JRCA Vol. 20, No. 1 (2019), pp.349-355 349

JJCA（『文化人類学』）Extended Summary

Paper, Divinity, and the State: Hybrid Political Orders among the Nuer of Post-independence South

Eri Hashimoto Collage of Arts, Rikkyo University

The aim of this article is to describe how the view and deal with their state in multiple forms of “orders” in post-independence . By focusing on several practices and ideas with regard to “papers,” which are used as a medium through which to experience their state or the government, this article elucidates the process of how several forms of orders––modern administrative systems as well as Nuer notions of leadership or their authenticity––negotiate and create an acceptable style of governance that can be shared with many Nuer people who are in different situations, such as soldiers in anti-government troops, refugees, and literate elites in the town. In Chapter 2, I will introduce how Nuer society and the state have interacted since British colonial era, and how Nuer people have recognized “statehood” in their daily lives. In Chapter 3, I will show how the Nuer organizations that took a stance against the South Sudanese government, such as anti-government armed forces and self-help organization among the refugees, deal with new situations, based on my fieldwork in South Sudan and Uganda from 2012 to 2017. In Chapter 4, I focus on the use of “papers” or “documents” in Nuer organizations, and describe how their power has been 350 Paper, Divinity, and the State 351 interpreted and controlled. Finally, in Chapter 5, I focus on the independence of the Republic of South Sudan, and describe how the Nuer people discovered the power in “paper”—the ballot—by referring to the power of divinity, called kuɔth in the .

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The Republic of South Sudan is widely recognized as a “failed” or “vulnerable” state according to the worldwide standard of “order” in modern states. However, “order” is itself a relative and quite fluid idea that has been clarified in the field of political anthropology. Especially in post-conflict societies, different actors try to place the society or nation in their own ideal notions of “order.” This means that overlapping styles of order are affecting the daily lives of the people, and those style are constantly negotiating with one another. The notion of the “failed” or “vulnerable” state is one of these “styles,” and these expressions imply that certain types of order are inferior to others. This kind of thought has developed since modern nation-state ideologies and structures became dominant in the world, but it does not necessarily reflect the actual experience of “order” for the people. The Nuer of South Sudan are known as a society of “ordered anarchy,” as they were once described by Evans-Pritchard. Since the British colonial era, Nuer society has experienced multiple powers, leaderships, and institutions, and has lived with hybrid political orders coping with different actors, such as government troops, government chiefs, and anti-government rebels. After the independence of the Republic of South Sudan, many Nuer people joined anti-government armed forces and eventually came to intimidate their own nation—a nation whose independence had been achieved only after a long period of civil war. 350 Paper, Divinity, and the State Eri Hashimoto 351 interpreted and controlled. Finally, in Chapter 5, I focus on the At the time of the second Sudanese civil war, the Nuer had independence of the Republic of South Sudan, and describe how the developed self-defense armies in the villages and mutual assistance Nuer people discovered the power in “paper”—the ballot—by groups among the refugees. These organizations were developed by referring to the power of divinity, called kuɔth in the Nuer language. appropriating modern administrative systems and integrating them into Nuer traditional authority. ＊ ＊ The Republic of South Sudan is widely recognized as a “failed” or “vulnerable” state according to the worldwide standard of “order” in In recent ethnographic studies, “papers” or “documents” have been modern states. However, “order” is itself a relative and quite fluid idea described as active agents that bring “modern knowledges and that has been clarified in the field of political anthropology. Especially practices,” “a modern state,” and “good governance” to their societies in post-conflict societies, different actors try to place the society or (Riles 2006). Also, these studies have pointed out that the use of nation in their own ideal notions of “order.” This means that papers or documents can shape “statehood” in daily life, reproducing overlapping styles of order are affecting the daily lives of the people, the authority of the state among the people. However, these agents and those style are constantly negotiating with one another. The are not always constituted by ideas or institutions based on the notion of the “failed” or “vulnerable” state is one of these “styles,” and modern European notions of the “modern state” or “order” imagined these expressions imply that certain types of order are inferior to in their communities. Although documents have been a means to others. This kind of thought has developed since modern nation-state control people, and to constitute modernity or a modern state, once ideologies and structures became dominant in the world, but it does they are used repeatedly and interpreted by the people, the power of not necessarily reflect the actual experience of “order” for the people. “documents” can be reshaped and can attain other ontological states The Nuer of South Sudan are known as a society of “ordered beyond the intention of the authorities. anarchy,” as they were once described by Evans-Pritchard. Since the In the Nuer society, “papers” (waragak) are mediums that evoke British colonial era, Nuer society has experienced multiple powers, multiple connotations depending on the context. Since the colonial leaderships, and institutions, and has lived with hybrid political era, the meaning of “papers” has been interpreted through the Nuers’ orders coping with different actors, such as government troops, daily experience of powers, authorities, and divinities. government chiefs, and anti-government rebels. In the 1980s, the value of papers become to be recognized as a After the independence of the Republic of South Sudan, many substitute for cattle. Indeed, some literate elites have appeared in Nuer people joined anti-government armed forces and eventually Nuer society, and their cash economy was attractive enough even for came to intimidate their own nation—a nation whose independence villagers, allowing them to increase the number of their cattle. The had been achieved only after a long period of civil war. power of modern education, or the power of being literate, was said 352 Paper, Divinity, and the State 353 to come from the power of writing or paper. In some cases, papers were recognized as the power of divinity that makes miracles—making people rich, or curing illness through the prescription of medicine (Hutchinson 1996). In short, in Nuer society, “papers” were conceptualized not through the power of the state, but through their daily experiences of the economy, education, cash, and curing illnesses.

