, Descartes, Pontiff, 242, 261, 333, 335, 338, 339 Grotius, Hobbes, Jungius, Pool, 105-117 Locke, Malebranche, Pope, 16, 40, 55, 56, 152, 154, 155, Pascal, Spinoza 162, 167, 179, 196, 237, 242, Pagan, 447 243, 247-262, 302, 305, 308, Perennial, 445, 446 317, 323, 327, 329, 330, Scholastic, 382, 415 333-340, 402, 414, 415, 433, Spanish, 447 456, 459, 465 see also Pontiff Physical, xlii, lx, 41, 47, 75, 138, Possession, 57, 63, 291, 301, 308, 183, 189, 199, 223, 409, 339-346, 356 417, 421 long-lasting, 346, 351, 352, 354 Physician, xxxv, 37, 75, 76, 231, Possibility, 3, 4, 10, 15, 22, 30, 33, 248, 290, 402, 458, 460 66, 67, 77, 89, 92, 108, 109, Physics, xix, liv, 29, 41, 75, 76, 82, 116, 117, 126, 152-154, 167, 88, 126, 127, 130, 137, 138, 168, 198, 209, 215, 227, 229, 141, 199, 217, 229, 232, 234, 230, 235, 259, 262, 283, 308, 237, 276-279, 285, 361, 363, 315, 317, 319, 372, 388, 389, 385, 387 394, 426, 442, 448, 453, 459 Piety, 12, 15, 18, 63, 151, 160, Power, xxiii, xlii, liii, 4, 36, 41-47, 168-170, 174, 177, 197, 207, 57-61, 78, 87, 88, 95, 120, 305, 308, 313, 318, 322, 369, 123, 124, 126, 134, 146, 158, 397, 405, 416 174, 195, 223, 226, 248, 262, Plaintiff, 69, 158, 344-346, 356 265, 278, 296, 332-334, Platonic, 91, 98, 155, 460 347, 394 Pleasure, 2, 21, 42, 109, 121, 130, of persuading, xxv, 57, 144, 166, 169, 175, 178, 188, 193, 145, 323 195, 376, 377, 386, 392, 442 Practice, xx, xxxix, 9, 11-16, 23, Point of view, xxi, l, lvi, lxvii, lxviii, 27, 35, 65-68, 71, 90, 139, 6, 99, 148, 149, 163-166, 199, 132, 146, 157, 189, 231, 235, 209, 256, 283, 375 249, 286, 362, 369, 376, Polemics, xxili, lii, liv, lvii, lxxi, 7, 381-384, 403, 405, 412, 413 24, 214, 230, 322, 420, 445, Praetor, 228, 230, 322 455, 456, 460, 462, 464, 467, Pragmatics, 30, 45, 77, 78, 89, 90, 468, 470 91, 94 Subject Index 501

Pragmatism, lxiii, lxiv Privilege, 35, 38, 40, 52, 81, 82, Prayer, 189, 199, 299 335, 393, 442 Predestination, li, 9, 319, 399-405, Prize, xlii, 22, 37, 50-52, 106, 229 409-414, 417 see also Probability, xxxiv, xxxv, lii, lxvi, Providence 6, 14, 29, 35-40, 42, 43, 49, Predication, 30-33, 80, 84-86, 89, 53, 60, 62, 79, 83, 108, 120, 91, 99, 103, 222, 238, 239, 145, 181, 182, 198, 215, 217, 265, 292, 377, 378, 388, 431 226, 233, 286, 291, 352, 388, Prediction, 150, 164, 171, 179, 430, 433, 435, 441 see also 181, 190, 413 see also Likelihood, Verisimilitude, Prophecy and Improbability Prejudice, 82, 161, 168, 234, 311, calculus of, xxx, xlvii, lxix, 93, 312, 314, 318, 322, 368 125, 127, 153, 198, 231, Premise, 21, 32, 59, 65, 88, 92, 290, 301, 458 134, 163, 179, 180, 217, 276, degree of, xxiii, 36, 70, 87, 91, 321, 419, 425, 426, 431, 432 157, 181, 233, 267, 276, Prescription, 11, 70, 311, 322, 323, 290, 301, 324, 381 341-357 estimation of, 105-117, 233, Presumption, xxiv, xxxv, lxix, 35, 267, 290, 345 36, 53, 63, 68, 86-88, 163, Probity, 61, 392 198, 215, 224, 241, 262, 290, Procedure, xxiv, xxx, xxxiv, xxxix, 291, 301, 311, 322, 323, xliii, xlv, liv, lxvi-lxix, 7, 8, 341-357, 381, 431, 436, 448 10, 18, 19, 22, 23, 30, 35, 38, Prince, liv, lvi, 5, 6, 40, 125, 183, 39, 47, 65, 66, 68, 91, 99, 101, 194, 199, 201-207, 251, 255, 140, 141, 160, 201, 213, 218, 354, 422, 446 247, 254, 286, 287, 322, 325, Principle, 209-211, 222-223 see 327, 334, 339, 357, 376, 379, also Maxim 381, 433 of aversion, 350, 355, 356 Profit, 50, 81, 107, 112-115, 207, brocardic, 39, 70, 71, 272 346, 361, 394 of charity, 56, 154, 193, 323 Progress, l, lxii, lxiii, 28, 93, 94, of contradiction, 181, 186, 209, 97, 126, 140, 144, 214, 216, 211, 222, 237, 238, 264, 266, 269, 365, 378, 389, 239, 240 441, 447, 453 of faith, 10 Project, 55, 96, 130, 206, 229, 258, incontestable, 178 276, 430 of invention, 93 Prolixity, 4, 76, 381 of morality, 56, 148, 158 Promise, 16, 131, 177, 202, 203, of natural law, 1 229, 252, 331, 393, 397 of reason, 90, 209, 211, 220, 241 Proof, see Demonstration of the other’s place see Other’s charge of, xxxi, 89, 241, 298 place formal, 301, 379 502 Subject Index

