Introduction to Maps

Chapter 1 Introduction to Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

1. Concepts Medicines are any preparation or substances used in the treatment of diseases or healing or relieving pain. The plants having medicinal properties are called medicinal plants (“JARIBUTI” in Nepali), the principal sources of raw drugs. Therefore, the demand on plant based therapeutic has been increased manifolds in both developing and developed countries due to the growing recognition that they are natural products, being non- narcotic, having no side effects, easily available at affordable prices. Medicinal plants which are usually used to extract alkaloids are known as alkaloid producing plants.

Medicinal and Aromatic plants (MAPs) provide avenues to integrate the potential of commercial as well as social value with food crops in such a way that food crops while becoming intensive in high value produce, can also integrate MAPs as “high income options” in fertile lands and “only income options” in waste and marginal lands. Thanks to the plant’s own biological defence strategy and capability that they produce ‘secondary metabolites’ to combat the adversities/stresses whether biotic and abiotic. Medicinal & Aromatic plants are one of the major natural resources of our country occurring in diverse ecosystems. Lately, many people due to rare chances of side effects prefer herbal remedies and their safer products. Nepal is one of the richest repositories of Medicinal and Aromatic plants in the world which will pave way for reaping the Green Gold. Scientific approach for their exploration, conservation and value addition is in high demand now a day for entrepreneurship development.

Over three-quarters of the world population relies mainly on plants and plant extracts for health care. More than 30% of the entire plant species, at one time or other was used for medicinal purposes. It is estimated that world market for plant derived drugs may account for about Rs.2, 00,000 crores. Of the 2, 50,000 higher plant species on earth, more than 80,000 are medicinal. The scientific study of traditional medicines, derivation of drugs through bioprospecting and systematic conservation of the concerned medicinal plants are thus of great importance.

There are several thousand medicinal or drug yielding plants all over the world. Nepal is considered as one of the important countries for medicinal and aromatic plants. In Nepal, 118 types of ecosystem are present along with 13 different types of microclimate. 10091 species of flowering and non flowering species of plants has been documented. Out of which 700 are of medicinal values where 238 types are medically tested to find chemical content (medicinal and NTFP coordination committee, 2005). In a database called MAPDON, about 1600 medicinal plants are recorded (Shrestha et al., 2000). These resources are distributed in forests, pasturelands, wetlands, crop fields, and common lands of different parts of Nepal.

Pharmacognosy: This word, introduced by Seydler in 1815, is derived from Greek language (Pharmakon = Drug; Gnosis = Knowledge) meaning a knowledge of pharmaceuticals. It means the science of preparation and use of medicines. Pharmacognosy is the study of biochemical and economical features of natural drugs and their principles. This discipline is mainly concerned with the history, distribution, collection, selection, identification, cultivation, commerce and preservation of crude drugs and raw materials.

Pharmacology: It is the study of the preparation, practices and action of drugs to treat illness, healing or relieving pain. It is mainly concerned with preparation, qualities, uses, chemical constituents, actions, experimental investigations and evaluation of medicinal ingredients.

Pharmacopeia: It is an official book issued by the proper authority with a list of drugs and its related plants, medicines and a description of their properties, constituents, preparation and uses for various ailments.

Aromatic plants The plants that produce pleasant odor or sweet aroma are called essence producing plants or aromatic plants. In 1978, S. R. Adhikary and P. R. Shakya reported 217 aromatic plant species belonging to 197 genera and 75 families. Among them, commercially important aromatic plants are Citronella grass, Lemon grass, Palmarosa, Ginger grass, Calamus, Chamomile, Eucalyptus, Mentha, French basil, Junipers, Rhododendron, etc.

2. History of MAPs in Nepal 2.1. Initiation of institutional building for MAPs in GON The history of Medicinal Plants is as old as 2800 B.C. illustrated by the list of 300 medicinal plants in a book called Shennong Bencao Jing. Ayurbed is said to be started since 1900 B.C. Egyptians then stated the use at about 1000 B.C. Hippocrates is also regarded to promote the use of medicinal plants. It is said that MAP was used in traditional and Ayurvedic medicine in Nepal from the time immemorial. Thus the traditional Dhami, Jhakri and Ayurvedic institution were in existence. Management of MAP seems to be instituted, when Medicinal Plant Section was added in the Department of Forest. The mandate of this section was trading of herbs and honey and conservation of Rhino horns and musk for the preparation of Ayurvedic drugs. Great efforts were taken for the systematic development of MAP by establishing Department of Medicinal Plants (DMP) in 1960 with its five sections:

 Botanical Survey and National Herbarium  Royal Botanical Garden  Herbal Trading Center  Royal Drug Research Laboratory  Herbal Farms

This prime organization was continued until 1988 except Herbal Trading Center. During this period Royal Drug Limited, Herbs Production and Processing Company and Department of Drug Administration were created by DMP and provided them autonomous status. A number of scientists and technologists were developed in the field of Botany, Chemistry and Pharmacy. In 1988 with the idea of bringing the research together less than one umbrella, DMP and Forest Research Division was merged and Department of Forestry and Plant Research was created. In 1993 the Department was separated to the Department of Plant Resources (DPR) and Forest Research and Survey Center, which is at present designated as Department of Forest Research and Survey (DFRS).

3. Importance of MAPs Nepal has to be considered the big store house of enormous important valuable medicinal and aromatic plants and a large number of species are distributed from few meters to around 5000m above the sea level. Most of the precious MAPs are available in the mid hills of the country. Among 1000 species, about 750 species of MPs are used traditionally in several ailments by the tribals as well as ethnic groups under the guidance of Kavirajs, Vaidyas, Dhamis, Jhakris, Healers and Lamma. About 20 -25% Ayurvedic herbals are being used for allopathic medicines. Over 100 MPs species are being exported to other country. 1. Therapeutic Application: MAPs have been widely used in various diseases such as Respiratory, Nervous, Immune, Genito-Urinary, Endocrine, Circulation systems, Muscles, Joints, Wounds and Physical tension etc. 2. (Aromatherapy) which tends to affect on body, mind and soul, a unique, less costly health care system leading to calmness, emotional balance, stress relief and rejuvenation, is now becoming popular in Japan and European countries. Acne, Boils, Complexion, Wrinkles,Scars, Tones, Oily skin, Hair loss, Stretch marks, Sensitive skins and other cosmetics. 3. Fragrance and Perfumery, Flavouring food products, Culinary purposes. 4. Religious , Ritual and Embelling purposes. 5. Dyeing, Construction, Furniture, Fodders, Manures. 6. Catechin,Tanins, Alkaloids, Essential oils,Resins, Gums, Balsams, Papers. 7. The principal traditional systems Ayurveds, Amchi, Siddha, Unani, Tibetean and Homoepathy are totally dependent upon the medicinal herbs. 8. Contribution to livelihood to rural people. It is a good source of income for the farmers living in the interior hilly or mountainous areas where the farmers do not have much source of income from agricultural crops. 9. Eco-tourism potential. The existence of herbal farms, Botanical gardens, and National parks is of great value as they provide a direct income generating opportunity through tourism. Also, this can easily be integrated with eco-tourism which helps to find domestic market for indigenous essential oils. Australia is the first country to have an eco - tourism strategy and Malaysia has followed the same suit. Diverse

ecological zones of Nepal offer scope for developing eco-tourism in the country to generate substantial foreign exchange without the usual disastrous ecological degradation associated with general tourism.

10. The MAPs oils are indispensable which is used as air purifiers, incense sticks, insect repellents and in insecticides. 11. Prepared medicines from MPs are said to be quite safe and has no side affect. They are also cheap and affordable by the common people and get easily available. 12. Ethno medicines are culturally adoptable in the sense that the rural people look traditional Vaidya or Guruva or Lamma or Healers or as their own person. 13. MAPs are important source for synthesizing valuable drugs and 25 – 40 % are utilized in allopathic formulation. 14. Provide Employment opportunity to a very large sectors such as Natural history museum, Botanical gardens, Institutions, Farms and Industries. 15. MAPs turn as a cash crops for uplifting the socioeconomic development of rural people because the demand of MAP is increasing day by day in the world. 16. Research: MAPs are the good subject for research as well as for biotechnology. This field contributes to the conservation, boost up yield as well as sustainable use of biological diversity. 17. Source of Income: The average annual foreign trade in crude drugs and their phytochemicals was in between 50-60 millions rupees, whereas aromatic plants earned 6 -8 millions rupees through export. The DOF in 2000 yr had collected revenue only for medicinal herbs was 21.50 millions rupees only. 18. Importance of MAPs in Research Career 19. MAPs course curriculum in Higher Education: Recently, Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science prescribed MAPs for B. Sc. Ag. in the fifth semester . The course includes 8 units, unit 1-6 deals with general introduction, classification, trade, extraction process, and storage methods. The last two units deal with plant profile, cultivation, management and chemical constituents of the medicinal and aromatic plants. This introduction of courses in IAAS adds 10 hours per week.

4. Prospects of MAPs

1. Modern Drugs: A very large preparation of the herbal medicines used in the Ayurved, Unani, Homoepathy and Tibetian systems in the Indian sub- continents is being collected mostly from the Himalayan regions of Nepal. The potential of MAPs are enormous because the growth of many pharmaceutical and agro-business industries in

developed and developing countries are associated with the steady supply of new genetic materials form the wild.

2. Essential oils and aroma chemicals constitute a major group of industrial products. These oils form indispensible ingredients of cosmetics, soaps, pharmaceuticals, perfumery, confectionary, ice-creams, aerated waters, disinfectants, tobacco agarbathis etc.

3. Intermediates: The chemicals extracted from MAPs have been used in various intermediate products such as toiletries, household air purifiers, insect repellents, detergent-scented soaps, deodorants and varnishes.

4. Household Remedies: MAPs can be used to treat a wide range of common complaints including specific diseases. Besides, essential oils, people find varied uses as carminative (Oils of spearmint, peppermint, chamomile), Anthelmintic (oil of chenopodium, eucalyptus, cajuput turpentine, clove, anise, cinnamon), antiseptic, sedatives (oils of sandal wood, lavender, bergamot mint, chamomile and sweet marjoram), CNS stimulants (oils of basil, clove, jasmine, peppermint, ylang-ylang, achillea, cajuput), Adaptogens(oils of geranium and ylang-yalang), bronchodilators (oils of ginger, black pepper, pumilo pine, angelica, eucalyptus), Congestive respiratory disorder (oils of eucalyptus, cinnamon, peppermint), anti - stress (oils of lemon grass and cedar wood) and muscle relaxant.

5. Health Foods: MAPs are essential for primary health care as phytotherapy as well as modern medicines. As phytotherapy over 70% of the world population relies mainly on traditional therapies that involve the use of plant extracts and their active constituents. A number of essential drugs used in modern day medical practices as plant derived and are developed based on indigenous knowledge. MAPs have been used for controlling store grain pests

6. Traditional System Medicines: It is no doubt that MAPs protect still tradition systems because traditional systems of medicinal treatment cover 80% of the rural people of the various regions. MAPs are easily available to the villages and in surrounding areas. A little knowledge about the MAPs can helped to cure seasonally occurred diseases.

7. Flavoring And Fragrance Materials: MAPs are used in food flavouring, (Patchouli, Spices, Turmeric, Thyme, Vanilla etc.), Tobacco flavouring ( Cananga, Helichrysum, Vanilla), Fruit flavouring , Alcoholic and Soft drinking ( Artemisia, Rose, Rosewood, Jasmine, Citronella, Swertia, Tagetus, Valeriana, Lemon grass,Ocimum,Ylang – Ylang etc.) Confectionary (Tuberose, Violet, Mentha, etc). APs are mostly utilized in the preparation of Perfumes. MAPs are the fragrance materials for soaps, hair oils and Ayurvedic medicines.

8. Colouring Materials: Bhringraj, Berberis, Henna, Maharangi, Majitho, Juglans, Padamchal, Indigo, Saffron, Turmeric, etc are used for colouring the various items.

9. Blending traditional and frontier technologies lead to birth of eco - technologies with combined strength of economics, ecology, equity, energy and employment.

10. Application of essential oils in agriculture as anti-feedent, repellent (oil of citronella, basil, lemon grass, pine, eucalyptus, camphor, turpentine), botanical insecticides (oil of Acorus calamus), natural herbicides, antimicrobial (oils of Marjoram, cinnamon, angelica, peppermint, clove, camphor), anti-fungal (Volatile oils of Pongamia glabra, Acorus calamus, Ocimum canum, Ocimum adscendens and Ocimum gratissimum and considered as potent agents against storage pests and fungal pathogens), ovicidal (citrus oil, carvacrol, citronellol, eugenol, geraniol, farnesol), attractant (patchouli oil), antigonadal and growth boosters are still open to fascinating realm of research as well as a potent source of environmentally and ecologically safe pesticides.

11. Biocide preparation from herbs and extraction and production of plant growth regulators and allelochemicals (Volatile Terpenes) are areas where our indigenous knowledge and bio diversity resources can be profi tably exploited. E.g. Salvia sclarea produces volatile inhibitors viz. Camphor, 1, 8- cineole, pinene and dipentene which inhibit DNA synthesis, seed germination and growth of many weeds.

12. Essential oils of peppermint, basil and spearmint also inhibit seed germination activity. Components of essential oils viz. Linalool, menthol, pulegone, benzaldehyde, carvacrol, carvone, cinnamaldehyde etc. has fungistatic effects. Hence, essential oils, secondary metabolites are considered inexpensive, biodegradable, more systemic and environment friendly botanical pesticides.

13. Production of secondary metabolites in bioreactors under controlled conditions using cell and tissue culture offers exciting frontiers of future research. There is continuous search for more potent and cheaper raw materials to feed the pharmaceutical industry.

14. With concerted R&D efforts, many MAPs could provide raw material in abundance to the indigenous pharmacies and local herbalists.

15. Post-harvest processing of MAPs and its value addition are receiving attention of biochemist, phyto-chemist and chemical engineers for designing effective and efficient equipments for cold and hot extraction of oils, fractions and crude extracts for domestic use and export as well as keeping in view the emergence of ‘nature food’, ‘ethnic food’ and ‘yogic

food’ and emphasis on ‘back to nature’, uses of spice based oils, oleoresins, ointments and flavourings would be in a bullish market in the new millennium.