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Since 2013, Nuer people have faced a predicament in the context of armed clashes and ethnic violence. In this situation, they were no longer able to trust their government, which was achieved in 2011 through referendum after a long period of civil war. In this situation, several Nuer organizations tried to resist the government or make their own “orders” by using the power of papers. The Nuer self-defense force––the so-called White Army––and the mutual assistance organizations among Nuer refugees in Uganda both established the position of “secretary” to refer to members of literate elites who have the ability to negotiate with government or international organizations. Other members use “papers” strategically when they claim their requirements during demonstrations to obtain equal status with the government. For instance, when a Nuer youth group in the town decided to demonstrate against the government, they prepared several types of papers to show their discontent. In the demonstration, many youths, including those who are not literate, put up papers. In addition, Nuer refugees and the Ugandan diaspora have used “papers” to control their own communities, not only against the government, but to create the “Nuer community Constitution,” with “certificates” given 352 Paper, Divinity, and the State Eri Hashimoto 353 to come from the power of writing or paper. In some cases, papers to community leaders from each sub-clan of the Nuer. were recognized as the power of divinity that makes These constitutions and certificates are symbols of Nuer leadership, miracles—making people rich, or curing illness through the and leaders perform as if they are controlling their clans like a prescription of medicine (Hutchinson 1996). government. In the constitution, some symbol marks were depicted In short, in Nuer society, “papers” were conceptualized not showing that leadership of the people is guaranteed by divinity, kuɔth. through the power of the state, but through their daily experiences of These communities are Nuer institutions for resolving problems the economy, education, cash, and curing illnesses. happening in the Nuer community on their own, supported neither by the South Sudanese government nor the Ugandan government. ＊ They call their communities “states” and have established “ministries” based on what they observed in South Sudan. In these activities, we Since 2013, Nuer people have faced a predicament in the context can see the mimetic practices of the modern administrative system. of armed clashes and ethnic violence. In this situation, they were no Yet by looking into the interpretations and the impact that “papers” longer able to trust their government, which was achieved in 2011 have, we also find that the Nuer people recognized the power of through referendum after a long period of civil war. In this situation, “paper” by sensing the existence of kuɔth. several Nuer organizations tried to resist the government or make their own “orders” by using the power of papers. ＊ The Nuer self-defense force––the so-called White Army––and the mutual assistance organizations among Nuer refugees in Uganda both Especially during the referendum that brought independence to established the position of “secretary” to refer to members of literate South Sudan, several Nuer people were insisting on the relationship elites who have the ability to negotiate with government or between certain elements related to independence and the prophecies international organizations. Other members use “papers” strategically that were made by a famous Nuer prophet a long time ago. Words or when they claim their requirements during demonstrations to obtain songs of the prophets are seen as words from kuɔth. Just before the equal status with the government. referendum, some Nuer people found the will of kuɔth in the For instance, when a Nuer youth group in the town decided to illustration on the ballot, and they began to talk about how the demonstrate against the government, they prepared several types of prophet had prophesied about that illustration. Many said they chose papers to show their discontent. In the demonstration, many youths, separation from the “Arabs” of North Sudan because of that ballot. including those who are not literate, put up papers. In addition, Nuer They pointed out that the illustration of the ballot for the refugees and the Ugandan diaspora have used “papers” to control independence of South Sudan, which shows one hand, was their own communities, not only against the government, but to prophesied by the prophet. They quoted phrases of the song create the “Nuer community Constitution,” with “certificates” given composed by the prophet, or cited his curious behaviors and said how 354 Paper, Divinity, and the State 355 it is trustworthy to vote for separation, according to kuɔth. This ballot and this interpretation of it motivated a number of Nuer people to vote for separation (Hashimoto 2018). Of course, the system of voting is recognized as one of the most important aspects of a modern democracy that is supported by the will of the citizens. Moreover, the ballot is the apparatus that judges the tendency of that will and its distribution throughout the country. However, what the Nuer people found in their ballots was their own “will” being supported by the will of the prophet or kuɔth. In this respect, although “papers” may be the apparatus or the medium that creates “modernity” or “good governance,” it also embodies the indigenous Nuer notion of “order,” which is supported by their divinities.