historical, 217 Ramism, 132, 376, 387, 388 semi-proof, 49, 53 Semi-Ramism, 376, 387, 388 Prophecy, 125, 149, 150, 179, 364 Rapporteur, xlv, xlvii, lxix, 72, Proponent, xxxi, lxviii, 6, 260 155, 201, 306 see also Proportion, 103, 106, 107, 109, Expounder 110, 116, 117, 137, 192, 263, Rational, 6, 14, 20, 24, 40, 77, 93, 265, 267, 291, 379, 382 120, 123, 136, 140, 141, 147, Propriety, 164 263-269, 384, 419 Protestantism, xxvi, 7, 8, 10, 14, 16, balance, see Balance of 23, 53, 152-155, 161, 243, 245, reason(s) 251, 252, 258, 311, 319, 320, debate, xxiv, xxvii, xlv, lix, 65, 330, 404, 405, 456, 462 see also 400 Calvinism, and Lutheranism decision, lxix, 7, 8 Protonoetics, 303 grammar, 130, 134, 136, 141 Providence, 8, 52, 53, 171, 183-187, interpretation, 77 199, 233, 249, 254, 265, 286, method, 105-117, 140, 420 401, 426, 453 morality, 40 Prudence, 4, 37, 152, 171, 180, 188, order, 125 189, 193, 254, 256, 330, 335-338, persuasion, 41, 147, 168 339, 348, 350, 353, 402 theology, liv, 167, 197, 237, 286 Psychology, 89, 90, 105, 130, 143, Rationalism, xxii, lxvi, lxviii, lxix, 144, 148, 225, 230, 275, 301 8, 14-15, 263, 443, 463, 468 Public Rationality, xliv, l, lxvi, lxviii, lxix, action, 16, 51 6, 7, 140, 143, 168, 198, 214, 263 corruption, 170 Reason debate, liii, 3, 5, 51, 421, 468 balance of, see Balance of good, 18, 61-63, 95, 145, 191, reason(s) 217, 290 explicable, 321 happiness, 216-218, 219-224 force of, 37, 366 peace, 155 see also Peace general, 311, 318, 323 reasoning, 21 inexplicable, 311, 321 treasury, 227, 346 particular, 311, 318 utility, 95, 217 practical, 76 Punishment, 42, 44, 46, 51, 52, 175, principle of, see Principle of 223, 289, 308, 344, 346, 348, reason 354, 356, 362, 392, 409, 416 right, 18, 19, 56, 63, 308, 343, 354 theoretical, 76, 225, 366 Quakers, 322, 460 Reasoning, xxxv, liv, 2, 3, 20, 21, Quarrel, lxv, 37, 67, 178, 189, 197, 32, 44, 53, 60, 82, 83, 87, 111, 228, 229, 232, 305, 321, 346, 125, 132, 135, 178, 179, 185, 423, 442 205, 268, 276, 277, 300, 383, Quietism, 322, 456 401, 420, 435, 438, 441, 461 Subject Index 503 Reciprocal, 80, 85, 86, 89, 91, Research, xlii, 97, 170, 172, 225, 132, 397 366 see also Inquiry Reconciliation, xxvii, xlvii, li, Resolution, xxiv, xlviii, l, 1, 7, 27, lxxii, 247, 260 see also 49, 72, 84, 90, 91, 143, 208, Conciliation 260, 269, 312, 389, 403, 419, Recto, 85, 291-295, 377, 388 420, 425, 432 see also Reflection, xxii, xxiii, xxvii, lxxi, 144, Analysis 159, 172-175, 195, 197, 210, 223, Respondent, 249, 298 see also 234, 268, 297, 300, 316, 325 Opponent Reform, xxxii, lii, 39, 70, 197, 215, Retort, 67, 157, 239, 315, 436 see 241-245, 260, see also also Replica Innovation Retraction, 154 Reformation, xxiv, xxx, 41, 51, 197, Reunification, xxix, xxxix, xli, 198, 244, 245, 260, 261, 323, 331 xliv, lvii, 1, 55, 63, 152, 167, Reformulation, xlv, xlvii, li, lix, 201, 206, 241, 247, 248, 261, 201-208, 400, 417 262, 329-340, 416, 443, 456, Refutation, xlvii, liii, lix, lxvii, 465, 468 see also Irenic and lxviii, 4, 143-146, 157, 237, Reunion 239, 419, 420, 426, 445, 456 Reunion, xxv, 55, 62, 63, 230, irrefutable, 215 247-262, 403, 415, 465 Relation, xxxii, lv, 101, 103, 108, Revelation, xxvi, 52, 53, 170, 421, 261, 265, 291, 355, 362, 387 422, 424 Religion, 