16. Currently, about 150 MAPs are cultivated in different parts of the world. Out of these, around 50 MAPs are commonly used commercially. Potential of such lesser known medicinal & aromatic plants (e.g. Piper nigrum, Curcuma angustifolia, Curcuma zedoria, Alpinia galangal, Kaempferia galangal) needs further studies and exploitation since, MAPs are known as the biological mine of novel products and application.

17. Contract farming facilitating private companies to develop a close interaction with farmers for uniform quality inputs, technological guidance, post harvest processing facilities and importantly marketing and assured cash returns may help in developing the national market for medicinal plants. Government putting its weight behind contract farming/legal support to a practice can give small farmers access to modern technology and resources.

6. Constraints As it is well known that Nepal Himalaya has the immense natural resources of important and rare medicinal plants and aromatic plants, still there are some constraints, problems and limitations regarding the management, conservation, and promotions of medicinal and aromatic plants available in the district. Some of the major limitations are:

COMPETITION WITH FOOD CROPS AND FOR LAND

MAP competes with agricultural crops for the same area of land. But owing to the basic necessity, food crops are given more preference.

LACK OF PROPER AGRO-TECHNIQUES & AWARENESS AMONG GROWERS No efficient & effective extension services are available which may encourage the farmers to grow the crop. Lack of sustainable rural development program and farmers training programme are among the main constraints. Also, information are scattered & the farmers are ignorant.

LACK OF MARKET POTENTIAL IN SYSTEM

The MAP is grown by farmers but essential oils are manufactured by the industries. Hence, the middlemen exploit the growers frequently owing to oscillating prices. The lack of price control at government level is

disheartening and growers become less interested to expand their cultivation or adopt new crops

LACK OF CONNECTION OF INDUSTRIES

Generally Nepalese farmers are not connected with industries. Also, industries are less interested to implement or sponsor projects. The scientist and researchers offered adequate opportunities to achieve technological success which will give viable commercial return. However, response from the industrial partners is still less than desired.

LACK OF INFORMATION FOR VALUE-ADDED PRODUCTS

Essential oils are either hydro or steam distilled purified products. Every grower cannot afford to have distillation units as they need more investment.

LACK OF AVAILABILITY OF PROPER PLANTING MATERIAL

Generally, improved varieties evolved through different techniques do not reach farmers. There is very large gap between lab & land. There is also lack of projection of already evolved varieties.

LACK OF PROPER GENETIC TECHNIQUES & BREEDING PROCEDURES

There are some possibilities of genetic erosion or vulnerability which affects the productivity to a large extent.

THE EXPANSION OF UNREGULATED TRADE

Commercial use of MAP also poses a major threat to biodiversity in the region. Alarming levels of deforestation and ecosystem degradation may also be contributing to a decline in population of MAPs. Government regulations on wild collections of endangered species are necessary and inevitable looking at the loss and degradation of the natural habitats and over harvesting of endangered species.

LACK OF EXPORT PROMOTION POLICY

The industry today faces critical issues on standardisation of quality, contamination and adulteration. Contaminants viz. Microbes, microbial toxins, environmental pollutant or heavy metals should be checked in herbal and traditional medicines. The major hindrance in the amalgamation of herbal medicine into modern medical practices is the lack of scientific & clinical data and better understanding of efficacy and safety of the herbal

products. Restrictions or ban on export ,transportation and commercial uses under the provision of the Forest Act 1993 and the Forest Regulations,1995.

PROBLEMS IN MARKETING

Markets of MAPs are unorganized both directly and indirectly due to:

 MAPs are exhaustible if overused  The current practices of harvesting are unsustainable and causes depletion of resource base  The pharmaceutical companies are also responsible for inefficient, informal and opportunistic marketing of MAPs  Absence of serious policy attention where the origin of a particular drug is assigned to more than one plant due to which adulteration is common in such case  Marketability of products is a crucial factor in determining the failure or success of this sector  A clear understanding of both the supply side issues and the factors driving the demand ad size of the MAPs market is a vital step towards planning for both conservation and sustainable use of these plants  Ensure continued availability of the basic ingredients used to address the health needs  Decline of folk traditional medicines  Impoverishment of rural people, who are stewards of the resource base and the holders of traditional, ecological and medical knowledge through inequitable marketing channels  Medicinal plants trade is inefficient, imperfect, informal and opportunistic  Deficient toxicology studies and standard preparations to improve the quality, efficacy and effectiveness of the traditional drugs  Lack of co-ordination amongst various stake holders of MAPs sector viz. Govt. Of Nepal (Ministry of Agriculture, Environmental & Forests, private traditional medicine sector, research institutes, NGOs and International networks etc.  Present pattern of production and trade of essential oils and aroma chemicals is characterized by factors viz. Fluctuations in demand and price, competitiveness and instability in supplies, with progressive increase in number of producers in many developing and industrialized countries. China, India, Brazil &, Indonesia are strong competitors for Nepalese aromatic oils.

NEED FOR RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT (R&D)

 Production of plant materials shall be free from microbial contaminations, external residues of toxic materials like pesticide etc.  Consumers and practitioners, with strong and increase awareness about health and environment coupled with stringent regulatory quality measures in international arena, consistently demand of high quality/organically grown materials i.e. development of organic farming technologies (Following ECOCERT Standard) of MAPs for greater acceptability of plant produce in international market.  To explore the optimal utilization of available resources to develop integrated cropping system and maximising net returns. Cultivation of MAPs should be encouraged as companion crops in traditional agriculture system and forestry to maximise land, water and nutritional utilization.  Present world going herbal trends at consumer level favouring use of natural products are considered more harmonious with human metabolism.  In coming years, land and water resources are sure to face acute degradation, also the stresses as of supply of non-renewable fossil fuel and phosphate will be main constraints. Under such condition, MAPs with inherent capabilities to grow under natural stress with better yields of secondary metabolites (Active chemical constituents) would be crops of choice for sustainability.  Isolation of bio-molecules from MAPs and improving their content in plant. Since, bio-molecules may find use in wide range of application such as anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, anti-protozoan, anti-cancerous, hapato-protective, anti-obesity, anti-diabetic, anti –depressant, cardiovascular and nervine stimulator , bio-enhancers as well as actively indulged in neutracueticals.

Better to know or skip (choice is yours) Some plants with medicinal importance:

 Abelmoschus esculentus L. (Malvaceae); Juice of the plant is used to treat cuts and wounds, and urinary problems. It is also useful to cure an abdominal disorder, ease constipation, diarrhoea and general debility. Tender fruits are cooked as vegetable.  Achyranthes bidentata Blume (Amaranthaceae); ‘Datiwan’. A decoction of plant is applied for urinary problems. Juice of the root is used to cure asthma,

indigestion, toothaches. The stem is used as a toothbrush. It is also considered as toothbrush in the religious purpose at ‘Teej’, Hindu festival.  Allium sativum L. (Amaryllidaceae); ‘Lasun’. Leaves and tubers powder are extensively used as a spice and stimulant. Leaves and tubers juice is used to cure fever and cough. Roasted tubers are eaten fresh and pickled. Fresh leaves are cooked as vegetables. Oil is administrated to cure rashes skin. It is also chewed raw for blood pressure.  Alnus nepalensis D.Don. (Betulaceae); ‘Uttis’. A decoction of roots is taken orally for the treatment of diarrhoea, dysentery and burns. Leaf paste is applied in cuts and wounds. Wood is used for furniture, other construction purposes and fuel.  Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. (Moraceae); ‘Rukhkatahar’ (N); ‘Singkatahar’. Leaf past is used to cure in skin disease. A decoction of root is used to treat diarrhoea and dysentery. The latex of plants is applied to glandular swelling and abscesses to promote suppuration. Ripen fruits are eaten fresh. Unripe fruits are laxative and it is also cooked as a vegetable and pickled. Roasted seeds are eaten. Leaves are lopped for fodder.  Barleria cristata L. (Acanthaceae); ‘Bhandekuro’. Juice of the root is useful to relief indigestion and inflammations. Juice of leaves, about 3 teaspoons three times a day is given to treat fever, bronchitis and asthma. Past of the leaf is applied to boils and pimples.  Bergenia ciliate (Haw.) Sternb. (Saxifragaceae); ‘Pakhanbed’. Juice of rhizome is applied to cure piles, tumor, urinary trouble, heart diseases, asthma and lungs problems. Powdered rhizome is used to treat in fever, diarrhea, cough and dysentery. A past of the rhizome is applied to boils. The flowers are boiled and pickled.  Betula alnoides Buch.-Ham.ex D.Don (Betulaceae); ‘Saur’ (N); ‘Takpa’ (T); Bark is boiled with water and the liquid mass is applied to dislocated bone and injury. Bark is chewed orally to treat sore throat and to check excessive menstruation. Wood is used for furniture, other construction purposes and fuel wood.  Bidens pilosa L.var. minor (Blume) sherff. (Asteraceae); ‘Kalokuro’ (N);. Plant juice is applied to cure fresh cuts and wounds. Tender shoots are cooked as vegetables by poor people. The whole plants are given as fodder to goats.  Boehmeria platyphylla D. Don (Urticaceae); ‘Chalnesisnu’(N); ‘Balbapungi’(T); Jaisithok, 0126. A decoction of the plant is given to livestock for diarrhoea and dysentery. A past of the root is used to treat cattle wounds and cuts. Juice of the leaves is applied to fresh cuts and wounds. Bark yields white shiny and strong threads for various mpurposes. Leaves are used as fodder for livestock.  Boehmeria regulosa Weddell (Urticaceae); ‘Dar’ (N);. Juice of the bark is applied to treat cuts and wounds and body pain. Powdered of the bark is mixed with flour to make bread soft and testy. The wood is famous to make bowls, ‘Theki’ and other household materials. Leaves are lopped for fodder.  . Brassica napus L. (Brassicaceae); ‘Tori’ (N);. Seeds oil is put in the ear to relieve earaches and it is also used for cooking vegetables. Husks are used to plastering the housed and bamboo baskets. Tender green leaves are cooked as a vegetable.

 Brassia oleracea L. var capitata (Brassicaceae); ‘Bandha’. Leaf juice is used to treat rheumatism and stomach disorder. Mature leaves are fermented for making ‘gundruk’.  Bridelia retusa (L.) Sprengel (Euphorbiaceae); ‘Gayo’(N);. Bark juice about 5 teaspoons three times a day is given to treat diarrhoea, dysentery and peptic ulcer. Ripen fruits are eaten fresh. Leaves are lopped for fodder.  Cajanus cajan (L.) Huth (Fabaceae); ‘Rahar’ (N);. Young leaves are chewed to treat boils on the tongue. Leaf juice is used treat in jaundice, cough and cold and diarrhoea. The past of the young leaves is used to treat wounds. Dry leaves are good sources of fodder for cattle. Seeds are used for soup and ‘daal’.  Castanopsis indica (Roxb.) Miquel (Fagaceae); ‘Katus’. A decoction of the leaves applied to treat stomach disorder and skin diseases. Powdered leaves are given to cure indigestion. A plant resin is given to treat diarrhoea. A paste of leaves is applied for headache. The leaves are lopped for fodder and wood is used for fuel and house construction.  Cipadessa bccifera (Roth) Miq. (Meliaceae); ‘Kaligeri’(N); ‘Bhaska’(T);. Root juice about 3 teaspoons three times a day is given to treat cough and cold and digestive problems. Past of the bark is applied to relieve bleeding and gums. Ripen fruits are eaten fresh. Leaves are lopped for fodder.  Citrus aurantifolia (Christ.) Swingle (Rutaceae); ‘Kagati’ (N); ‘Kagat’ (T. Fruits juice is used to relieve rheumatism, dysentery, diarrhea and indigestion.  Citrus aurantum L. (Rutaceae); ‘Suntala’(N); ‘Suntalo’(T); Methinkot,0095. Past of the dried fruits bark is applied to cure pimples and used as skin ointment.  Colebrookea oppositifolia Sm. (Lamiaceae); ‘Dhursil’ (N); ‘Bodebade’ (T);. Root juice is given to treat in epilepsy. Leaf juice is used to relieve fever, headaches and wounds. The juice of the young inflorescence is given to treat gastric problems and is also put in the nose for sinusitis. The plant is lopped for fodder to cattle.  Curcuma domestica Valeton (Zingiberaceae); ‘Besar’ (N); ‘Haldi’ (T); A decoction of rhizomes powder is used to relieve cough and colds and tonsillitis. A powdered rhizome mixed with lemon juice and is applied to treat swellings by inflammation. It is also used in cooking for flavor and colour.  Daphne bholua Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don. (Thymelaeaceae); ‘Lokta’ (N); ‘Dyasin’ (T);. A decoction of the bark is taken to relieve fever. Roots juice is used for intestinal disorder and parasites. Fibers from the bark are used for handmade Nepalese paper production. The plant is also used for stimulating buffaloes for intercourse. Bark of the stems is used for making ropes and strings.  Dioscorea bulbifera L. (Dioscoreaceae); ‘Bantarul’ (N); Juice of the root tubers is used to treat piles, dysentery, syphilis and ulcers. Tubers are boiled and eaten fresh. It is also cooked as a vegetable.  Dioscorea pentaphylla L. (Dioscoreaceae); ‘Jagatebhyakur’ (N);juice of the leaf is applied to treat boils. Tubers are boiled and prepared as vegetable. Sometimes, boiled tubers are eaten fresh.  Diplazium polypodioides Blume (Dryopteridaceae); ‘Hadeunyu’ (N); Juice of the root is applied to cure cuts and wounds. Plants are used as livestock beds. It is also used to make manure with mixing cattle dung.

