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Beyond the Pejorative Sphere of Influence in International Theory View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Lauda Susanna Hast Beyond the Pejorative Sphere of Influence in International Theory Academic dissertation to be publicly defended under permission of the Faculty of Social Sciences at the University of Lapland in lecture hall 2 on Saturday 27th of October 2012 at 12 Acta Electronica Universitatis Lapponiensis 98 University of Lapland Faculty of Social Sciences © Susanna Hast, 2012 Layout: Ritva Lahtinen Distributor: Lapland University Press P.O. Box 8123 FI-96101 Rovaniemi tel. + 358 (0)40-821 4242 , fax + 358 16 362 932 [email protected] www.ulapland.fi /lup Paperback ISBN 978-952-484-570-0 ISSN 0788-7604 Pdf ISBN 978-952-484-571-7 ISSN 1796-6310 3 Abstract Hast Susanna Beyond the Pejorative: Sphere of Infl uence in International Theory Rovaniemi: University of Lapland, 2011, 313 pp., Acta Universitatis Lapponiensis 239 Dissertation: University of Lapland ISSN 0788-7604 ISBN 978-952-484-570-0 This study undertakes to contest the concept of sphere of infl uence from a historical perspective with a focus on normative questions and international order. While the concept of sphere of infl uence is frequently used in political parlance, it has not been studied within the discipline of International Relations. What is more, the term ”sphere of infl uence” is used in a pejorative sense to criticise Russian foreign policy. The research identifi es the pejorative uses of the concept and then proceeds to discuss normative aspects of spheres of infl uence in international theory. In the process, sphere of infl uence is transformed from a map metaphor into a concept which encompasses issues of justice and international order. The history of the concept of sphere of infl uence begins with identifying how it acquired its pejorative ring, that is, the concept became associated with the foreign policy of Russia. What follows are four chapters on the history and theory of spheres of infl uence. The fi rst episode explores historical examples such as suzerainty and colonialism, as well as the emergence of a hierarchical international order. The second reveals the untapped pool of ideas related to international order, sovereignty, great powers, the balance of power and non-intervention in the English School theory. The pluralist and solidarist underpinnings of international society come alive as a framework for linking the concept of sphere of infl uence to conceptualisations of international order. Spheres of infl uence are situated at the equilibrium point of a pendulum which sweeps an arc from the sovereign nation-state at one end to humanity at the other. The third chapter looks into theories on spheres of infl uence “between nation and humanity” which were developed in the turmoil of the world wars. The ideas of Friedrich Naumann, Carl Schmitt, E.H. Carr, James Burnham, Walter Lippmann and George Orwell focus more on bringing about peace than causing war and confl ict. Finally, a chapter on the Cold War, drawing on the example of the Cuban Missile Crisis, explores the period in history which has made the strongest impact on the present understanding of sphere of infl uence. It becomes clear that even Cold War spheres of infl uence are a source of theory which we have ignored. Once the historical and theoretical roots of the concept have been unveiled, Russian ideas on international order and infl uence beyond state borders are analysed in order to problematise the Western canon dealing with “Russia’s sphere of infl uence”. The Russian idea of a sphere of infl uence is clouded by an indecision in choosing between the pluralist and solidarist international orders. The Russian authors’ unwavering defence of sovereignty and 4 simultaneous admiration of ”the concert of great responsible powers” has resulted in an inability to openly propose a system of international governance with spheres of infl uence. The unique contribution of this dissertation is to put forward normative considerations pertaining to spheres of infl uence instead of using the concept in a pejorative sense. The study connects the English School tradition, post-war international order, the Cold War and Russian thought with the concept of sphere of infl uence with the aim of initiating a debate which will enrich the discipline with a fresh outlook on an old but topical concept. 