7-16, 25-28, 37, 49-54, Rhetoric, xxx, xxxvi, xxxvii, xlvii, 125, 148-152, 172, 179, 196, liv, lv, lxv, 5, 54, 55, 68, 80, 237-262, 305-340, 353, 360, 90, 136, 140, 143-147, 158, 366, 368, 369, 399-417, 426, 199, 322, 323, 384, 390, 467 464 see also Church see also Persuasion change of, 241-245, 327 Rights, 256, 290, 341, , 348, 393, 397 Remonstrant, 24, 362, 364, 442, individual, 6 443, 463 of nations, 347, 394, 395, 459 Repertoire, lxviii, 97, 130, 168, 260 of property see Usucaption Replica, 3, 157, 161, 306, 441 Rite, 154, 252, 255, 257, 260, 414 see also Retort see also Cult Reply, xxx, 3, 5, 67, 76, 156, 177, Rule, xxix, xxxi, xxxiv, xxxix, lvi, 203, 295, 312, 315, 378, 423 lix, lxvii, lxviii, 5, 15, 20, 30, 31, counter-reply, 76 70, 71, 76, 83, 88, 93, 113, 119, Republic, 8, 9, 16-18, 21, 23, 27, 125, 135-137, 144, 163, 168, 57, 81, 82, 87, 140, 151, 215, 189, 192, 197-199, 201, 226, 234, 289, 317, 332, 335, 354 259, 266, 272, 299, 338, 348, Reputation, lxiv, 55, 60, 193, 205, 353, 382-385, 414, 425, 295, 310, 367, 368 430-432 disrepute, 386 golden, 148, 163 504 Subject Index

Sacraments, xli, 53, 253, 255, 256, Sign, 117, 132, 140, 182, 207, 280, 259, 313, 314, 320, 330, 333, 334 333, 393, 395, 396 see also Salvation, 9, 14, 37, 151-155, Character and Indication 168-200, 227, 237, 241-245, infallible, 312 305, 308, 312-316, 319-322, sensible, 52, 53 331-335, 338, 387, 403, 408, of truth, 52, 164, 165 413-416 visible, 62, 202, 356 Scales, lxviii, 19, 20, 21, 36, 124, Similarity, 136-139, 169, 265 228, 267, 290, 356, 366, 381 Sin, 152, 176, 243, 307 see also Balance of reasons formal, 306, 307 Schism, 61, 62, 63, 154, 242, 244, of ignorance, 306, 307 245, 248-250, 254, 255, 260, of lying, 148-152 317, 320, 321, 331, 333, 338, original, 257, 315, 331, 416, 417 402 see also Heresy philosophical, 305-308, 327, 414 Scholastic, xix, xxx, 5, 13, 24, 98, Skepticism, lv, lxii, lxvii, 6, 160, 135, 136, 217, 220, 240, 269, 277, 167-200, 426, 451-453 364, 373, 382, 386, 387, 415, 419, Socinianism, xxv, 14, 16, 315, 360, 434, 447, 463, 464, 469 362, 370, 443, 462, 468 Science Sophism, 20, 31, 38, 83, 145, 157, general, xxi, 56, 93, 119, 204, 266, 401, 402, 432 see 213-218, 219, 220, 225, also Paralogism 226, 230, 231, 234, 235, 375 Sorites, 21, 66, 180, 293 Scripture, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 23, 63, Soul, 26, 37, 38, 50, 153, 169, 171, 326, 335 see also Holy 174, 187, 189, 190, 194, 223, Scripture and Testament 272, 336, 338, 393, 438 see Sect, 23, 38, 52, 123, 213, 249, also Mind 261, 266, 310, 320, 415, 445 Species, xlvii, 23, 80, 85, 89, Sectarianism, 269, 404, 405, 415 95-100, 102, 103, 139, 184, Semantic, 8, 79, 91, 141, 432 see 255, 256, 287, 288, 330, 377 also Word see also Genus Semiotic, xlvii, l, lx, lxvi, 400 see Speech, 3-5, 53, 135, 171, 382 also Sign Spontaneity, 22, 42, 62, 138, 265, Sense (ling.), see also Meaning 391, 410, 442 figurative, 12, 14-16, 47, 79, 80 Statesman, 190, 199 see also improper, 12, 16 Elector, Emperor, and Prince metaphorical, 16 Stoicism, 197, 276, 277, 375 proper, 12, 79 Strategy, xxi, xxviii, xxxix, lxv, Sense (psych.), lxii, lxvii, 19-21, lvii, lxii, lxvi-lxviii, 6, 40, 55, 138, 139, 170, 176-178, 188, 63, 141,143-146, 148, 153, 189, 215, 222, 383 157-160, 168, 199, 224, Series, 96, 97, 125, 126, 131, 133, 240, 248, 262, 325, 389, 419, 146, 266, 269, 377, 404 426, 463 Subject Index 505 Stubbornness, 172, 177, 314, 333, Table, xlvii, 22, 24, 96-101, 363, 365 131-133, 136, 228, 235, 272, Subaltern, 96, 98, 99, 100, 137, 288, 376, 377, 404, 407, 408 287, 288 see also Division Tendency, 46, 148, 237, 409, 443 Subdivision, 