 Diplazium stoliczke Beddome (Dryopteridaceae); ‘Kalinyuro’ (N);Juice of the tender fronds is given to treat diarrhea and dysentery. The tender shoots are cooked as a vegetable. The plants are used to make manure.  Elaeocarpus sphaericus (Gaertn.) K. Schum. (Elaeocarpaceae); ‘Rudraksha’(N); ‘Rudrachhe’(T);.Fruits juice is used as liver tonic and is useful to treat blood pressure and mental disorders. The plant has great religious value, especially for Hindus. The hard seed are used as ornaments.  Eupatorium adenophorum Sprengel (Compositae); ‘Banmara’(N); ‘Kaljhar’(T);. Juice of the plant is used to cuts and wounds. Juice of root is useful for fever treatment. A past of the leaf is applied to cure boils and it also used to treat eyes insomnia. I t is used for green manure and bio-briquette.  Euphorbia hirta L. Millsp. (Euphorbiaceae); ‘Dudhejhar’ (N); ‘Chhumen’(T);Plant juice is useful in the treatment of cough, diarrhoea, dysentery, asthma and bronchial infections. Juice is applied to heal wounds. A past of the root is used to treat dislocated bones and snake bites. Plant extraction is given to cow and Buffalo or Mother for increasing milk.  Euphorbia pulcherrima Willd ex Klotzsch (Euphorbiaceae); ‘Lalupate’(N); ‘Lalpatemhendo’(T);. Latex of the plant is applied to relieve boils. A past of the leaf is useful for skin diseases. The plant is cultivated as an ornamental and various rituals purposes.  Ficus bengalensis L. (Moraceae); ‘Bar’ (N);. A decoction of bark is used in dysentery, diarrhoea and diabetes. The milky latex is externally applied for pains and bruises and as an anodyne in rheumatism. It is also used as a remedy for toothache. The leaves are heated and applied as poultice to abscesses. Fruits are eaten fresh and seeds are considered cooling and tonic. Wood is suitable for furniture and other construction purposes. The leaves are looped for fodder. The plant is used for religious purpose.  Garuga pinnata Roxb. (Anacardiaceae); ‘Ramsinghe’ (N); A decoction of the root is useful in pulmonary affections and skin diseases. Juice of the bark is useful to treat dislocated bones and wounds. The juice of leaves is good for asthma. Fruits are used to cure roundworm. The plant is lopped for fodder.  Jasminum gracile Andrews (Oleaceae); ‘Chameliphool’ (N);. Juice of the root is useful for treatment of ringworm. Juice of the flowers is used to cure indigestion. The plant is cultivated as ornamental purposes.  Juniperus indica Bertol (Cupressaceae); ‘Dhupee’ (N); ‘Syukpa’ (T);. Plant juice is used as appetizer, diarrhoea and abdominal pain, diseases of spleen, tumors, piles bronchitis, and vaginal diseases. Berries are good for toothache and piles. It has also religious value.  Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet. (Fabaceae); Hiundesimi’ (N);. Leaf juice is applied to cure various skin diseases. Seeds are used to relief stomachic. Pods and seeds are cooked as a vegetable. The plant is used for fodder to cattle.  Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standley (Cucurbitaceae); ‘Lauka’ (N);. Juice of the fruit is given to cure indigestion, ulcers, stomach acidity and for cooling. The fruits are cooked as a vegetable. Pulp of the fruit is emetic and purgative.  Lannea coromandelica (Houttuyn) Merrill (Anacardiaceae); ‘Dabadabe’ (N); ‘Bheldhap’ (T);. Juice of the bark is useful to treat ulcers. The bark is applied for

tannin. The plant leaves are lopped for fodder to cattle. Wood is used for fuel, furniture and construction purposes.  Lepidium sativum L. (Brassicaceae); ‘Chamsur’ (N); ‘Chamsurdhap’ (T);. Plant juice is administered in cases of asthma, cough and bleeding piles. Root juice is useful for syphilis. Seed past is administered after being boiled with milk and applied to pains or hurts. Tender foliage is cooked as a vegetable.  Litsea monopetala (Roxb.) Pers. (Lauraceae); ‘Kutmero’ (N); ‘Chaput’ (N);. Bark juice is astringent, and used in diarrhoea. Powdered bark and roots are used in external applications of pains. Leaves are lopped for fodder for cattle. The wood is used for fuel.  Lycopodium clavatum L. (Lycopodiaceae); ‘Nagbeli’ (N); ‘Chhemhendo’ (T);. A past of the seed is applied to treat wounds, fissures and cracks and rheumatism. The plant is used in different festival and ceremonials.  Madhuca longifolia (Koeing) Machr.(Sapotaceae);‘Mahuwa’(N); ‘Mahuwaairag’(T); Khanalthok,0124. Latex from tree trunk is used to cure boils. Decoction of the bark is given to diabetes. A decoction of the flower is about 4 teaspoons three times a day is given in case of cough and cold. Seeds are useful in rheumatism and skin disease. Young leaves are ground and used for fish poison. Wood is used for construction, furniture and fuel.  Magnifera indica L. (Anacardiaceae) ‘Aanp’ (N); ‘Kyungwa’ (T);. The juice of the bark is boiled with water and used to wash the body and legs to relief from jaundice. Decoction of the bark is used treat rheumatism and ulcer. Leaf juice is given to cure cough and cold, dysentery. The latex is useful for treatment of scabies and skin disease. Wood is used for furniture and fuel. Ripen fruits are eaten fresh.  Melia azedarach L. (Melaceae); ‘Bakaino’ (N); ‘Chanyal’ (T);. The juice of the bark is used to cure leprosy, scrofula and skin diseases. Decoction of leaves is administrated to hysteria. A past of the bark is applied to treat headaches and rheumatic pain. Fruits and flowers are boiled in water and applied for killing lice. Wood is used for furniture and fuel. Leaves are lopped for fodder.  Mentha spicata L. (Lamiaceae); ‘Pudina’ (N); ‘Bawari’ (T);. Leaf juice is given to treat nausea, diarrhoea, bloody dysentery, vomiting and gastric disorder. Leaves are also chewed for boils on the tongue. Leaves are used to prepare pickle.  Morina longifolia Wallich ex de Candolle (Morinaceae) ‘Thakailikanda’ (N);. Juice of the root is used to treat dysentery and diarrhoea. Tender stem is eaten with extraction of bark. The plant is used as incense.  Morus macroura Miq. (Moraceae); ‘Kimbu’ (N);. Bark juice is applied to cure cuts and wounds. Fruits are refrigerant in fever, used as a remedy for soar throat, dyspepsia and melancholia. Ripen fruits are eaten fresh. Leaves are lopped for fodder to cattle.  Musa paradisiaca L. (Musaceae); ‘Kera’ (N); ‘Moje’ (N);Unripe fruit juice is given to treat diarrhoea and dysentery. Banana powder is applied to treat colic disease. It is also used for intestinal disorders in adults. Ripe fruits are eaten fresh and useful in diabetes, uremia, nephritis, gout, hypertension and cardiac disease. Juice of flowers is used in dysentery. Flowers are boiled and pickled. Green

bananas are cooked as a vegetable. Leaves are used as plates. Plant is used as ritual and religious purposes.  Oryza sativa L. (Poaceae); ‘Dhan’ (N); ‘Sun’ (T); Rice is soaked about an hour and the liquid is drunk to treat inflammation of the heart and indigestion. Rice straw is good sources of food for cattle in dry season. It is also used for making mat and wearing shoes. Rice is one of the most popular foods for human. It is also used to prepare ‘Chhang’.  Phyllanthus urinaria L. (Euphorbiaceae); ‘Bhuinamala’ (N); The tubers juice of the plant is given to treat diarrhoea and dysentery. A past of the leaf is used in gonorrhea, urinary troubles and boils. Plants are also used for ornamental purposes.  Psidium guajava L. (Myrtaceae); ‘Amba’ (N);. Bark juice is administrated to cure dysentery. Leaves juice is taken to treat bowels, wounds and ulcers. A decoction of the leaves is applied in cholera, diarrhea and indigestion. A past of leaf is applied for rheumatism, cuts and wounds. Leaf buds are chewed to treat fever and headaches. Ripen fruits are eaten fresh.  Rhus javanica L. (Anacardiaceae); ‘Bhakamilo’ (N); ‘Tibro’ (T);. Fruits are ground and used to treat paralysis, colic, and diarrhoea and bloody dysentery. A past of the fruits is applied to treat swellings and wounds. Fruits are chewed in case of stomachic and appetizer. Powder fruit is given to cure profuse menstruation. A decoction of fruit is administrated to animal foot and mouth diseases. Ripen fruits are eaten fresh or pickled.  Saccharum officinarum L. (Poaceae) ‘Ukhu’ (N); ‘Usyup’ (T);. Stem juice is used to treat jaundice and urinary problems. It is also drunk for the remedy of stomach disorder and ulcers of the skins, seminal weakness. Plant is used as ceremonial and religious purposes.  Solanum melongena L. (Solanaceae); ‘Bhanta’ (N);. A decoction of the root is used to treat heart problems. Leaf juice is applied to treat throat aches and stomach problems. A green fruit is roasted and eaten to relieve cough and cold. Fruits are cooked as a vegetable and pickled in different ways.  Swertia angustifolia Buch.–Ham.ex D.Don. (Gentianaceae); ‘Chiraito’ (N); ‘Kampman’ (T); Methinkot, 0082. Root juice is given to treat fever. Decoction of plants is used for blood purifier and useful in bile disease and cough and cold.  Taxus baccata (L.) subsp. wallichiana (Taxaceae); ‘Lothsalla’ (N); ‘Sigi’ (T);. Juice of the leaves is given for cough and cold, bronchitis and asthma. Toxal extracted from bark and leaves of this plant is also used as anti-tumor agent and also to cure cancer particularly of breast and uterus. Leaves are sold in the market.  Thysanolaena maxima (Roxb.) Kuntze (Gramineae); ‘Amreso’ (N); ‘Sarsi’ (T);.A past of the root is applied to cure boils. The villagers use bundle of the inflorescences to make brooms, which are the good sources of income generation. Tender portion of leaf base is eaten fresh. Plant is also the good sources of food for cattle.  Toona ciliate (M.) Roemer (Meliaceae); ‘Tuni’ (N);. Bark juice is administrated to cure in chronic infantile dysentery, external application for ulcer and boils. Leaves are lopped for fodder to cattle. Woods are used for furniture, carving and fuel.

 Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper. (Fabaceae); ‘Mass’ (N);.Root juice is used to treat nostalgia and abscess an inflammations. Seeds are cooked as lentil soup ‘daal’ in Nepali and taken as appetizer, tonic and it is also used for urinary problems. Seeds are ground in flour and use to prepare breads. The husk and straw are used as fodder to cattle in dry season.

Chapter 2 Classification of MAPs

This chapter discusses phyto geography, classification of MAPs Based on parts used, therapeutic use, industrial purpose, odor, etc.

Phytogeography is one of the branches of botany which deals with the spatial relationship of plants both in the present and the past. It is intimately connected with plant ecology. It is concerned with the correlation between plants and the distribution of external environments. The chief aim and object of phytogeography is to record and then explain the distribution of plants over the surface of the world Nepal lies between the latitudes 260.22' and 30.010' N and the longitude 80.05'E and 88.012' E. The country occupies about 27% Himalayan regions of alpine climate, 50% Mahabharat and hilly regions of temperate, sub temperate climate and 23% plane regions of tropical climate of the total areas. Among the forests occupy about 29.1% and grassland covers about 12%, 10.6% of shrub land, 21% of farm land, and 7% of uncultivated or barren land of the land in our country. There are 5160 species made available in our country. Among such rest species 385 pteridophytes, 25 gymnosperms and 4750 angiosperms. About 800 to 1000 species ie 10% of the total flora of the country have been identified as medicinal plants, 250 species are aromatic plants in nature. Among them more than 110 species are being widely used as commercial purposes. The distribution of vegetation and climate is not homogenous but is highly variable. Classification of MAPS

According to Motoyoshi Satake (2000), medicinal plants can roughly be classified into two groups: “One of them is that used as the materials of medicines for systematic medical treatment. This type of medicinal plants has been passed down from generation to generation by means of written documents. Each of the sites where the world’s four greatest civilizations started had its won medicine. The medicine of Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilizations made progress as Western and Arabian medicine via the Greek and Roman civilizations, whereas that of the Indus civilization evolved into Ayurveda medicine and that of Yellow river civilizations into Chinese medicine and Kampo medicine. The other group is the plants used in the region where no systematic medical treatment exists and those not included into the system of medicine. Most of these medicinal plants have not been handed over down to us by written materials”

Aromatic Plants:- (Major importance and commercially cultivated in Nepal) 1. Cinnamomum Zeylanicum.2.Cymbopogon flexuous (Lemon grass oil). 2. Cymbopogon martini (Palma rosa oil) 3. Cymbopogon winterianus (Citronella) 4. Eucalyptus citratus (Eucalyptus leaf oil) 5. Eucalyptus globulus (Eucalyptus leaf oil) 6. Mentha arvensis, Mentha citrata, Mentha piperita (Menth oil). 7. Cinnamomum camphora (Camphor oil). 8. Cymbopogon martini var. sofia (Ginger grass oil) 9. Pelargonium graveolens (Geraniun oil), 10. Santalum album (Sandal wood oil) 11. Vetiveria zizaniodes (Vetiver oil), 12. Pimpinella anisum (Aniseed oil) 13. citrus sps. Minor importance and commercially cultivated in Nepal. : 1. Acorus calamus (Calamus oil). 2. Gardenia florida (Gardenia oil) 3. Jasminum grandiflour, J. oflicinale, J.sambac (Jasmine oil) 4. Juniperus communis (Juniper berry oil.) 5. Lawsonia innermis / L. alba. (Henna oil) 6. Rosa damascena (Rose oil) 7. Polianthes tuberosa (Tube rose oil) 8. Valeriana officinalis (Valerian oil) 9. Lavendula officinalis, L. latifolia 10. Ocimum basilicum. 11. Myristica fragrans. 12. Michelia champaca. 13. Hibiscus ablemoschus.

Dr. P. R. Shakya (2000) classified medicinal plants used in folk remedies into: 1. Terai and low hill medicinal plants 2. Mid-hill valleys and mid-mountain medicinal plants 3. High mountains medicinal plants

The vegetation of Nepal broadly divided in to the following zones. They are as follows:

1. Tropical Zones . ( Approximately 49.2 % vegetation) This zone comprises lower most regions of the country whole Tarai, Siwalik hills, Dun valley and southern slopes of Mahabharat range. It extends from east to west. Altitude - below 1000m. Climate- warm, humid, average rainfall- 700 - 2600mm/yr., soil - rich in humus. During day time great heat prevails. Max temperature has 450c and min. temp.8- 100c.

Dominant Families: Leguminosae, Dipterocarpaceae, Verbanaceae, Rubiaceae, Moraceae, Myrtaceae, Lauracae, Asclepiadaceae, Scorphuriaceae, Anacardiaceae, Poaceae etc.