5 Contents Foreword and Acknowledgements . 7 1 Introduction . .13 1.1 A Normative Concept . .13 1.2 “Sphere of infl uence” is What We Make of It . .16 1.3 A Map Metaphor from the Cold War . .18 1.4 Contemporary Concepts of Infl uence . .23 1.5 Structure of the Book . .30 2 A History of the Present . .33 2.1 Where is the Russian Sphere of Infl uence? . .33 2.1.1 Revealing the Pejorative . .34 2.1.2 Blind Spots . .42 2.2 On Methodology . .46 2.2.1 Episodes and Examples . .49 3 The Origins of Spheres of Infl uence . .57 3.1 The British Committee on the Theory of International Politics . .58 3.2 From Suzerain to Sovereign, from Independence to Hegemony . .61 3.3 The Congress of Vienna and the Concert of Europe . .67 3.4 Agreements on Spheres of Infl uence and Colonial Infl uence . .71 3.5 The Monroe Doctrine . .78 3.6 Order and Spheres of Infl uence . .81 4 International Society and the Normative Question . .88 4.1 The Rules and Institutions of International Society . .88 4.2 Classes of Power and the Balance of Power . .92 4.3 Sovereignty and Non-intervention . .98 4.4 A Regional Solidarist Order . .105 4.5 International Law and Justice . .114 4.6 Infl uence or Responsibility? . .121 4.7 Conclusions on the English School. .124 5 Between Nation and Humanity. 127 5.1 The Geopolitics of Spheres of Infl uence . .129 5.2 Friedrich Naumann and Mid-Europe . .133 5.3 Carl Schmitt, Nomos and Groβraum . .139 5.4 James Burnham and E.H. Carr. .149 5.4.1 Nationalism versus Internationalism . .151 5.4.2 The Inevitability of Power Politics . .159 5.5 Walter Lippmann and the Good Neighbor Policy . .168 5.6 George Orwell and the Totalitarian Super-states . .177 5.7 The Shared Concern . .181 6 6 The Burden of the Cold War . 188 6.1 Theoretical Framework of the Cold War . .190 6.1.1 Consolidating Spheres of Infl uence . .190 6.1.2 Interventionist Policies . .193 6.1.3 De Facto or de Jure Infl uence? . .198 6.1.4 Subjugated Knowledges and Legacies . .202 6.2 The Cuban Missile Crisis . .205 6.3 A Re-Reading of the Cold War . .217 7 Russia, Order, Law and Infl uence . 223 7.1 The Sources of Russian Discourses . .223 7.2 International Society and Research on Russia . .227 7.3 Order and Institutions . .231 7.3.1 Chaos and International Law . .231 7.3.2 The Great Responsibles and Cooperative Balance . .236 7.3.3 Intervention in Kosovo and South Ossetia . .244 7.3.4 The European Security Treaty . .249 7.4 Just and Unjust Infl uence . .254 7.4.1 Falsifi cation of History and the Small Powers . .255 7.4.2 It Is Only Natural . .258 7.4.3 Infl uence of the Single Sovereign . .265 7.4.4 The Middle Way . .270 7.5 Conclusion: Perfectly Ruled, Perfectly Free . .275 8 Conclusions . 281 8.1 Framing Sphere of Infl uence . .281 8.1.1 International Order . .284 8.1.2 Justice in Spheres of Infl uence . .285 8.1.3 System of States or a New Nomos? . .288 8.2 Future Research Agenda . .290 8.3 Beyond the Pejorative . .295 References . 300 7 Foreword and Acknowledgements Spheres of infl uence and understanding about them remain part of international politics and for better or worse will continue to be (Keal 1983, 225). Th e eternal challenge of humanity is to organise the political map of the world. It has never been possible to make the world one, and few have even wanted this. In the end, the division of people by borders of nation-states took place. However, the state is not a perpetual and stable unit of the international system, but one that has been challenged from the day it was introduced – by the states themselves with asserted hierarchies and great power management. Spheres of infl uence come into the picture here when we discuss states and the hierarchical international system. Sphere of infl uence is an idea which takes a stance on the very core question of International Relations1 (henceforth IR): How is the world divided politically? Th is is a critical analysis and reassessment of the concept of sphere of infl uence.
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