96, 100, 287, 376, 387 Testament Subjective, 7, 56, 198, 321, 433 New, 10, 149, 317, 364 Subordinate, 90, 103, 140, 401 Old, 149, 317, 364, 462 Subsistence, 14, 15, 181 Testimony, xxxvii, xlii, 10, 14, 20, Substitution, 31, 91, 271, 292, 294, 52, 53, 75, 406, 430 see also 458 see also Surrogation Witness Subtle, lxvii, 6, 26, 38, 41,143, Textual, xxix, 7-24, 310, 360, 417 164, 198, 205, 224, 241, 248, Textualist, 8, 14 275, 321, 356, 363, 459 see Theocracy, 332 also Art of subtlety Theology, xx, xxii, xxiv, xxxiv, 37, Suppositive, 266 130, 151, 170, 189, 234, 235, Surrogation, 357 237-240, 263, 271, 326, 381, Syllogism, 66, 83, 180, 217, 226, 401, 417 239, 279, 298, 380, 385, moral, 151 432, 440 natural, 40, 46, 139, 217, 308, pro-syllogism, 226, 230, 298, 359, 366, 404 303, 381 rational, liv, 167, 237, 363, 424 Syllogistic, 65, 92, 141, 210, 291, revealed, 217, 308, 404 381, 388, 389, 431 Theorem, xxxiii, lxii, 21, 22, 39, figure, 135, 239, 378, 431, 440 41-44, 84, 86, 91, 95, 110, mode, 135, 136, 141, 239, 378, 132, 138, 171, 186, 265, 280, 378, 388, 431-434, 440 292-295, 366 non-syllogistic, 141, 198, 388 Thinking, 29-33, 91, 116, 117, Symbol, xliii, lxvi, 119, 220, 259, 126, 130, 133, 135, 175, 205, 263, 266, 267, 314, 317, 333 206, 220, 222, 237, 263, 327, Synod, xxvi, 161, 254 361, 423 Synopsis, xxviii, xlvii, l, 99, 200, art of, 373, 378, 383, 384, 216-218, 400, 406-413, 429-432, 440 414, 416 blind, 33 Syntax, xliii, 66, 79, 89, 135, 141, 144 elements of, 29-33 Synthesis, xlv, l, lxii, 91, 93-99, thread for, 226-230 102, 103, 129, 132, 140, 220, Time 235, 275, 280, 302, 430, 433 delay, 22, 268, 344, 345, 346, System, l, lvi-lix, lxvi, lxxii, 101, 355, 423 119, 141, 168, 389, 423, elapsed, 329 445-449 immemorial, 343, 344 legal, 1, 35, 39, 65, 66, lag, 347 78-92, 286 limit, 345 506 Subject Index

Tolerance, xxii, xxv-xxvii, xlv, Union, 56, 63, 240, 255-257, 265, xlviii, 245, 248, 251, 259, 318, 320, 321, 359, 399, see 323, 400, 403, 413, 453, 456 also Body Topics, xxxiii, xxxvi, lvii, 36, 39, Universal, 23, 85, 88, 132, 244, 70-73, 80, 89, 90, 140, 300, 366, 424 see also Characteristic, 377, 378, 387, 388, 430, 433 Church, Council, Grammar, Topoi, liv, 39, 93, 68-69, 140, 168, Harmony, Mathematics, Truth 260, 269, 322, 430 see also Loci proposition, lxiv, 85, 132 Tradition, xxxv, 41, 75, 76, 80, Usucaption, 70, 301, 341-357 see 103, 106, 136, 147, 199, 232, also Ownership 250-253, 288, 289, 317, 319, 322, 325, 326, 334, 340, 356, Valid, lxiii, 83, 92, 155, 197, 251, 374, 388, 390, 442 254, 291-295, 340, 343, 353, Tranquility, 46, 176, 192, 195, 196, 356, 379, 388, 431, 440 see 227, 234, 366, 412 also Invalid Trial, 49-53, 62, 74, 228, 287, Verdict, lxiv, 19, 57, 317, 334, 357 346, 366 Verisimilitude, 106, 145, 233, 316, Tribunal, 1, 37, 49, 65-74, 77, 230 348, 426, 430, 433 see also Trinity, 9, 13, 14, 239, 314, 320, Probability 324, 362, 421 degree of, 71, 267, 426, 452 Truth Vicar, 332, 333 absolute, 83, 164, 165, 211 Victory, xlii, 49-53, 62, 101-117, contingent, 185, 265, 266 125, 145-146, 173, 197, 319, double, 237, 239, 240, 426 320, 329, 332, 420 eternal, 216, 380, 417, 426, 464 Virtual, 238-240, 314 factual, 185, 266 Virtue, 90, 98, 99, 103, 141, 159, natural, 62 169, 173, 189, 199, 287, 308, necessary, see Necessary truth 314, 354, 377, 383, 401, 413 universal, 164 see also Ethics veracity, 63 Visionary, 176, 197 Voluntarism, lii, 199 see also Will Uncertainty, xxxi, lxiii, 18, 70, 73, Vote, liv, 1-6, 17, 257 105-117, 172, 173, 233, 345, majority of, 17, 257, 262, 326, 346, 360, 365, 402 327, 335, 365 Understanding, xxvii, 12-14, 23, 29, 90, 98, 121, 134, 186, 