Medicinal Plants: (400 – 1200 species) Rauvolfia serpentina, Datura metal, Bixa orellane, Azadirachta indica, Cassia fistula, Tinospora cordifolia, Terminalia chebula, T. bellirica, Tamarinduus indica, Mimosa pudica, Saraca indica, Syzygium cumini, Justicia adhatoda, Ocimum sanctum, Paris polyphylla, Cannabis sativa, Cassia fistula, etc

Aromatic plants – Citronella, Ginger grass,Palmarosa, Lemon grass, Champaca, Merrygold ,Rose, Jasmine, Levender, Eucalyptus, Vetiver.

2. Sub-tropical Zone: (Approx. 53. 96% vegetation). It lies between Siwalik hills to Southern slope of Mahabharat range. Altitude -1000m -2500m. Average annual rainfall- 1000mm to 2500mm. soil –rich in humus Prolong dry season alternating with wet season. Temp.- 8 – 28oc.in hot summer, moderately cold weather. Western Nepal (Karnali section): 1. Sub-tropical zone: (a) Sal forest. (b) Deciduous forest. (c) Riverine and Swamp forest. (d) Dry slope forests. (e) Pine forests. 2. Temperate zone : (a) Lower temperate forests. (b) Upper temperate forests. 3. Alpine zone : (a) Sub-alpine forests. (b) Alpine meadows (c) Alpine scrub.

Central Nepal (Gandaki section) : 1. Subtropical zone: (a) Sal forest. (b) Mixed forest. (c) Riverine forest. (d) Pine forest. (e) Grassland forest. (f) Semi-evergreen forest. 2. Temperate zone (a) Broad leaved forests. (b) Coniferous forests. 3. Alpine zone : (a) Sub- alpine forests, (b) Moist alpine scrub, (c) Alpine meadows. Eastern Nepal (Kosi section) : 1. Submontane zone. (a) Sal forests (b) Mixed forests, (c) Dry forests, (d) Pine forests, (e) Sub-tropical semi-evergreen forests, (f) Evergreen forests. 2. Temperate zone: (a) Lower temperate, (b) Upper temperate forests. 3. Alpine zone : (a) Sub-alpine forests, (b) Alpine scrub, (c) Alpine meadows. 1. Pinus roxburghii forest. 2.Schima - Castanopsis forest. 3. Alnus nepalensis forest. 4. Reverian with Toona & Albizzia sps.

Vegetation. Schima wallichi (Chilaune), Anthocephalus cadamba, Myrica esculenta (Kafal), Castanopsis indica (Katush). Pinus roxburghii, Pinus wallichiama, Betula utilis,, Rhododendron arboreum, Dendrocalamus, Polyalthia longifolia, Michelia champaca, Castonopsis, Lagerstroemia, parviflora, Flacourtia indica. Smilax zeylancia, Calastrus paniculatus, Tribulus terrestris, Alnus neplensis, Gloriosa suberba, Olea ferruginea, Schima castonopsis.Lindera pulcherrima, Acer campbelli.Juniperus spp.

Medicinal Plants. Dioscorea bustrifere, D. daltoidea, Achyranthus aspera, Eleocarpus spheoriass. 3 Sida rhombifolia, Mahonia hapaulongsis, Justicia adhatoda.

3. Temperate Zone. Extend Mahabharat rage and it's parallel, North to Siwalik hills from east to west. Climate - cool and humid, Altitude 2000 - 3100m. Average annual rainfall 500 - 850mm/year, Soil - humus. Summers is moderately hot, a winter very cold. Temperature ranges from 2º C- 3º C. Dominant Families: Rubiaceae, Compositae, Rosaceae, Acanthecae, Leguminosae, Lauraceae, Orchadiaceae, Ranunculaceae, Polygonaceae, Pinaceae, etc.

Vegetation: Evergreen oks, Populus, Rhododendron, Betula alnoids, Artemisia, Potentilla argyrophylla, Clematis, Tsuga dumosa, Juniperus indica, Quercus semicrpifolia, Quercus dilatata, Aesculus indica, Salix, Pinus wallichiana, Vanda sp.

4. Sub Alpine Zone. It comprises inner and outer Himalayas up to Tibetan marginal. Altitude - 3100m - 4100m., climate - extremely cold, dry and windy. Average annual rainfall less then 400mm. Predominant Families :Ranunculaceae, Papaveraceae, Caryophyllaceae, Scorphulariaceae, Coniferae.

Medicinal plants (150-275 sps.): Aconitum heteroplyllum (Utis), Aconitum balbiflorii, (Gobari), Ephedra gerardiana (Somlata). Rheum emodi (Padam dal), Potentlea fructios (Bhairuy pate.)Cordyceps sinensis, Artemesia,

5. Alpine Zone. This is the region lies Himalayas extend from east to west. Altitude above 4000m - 6000m. up to snowline. Climate - moist alpine scrub and dry alpine scrub. Cold wind, freezing temperature, powerful sunlight, low atmosphere pressure, snow covered, extreme conditions, plant growth is almost nil in snow line region. Rainfall minimum in the shower of snow rain most of the plants are hairy and coloured.

Vegetation: Evergreen conifers and some low and broad leaved trees, eg. Caltha palustris, Caltha scapiosa, Carex atrofura, Thalictum alpinum, Potentilla microphylla, Cerium, Braya, Stipa, Draba, Silverfir. Rhododendron, Hippohac rhamnoides, Cotoneaster microphyllus, Saussurea gossypiphora. Meconopsis horridula. Saxifraga, Primula. Alpine zone are of two types. 1. Moist alpine scrub – short, stunted trees, bushes or shrubs growing thickly together. 2. Dry alpine scrub.

Table 3 and 4 presents information on distribution of some important medicinal species.

Table 3. Distribution of some important medicinal species in high altitudes in Nepal. Scientific name Nepali name Plant type Altitude (m) Parts used Aconitum bisma Bikhama Herb 3000-4500 Roots Aconitum heterophyllum Atis Herb 2400-4000 Roots Aconitum spicatum Bikh Herb 3300-4300 Roots Allium wallichii Ban lashun Herb 2800-4300 Roots Bergenia ciliata Pakhanved Herb 1800-4300 Tuber Cordyceps sinensis Yarsagumba Fungi 3000-5000 Entire plant Dactylorhiza hatagirea Panchaule Herb 2800-4000 Roots

Delphidium denudatum Nirbisi Herb 1500-2700 Roots Ephedra gerardinia Somlata Shrub 2400-5000 Roots Gaultheria fragrantissima Dhasingare Shrub 1500-2700 Leaves Juniperus communis Dhupi Tree 1800-4600 Bark Lycopodium clavatum Nagbeli Herb 1200-3500 Stems Nardostachys grandiflora Jatamansi Herb 3600-4800 Rhizomes Paris polyphylla Satuwa Herb 2000-3000 Leaves Parmelia sp. Jhyau Herb 1000-3500 Lichen Picrorrhiza kurroa Kutki Herb 3300-4300 Roots Rheum emodi Padamchal Herb 3000-4200 Roots Rhododendron anthopogon Sunpati Shrub 3000-4800 Entire plant Swertia chirayita Chiraito Herb 1500-3000 Entire plant Taxas baccata Laudha salla Tree 2100-3400 Leaves Valeriana jatamansi Sugandhawal Herb 2500-3600 Roots

Table 4. Distribution of medicinal plants in low altitudes of Nepal. Scientific name Nepali Plant type Altitude (m) Parts used name Emblica officinalis Amla Tree 200-1200 Fruit Terminalia bellirica Barro Tree 500-1500 Fruit Acorus calamus Bojo Herb 500-2200 Root Terminalia chebula Harro Tree 500-1500 Fruit Asparagus racemosus Kurilo Herb 600-2100 Root Rubia cordifolia Majitho Climber 1202-2700 Stem Cinnamomum tamala Nepali Tree 450-2100 Bark dalchini Entada phaseoloides Pangaro Climber 300-1400 Fruit Piper longum Pipla Climber 200-1500 Fruit Sapindus mukorossi Ritha Tree 0-1500 Fruit Elaeocarpus sphaericus Rudraksha Tree 800-1500 Fruit Rauvolfia serpentina Sarpagandh Herb 0-1200 Root a Acacia consinna Sikakai Tree?? 200-1200 Fruit Cinnamomum glaucescens Sugandhako Tree 200-1200 Fruit kila Cinnamomum tamala Tejpat Tree 450-2100 Leaf Zanthoxylum armatum Timur Shrub 1100-2500 Fruit Dioscorea deltoidea Vyakur Climber 450-3100 Root

HPPCL classifies medicinal plants into three types to make easy identification. These include: 1. Herbal plants with medicinal properties 2. Essential oil bearing medicinal plants 3. Other herbal plants

Table 6. Three different types of herbal plants found in Nepal. Types Mountain Terai 1. Herbal plants with medicinal properties Roots bearing Panchaule, Jatamasi, Sarpagandha, Khaskhas, medicinal Sugandhawal, Bishma, Pashanved, Sikakai, Indreni properties Bhyakur, Bojho, Kurilo, Ban lasun Leaves with Tejpat, Kumkum, Lothsalla, Bhorla, Titepati, Asuro, Sikakai medicinal Dhasingre properties Seeds and fruits Pipla, Rudracchya, Katus, Lapsi, Sikakai, Indreni, Harro, Barro, Rittha, Sugandhkokila, Dhaiyaro Amala, Kusum (fruit) Whole plant Yarshagumba, Jhyau, Majitho, Jibanti, Gurjo Chiraito, Titepati, Gurjo, Ghodtapre, Somlata, Nagbeli Bark Okhar, Kafal, Dalchini, Chutro, Chhatiwan, Totelo, Palas, Bhojpatra Arjun, Nim Flower & Floss Flowers of Sugandhkokila, Flowers of Asuro, Simal (floss Dhasingre, Gurans, Nageshwar, also), Ank, Palans (floss), Buki phul, Kamal Makhamal Dye Pipla, Geranium, Pyrethrum, Amala, Mehendi, Ghantiphu Majitho, Tuki phul Gum/Resin Silajit, Khoto, Gokul dhum, Saldhum Raktachandan 2. Essential oil bearing medicinal plants Sugandhkokila, Mentha, Citronella, Palmarosa, Geranium, Sayapatri, Masala, Lemongrass, Sugandhakokila, Sugandhwal, Kumkum Mentha 3. Others Bramhi, Asuro, Lalgedi, Nagbeli* Source: Jadibuti kheti, Sankalan, Prashodhan tatha Samrakchhyan pustika, 2055. * not categorized into Mountain and Terai.

Classification of Aromatic plants based on their scented plants parts. 1. Plants with Scented Leaves - Abies balsamea, Artemisia dracunculus, Aloe vera, Centella asiatica,Citrus aurantium, Cymbopogon sps, Calotrpic procera, Cinnamomun comphara, Erythroxylon coca, Digitalis purpurea, Eucalyptus globules. Lavandula officinalis Mentha sps. Ocimum basilicum, Rhododerdron sps, Salix alba,Salvia officinalis, Tagetes sps Viola odorata, Vitex trifoliata. 2. Plants with Scented Young Twigs, Flowering tops, Needles and adherent Leaves Eucalyptus citriodora, E. globulus. Abies alba, Eugenia caryophyllata, Hypericum perforatum, Pinus sp, Thuja Occidentalis Umbellularia californica. 3. Plants with Scented Flowers -

Anthocephalus cadamba, Cestrum nocturnum, Crocus sativus, Citrus aurantium, Iris sps, Jasminum sps, Magnolia grandiflora, Murraya exotica, Nyctanthes arbor-trisits, Rosa damascena R. moschata, R. centifolia, Syzygium aromatium, Tilia tomentosa, Vibernum sps. Viola odorata, Matricularia chamomilla. 4. Plants with Aromatic Wood Acacia catecheu,Cedrus deodara, Cinnamomum camphora, Myrica gale, Dryoabalanops aromatica, Lindera sps, Veronica cupressoides.Santalum album, Pinus sps., Ephedra gerardiana,Guaiacum officinale. 5. Plants with Aromatic Bark - Betula lanta, Croton eluteria, Cinnamomum sp. Commiphora wightii,Gardenia rothmania, Melia azedarach, Pavetta indica, Litsea calicaris, Cinchona officinalis, Cinchona robusta, Rhamnus purshiana, Saraca indica, Terminalia arjuna, Toddalia asiatica, Wrightia tintoria. 6. Plants with Aromatic Gums - Canarium commune, C. mulleri, Cistus cypricus, Gardenia arborea, G. lucida, Pistacia lentiscus, Styrax benzoin. 7. Plants with scented Underground Parts Acorus calamus, Allium cepa. A.sativa, Alpinia galangal,Althea officinalis Curcuma aromatica Cephaelis ipecaunha,Ferula asafoetida, Ipomea purga,Inula odorda , Nardostachys jatamansi, Valeriana officinalis, V. wallichii, Zingibar officinale . 8. Plants with Scented Fruits and Berries. Aegle marmelos, Anamirta cocculus, Cuminum cyminum,Phyllanthus officinalis, Piper longum. Elettaria cardamomum, Humulus lupulus, Ilicum majus, Mucuna pruriens,Myristica argentea, Pimenta dioica, Solanum nigrum, Sassafrus officinalis, Terminalia chebula, T. bellerica, Vanilla planifolia, Zenthoxylum nitidum. 9. Fruits with Scented Peel Citrus lemon, C. limettioides. 10. Plants with Aromatic Seeds - Apium graveolens, Croton tiglium, Digitalis prupurea, Hydnocarpus kurzii, Plantago ovata, Nigella damascena Phellandrium aquaticum, Sesamun indicum,Strophanthus komba, Strychnos nux –vomica, Sinapis alba.Trigonelle- foenum graecum. 11. All parts of plants scented - Achyranthus aspera, Andrographis paniculata, Artemesia absinthum, Catharanthus roseus, Mentha sps. Orthodon sp. Pedalium murex, Pycnanthus incanum, Swertia chirata,Satureja montana, Tegetes grandulifera 12. Plants with Aromatic Roots. Aconitumheterophyllum, Atropa belladona, Atropa acuminate,Apium graveolens, Cephaelis ipecacuanha, Chlorophytum borivillianum,Rauvolfia serpentine, Glycyrrhiza glabra, Podophyllum peltata, Panax pseudo- ginseng, Panax quinquefolium, Withania somnifera. 13. Drugs obtained from the Lower Plants. A. Antibiotics.--- Actinomycetes,Bacteria, Fungi, Molds. B. Ergot. --- Claviceps purpurea.

