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Insar Monitoring of Landslide Activity in Dominica remote sensing Article InSAR Monitoring of Landslide Activity in Dominica Mary-Anne Fobert 1,*, Vern Singhroy 2 and John G. Spray 1 1 Planetary and Space Science Centre, University of New Brunswick, 2 Bailey Drive, Fredericton, NB E3B 5A3, Canada; [email protected] 2 Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, 560 Rochester Street, Ottawa, ON K1S 5K2, Canada; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Abstract: Dominica is a geologically young, volcanic island in the eastern Caribbean. Due to its rugged terrain, substantial rainfall, and distinct soil characteristics, it is highly vulnerable to landslides. The dominant triggers of these landslides are hurricanes, tropical storms, and heavy prolonged rainfall events. These events frequently lead to loss of life and the need for a growing portion of the island’s annual budget to cover the considerable cost of reconstruction and recovery. For disaster risk mitigation and landslide risk assessment, landslide inventory and susceptibility maps are essential. Landslide inventory maps record existing landslides and include details on their type, location, spatial extent, and time of occurrence. These data are integrated (when possible) with the landslide trigger and pre-failure slope conditions to generate or validate a susceptibility map. The susceptibility map is used to identify the level of potential landslide risk (low, moderate, or high). In Dominica, these maps are produced using optical satellite and aerial images, digital elevation models, and historic landslide inventory data. This study illustrates the benefits of using satellite Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR) to refine these maps. Our study shows that when using continuous high-resolution InSAR data, active slopes can be identified and monitored. This information can be used to highlight areas most at risk (for use in validating and updating the Citation: Fobert, M.-A.; Singhroy, V.; susceptibility map), and can constrain the time of occurrence of when the landslide was initiated Spray, J.G. InSAR Monitoring of Landslide Activity in Dominica. (for use in landslide inventory mapping). Our study shows that InSAR can be used to assist in Remote Sens. 2021, 13, 815. the investigation of pre-failure slope conditions. For instance, our initial findings suggest there https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13040815 is more land motion prior to failure on clay soils with gentler slopes than on those with steeper slopes. A greater understanding of pre-failure slope conditions will support the generation of a more Academic Editors: Nicola Casagli and dependable susceptibility map. Our study also discusses the integration of InSAR deformation-rate Cristiano Tolomei maps and time-series analysis with rainfall data in support of the development of rainfall thresholds for different terrains. The information provided by InSAR can enhance inventory and susceptibility Received: 7 January 2021 mapping, which will better assist with the island’s current disaster mitigation and resiliency efforts. Accepted: 19 February 2021 Published: 23 February 2021 Keywords: landslides; InSAR; inventory mapping; landslide motion; Dominica Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affil- 1. Introduction iations. The Lesser Antilles is an arc of dormant and active volcanic islands in the Caribbean Sea [1]. In the centre of the arc is the island of Dominica. Similar to other developing island states, Dominica is highly vulnerable to natural hazards from hurricanes, intense and prolonged rainfalls, volcanic and seismic activity, earthquakes, and tsunamis [2,3]. In 2018, Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. the island was ranked 12th out of 111 for disaster vulnerability in the Commonwealth’s Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. Composite Vulnerability Index [4], and in 2020, it ranked 10th out of 180 in the Climate This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and Risk Index Score [5]. conditions of the Creative Commons Dominica’s heavily rugged terrain, substantial rainfall, and distinct soil character- Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// istics make it highly susceptible to landslides. The dominant triggers are hurricanes, creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ tropical storms, and heavy rainfall events [6]. These types of storms are not uncommon. 4.0/). Based on the number of tropical storms and hurricanes recorded in Dominica between Remote Sens. 2021, 13, 815. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13040815 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/remotesensing Remote Sens. 2021, 13, 815 2 of 19 , , 815 2 of 19 1996,1886 andtropical 1996, storms tropical and storms hurricanes and hurricanes with inte withnsity intensity levels of levels one, of two, one, three, two, three,four, four,and moreand more than than four four were were estimated estimated to occur to occur once once in inevery every 2.9, 2.9, 5.8, 5.8, 13.6, 13.6, 23.8, 23.8, and and 125 125 years, years, respectively [6]. [6]. For For the the estimate estimate of of category category 4 4 (and above) hurricanes, there were only two events in the database, one of which occurred in 1979. As category 5 hurricane Maria occurred in 2017, this may suggest a higher frequency of these types of major events.events. 1.1. Impact Impact of of Landslides Landslides in Dominica Large storms have an an enormous enormous impact impact on on Dominica’s Dominica’s population, population, critical critical infrastruc- infrastruc- ture, economy, and landscape. In 1979, category 4 4 Hurricane Hurricane David David devastated devastated Dominica, Dominica, subjecting it it to to hurricane hurricane level level winds winds for for over over 10 10 h hwith with peaks peaks of ofup upto 241 to 241 km/h km/h [7]. Six [7]. daysSix days later, later, Hurricane Hurricane Frederic Frederic tracked tracked just justnorth north of the of theisland, island, further further exacerbating exacerbating the damagesthe damages from from David David as it asbrought it brought heavy heavy rainfa rainfallll to the to already the already saturated saturated terrain terrain [8]. To- [8]. gether,Together, the the two two hurricanes hurricanes triggered triggered “innumer “innumerable”able” landslides, landslides, displaced displaced 78% of 78% the of pop- the ulation,population, and and significantly significantly damaged damaged the the transportation transportation infrastructure infrastructure [8]. [8]. The The estimated damage from David was over USD 20 million [[6].6]. On 28 August 2015, the effects of Tropical StormStorm ErikaErika causedcaused massivemassive mudslidesmudslides and resulted resulted in in significant significant flooding flooding in in Dominica Dominica [9]. [9]. Within Within a a10 10 h hperiod, period, over over 500 500 mm mm of rainof rain fell fellon the on theisland island [10]. [ 10The]. damages The damages amounted amounted to USD to USD483 million 483 million (90% of (90% the ofcoun- the try’scountry’s Gross Gross Domestic Domestic Product Product (GDP)) (GDP)) [11] and [11] rendered and rendered two twovillages villages in the in southeast the southeast un- inhabitableuninhabitable [4]. [ 4Figure]. Figure 1 1shows shows a asmall small sample sample of of the the numerous numerous landslides triggeredtriggered byby Erika in the village of Petite Savanne [[12,13].12,13]. Similar to the devastation from Hurricanes David and Frederic, Frederic, Erika most most widely widely affected affected the the transportation transportation and and housing housing industries, industries, inin addition to the agricultural sector [[6].6]. Figure 1. Landslides triggered from Tropical Storm Erika in the village of Petite Savanne. ( a) is from [[12],12], while (b–d) are from [[13].13]. TheThe roadsroads havehave been been highlighted highlighted with with red-dashed red-dashed lines lines to to illustrate illustrate the the impact impact on on the the transportation transportation infrastructure. infrastruc- ture. On 18 September 2017, category 5 Hurricane Maria decimated Dominica. Maria passed directlyOn over18 September the island 2017, with windscategory exceeding 5 Hurricane 274 km/hr. Maria decimated Storm surges Dominica. surpassed Maria tide passedlevels by directly close to over 1 m, the and island depending with onwinds elevation, exceeding total 274 rainfall km/hr. ranged Storm from surges452–579 surpassed mm [2]. tideOver levels 9900 landslidesby close to were 1 m, triggered, and depending covering on more elevation, than 1.3% total of rainfall the island ranged [14]. Totalfrom damages 452–579 mmamounted [2]. Over to USD9900 930.9landslides million were (or 226%triggered, of the covering country’s more 2016 than GDP), 1.3% with of the transportation, island [14]. Totalhousing, damages and agriculture amounted most to USD severely 930.9 affected million [(or2]. 226% of the country’s 2016 GDP), with transportation, housing, and agriculture most severely affected [2]. Remote Sens. 2021, 13, 815 3 of 19 1.2. Landslide Risk Assessment in Dominica The considerable cost of reconstruction and recovery from these storm events is sig- nificant. The need to build resiliency and reduce risk against natural hazards is thereby evident. In 2014, the World Bank initiated the Caribbean Risk Information Program (CRIP) to assist the government of Dominica (and other islands in the Caribbean: Belize, Saint Lu- cia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, and Grenada) in building the capacity to develop landslide and flood maps for disaster risk mitigation [15]. This program provides landslide
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