189, War, xxii-xxiv, xxxix, xlii, lviii, 197, 238, 259, 375, 378, 380, 16, 25, 38, 49, 62, 89, 162, 382, 385, 389, 439 228, 329, 346, 374, 394, 402, Unhappiness, 174, 175, 190, 193, 367 427, 453 Unintelligible, 446 see also Warrant, 32, 289 Incomprehensible and Weighing, see Balance of reasons Intelligible and Probability Subject Index 507 Will (law), xxiii, 36, 191, 288 Witness, 27, 37, 132, 149, 181, Will (psych.), 17, 42, 45, 46, 134, 205, 233, 318, 344 see also 165, 172, 178, 186, 190, 204, Testimony 288, 326, 332, 393, 409 Word, lv, lxii,10-16, 20-23, 31, 32, Wisdom, 12, 42, 174, 183, 50, 76, 78-80, 84-89, 102, 122, 186-189, 194, 195, 207, 233, 125, 134, 135, 141, 143, 146-147, 308, 313, 375, 412, 422, 158, 194, 238, 240, 249, 250, 264, 424, 425 266, 271, 272, 277, 292, 300, 326, Wise, 38, 42, 43, 47, 82, 90, 146, 333, 348, 350, 367, 376, 383, 394, 147, 189, 195, 233, 335, 338, 403, 423 344, 436 Wrongdoing, 148, 158, 197, 323 Name Index

Aarsleff, H., 141 Bachusius, T., 388 Abelard, P., 307, 308 Bacon, F., xxx, lxiii, 158, 213, 365, Agricola, R., 387 378, 433, 460, 470 Alberti, A., see Toureil, A. de Barbeyrac, J., lii, 355, 356 Albius, Th., see White, Th. Barckhausen, H., 262, 340 Alexander of Aphrodisia, 5 Baron, V., xxxiv, 40 Allix, P., 362, 370 Baruzi, J., xxi, li, liv, 55, 167, Almain, J., 306, 307, 308 168, 199 Alsted, J. H., xliii, 288 Basil the Great, 68, 73 Altissiodorensis, see de Auxerre, G. Basnage de Beauval, H., lii, 302, 421 Ambrose, St., 150, 159 Bayle, P., xxiii, xxxi, lvi, lviii, Amesius, 165 lxviii, 23, 199, 240, 259, 321, Andrada, see Payva de Andrada, D. 361, 370, 400, 416, 419-427, Aphthonius, 390 443, 453, 455, 456, 462-464 Apollonius, 182, 198, 281 Becher, J. J., 272 Archimedes, 222, 224, 295, Belaval, Y., lxvi, 198 382, 385 Bellarmine, R., 155, 162, 166, 250, Aristotle, 5, 13, 36, 68-71, 78, 80, 260, 339, 340 89-91, 122, 132, 140, 141, Benivenius, 227 147, 157, 199, 218, 240, 264, Bentley, R., 145, 158, 361, 272, 276-279, 287, 300, 308, 370, 457 377-379, 384-389, 429, Berlich, M., 356 430-433, 452, 455, 458, 466 Bernard, St., 40, 307, 308, 426 Aristoxenus, 382 Bernouilli, Jacques, xxxv, 388, Arnauld, A., xxxiii, lvi, lvii, lxii, 441, 443 lxiv, 25, 36, 53, 158, 197, Bernouilli, Jean, xxxv, 388, 441, 443 198, 247, 259, 272, 283, 300, Bernouilli, Johann, xxxv, 388 305-308, 315, 318-321, 323, Berry, 367 327, 368, 378, 388, 414, 432, Bessarion, B., 364 443, 455, 461, 464 Bishop of Avranches, see Huet, P. D. Augustine, St., 143, 149, 150, 151, Bishop of Meaux, see Bossuet, J.-B. 158, 159, 160, 161, 210, 253, Bishop of Neustadt, see Rojas y 259, 364, 365, 371, 405, 415, Spínola, C., Kollonitsch, L., 425, 448, 464, 469 and Buchheim, F. A. Austin, J., 397 Bishop of Salisbury, see Burnet, G. de Auxerre, G., 306-308 Bishop of Thina, 248, 252-257, 260, Averroes, 427, 431 468 see also Rojas y Spínola

509 510 Name Index

Bishop of Worcester, see Camerarius, 436 Stillingfleet, E. Campanella, T., 272, 470 Blank, A., 388, 449 Cardan, G., 158, 272, 273, 278, Blondel, F., 384, 390 283, 298, 302, 379, 388, von Bodenhausen, W., lx, 389 458, 470 Bochart, S., 54 Cardoso, A., 47, 76, 103, 199, 308 Boeckler, J. H., 27 Carloman, 174, 197 Bohl, S., 86, 91 Carpzov, B., 68, 73, 356 Böhme, J., 120, 126 Casaubon, I., 365, 371 Böhmer, J. H., 349, 356 Casaubon, M., 371 Boileau-Despréaux, N., 322 Castaneus, H. L., 272, 273 von Boineburg, C., 1, 27, 458 Cataneo, T., 439 Bossuet, J.