C. Algae, Bryophytes,Pteridophytes ( Lycopodium clavatum), Lichens ( Roccella montagnei, Cetaria islandica.)

On the basis of Therapeutic Systems.  Ayurvedic system . Originated from India.( more than 7000 plants used )  Allopathic system.- Greek, U.K. ( 30-40 plants used)  Homeopathic system – Germany.( 450 plants used)  Tibetian system – Tibet, China ( 4000 plants used).  Unani system --Greece , Unan.( 700 plants used)  Siddha system – Western Asia or India, (600 plants used).

On the basis of the Angiospermic families. 1. Dicotyledonous Families. 2. Monocotyledonous Families.

Classification the basis of Odour or Perfume

1 Winter Green oil ( Gaultheria procumbens). 2 Otto of rose oil - Rose 3. Citrus oil - Lemon, Rosemary, Sweet oranges, Bergamot. 4. Floral oils - Jasmine oil,Gardenia ,Narcissus Neroli oil,Vanilla , Champac oil Carnation,Lavender oil .Geranium oil, 5. Spicy oil - Nutmeg, Ginger, Pipper, Clove, Cinnamomun. 6. Chyper oil - obtained from sweet warm spices, woody and floral parts. Heavy and clinging type of perfume. ( Lavendula angustifolia). 7. Fougere oil - Sandalwood, Vetiver, Jasmine, Rose flower. 9. Woody oil - Cedar wood, Sandal wood, Comphor. Putchouli. 10. Almond oil. Bergamot oil,( Citrus bergnia) Citronella oil ,Chamomile oil ( Matricaria recutica), Eucalyptus oil, Ginger oil, Ginger grass oil, Lemon grass oil, Mentha oil, Palma Rosa oil, Rosemary oil, Thyme oil ( Thymus vulgaris), Ylang – Ylang oil ( Cananga odorata).

From Wild Resources. Artemisia oil, Abies oil, Aaola oil, Calamus oil, Juniper leaf oil, Jatamansi oil, Rhododendron oil, Sugandhwal oil, Sugandhkokila oil, Terpentine oil, Winter green oil, Usir oil, Zanthoxylem oil, Zedoria oil. ( Curcuma zedoaria).

On the basis of Odours according to the Notes in musical scale(fragrance harmony) 1.The Top Notes. They have a fresh , light quality which is immediately apparent due to the fast evaporation rate. eg, Basil, Eucalyptus, Lemon, Mandarin, Tea tree. 2.The Middle Notes. They posses the heart of the fragrance, which usually forms the bulk of the blend , which scent emerges some time after mix thoroughly the first impression. eg, Geranium, Lavender, Marjoram, Rosemary, Rose wood. 3. The Base Notes. They are rich, heavy scent that emerges slowly and lingers It also acts as a fixative to stop the lighter oils from dispersing too quickly. eg. Benzoin (Styrax benzoic), Frankincense (Boswell carter), Jasmine , Myrrh ( Commiphora myrrha), Patchouli ( Pogostmon cablin).

Chapter 3 Trade of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants: MAPs in CITES, Trade Policies and Legislations, and Economics

3.1. Introduction to MAP Trade Medicinal plants have diverse consumers, which include traditional physicians, folk healers, pharmacies, drug manufacturers, householders and other domestic users. To meet the ever-growing demand of these consumers, medicinal plants are generally collected from the wild sources often adopting non-sustainable methods. It is more shocking than interesting to note that the pharmacies and drug manufacturers fulfill their raw material demand from their destructive wild collection which includes either the entire plant, or underground parts like rhizome, tuber and roots of a reproductive parts like fruits and seeds. Permits are granted by the Department of Forestry, but surprisingly the export volume exceeded than the permitted volumes for collection.

3.1.1. Industries/Companies in Nepal According to Malla, processing industries and also the traditional and modern medicine factories numbers twenty-one in 1995. These industries rely mainly on wild collection and the sustainability is at the threat. The existing manufacturing Companies are as follows: 1. Singh Durbar Vaidyakhana, Kathmandu 2. Herbs Production and Processing Co. Ltd. (HPPCL), Koteshwar, Kathmandu 3. Shambhala Herbal and Aromatic Industry Pvt Ltd., Kathmandu 4. Bahubali Herbal Essence and Extracts Pvt Ltd., Nepalgunj 5. Humla Oil Co., Humla 6. Karnali Herbal Co., Jumla 7. Nepal Mentha Products Pvt Ltd., Kathmandu 8. Pathibhara Essential Oil Co., Dolkha 9. Dabur Nepal Ltd., Bara and Banepa 10. Krishna Aushdhyalay, Kathmandu 11. Arogya Bhawan Works, Kathmandu 12. Gorkha Ayurved Co. Ltd., Kathmandu 13. Himalayan Herbs, Kathmandu 14. Himalayan Herbal Preparation, Kathmandu 15. Belganga Ayurved Pharmacetucal Pvt.Ltd., Bhairahawa 16. Pashupati Ayurvedic Aushdhyalay, Kathmandu 17. Tibetian Kumphun Clinic, Kathmandu 18. Annapurna Ayurved Co. Pvt Ltd., Kaski

Organizations involved in the production in Nepal 1. Arogya Bhavan Works, Kathmandu 2. Shree Baidyakhana Ayurved, HMG, Anam Nagar, Kathmandu 3. Dabur Nepal Pvt. Ltd. ( Medicinal plant project), Banepa 4. Everest Herbs Processing Pvt. Ltd., Kahtmandu

5. Gorkha Ayurved Company Pvt. Ltd., Kathmandu 6. Herbal Production and Processing Company Ltd. (HPPCL), Tinkune, Koteshwar, Kathmandu 7. The Himalayan Herbal Health Products Ltd. (HHHPL), Kathmandu 8. N. N. Herbal Industries Pvt. Ltd., Kathmandu 9. The Royal Drugs of Nepal, Kathmandu

Herbal Farms and Botanical Gardens in Nepal Belbari Herbal Farm (Morang) Tarhara Herbal Farm (Sunsari) Tamagarhi Herbal Farm (Bara), Vrindaban Botanical Garden (Hatuada), Mountain Botanical Garden (Daman, Makawanpur), Botanical Garden/Conservation and Education Garden (Godavari, Lalitpur) Tistung Botanical Garden (Tistung, Makawanpur) Shivapur Herbal Farm (Sankhu, Kathmandu) Bansgadi Herbal Farm (Bardiya), Tikapur Herbal Farm ( Kailali) Green House, Dabur Nepal Ltd. (Banepa).

3.1.2. Medicinal Plants for Commerce/Trade The crude herbs as well as herbal products have been exported to other countries such as Australia, France, Germany, Italy, India, UK, Japan, USA, Span, Pakistan, South Korea, Bangladesh. Although about 8000 species of plants are estimated to be used in human and animal care and over 10,000 herbal drugs formulations have been recorded in codified pharmacoepia, the pharmaceutical industries are largely based on about 400 plants species.

List of major collected medicinal herbs from Nepal SN Latin name Approx. quantity collected (Tons) 1 Asparagus racemosus 25 2 Aconitum heterophyllum 50 3 Cinnamomum tamala 120 4. Cordyceps sinensis - 5 Dactylorhiza hatagirea 100 6 Dioscorea deltoidea 110 7 Embelica officinalis 80 8 Elaeocarpus sphaericus 300 9 Lycopodium clavatum 30 10 Nardostachys grandiflora 1000 11 Picorhiza seropulariphlora 60 12 Piper longum 65 13 Rheum austral 110 14 Rubia Manjitha 60 15 Rhododendron anthopogon 45

16 Sapindus mukorossi 1100 17 Terminalia chebula 350 18 Terminalia bellirica 450 19 Taxus wallichii 400 20 Taxus baccata 120 21 Tagetes minuta 75 22 Taxus wallichiana 1200 23 Swertia chirayita 650 24 Tinospora sinensis 200 25 Valeriana jatamansi 360 26 Zinger officinalis 2500 27 Zanthoxylum armatum 700

Medicinal plants of Nepal hold good reputation in trade particularly in India as well as abroad. Many of them are exclusively found in wild condition in the particular Himalayan regions. Rural people of different zones of the country are mainly involved in harvesting of several types of medicinal plants from the Terai to high mountainous areas, both legally or illegally. These medicinal and aromatic plants are traded world wide. However, only a fraction of the total harvest of plants is processed in our country by the governmental organization as well as private companies. In Nepal there are 2000 licensed pharmacies of Ayurved medicine in addition to 1000 of homeopathy and a number of unlicensed small scale processing unit engaged in the manufacture of medicines to meet the requirement of thousands registered practitioners of Vaidyakhana and other users. The Department of Ayurved, Singh Durbar Vaidyakhana, Ministry of Health (MOH), Nepal Government in 1998 listed essential Ayurvedic drugs comprising of 339 preparations under 44 main headings of symptomatic diseases. Herbal drugs industry in Nepal has yet to develop in its full capacity as to meet the demand of the country. Although the consumption of herbs and its products within the country is very limited and majority of them exported to the different countries. At present, domestic production level of the herbal drug meets 25% of the domestic requirement and the rest is fulfilled by the imports, mainly from India. The percentage of annual consumption of Nepalese herbal products in domestic market is 35 - 40% and international markets are 60- 70% only. It is usually accepted that over 80 % of the trade takes place without official records. Where as 95% of crude drugs are harvested for trade to India.

3.1.3. Plants for Commercial Purposes Wild: Abies sps, Artemisia, Calamus, Jatamansi, Juniper, Rhododendron, Sugandhakokila, Sugandhwal, Wintergreen, Usir, Zanthoxylum, Zedoria

Cultivated: Citronella, Chemomile, Calamus, Eucalyptus, French basil, Gingergrass, Lemongrass, Mentha, Palmarosa, Rose, Vetiver, etc.

3.1.4. Herbal Drugs and Products The herbal products are Ashwagandha, Ashokaristha. Dasmularistha, Sharpagandha,Trifala churna, Herbal tea, Balms, Sancho, Sparsh, Bhojo, Herbal incense,

tooth paste, Talcum powder, Cosmetics, Food spices, Perfumes, Soaps, Detergents, Herbal pillows.

3.2. MAPs in CITES

3.2.1. What is CITES CITES is abbreviation of The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. It is the most widely accepted international treaties on the conservation of natural resources that protects endangered species and limits the illicit trade in wild life among nations. Drawn up by the UN in 1973, this treaty came into force in 1975 when the US and 17 other nations became Parties to it. As of January 1, 1975, 143 of the world’s nations had become Parties to the treaty. In 1975, an International Treaty to govern trade in wild life named as CITES came into force. Now a day there are over 170 nations have signed and or ratified the CBD. Nepal is the signatory of CITES and she has signed 12 June 1992 and ratified on 23rd November 1993. The parties meet every two years to review progress, amend the lists of species covered by CITES (APPENDICES I, II. III) and discuss the complicated task of enforcement IUCN-The World Conservation Union. IUCN provides scientific inputs to CITES through over 5000 specialists who function under its Species Survival Commission (SSC) and other relevant commission such as Law Commission and The World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC).

3.2.2. What convention does? The convention attempts – 1. To prevent commercial trade in species of wild life which are in danger of extinction 2. To control and monitor the trade in species which might become so if their trade remain unchecked, 3. To safeguard biological species from being extinction on account of the pressure arising from international trade of plants, animals and their parts or products

About 2500 animal species and 30,000 plant species have been currently listed in appendices of CITES (also listed in IUCN’s Red Data Book). Some valuable medicinal plants of Nepal are thus also regulated by CITES. Department of Plant Resources (DPR) is the scientific authority for CITES while Department of Forestry (DOF) is the management authority. Forty-one MAP species have been assigned to various categories : 3 taxa are classified as Critically Endangered, 14 as Endangered, 23 as Vulnerable, 3 Nearly Threatened, 1 taxon as of Least Concern and 7 taxa as having Data Deficient (IDRC and CAMP Workshop, Pokhara, 2000). Currently, 60 species of non-endemic plants of Nepal are considered as threatened (Shrestha and Joshi, 1996), based on IUCN threat-categories. Among them, 29 species are MAPs.

This treaty recognizes three categories of species as listed in APPENDICES.

APPENDIX I Code of ethic for foreign plant collectors This treaty was developed at “Botany 2000 Herbarium Curation Workshop" held in Perth, Western Australia on October 15 – 19, 1990. It comprises those species which are considered threatened with extinction and which are or may be affected by trade. International trade is strictly regulated for these species and only permitted in special circumstances.

This includes some highly threatened species: a) Certain types of orchids and cacti. b) Medicinal plants.- Saussurea lappa, Saussurea ovallata, Ullamis wallichiana, Calligonum polygonoides, Commiphora wightii, Tecomella undulata. c) Wild animals. Brown bear, Bengal tiger, Crocodiles, Rhinoceros, Grey wolf, Leopard, Madagascar lemur, Snow leopard

APPENDIX II The ethical utilization of Asian Biological Resources This treaty was developed at the “7th Asian Symposium” on Medicinal Plants Species and Natural Products (ASOMPs) which was held in Manila, Philippines from February 2 – 7, 1992. In this symposium 280 scientists from 37 countries were participated. It comprises a list of species that although not necessarily threatened but which could become if their trade is not properly controlled. It some species that look so similar to species already listed that their trade is monitored and regulated in order to make control easier. Trade in APPENDIX II species is only permitted, if the exporting country issues an export permit, while in the case of APPENDIX I species, where extra safe guards are necessary, an important permit is also required.

The Medicinal Plants. –Aconitum balfourii, Aconitum delnorrhizum, Berberis petiolaris, Coptis teeta, Cerpegia sps, Cyatheaceae sp. ( Tree ferns), Cycadaceae sps, Gastrochillus longifolia, Gentiana kurroo, Panax pseudo-ginseng, Podophyllum hexandrum, Rauwolfia serpentina, Taxus baccata, Taxus wallichiana, certain Orchidaceae sps.

The Wild Animals.-Black stork, Some Butterflies, Lynx, Monkey, Stony crane, Sarus crane, Wild cats etc.

APPENDIX III It includes species that are identified by any Party as being subject to regulation in that country and which require international cooperation to control trade (IUCN, 1995b). The parties also have to submit annual reports of all their trade in species include in the appendices to the Conventional Secretariat. These data are then compiled on a database and the global levels of trade in each species are determined by World Conservation Monitoring Committee (WCMC) 1992.

