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An Ultra-Deep Survey of Low Surface Brightness Galaxies in Virgo

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An Ultra-Deep Survey of Low Surface Brightness Galaxies in Virgo ' $ An Ultra-Deep Survey of Low Surface Brightness Galaxies in Virgo Elizabeth Helen (Lesa) Moore, BSc(Hons) Department of Physics Macquarie University May 2008 This thesis is presented for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Physics & % iii Dedicated to all the sentient beings living in galaxies in the Virgo Cluster iv CONTENTS Synopsis : :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: xvii Statement by Candidate :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: xviii Acknowledgements ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: xix 1. Introduction ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: 1 2. Low Surface Brightness (LSB) Galaxies :::::::::::::::::::: 5 2.1 Surface Brightness and LSB Galaxies De¯ned . 6 2.2 Physical Properties and Morphology . 8 2.3 Cluster and Field Distribution of LSB Dwarfs . 14 2.4 Galaxies, Cosmology and Clustering . 16 3. Galaxies and the Virgo Cluster :::::::::::::::::::::::: 19 3.1 Importance of the Virgo Cluster . 19 3.2 Galaxy Classi¯cation . 20 3.3 Virgo Galaxy Surveys and Catalogues . 24 3.4 Properties of the Virgo Cluster . 37 3.4.1 Velocity Distribution in the Direction of the Virgo Cluster . 37 3.4.2 Distance and 3D Structure . 38 vi Contents 3.4.3 Galaxy Population . 42 3.4.4 The Intra-Cluster Medium . 45 3.4.5 E®ects of the Cluster Environment . 47 4. Virgo Cluster Membership and the Luminosity Function :::::::::: 53 4.1 The Schechter Luminosity Function . 54 4.2 The Dwarf-to-Giant Ratio (DGR) . 58 4.3 Galaxy Detection . 59 4.4 Survey Completeness . 62 4.5 Virgo Cluster Membership . 63 4.5.1 Radial Velocities . 64 4.5.2 Morphology . 65 4.5.3 Concentration Parameters . 66 4.5.4 Scale Length Limits . 68 4.5.5 The Rines-Geller Threshold . 73 4.5.6 Background Galaxy Counts . 76 4.6 Cosmological Models and the Luminosity Function . 78 4.7 Applications and Limitations of the Schechter Function . 82 4.8 Summary: The Virgo Cluster Luminosity Function . 84 5. Project Data and Analysis ::::::::::::::::::::::::::: 89 5.1 Digital Scanning & Stacking . 91 5.2 The Virgo Deep Stack . 95 5.3 Astrometric Calibration . 100 5.4 Photometric Calibration . 102 Contents vii 5.5 Object Detection . 107 5.6 Surface Photometry . 107 5.6.1 Overview of Photometry Techniques . 107 5.6.2 The IRAF ELLIPSE task . 109 5.6.3 ELLIPSE Parameter Subsets . 111 5.6.4 Output Data Files . 113 5.7 Calculations used in Plotting and Final Measurements . 114 5.8 Uncertainties in Measurement of Galaxy Properties . 116 6. Data Quality and Comparative Results :::::::::::::::::::: 121 6.1 Comparison Pro¯les . 121 6.2 Comparisons of the Virgo Deep Stack with Other Surveys . 124 6.2.1 The Survey by Trentham and Tully (2002) . 126 6.2.2 The Survey by Caldwell (2005) . 131 6.2.3 The Survey by Sabatini et al. (2005) . 134 6.2.4 Dwarf Spheroidal Galaxy Analysis by Durrell et al. (2007) . 136 6.2.5 Comparisons Summary . 136 6.3 Bryn's Mystery Object . 138 6.4 Faint Galaxy Haloes . 140 6.5 Intra-Cluster Light . 142 7. Malin 1 ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: 151 7.1 New Measurements . 151 7.2 Malin 1: A Deeper Look (Moore and Parker 2006) . 154 viii Contents 8. The Virgo Deep Stack Catalogue ::::::::::::::::::::::: 161 8.1 Surface Brightness Classi¯cation . 162 8.2 Morphological Classi¯cation . 163 8.3 Cluster-Membership Classi¯cation . 164 8.4 Galaxy Positions and Measured Properties . 165 8.5 Galaxy Images and Radial Pro¯les . 169 9. Discussion, Conclusions and Future Work :::::::::::::::::: 197 9.1 Cluster Membership of the New Galaxies . 197 9.2 Impact on the Luminosity Function . 200 9.3 Conclusions . 204 9.4 Future Work . 