-B., 151, 161, 260, 456 Celsus, 364 Boucher, P., lii, 269, 355-357 Charlemagne, 347, 354, 356 Bougot, S., 308 Charles V, xxiv, 251, 252, 262 Bourguet, L., 435-443, 457 Chrysostom, J., 150, 159, 160 Boursier, L., 442 Cicero, 80, 383, 389 Bouvet, J., 125 Clarke, S., 116, 449 Boyle, C., 145, 157, 158 Claudianus, C., 53 Bramhall, J., 461 Claudinus, J. C., 37, 39 Brand, 299 Coelestius, 307, 308 Brandes, J. M., 71, 73 Collonitsch, L., see Kollonitsch, L. Bredenburg, J., 442 Comenius, J. A., 208, 416, 462 de Breen, D., 364, 371 Conring, H., lvi, 1, 47, 90, Breger, H., 103, 136 458-459 de Brinon, M., 309, 315, Constantinus, 197 320, 323 Conti, Abbot, 439, 467 Brosseder, J., 260 Coste, B. de la, 178, 197 Brunnemann, J., 68, 73 Coste, P., lix Buchhaim, F. A., 152, 161 Couturat, L., xxi, xxxiii, xlii, Burchard of Worms, 71 lxii, lxvi, lxix, 73, 102, 116, Burnet, G., 361, 369, 371, 140, 217, 218, 390, 399-417, 457 431, 433 Burnett, Th., lvii-lix, 158, 301, Cresset, J., 372 359, 360, 367, 370, 421, 426, Cunningham, A., 363, 371 427, 457-458 Cussens, J., 116 de Bussi-Rabutin, 361 Cyprian, St., 253, 339, 340 Cyril, St., 362, 364, 370 Cabeus, N., 278, 282 Calixt, G., 465 Dalgarno, G., 126 Calvin, J., 319 Darwin, C., 103 Name Index 511

Dascal, M., xxx, xxxi, xliv, xlv, Epicure, 184, 185, 371 xlvii, li, lv-lvii, lxii, lxiv-lxvi, Erasmus of Rotterdam, xxiv, 5, lxix, 24, 33, 63, 91, 102, 117, 273, 384, 390, 448 126, 140, 141, 158, 161, Ernst-August, see Duke of Hanover 197-199, 217, 218, 235, 240, Euclid, 22, 33, 153, 279, 182, 224, 261, 269, 300, 323, 327, 356, 265, 275, 280, 281, 283 387, 389, 426, 433, 464 Everhardus, N., 357 Davia, G. A., 152 Davillé, L., xlii, 235 Fabri, H., 38, 40, 237-240, 272, Democritus, 226 279, 282, 453, 459, 460 des Bosses, B., lvi, 85 Fachineus, A., 68, 73 Descartes, R, xxx, xxxii, lx, lxii, Fagnani, P., 38, 40 lxiv, lxv, 27, 93, 102, 122, Falcidius, P., 92 123, 126, 214, 216, 218, 269, von Felden, J., 89, 272, 279, 282, 272, 278, 282, 298, 382, 388, 285, 299, 465 437, 439, 440, 441, 443, 459, Fénelon, F. de S. de la Mothe-, 464, 467, 470 442, 456 Digby, K., 279, 282 de Fermat, P., xxxiii, lxv, 197, Dillherr, J.M., 386, 390 441, 467 Diogenes, 226, 230 Fick, J. S., 269 Dionysius the Aeropagyte, St., 364 Finckelthusius, S., 68, 73 Dodonée, R., 230 Fludd, R., 269 Du Plessis Mornay, P., 364, 371 Fogel, M., 285, 294, 299, 300, 301 Du Puy, P., 341, 354-356 Foucher de Careil, L. A., 168, Duke of Hanover, 77, 167, 256, 247, 256 201, 285, 372, 388 Foucher, S., lvi, 167, 211, 389, 464 Duke of Roannez, 368 Fraguier, Abbot C., 439, 442 Dumas, M.-N., 76 Francks, R., 449 Dutens, L., 301, 302 Frederic the Great, 356 Freudenthal, G., 230, 389 Eccard, J. G., 79 Edzard, E., 290. 301 von Gail, A., 68, 73 Ehler, K., xxix, 451-453 Galen, 431 Eisenkopf, P., li, 259 Galilei, G., 260, 278, 282, 384, Elector of Brandenburg, 466 459, 460 Elector of Mainz, 354 Gallois, J., lxvii, 211, 224, 467 Elector of Saxony, 251, 261 Garrison, J., xxv, 467 Emperor Heinrich IV, 295, 302 Gataker, Th., 17, 24 Emperor Julian, 362, 364, 370 Gensini, S., 141 Emperor Leopold, 152, 261, 468 Gerhardt, C. J., lxii, 429, 446, 448 Emperor Sigismund, 73, 186, 199, 363 Gerson, 306 512 Name Index

Gil, F., 220 Hudde, J., 441 Gilbert, W., 278, 282 Huet, P. D., xli, lvi, 218, 364, 371, Graevius, J. G., lvi, 324 375, 442, 461 Gramond, G. B., 422, 427 d’Huisseau, I., 443 Grasvinckel, T., 279, 282 Hunnius, H. U., 68, 73 Gratian of Cluse, 151, 161 Huygens, C., xxxiii, 103, 105, 368, Gregroy of Nyssus, St., 364 378, 388, 436, 441, 459, 467 Grice, H. P., 117 Grotius, H., lii, 53, 60, 341, Jablonski, D. E., 399, 400, 416, 462 341-345, 355, 356, 364, 384, Jacques I, 362 393, 394, 459-460 Jagodinsky, I., 29 de Groot, H., see Grotius, H. James I, 318 Grua, G., xxi, lii, 44, 47, 68, 149, Jansenius, C., 24, 414 242, 343, 351, 352, 