The convention makes a ban on trade of not only live animals and plants but also their products and derivatives of the species listed. The products and derivatives widely vary from whole skins and manufactured leather products, through ivory carving, meat, seeds,

medicinal products extracted from plants such as ginseng, all cacti, orchids, pet birds, parrots, cats of skin, and all primates which are used for biomedical researches.

In 1976, IUCN group comprised of Government and NGO’s established Trade Records Analysis of Flora and Fauna in Commerce (TRAFFIC) to report on worldwide trade in wild animals and plants. Although CITES provides the frameworks for international cooperation to stem illegal trade in endangered species. TRAFFIC monitors both legal and illegal trade. Traffic is intended to provide an early warning system for excessive trade. Its data can be used to bring sanctions against nations that fail to comply with CITES (IUCN, UNCEP and WWF, 1991.) TRAFFIC, a joint programme of WWF and IUCN, has strives to create a sustainable future for medicinal plants and the people and healthcare practices that depend on them, through developing tools for better management of harvest and trade. Established in 1976, it moniters network of trade to ensure that trade of plants and animals is not a threat to conservation.

Protected plant species in Nepal Alstonia scholaris Allium przewalskianum Abies spectabilis Acacia catechue Cinnamomum glaucascence Cordyceps sinensis Dactylorrhiza hatagirea Juglans regia Lichens spp. Michelia champca Nardostachys grandiflora Passiflora neplensis, Shorea robusta Tylophora belsotemma Silajit (rock, mineral), etc.

3.2.3. Limitation of CITES Although CITES is intended to protect endangered species threatened with excessive commercial exploitation, many observers believe that treaty is ineffective and possibly counter productive. CITES has no enforcement authority, enforcement of the treaty depends on passage and enforcement of laws by each signatory. CITES has a limited reach, habitat destruction and other factors resulting in species losses are not covered by CITES. Some problems with CITES are not even agreed upon among conservationist and scientists.

3.3. Trade Policy and Legislation 3.3.1. Policy and Legislation The Constitution of Nepal, 1990 under Articles 26 (4) requires the state to give priority to environmental conservation. It is apparent that the framers of the constitution realized that Nepal’s rare wildlife, forests and vegetation are used in need of special protection. Further Article 24 (2) stipulates that the principles and policies contained in the directive

principles and policies of the state shall be fundamental to the activities, the governance of the state and shall be implemented in stages through laws within the limits of the resources and the means available in the country. Therefore the state is bound to give priority to environmental conservation in Nepal. Nepal Government into her Tenth Five Year Plan (2002 – 2007), National Development Planning, adequate opportunities have been provided for conservation, management and optimum use of natural resources, aiming at easy access to the resources and widening an opportunity of utilizing the resources.

Various policy and legislation measures have been enforcement in Nepal for the protection, management and conservation of its natural resources, cultural and natural heritages. Some are as follows:

1. Plant Protection Act (PPA), 1972. 2. The National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act, 1973. 3. The King Mahendra Trust For Nature Conservation Act, 1982. 4. The National Conservation Strategy (NCS), 1988. 5. Forest Act, 1993. 6. Nepal Environment Policy and action Plan (NEPAP), 1993. 7. Forest Regulation Act, 1995. 8. Environmental Protection Regulation, 1997. 9. Wetlands Conservation Act, 2002 (The Ramsar Convention).

A national level Herbs and NTFP Coordination Committee (HNTFPCC) has been formed in the year 2002.

The recently introduced Herbs and NTFP Development Policy has a great deal to offer to ameliorate the situation and promote MAP cultivation and create more favorable environment for the growth of this sub sector.

The Forest Act 1969 allows Nepalese Citizens to collect medicinal and aromatic plants from natural state. In the Himalayan belt, 90% of inhabitants depend upon plant resources supports their daily life. Despite the knowledge regarding the plant habitat, cultivation technique, harvesting and processing the valuable medicinal herbs have been depleting day by day. Also, the Forest Act 1993, the GON has notified following restrictions: Band for collection, use, sale, distribution, transportation and export:  Yarsa Gumba [Cordyceps sinensis (Berk.) Sacc.]  Panch aunle (Dactylorhiza hatagirea L.)

Band for export outside the country in crude form-  Jatamansi (Nardostachys grandiflora DC.)  Sarpagandha (Rauvolfia serpentina Benth. ex Wall.)  Sugandhakokila (Cinnamomum glaucescens Nees)  Suganddhawal (Valeriana wallichi DC.)  Jhyau (Lichen sp.)  Loudh salla (Taxus baccata L.) 30

Ban for transportation, export and felling-  Champ (Michelia sp.)  Khayer (Acacia catechu Willd.)  Sal [Shorea robusta (L.) Gaertn.]

3.3.2. International Conventions concerning to Biodiversity and Medicinal Plants  Convention on International Trade in Endanger Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITIES), 1973.  Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) 1992. (Includes the Article 8 (J), Article 15.3, 15.5, Articles 16, 17 and 18).  The Ramsar Convention, 1971.  WTO and GATT.

Appropriate and effective legislations are fundamental to the implementation of policies and international conventions concerning to conservation of biodiversity.

3.3.3. Protection of Medicinal Plants The principal legislation to protect medicinal and aromatic plants in Nepal is the Forest Act, 1993 and Forest Regulation Act, 1995. All the medicinal and aromatic plants fall under the forest products and are protected by the Forest Act, 1993 either inside the forests or outside the National Parks, Reserves and Conservation areas of Nepal. The Forest Act, 1993 provides under section 22 (I) that the ownership of the forest products of the government managed forests. Under Rule 11 of Forest Regulation, 1995 any person desirous of collecting the herbs as prescribed in Annex 3, 4 and 5 from any forest area shall have to submit an application to the authorized officer, explicitly mentioning the type of herbs, the area of collection, the quantity and the purpose of collection. The application is checked in detailed and then the authorized officer (DFO) may issue a license to collect the required medicinal and aromatic plants in the forest. Under Rule, 12 of Forest Regulation provide the power to ban on collection, sale distribution and transportation of any Forest Products. Some of the protected medicinal plants are:  Yarshagumba  Panchaunle  Padam chal  Sarpagandha  Sugandhwal  Jatamansi  Lauthesalla (Taxus baccata)  Majitho  Khair  Sal  Satisal  Champac

 Okhar  Talish Patra  Meconopsis regia  Vyakur  Lichen spp.  Orchids. Besides rock named as SILAJEET also ban on collection, sale and export to other countries without permission. Nepal Government has banned on collection, utilization, sale distribution and export of various flora species by publishing a notification in the Nepal Gazette under the power conferred by Rules 12 and 13 (2) of Forest Regulation, 1995 on April 3, 1995. Those plants protected by the Forest Act are duly indicated in the register of medicinal plants, IUCN. The World Conservation Union through its large network of species Survival Commission brings about Red Lists and Red Data Books on various species of plants and animals. The threatened categories in the Red Data Books provide a basis to undertake conservation measures, 1997. The various conventions has been facilitated the biodiversity conservation. In fact the plant diversity conservation also facilitated through policy and legislation enunciation. Since the early 1970’s, the National Development Plan (NDP) has included periodical policies and strategies for the Conservation strategy (CS), 1983, Environmental Policy and Action Plan (EPAP), 1997, and National Biodiversity Action Plan (NBAP),1997 also included some policies and strategies for the protection, management and conservation of natural resources as well as plant resources. There is also the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act, 1973 for the protection of wild flora and fauna (wild animals) in the country. Illegal haunting, poaching and import and export of animal products are banned by this act. This Act regulates the protection, management and conservation of wild animals issued by IUCN register and CITIES Appendages I, II and III. The main objectives of the Acts and Conventions are to: 1. Conserve flora and fauna diversity. 2. Prevent illegal trade. 3. Protect and proper development the rare and endangered plant and animal species. 4. Provide sustainable utilization for sustention. 5. HNTFPCC aims to formulate appropriate policy for overall development of NTFP sector and to create legislative and other enabling environment in which Herbs and NTFPs, in general, are conserved, sustainability, harvested and benefits, shared the equally among the rural communities.

3.3.4. Drawbacks Law / Act / Regulation all these are rather inadequate in many aspects. Several act and regulations have been employed but still there is a lack of enforcement. Even rules and regulations may not help if people do not improve their attitude as well as destructive activities. Special comprehensive medicinal and aromatic plants protection legislation should be enacted. This legislation should include even other species of threatened and endangered medicinal and aromatic plants, which have been included in the CITIES Appendices. There is a detailed study need to establishment of GENE BANK on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants would lead

to the long-term survival of the species in the Forest or in the Natural vegetations. The community forestry involves local farmers who are also the potential herb growers and since government policy is to promote NTFP propagation in community forests, there is a vast potential to produce MAPs on commercial scales in this forests.

3.3.5. Procedure to Boost Trade in MAPs  Certificate of income tax registration.  Collection permit from DOF and Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation. (Area, Quantity and the purpose of collection)  Royalty payment (According to Article 8 (3) and Article 11(3) of Forest Regulation Act, 1995.  Checking and weighing.  Transit permit.  Local taxes.  Checking and Endorsement.  Export Recommendation. (By DOF and Custom Office).  Product certification and Export Permission.  Export recommendation for processed MAPs.  Certification of central system of preference (obtained from Nepal Chamber of Commerce, Trade Promotion Centre and Custom Office).  Export and Import permission and Duty.

3.4. Economics of MAPs The market of MAPs and their products are highly volatile. Changing herbal market scenario rapidly and expanding local and global market and immense export potential to foreign countries has opened up a new prospective field for Nepalese agriculture. According to UNDP report, the annual value of MPs derived from developing countries is approximately 32 billion US dollars. There are 47 major modern pharmaceutical plant based drugs already in the world market and the predicted 328 drugs yet to be discovered, have a market potential of 147 billion US dollars. The sale in the very first year of the anticancer drugs, Taxol from Taxus spp., has been more than 2000 billion US dollars. Herbal medicine continues its unbridled growth. Sales have now reached a record breaking US $ 1.5 billion annually in US and a figure of US $ 5 billion predicted by the end of decade (Tyler, 1996). In Germany annual sales of herbal drugs is at US $ 2.5 billion dollars and per capita spending of $ 39 on phyto-medicine (Gruenwald, 1998). The value of global trade of the medicinal plants products has been put over US $ 5 billion per year and is growing @ 12.5 % annually of the total value of trade, about 20 billion US dollars account for over the counter (OTC) drugs, US $ 25 billion for prescription drugs and remaining US $ 70 billion for the nutritional supplement. Bulk of the raw material (90%) is produced in Asia, Africa, Latin America and some in Europe and USA (10%). About 60% of the total material is imported and processed in USA Canada, UK, Australia, Germany, France, Italy, Switzerland and Japan and about 50% of that is used there and the rest is exported to the raw material producing countries to be sold at high

rate. About 90% of marketed material is collected from the wild resources and there are some cultivated resources.The trade of MPs in India is estimated to the tune of Rs 675 crores per year. It is estimated that the global market for herbal drugs is nearly Rs 800 crores per year. Demand and trade in Maps species globally indicates a upward trend and world trade in MAPs and related products is expected to rise US $ 5 trillion by 2050 A.D. Collection and trade of MAPs has also been the source of their income. On the other hand, a huge quantity of Non Timber Forest Products is exported from Nepal every year majority of which are MAPs. 3.4.1. Role of MAPs in the Economics of Mountain People MAPs play an important role in the economy of the people. Table 1 and 2 give the estimates of amounts traded MAPs from Gorkha, Jumla and Dolpa. And one can imagine the importance of MAPs for the mountain people.

Table 1. Estimates of amounts traded MAPs from three mountain districts Mountains Number of species traded Value NRs Gorkha 13 9985199 Jumla 9 14345000 Dolpa 11 14319400 Total 39649599

Table 2. Estimates of amounts of traded MAPs from Gorkha district (after Olsen ). Species traded Quantity (tons) Rate NRs./kg Amount NRs. Nardostachys jatamansi 25.3-83.6 39.5 2148053 Swertia chirayita 25.3-57.5 50 2071021 Dactylorhiza hatagrirea 2-3.6 422 1206777 Aconitum orochyseum 1.2-3.2 341 766079 Cordiceps sinensis 0.028-0.045 20000 730000 Picrorhiza scrophulariflora 6.9-17.5 58.5 715894 Rheum australae 21-62 15.8 661649 Asparagus racemosus 8.9-14.9 52 619190 Morchella sp. 0.058-0.08 4000 276000 Polygonum chihifolium 9.3-21.1 17.3 262977 Aconitum sp. 5.55-9.3 31.8 236115 Cinnamomum tamala, bark 4.5-6.8 25.8 146157 Valeraina jatamansi 2.1-3.27 53.9 145287

3.4.2. Benefits Distribution from Chiraito Trade in Koshi Hill The study conducted in Koshi Zone showed that MAP collection is an important subsistence activity for the poorest of the population in that area. For the collector this is one of the few income sources they have. Chiraito from Koshi hills brings an estimated US $ 280,000 per year to the people who live above the road head. This translates to Rs 1200 to each for the 5300 dependent collectors; Rs. 7000 each to 500 independent collectors; Rs 1200 each to 1000 porters; and Rs 30000 each to 100 village traders .This amount is quite substantial when compared with average annual cash income of Rs 3000 for a Koshi Hills household.

Tremendous efforts have been made to prepare the inventory of MAPs and other plants, animals and minerals etc. and tried to upgrade the indigenous medicine system in Nepal by different ruler at various times. Unfortunately no voucher specimens of the materials were preserved in the country. It is only after the establishment of Department of Medicinal Plants (DOMP ) in 1958 -1959,presently the Department of Plant Resources ( DPR ), systematic approach for plant resources development activities initiated. The Department under its four main divisions viz., 1. The Botanical Survey and National Herbarium (Godavari). 2. The Royal Botanical Garden ( Godavari) 3. The Herbal Farms and 4. The Royal Drug Research Laboratory ( Thapahali) 5. Herbal Processing and Products Company Limited ( HPPCL , Tinkune, Koteshwar).

PREPARATION OF DRUGS FOR THE COMMERCIAL MARKET.