205 Appendices ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: 209 A. Scale Length and Slope of the Fitting Function ::::::::::::::: 211 B. Luminosity-to-Magnitude Conversion of the Schechter Function :::::: 213 C. Absolute Magnitude and the Hubble Parameter ::::::::::::::: 215 D. Image and Data Files Supplied by Royal Observatory, Edinburgh ::::: 217 E. Virgo Deep Stack Calibration Stars :::::::::::::::::::::: 219 F. Gemini Observing Proposals :::::::::::::::::::::::::: 221 F.1 Observing Procedure . 221 F.2 Observing Proposals . 224 Contents ix G. Glossary ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: 237 G.1 Abbreviations . 237 G.2 Symbols . 241 G.3 De¯nitions . 244 Bibliography :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: 246 x Contents LIST OF FIGURES 1.1 The Virgo Deep Stack . 3 2.1 Three Galaxies . 9 2.2 Newly-Discovered Virgo VLSB Galaxy 22-1: Image and Radial Pro¯le 13 3.1 The Hubble Tuning Fork Diagram . 21 3.2 Ultra-Compact Dwarfs in the Virgo Cluster . 25 3.3 MAP 1: Combined Survey Map . 33 3.4 Histograms of Galaxy Velocities in the Direction of the Virgo Cluster 38 3.5 Plan Diagram of the Virgo Cluster . 41 3.6 MAP 2: 3D Structure of the Virgo Cluster . 43 3.7 NGC 4438: A Tidally Disturbed Galaxy . 45 4.1 Schechter's Luminosity Function . 55 4.2 Histogram, N-Magnitude and Log(N)-Magnitude Plots . 57 4.3 Improper Deblending and the Sabatini et al. (2003) Solution . 61 4.4 Luminosity Functions and the Trentham and Hodgkin (2002) Data . 67 4.5 A Steep Luminosity Function . 71 4.6 The Rines-Geller Threshold . 75 4.7 Loci of Fixed Scale Length . 75 xii List of Figures 5.1 Comparisons of Tech Pan and IIIa-F Exposures . 91 5.2 Characteristic Curves of Tech Pan and IIIa-F Exposures . 93 5.3 Passband of the OG590-Tech Pan Combination . 97 5.4 Artefacts in the Virgo Deep Stack . 98 5.5 The Virgo Deep Stack at High Contrast in False Colour . 99 5.6 Sub-Frame 22 . 101 5.7 MAP 3: Dwarf LSB Studies and Sub-Frames of the Virgo Deep Stack 103 5.8 Calibration of the Virgo Deep Stack . 106 5.9 Isophotes and Masked Pixels in the IRAF ELLIPSE Display . 111 5.10 E®ects of Masking . 119 6.1 Comparison Pro¯les . 123 6.2 MAP 4: Overlap of the Virgo Deep Stack with Other Surveys . 125 6.3 Galaxies Common to Trentham & Tully and Sub-Frame 16 . 127 6.4 Two New VLSB Galaxies from Sub-Frame 16 . 128 6.5 Images and Pro¯les: Five Trentham & Tully Galaxies . 129 6.6 Images and Pro¯les: Two Independently-Veri¯ed VLSB Galaxies . 133 6.7 Image and Pro¯le: SDV 144 . 135 6.8 A Dwarf Spheroidal Cluster Member . 137 6.9 Bryn's Mystery Object . 139 6.10 M89 Shells . 141 6.11 Intra-Cluster Light in the Heart of the Virgo Cluster . 143 6.12 Di®use Intra-Cluster Features . 143 6.13 IC 3349 - No Tidal Tail . 144 List of Figures xiii 6.14 Intra-Cluster Light - NW Quadrant . 145 6.15 NGC 4302 - Disk Broadening in the Deep Image . 147 6.16 IC 3392 - Stars Masquerade as Tidal Tails . 148 6.17 NGC 4425 and VCC 989 - An Interacting Pair? . 149 7.1 Fitting Ellipses to Contours of Malin 1 . 153 7.2 The Inner Disk of Malin 1 . 154 8.1 MAP 5: Galaxies in the Virgo Deep Stack . 165 8.2 Presumed Foreground Object: Bryn's Mystery Object . 169 8.3 Presumed Background Galaxies I . 171 8.4 Presumed Background Galaxies II . 173 8.5 Possible Cluster Members I . 175 8.6 Possible Cluster Members II . 177 8.7 Possible Cluster Members III . 179 8.8 Probable Cluster Members I . 181 8.9 Probable Cluster Members II . 183 8.10 Probable Cluster Members III . 185 8.11 Presumed Cluster Members I . 187 8.12 Presumed Cluster Members II . 189 8.13 Presumed Cluster Members III . 191 8.14 Presumed Cluster Members IV . 193 8.15 Veri¯ed Cluster Members . 195 9.1 Cluster Membership of Newly-Identi¯ed Galaxies . 201 F.1 Sample Display: Gemini Observing Tool . 223 xiv List of Figures LIST OF TABLES 3.1 VCC Cluster Membership . 29 3.2 Selected Virgo Cluster Surveys and Catalogues . 36 3.3 Selected Virgo Cluster Distance Estimates . 39 3.4 Cepheid Distance Moduli to Virgo Galaxies . 40 3.5 Sub-Structure of the Virgo Cluster . ..
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