355, 391, Jaquelot, I., lvi, 361, 370, 422-427, 399, 409, 411, 412 462-463 Gudius, M., 291 Jean-Frédéric, see Duke of Gutke, G., 220 Hanover Jerome, St., 150, 159, 161, 307 Hackelmann, L., 68, 73 Jesseph, D. M., 197, 371 Hahn, H., 68, 73 Johann Friedrich, see Duke of van der Hardt, H., 372 Hanover Hartsoeker, N., lvi, 436 Jungius, J., xxxii, lvi, 36, 122, 272, van Helmont, F. M., 298, 303, 460 285-303, 382, 387, 388, 429, Henry IV, 250, 467 432, 463 Herman, J., 441, 443 Junius, H., 273 Hermogenes of Tarsus, 390 Jurieu, P., 259, 321,453, 455 Herthius, J. N., 73 Justinian, 73, 79, 103, 282 von Hessen-Rheinfels, E., xxvi, 6, 53, 201-207, 245, 247, Kammermeister, J., 442 259-261, 303, 315 Keckermann, B., 432 Hevelius, J., 453 Kepler, J., 278 Hippocrates, 76 Kestner, H. E., 70-73, 90 Hispanus, P., 431 King, P.197 Hobbes, Th., xxxix, lii-lvi, lxvi, 18, Kircher, A., 453 21, 24, 91, 102, 103, 120, 144, Kneale, M., 197 158, 166, 197, 272, 278, 298, Kneale, W., 197 371, 460-461, 470 Knorr von Rosenroth, C., 298, 303 Homer, 203 Koch, C. D., xliii, lvi, 373, Horace, 375, 387 429-434 Hornschuch, J., 388 Kollonitsch, L., 251, 261 Hospinianus, J., 388 Krönert, G., 27, 261, 451, 467 Name Index 513 de La Mothe le Vayer, F., 197, Mariotte, E., 102-104, 448 414, 461 Martin, C. J., 5 Lactantius, 364, 371 Mascardus, 272, 273 Laerke, M., 259 Masenius, J., 53, 54 Laever, A., 286 Masham, Lady, 316 Lamy, F., 447, 448 Mates, B., 291 Lancelot, C., 455 de Maubuisson, A., Mme., 309 Lauterbach, W. A., 68 de Mauro, T., 276 Laymann, P., 40, 143, 151, 161, 261 Mavio, 68 Le Bay, M., 402, 414 Medici, xxiv, 468 Le Clerc, J., lvii, lxviii, 361, 362, Meier, M. D., 391-397 370, 420-427, 463-464 Melanchthon, P., 260, 287 Leclerc, J., xxv de Melo,W. D. C., 116 Le Comte, L. D., 361 Menochius, J., 272 van Leeuwenhoek, A., 436, 442 Mercator, N., 280, 283 Le Maître, I., 455 Mercuriale, G., 76 Leti, G., 361, 370 de Meré, Chevalier, 441 de Libera, A., 240 Mersenne, M., 467 Llull, R., 201, 202, 208, 220, 278, 282 Meyer, L., 7, 23 de Lobkowitz, C., 40 Molanus, G. W., xxvii, 153, Locke, J., xxv, xxvi, xxviii, xxx, 162, 262, 302, 321, 325, lii, lvi-lxii, 269, 291, 301, 339, 340, 399, 400, 462, 312, 363, 370, 371, 415, 432, 465, 468 434, 439, 443, 457, 460, 464 Molière, 427 Loemker, L. E., 375 Molina, L., 417 Louis XIV, 25, 247, 309, 323, 341, Moller, H. H., 432 458, 467 de Montaigne, M., 197 Lucretius, 184, 199 Montaltius, L., 40 see Pascal, B. Luther, M., xxiv, 402 Morin, J.-B., 278, 282 Müller, K., 27, 261, 451 McCormick, N., 92 Mynsingerus, 68 McRae, R., 389 Macedus, 69 Naërt, E., xlv, 442 Machiavelli, N., lvi, 89, 90 Neff, L., 141 Magliabecchi, A., 435, 442 Netanyahu, B., 259 Maimburg, Father, 321 Newton, I., lx, lxi, lxiv, 197, 363, de Maintenon, F. d’Aubigny, 371, 449, 457, 464, 467 Mme., 309 Nicole, P., xxxiii, 197, 318, 319, Malebranche, N., xxx, lvi, lxii, lxiv, 321, 388, 432, 433, 455 25, 272, 375, 435, 438, 443, Northoff, C., 5 449, 455, 457, 464-465, 470 Novarini, L., 272 514 Name Index de Olaso, E., 167 Pope Clement IX, 196, 459 Origen, 150, 160, 364, 426 Pope Gregory VII, 302 Ortega y Gasset, J., 209 Pope Innocence XI, 167, 323 Pope Pius V, 414 Papin, D., 230, 389 Pope Stephen I, 340 Papin, I., 451, 453 Popkin, R., 197 Paracelsus, 460 Posner, C., 272 Parent, A., 447, 448 Prince Eugene, 446, 448 Parkinson, G. H. R., xxxii, 29, Prince Johann Philip, 354 33, 301 Proclus, 198, 364 Parmentier, M., 85, 116 Ptolemy, 382, 389 Pascal, B., xxxiii, 40, 105, 116, Pufendorf, S., lii, 165, 166, 283, 281, 324, 368, 441, 459, 467 397, 466, 470, 471 Patrizi, F., 282 Pythagoras, 22, 24, 119, 120, Paul, St., 150, 151, 160, 253 264, 471 Payva de Andrade, D., 313, 320, 322 Pellisson-Fontanier, P., 260, Quintillian, 5, 80, 84 309-324 Perrier, xxxiii, 368 Racionero, Q., xxix, xxxii, xlii, xlv, Petau, D., 324 xlix, li, liv, 322 Peter, St., 150, 151, 160, 161, Ramus, P., 96, 140, 280, 387, 388, 261, 453 432, 466-467 Peter the Great, 453 Raspe, E., 35 Petty, W., 363, 371 Realis de Vienna, see Wagner, G. Phalaris, 145, 158 Reiher, 165 Philiponus, 364 Reimann, J.F., 432, 433 Philippi, 68 Remond, N.