DRUGS. Drugs are those substances or synthetic intended for use in diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment or prevention of diseases in man or other animals. Crude drugs are natural products which are not advance or improved in condition by shredding, grinding, chipping, crushing, distilling, evaporating, extracting, artificial mixing with other substances or any other process or treatment beyond that which is essential to its proper packing and the preventing or deterioration panding manufacture. Crude drugs obtained from vegetable or originated from vegetable referred as VEGETABLE DRUGS and it obtained from animal or originated from animal is known as ANIMAL DRUGS. The chemical compounds present in plant drugs are known as CONTITUENTS or PRINCIPLES. The constituents are of two types. 1. ACTIVE CONSTITUENTS. The active ingredients are the main effective compounds of medicinal plants. The quantification of active ingredient is the first step of standarisation of crude drugs.. These constituents are those which are responsible for therapeutic efficacy as well as safety. They are usually extracted from cruds vegetable or animal. A number of chemical test are available for quantification of active ingredients. Some of the main chemical groups or organic compounds of active ingredients are : Saponins – Triterpenoid and Steroidal saponins, Cardiac Glycisides, Cyanogenic Glycosides, Coumarins,Flavonoids, Mucilage, Phenols( Salicylic acid), Anthocyanins, Anthraquinones, Glucosilinates, Bitters, Volatile oils, Vitamins, Alkaloids, Tannins and Minerals. 2. INERT CONSTITUENTS. These constituents are those which are not responsible for any therapeutic effect. The presence of inert constituents only for potency of the active constituents.

STEPS OF PREPARATION OF CRUDE DRUGS.

1. COLLECTION. Collection of drugs is an important step in pharmacognosy.

Collection of drugs from WILD PLANTS as well as CULTIVATED PLANTS always insures a true natural source and reliable products. Collection areas are particularly forests, pastures, cultivated lands, orchards, wetlands and marshy lands. The most advantages time of collection is during that period when the plant parts constituting the drug are highest in its content of active principles and when the material will dry to give the maximum quality and appearance. The roots are fleshy, will shrink and remain spongy after drying, if collected during the growing season The roots and rhizomes should be collected in the full after the vegetative processes have ceased. The barks should be collected in the spring before the vegetative processes start. The leaves and flowering tops should be collected when photosynthesis is most active which is usually about the time of flowering and before the maturing of the fruits and seeds. The flowers should be collected prior or just about the time of pollination. The fruits should be collected either before or after the ripening period depending upon the nature of fruits. The seeds should be collected when fully matured and if possible before the fruits have dehiscent. 2. HARVESTING. The mode of harvesting varies with the drug being produced and with the pharmaceutical requirements of the drugs. The process of harvesting may be done either by 1. Hand labour or Manual-. Digging, cutting, uprooting plucking or threshing operation etc done by simple tools such as spade, sickle, scythe trowel, knives. The wooden logs or bamboos are used for threshing. Flowers or inflorescences are often collected by the use of Naglo or baskets or sacs or hand cranberry scoops .Barks are largely removed by hand stripping with ordinary cutting tools. 2. Mechanical devices -- MBP, Disc harrows, Mowers, Combiners, Diggers or Pickers are used to done the above operations. 3. DRYING. Drying the plant materials remove sufficient moisture to insure good keeping qualities and prevents molding, the action of enzymes, the action of bacteria, fungi and chemicals or other possible changes. It fixes the constituents and facilitates grinding and milling as well as rendering the drugs into a more convenient form for commercial handling. Proper and successful drying involves two principles. 1. Temperature control and 2. Regulation of air flow. The plant material can be dried either by 1. NATURAL METHOD or 2. ARTIFICIAL METHOD. 1. NATURAL METHODS. A) AIR DRYING ----- It may be done in the sun or in the shade depending upon to plant material. 2. SUN DRYING. ------It is adaptable to those drugs which are not unfavorably affected by the direct action of sunlight. 3. SHADE DRYING. ----- It is employed when it is desirable to retain the natural colour of the drugs. 2. ARTIFICIAL METHODS. !. An oven dryer 2. Tray Dryer 3. Vacuum Dryer 4. Spray Dryer.

1. Tray Dryer. The drugs which do not contain volatile oils and are quite stable to heat or which need deactivation of enzymes are dried in tray dryers. In this process, hot air of the desired temperature is circulated through the dryers and this facilitates the removal of water contents of the drugs Examples- Belladona roots, Bark of certain MPs , Leaves of tea, Gums. 2. Vacuum Dryer. The drugs which are sensitive to higher temperature are dried by this process. Eg. – Digitalis leaves. 3. Spray Dryer--- Few drugs which are lightly sensitive to atmospheric conditions and also to temperature of vacuum drying are dried by spray dryer method. Eg Papaya latex, Pectin, Tannin.

Leaves and above ground plant parts are spread in thin layers on screen trays and are dried at moderate temperature of about 40oc to 60ocproviding the active principles are not destroyed by these elevated temperature. Dry on a moderate temperature 35oc to 40oc at about 48 hours or longer. This is to prevent any degradation of the plant material or any enzymatic changes that alter or degrade naturally occurring metabolites. Rapid drying assures that plant pigments are well preserved, if the drying process is slow, chlorophyll will degrade and the leaves will appear yellow, flower pigments also fade badly with slow drying. Drugs containing volatile constituents are usually air dried or dried in mechanical dryers at a temperature low enough to prevent loss of their volatile principles.

4. GARBLI NG. It is the final step in the preparation of a drug. Garbling consists of the removal of extraneous matters such as dirt, clods, sand, stones, other parts of the plant not constituting drug and added adulterants. It should be done after the drug is dried and before the drug is baled or packaged. Garbling is done either by mechanical devices or shifting or winnowing or by means of flowing of air by fans. 5. PACKING. The package of drugs is dependent upon their final disposition. Packaging materials used such as cartoons, sacs (jute ,plastics, papers) ,wooden boxes and rice straw. 6. STORAGE. It is important step to maintain the quality of the drugs. The drug materials are usually stored in the specially prepared fire proof stead, concrete or brick built warehouse. The warehouse should be unheated , cool, dark as well ventilated with dry air and rodent proof.

7. PRESERVATION. The drugs should be care against by insects and molds. The simplest method against this attacked is to expose the drugs to a temperature of 60 -65oc. Fumigation with methyl bromide is also an important method against insect attack. Sprinkling the drug with quick lime or dipping it into slacked lime is also employed. The drug materials should be preserved in air tight, moisture proof and light proof containers or spaces. **********

Chapter 4 Inventory and Database, Research and Development of MAPs

4.1. Inventory and Database of MAPs Even more fundamentals the necessity of a single inventory of the species of plants, animals and microorganism that are found in a particular habitat, region or country. The international community of scientists best equipped to conduct this inventory of life is scattered in museums, botanical gardens and universities around the world, with the combined expertise or these taxonomists and the extensive collections of plants or animals found in herbaria and museum, we now have the means to provide a reasonable accounting of the diversity of life on earth. The objectives of inventory and database are to:  protect and conserve the species  provide internet access to specimen data.  treat sensitive data on endangered species and  expand the international cooperation between them.

There is a growing interest in the preparation of database of MAPs which also provide information about pharmacological effects of natural products.

DATABASES. 1. NAPRALERT --- A comprehensive database, NAPRALERT maintained at the University of ILINOIS, CHICAGO has been derived from a systematic search of the world literature. It is a fully rational database containing information about over 90,000 scientific articles and more then 87,000 compounds. The data contains Folkloric, Chemicals or Higher plants alone. The database comprised of 92,000 plant species of ethno-botanical uses, out of 33,000 species of monocots, dicots, gymnosperms, bryophytes, pteridophytes and lichens, which would suggest that 28% of MPs of the earth have been used ethno-medicinally. These data have been used by private, Governmental and International organizations to facilitate research in the evolution of natural products as medicines for drugs discovery and development.

2. PHARMEL. --It is a database on African medicinal plants used in traditional medicine. The database was created in 1986 by the Agence de Cooperation Culturelle et Technique (ACCT), Brussels. It has two main objectives (1) to gather the data concerning the use of medicinal plants in folk medicine and synthesizes this information, and (2) to provide a network with local and national databases having facilitates for the exchange of data between them and the augmentation of the total volume of treated available.

3. SPECIES 2000 or BISBY 2000 - This project is a global program to compile a catalogue of life, with world wide list of species names, using distributed networking on the internet BISBY 2000. Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) accounts the biodiversity data located in Natural History collections to the desk top of

any users through a massive multi level database of the world’s 3 billion biological specimens housed in museum, herbaria and research institutes.

4. The MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS DATABASE OF NEPAL (MAPDON) MAPDON is a computerized information system, which comprises all the latest information regarding MAPs of Nepal. It is created using Microsoft access and other soft wares such as (ADOBE, PHOTOSHOP, ENDNOTE etc) on Microsoft windows. It is based and linked with Nepalese Plant Database (NPD) prepared by the collaborative project of the Natural History Museum, London and T.U. Kathmandu, under the aegis of Darwin Initiative, U.K. It encompasses over 1624 species of medicinal plants. Of the 5856 flowering plants recorded in Nepal (HMG 2002), 690 species are considered having medicinal properties (Malla and Shakya, 1984). MAPDON has listed 1624 MAPs, which are commonly available in crude drug market, under cultivation and in wild form (Shrestha et al. 2000).

Nepalese Plant Database (NPD) covers 6076 taxa of flowering plants, belonging to 216 families and 1534 genera. It provides information on 5345 species, 163 species, 517 varieties and 51 forms of Angiosperms and Gymnosperms recorded from Nepal. About 1750 species are represented by types. 158 species of MPs have been enumerated by IUCN in his “ National Register of Medicinal Plants.” Book with the collaboration of HMGN and DOFP. Rajbhandari and Joshi (1998) have compiled 364 weed species occurring in various crop fields of Nepal. Out of them 82 species of weeds which carry medicinal properties. The family Orchidaceae has 96 genera and 361 species reported from Nepal. Out of them there are 53 Nepalese orchid species carry medicinal properties. About 700 species of mushrooms under 160 genera of which 17 species are used as medicinal properties. 307 species of liverworts, 766 species of mosses and 8 species of hornworts have been recorded from Nepal by N. Pradhan, 2000. The database also includes and is linked with bibliography, database, digital images, Nepalese Gazette’s database and plant collectors in Nepal. The MAPDON covers 1624 species of plants in Nepal as in wild state or cultivated or naturalized or imported belonging to 938 genera and 218 families. These are known to be used as medicine in Nepal or elsewhere and include 1515 species of angiosperms (1318 Dicots and 197 Monocots), 18 species of gymnosperms, 50 species of pteridophytes, 6species of bryophytes, 18 species of lichens and 9species of fungi. The Department of Medicinal Plants published the “Catalogue of Nepalese Vascular Plants” in 1976, which enumerates 3121 species of Angiosperms, 24 species of Gymnosperms and 308 species of Pteridophytes. The DMP has already published the book “Medicinal Plants of Nepal” in1970 june which includes 393 medicinal plants. It was supplemented by another volume in 1984 with additional 178 species of plants. The IUCN database on plants currently hold information on 43,000 plant species, of which more than 18,000 are threatened ,most of these data, however, originated from sub tropical, temperate countries and from Island. Malla and Shakya (1984 -1988) compiled a list of 690 species of MPs and their distribution of these 510 species

occurs in wild state while 120 are exotic or naturalized or cultivated. The database comprises comprehensive information on

A). Botanical names (accepted names, synonyms, basyanyms and invalid names), B) Common names (vernacular names-Nepali, Sanskrit, Tibetian, Newari, Gurung, Sherpa, Tharu, Awadi, Bhojpuri, Maithali and other native names wherever available), C) Key characters (including habit, habitat and short taxonomical description) D) Distribution (local, regional, and geographical) E) Chemical constituents F) Medicinal uses G) Conservation status and H) Digital images etc. The information in the database are largely based on published literature, therefore each species dataset in the database is accompanied by all the references, which have been consulted.

Synopsis of the MAPs of Nepal covered in the MAPDON Plant Group Family Genera Species ------1. Angiosperms 173 868 1515 a) Dicots 150 736 1318 b) Monocots 23 132 197 2. Gymnosperms 8 12 18 3. Fungi 9 9 9. 4. Ferns and allies 20 36 58. 5. Liverworts and Mosses 4 5 6. 6 Lichen 4 8 18. 7. Pteridophytes 50. 8. Bryophytes 6 4.2. Research Status of MAPs in Nepal The Tenth Five Year Plan (2003-2008) has given emphasis to the development of MAPs as priority program alleviation poverty. Rare and high priced medicinal herbs are on top priority for domestication, research, and cultivation, processing and marketing.

Nepal is rich in its herbal resources. These resources have been studied by many national and international scientists. As a result many publications have been appeared in the print media as books, proceedings, scientific papers, journal articles, popular articles, pamphlets, posters. As Government organization, the Department of Plant Resources has contributed a vast literature on medicinal and aromatic plants on various aspects ranging from botanical survey to phytochemistry and biotechnology. It has also published "Medicinal Plants of Nepal" in 1970 (DPM, 1970) and supplement in 1984 (DPM, 1984). This DPR is conducting survey of many medicinal and aromatic plants in different parts of

Nepal and publishing findings in different forms. Many universities, both of Nepal and abroad, studied and contributed on various aspects of MAPs. National and International non-governmental organizations (KMTNC, RONAST, ANSAB, BDS-MaPs, HPPCL, WWF, IUCN) are also exploring medicinal and aromatic plants of different parts of Nepal. Natural Products Research Laboratory (NPRL) of the DPR performs phyto-chemical screening of medicinal and aromatic plants. There have been insufficient researches on phyto–chemical analysis and formulation of useful compounds.

1. Botanical Research Botanical research on medicinal and aromatic plants received considerable attentions in Nepal. Much work was done on ethnobotany related to medicinal plants, inventory and survey related to conservation of medicinal and aromatic plants in Nepal.

1.1. Ethnobotany Ethnobotanical studies are contributing a vast knowledge on medicinal plants of Nepal. For example, many ethnobotanists, anthropologists and geographers studied medicinal plants used by the Tharu tribe (Dangol and Gurung, 1991; Mueller-Boeker, 1993; ), Darai ( ), Chepang ( ) of different locations of Nepal. Many post-graduate students have also enriched a lot of literature to this field (Aryal (Adhikari), 2001; Basnet, 1998; Bhattarai, 2002; Chhetri, 1999; Devkota, 1999; Karki, 2001; Parajuli, 2001; Sapkota, 2000; Sapkota, 1994; Sarkar, 1994). These studies helped to compile the list of more than 1600 medicinal plants useful to tread a wide range of diseases (Shrestha et al., 2000).