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In brief, it can be said that “papers” have been conceptualized and reconceptualized through events in which multiple actors try to create their ideal “orders.” By mimetic practices in terms of “papers” that articulates modern administrative systems and traditional authorities, the Nuer developed their organizations to such an extent that it could intimidate the state government. At the same time, “papers” were not only evoking the power of a modern state or statehood, but were also showing the “perfect order” given by kuɔth. In Nuer society, leaders are thought to be supported by the will of kuɔth to embody Nuer virtues and create the Nuer’s ideal order, symbolized by the sacrifice of cattle to remove human impurity and settle the problem. In this context, papers were accepted to guarantee the ability of reproduction, which has been a core Nuer concept to make their lives better. This suggests that 354 Paper, Divinity, and the State Eri Hashimoto 355 it is trustworthy to vote for separation, according to kuɔth. This “papers” are the medium by which one’s imagination of “orders” of ballot and this interpretation of it motivated a number of Nuer selves and others negotiates with others, thereby creating a new people to vote for separation (Hashimoto 2018). embodiment of a “perfect order” that can attract several types of Nuer Of course, the system of voting is recognized as one of the most people to hybrid political orders. important aspects of a modern democracy that is supported by the will of the citizens. Moreover, the ballot is the apparatus that judges the tendency of that will and its distribution throughout the country. References However, what the Nuer people found in their ballots was their own “will” being supported by the will of the prophet or kuɔth. In this Hashimoto Eri 橋本栄莉 『エ・クウォス――南スーダン、ヌエル社会における予言と受 respect, although “papers” may be the apparatus or the medium that 2018 難の民族誌』(E kuoth: An Ethnography of Prophecy and Suffering among creates “modernity” or “good governance,” it also embodies the the Nuer of South Sudan). 福岡：九州大学出版会 (Fukuoka: Kyushu indigenous Nuer notion of “order,” which is supported by their University Press). divinities. Hutchinson, Sharon E. 1996 Nuer Dilemmas: Coping with Money, War, and the State. Oakland: University of California Press. ＊ Riles, Annalise (ed.) 2006 Documents: Artifacts of Modern Knowledge. Ann Arbor: University of In brief, it can be said that “papers” have been conceptualized and Michigan Press. reconceptualized through events in which multiple actors try to create their ideal “orders.” By mimetic practices in terms of “papers” that articulates modern administrative systems and traditional authorities, the Nuer developed their organizations to such an extent that it could intimidate the state government. At the same time, “papers” were not only evoking the power of a modern state or statehood, but were also showing the “perfect order” given by kuɔth. In Nuer society, leaders are thought to be supported by the will of kuɔth to embody Nuer virtues and create the Nuer’s ideal order, symbolized by the sacrifice of cattle to remove human impurity and settle the problem. In this context, papers were accepted to guarantee the ability of reproduction, which has been a core Nuer concept to make their lives better. This suggests that