-F., liii, lxi, 116, 125, Photius, 103 439, 445-449, 467 de Pianese, Marquis, 167-200 Reuchlin, J., 364 Pico della Mirandola, 364 de Reux, J., 307 Placcius, D. V., lvi, 166, 285-303, de Richelieu, Cardinal, 60, 422 378, 465 Richter, C. P., 73 Plato, 233, 287, 364, 382, 439 Rivaud, A., 29 Pliny, 37 de Roberval, G. P., 109, 117, 198, Plotinus, 364 281, 467-468 Polycarp, J., 299 de Rojas y Spínola, C., xxix, xliv, Pombo, O., 126 55, 56, 152, 211, 247, 248, Pomey, F., 272, 273 259-262, 321, 325, 329-340, Pomponazzi, P., 240 359, 465, 468 Pope Alexander VIII, 305 Rudolph August, 291, 301, 363 Pope Clement VII, 261 Rudolph, H., 73, 153 Name Index 515

Rulant, R., 39, 76 Stein, L., 429 Rupert Hall, A., lx, 197 Stelliola, A., 278, 282 Ryle, G., 389 Stensen, N., 55, 167, 199, 321, 465 Stenus, N., see Stensen, N. Salvian, St., 314, 320, 322 Steuchus, A., 364, 371 Sanches, F., 76, 240 Steyaert, M., 308 Sanctorius, S., 37, 39, 76 Stiehler, G., 387 Scaliger, J. C., 47, 272, 273, 385, Stillingfleet, E., lxi, 361, 370 390, 447, 448 Stirnimann, J., 322 Schiffer, S., 117 Strimesius, S, 165, 166 Schmidt, J.A., 371 Struve, G.A., 68, 73 Schopenhauer, A., 146 Stryck, S., 392, 396, 397 von der Schulenburg, S., 141 Stubrockius, B., 40 see Fabri, H. Scotus, D., 240, 281 Suárez, F., 13, 23, 40, 411, 459, 469 Searle, J. R., 117, 397 Suisset, J., see Swineshead, R. Seckendorff, V. L., xli, 321 Sulli, 446, 447 Sellschopp, S., 153 Swineshead, R., 264, 269, 277, 281 Semanus, see Masenius, J. Serres, M., 218, 389 Tacitus, 89 Sève, R., lii, 89 Tartaglia, N., 458 Sharrok, R., 165, 166 Tempier, E., 240 Simiane, C. E. P. de, 196 see Tertullian, 11, 23, 311, 322, 340 Pianese, Marquis de Thomas Aquinas, St., 364, 389, Siver, H., 285, 299 433, 469 Sixtus Senensis, 150, 160 Thomasius, C., lvi, 72, 73, 164, Snell van Roijen, W., 278, 282 296, 302, 386, 390, 470 Socinus, F., 370, 378, 468-469, 470 Thomasius, J., xxx, xxxii, lvi, lxvii, Socinus, L., 468 126, 259, 285, 388, 465, 470 Sophie, of Hanover, 309, 442, de Toureil, A., 261 457, 460 Toland, J., 370 Sophie Charlotte, of Brandenburg Treutler, H., 73 and Prussia, liii, lix, 462, 465 Trew, A., 279 Sozzini, F., see Socinus, F. Triphonius, 80 von Spanheim, E., 370 Spee, F., 354, 357 Vagetius, J., 285, 286, 290-295, Spener, P. J., 322 299, 300, 301 de Spinoza, B., liii, lvi, lvii, 7, 30, Valeriano, M., 272 224, 272, 279, 282, 362, 439, Vallisnieri, A., 435-437, 442 441, 443, 448 Varignon, P., 467 Stahl, D., 23, 272 Veltheim, V., 397 Stahl, G.E., 39 Veron, F., 53, 54 516 Name Index

Vigelius, N., 72, 273 Weigel, E., 279, 282, 283, 298, 471 Virgil, 277, 278 Weijers, O., 5 Vives, J.-L., 371, 447, 448 Werlhof, J., 341-357 Voetius, 17, 24 White, Th., 279, 282 Voltaire, 6 Wilkins, J., 126, 272, 273 Vorstius, J., 362 Witson, 367 Vossius, I., 282 de Witt, A., 441 Wolff, C., lvi, 429, 434 Wagner, J. G., lvi, 373-390, 429, Wolzogen, J. L., 7, 23 470-471 Woolhouse, R. S., 449 Wakulenko, S., 158 Wroblewski, J., 323 Waldhoff, S., 73, 158 van Wallenburch, A., 7, 9 Zanichelli, G., 437, 442 van Wallenburch, P., 7, 9 Zarlinus, G., 382, 389 Wallis, J., 363, 368, 371, 461 Zwinger, Th., 96 Ward, S., 282, 461 Zwingli, H., xxiv, 402