1.2. Inventory and Survey Many workers also focused their studies on survey and inventory of medicinal plants. The studies range from the field survey works to database preparation. Shrestha et al. (2000) explained their valuable work on the database on the medicinal plants of Nepal.

1.3. Distribution Some studies are concentrated on the distribution of the medicinal plants in Nepal. Malla and Shakya (1999) published an excellent paper on the distribution (both horizontal and vertical) of Nepalese medicinal plants. Some studies are related to the distribution of medicinal plants in district level (Sharma, 2000) or regional level.

1.4. Physiological study Literature survey reveals that there is less attention given to physiological study of medicinal plants. The studies are confined on the germination test of Chiraito (Barakoti, 2000, Bhattarai and Basnet, 2000) and some medicinal plants (Shrestha, 2000).

2. Phytochemistry Plant chemists are interested to screen active compounds of different medicinal plants. The staff of the Department of Plant Resources and other workers have studied active compounds of Podophyllum hexandrum (Amatya, 2000), Swertia chirayita (Joshi, 2003), Rheum emodi (Karanjit and Singh, 2003; Pradhan et al., 2000), Rheum australe (Prajapati, 2003), Valeriana jatamansi (Singh, 2003), Gaultheria fragrantissima

(Srivastava and Shakya, 2003), Aleuritopteris anceps (Kawaguchi and Kumazawa, 2000) and Pistacea integerrima (Srivastava and Wagle, 2004). Studies on phytochemical screenings were also done by Karanjit and Singh (2003) and Shrestha et al. (2000).

3. Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research Pharmaceutical investigations were done for Stephania glandulifera (Amatya and Pradhan, 2003). Clinical tests were conducted to know the effect of medicinal plants on different health problems. These studies include the screening of medicinal plants for anthelmintic problems (Joshi and Shakya, 2004), antimicrobial activities (Risal, 2000), antifertility activity (Shakya, 2003; Singh et al., 2000), antitumor (Shrestha et al., 2000). Some studies are on the effects of medicinal plants on isolated tissue of albino mice (Pradhan, 2003).

4. Agriculture Some works have been done in agriculture. Department of Plant Resources (formally Department of Medicinal Plants) and Herbal Production and Production Company Limited have published booklets to promote the cultivation of different medicinal and aromatic plants (Table 1). Some works are confined on different aspects of agriculture ranging from hunting (Shakya, 1989), domestication, propagation (Chapagain, 2004; Joshi, 2004), production (Karki et al., 2003) to development (Adhikary, 1989; Bista 1989), quality control (Adhikary, 1989) and marketing of medicinal plants (Sheak, 1989). Some reports are on extraction of essential oils (Amatya, 1989; Thapa, 1989).

Table 1. Publications of the Department of Plant Resources SN Title Publisher* 1 Pyrethrum Kheti. Jadibuti Kheti Prakashan Sankha- 1. Vanaspati Bibhag 2 Beladona Kheti. Jadibuti Kheti Prakashan Sankha- 2 Vanaspati Bibhag 3 Rauwolfia Kheti. Jadibuti Kheti Prakashan Sankha- 3. Vanaspati Bibhag 4 Sugandhwal Kheti. Jadibuti Kheti Prakashan Sankha- 4. Vanaspati Bibhag 5 Leman grass Kheti. Jadibuti Kheti Prakashan Sankha- 5 Vanaspati Bibhag 6 Pipermint Kheti. Jadibuti Kheti Prakashan Sankha- 6. Vanaspati Bibhag 7 Mentha Kheti. Jadibuti Kheti Prakashan Sankha- 7. Vanaspati Bibhag 8 Sadabahar Kheti. Jadibuti Kheti Prakashan Sankha- 8 Vanaspati Bibhag 9 Keshar Kheti. Jadibuti Kheti Prakashan Sankha- 9 Vanaspati Bibhag 10 Citronella Kheti. Jadibuti Kheti Prakashan Sankha- 10 Vanaspati Bibhag 11 Pamaroja Kheti. Jadibuti Kheti Prakashan Sankha- 11 Vanaspati Bibhag 14 Jadibuti bhandaran. Jadibuti Kheti Prakashan Sankhya- Vanaspati Bibhag 14 15 Sugandhit vanaspati prashodhan (Sugandhit tel). Vanaspati Bibhag Jadibuti Kheti Prakashan Sankhya- 14. 16 Jadibuti Sankalan, Samrachhyan, Sambarthan Bidhi. Vanaspati Bibhag Jadibuti Parichaya Mala- 1. 17 Jadibuti Sankalan, Samrachhyan, Sambarthan Bidhi. Vanaspati Bibhag Jadibuti Parichaya Mala- 2 18 Jadibuti Sankalan, Samrachhyan, Sambarthan Bidhi. Vanaspati Bibhag Jadibuti Parichaya Mala- 3

19 Jadibuti Kheti, Sankalan, Prashodhan tatha Jadibuti Utpadan Samrachhyan Pustika. Bishesha Chhyetra Bikas tatha Prashodhan Karyakram Antargat Jadibuti Bikas Karyakram, Kampani Limited Koteshwar, Kathmandu. 2055

5. Biotechnology (micropropagation, tissue culture) Some biotechnological works have been progressed by the Department of Plant Resources on Elaeocarpus sphaericus (Joshi et al., 2000), Amomum subulatum (Karki and Saiju, 2000), Swertia chirayita (Kayastha, 2000), Valeriana jatamansi (Niroula and Saiju, 2000) and Rauvolfia serpentina (Rajkarnikar et al., 2000).

6. Trade Some papers have been published on medicinal plants related to trade and promotion (Amatya, 2003), quantification (Kattel, 2003), conservation and trade (Pradhan and Manandhar, 2000), and status and trade (Singh, 2003). These literature deals about the trade of medicinal plants from the collection site to the market places and economics of the medicinal plants.

Key points A significant quantity of work has been done in different aspects of the medicinal plants by many organizations and individuals. The literature on ethnobotany is comparative higher in number compared to other disciplines. The contribution from the Department of Plant Resources is very high. The academic institutions where medicinal plants have been taught need to collaborate with the Department of Plant Resources, Dabur Nepal, Herbal Production and Processing Company Limited and other stakeholders for effective teaching, research, and sharing experiences and publications. It is also recommended to the authorities and faculties to organize guest lectures from DPR staff and regular educational tours need to organize to understand the recent development on medicinal and aromatic plants in Nepal Bibliography 1. Botanical research 1.1. Ethnobotany and Conservation Dangol, Dharma Raj. 2003. Bibliography on plant resources use and conservation in Nepal. Institute for Social and Environmental Research, Bharatpur, Chitwan, Nepal. (Unpublished). This compilation lists 618 publications related to the use and conservation of plant resources in Nepal. Taylor, R. S. L., S. Shahi and R. P. Chaudhary. 2002. Ethnobotanical research in the proposed Tinjure-Milke-Jaljale Rhododendron conservation area, Eastern Nepal. Pp. 26-37. In: Ram P. Chaudhary, Bhim P. Subedi, Ole R. Vetaas and Tor H. Aase (eds.), Vegetation and Society: their interaction in the Himalayas, Tribhuvan University, Nepal and University of Bergen, Norway. 1.2. Inventory and Survey Adhikary, S. R. and P. R. Shakya. 1978. Essential oil bearing plants of Nepal. J. Nep. Pharm. Assoc. 6:43-57. Malla, S. B. 2000. Inventory development of medicinal plants. Pp. 33-39. In: T. Watanabe, A. Takano, M. S. Bista and H. K. Saiju (eds.), Proceedings of Nepal-Japan

Joint Symposium on Conservation and utilization of Himalayan Medicinal Resources: The Himalayan Plants, Can they save us? November 6-11, 2000, Kathmandu, Nepal. Society for the conservation and Development of Himalayan Medicinal Resources, Japan and Department of Plant Resources, Kathmandu, Nepal. Shrestha, KK, NN Tiwari and SK Ghimire. 2000. MAPDON- Medicinal and aromatic plant database of Nepal. Pp. 53-74. In: T. Watanabe, A. Takano, M. S. Bista and H. K. Saiju (eds.), Proceedings of Nepal-Japan Joint Symposium on Conservation and utilization of Himalayan Medicinal Resources: The Himalayan Plants, Can they save us? November 6-11, 2000, Kathmandu, Nepal. Society for the conservation and Development of Himalayan Medicinal Resources, Japan and Department of Plant Resources, Kathmandu, Nepal.

1.3. Distribution Sharma, Dinesh Kumar. 2000. Distribution of medicinal plants in Ilam district of Nepal. Pp. 192-197. In: T. Watanabe, A. Takano, M. S. Bista and H. K. Saiju (eds.), Proceedings of Nepal-Japan Joint Symposium on Conservation and utilization of Himalayan Medicinal Resources: The Himalayan Plants, Can they save us? November 6-11, 2000, Kathmandu, Nepal. Society for the conservation and Development of Himalayan Medicinal Resources, Japan and Department of Plant Resources, Kathmandu, Nepal.

1.4. Physiological studies (germination) Bhattarai, Khem Raj and Bino Basnet. 2000. Study on seed germination of Swertia chirayita: a step towards its domestication. Pp. 198-200. In: T. Watanabe, A. Takano, M. S. Bista and H. K. Saiju (eds.), Proceedings of Nepal-Japan Joint Symposium on Conservation and utilization of Himalayan Medicinal Resources: The Himalayan Plants, Can they save us? November 6-11, 2000, Kathmandu, Nepal. Society for the conservation and Development of Himalayan Medicinal Resources, Japan and Department of Plant Resources, Kathmandu, Nepal.

2. Phytochemistry Joshi, Ramila. 2003. Study on bitter principle of Swertia chirayita (Roxb. ex Flem.) Karsten. Pp. 25-26. Plant Resources (an occasional publication), Department of Plant Resources, Thapathali, Kathmandu, Nepal. Karanjit Neera and Sumitra Singh. 2003. Phytochemical screenings of flavonoid containing medicinal plants of Nepal. Pp. 22-24. Plant Resources (an occasional publication), Department of Plant Resources, Thapathali, Kathmandu, Nepal. Singh, Sumitra. 2003. Isolation of valepotriate from Valeriana jatamansi Jones. Pp. 11-13. Plant Resources (an occasional publication), Department of Plant Resources, Thapathali, Kathmandu, Nepal.

3. Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research Joshi, S. K. G. and K. S. Shakya. 2004. Screening of some anthelmintic plants of Nepal. Pp. 11-15. Plant Resources (an occasional publication), Department of Plant Resources, Thapathali, Kathmandu, Nepal.

Shakya, Kul Shova. 2003. Antifertility activity of some high altitude plants. Pp. 16-17. Plant Resources (an occasional publication), Department of Plant Resources, Thapathali, Kathmandu, Nepal.

4. Agriculture (Domestication, Cultivation, Production and Marketing) Adhikary, S. R. 1989. Development of essential oils in Nepal. Pp. 10-23. Proceedings of Essential Oils 1989 National Workshop on Chemical Investigation and Processing of Aromatic Plants (Kathmandu, 11-18 September, 1989), Organized b y National SCAMAP Committee in collaboration with Department of Forestry and Plant Research, Sponsored by UNESCO & AIDAB, Australia. Adhikary, S. R. 1989. Quality control of essential oils. Pp. 93-100. Proceedings of Essential Oils 1989 National Workshop on Chemical Investigation and Processing of Aromatic Plants (Kathmandu, 11-18 September, 1989), Organized b y National SCAMAP Committee in collaboration with Department of Forestry and Plant Research, Sponsored by UNESCO & AIDAB, Australia. Chapagain, N. 2004. Propagation of Elaeocarpus sphaericus (Rudraksha). Pp. 53-55. Plant Resources (an occasional publication), Department of Plant Resources, Thapathali, Kathmandu, Nepal. Karki, Asha, Sabari Rajbahak and Hari Krishna Saiju. 2003. Pilot scale production of Nepal Cardamom (Amomum subulatum Roxb. Cultivar Dambersay) through tissue culture. Pp. 5-10. Plant Resources (an occasional publication), Department of Plant Resources, Thapathali, Kathmandu, Nepal. Shakya, P. R. 1989. Aromatic plant hunting in Nepal Himalaya. Pp. 24-28. Proceedings of Essebtial Oils 1989 National Workshop on Chemical Investigation and Processing of Aromatic Plants (Kathmandu, 11-18 September, 1989), Organized b y National SCAMAP Committee in collaboration with Department of Forestry and Plant Research, Sponsored by UNESCO & AIDAB, Australia. Vanaspati Bibhag. 2058. Jadibuti bhandaran. Jadibuti Kheti Prakashan Sankhya- 14. Shree 5 ko Sarkar, Ban tatha Bhu-Samranchyan Mantralaya, Vanaspati Bibhag, Jadibuti Prabardhan Ayojana, Thapathali, Kathmandu. Vanaspati Bibhag. 2058. Keshar Kheti. Jadibuti Kheti Prakashan Sankha- 9. Shree 5 ko Sarkar, Ban tatha Bhu-Samranchyan Mantralaya, Vanaspati Bibhag, Jadibuti Prabardhan Ayojana, Thapathali, Kathmandu. Vanaspati Bibhag. 2058. Mentha Kheti. Jadibuti Kheti Prakashan Sankha- 7. Shree 5 ko Sarkar, Ban tatha Bhu-Samranchyan Mantralaya, Vanaspati Bibhag, Jadibuti Prabardhan Ayojana, Thapathali, Kathmandu. Vanaspati Bibhag. 2058. Sadabahar Kheti. Jadibuti Kheti Prakashan Sankha- 8. Shree 5 ko Sarkar, Ban tatha Bhu-Samranchyan Mantralaya, Vanaspati Bibhag, Jadibuti Prabardhan Ayojana, Thapathali, Kathmandu. Vanaspati Bibhag. 2058. Sugandhit vanaspati prashodhan (Sugandhit tel). Jadibuti Kheti Prakashan Sankhya- 14. Shree 5 ko Sarkar, Ban tatha Bhu-Samranchyan Mantralaya, Vanaspati Bibhag, Jadibuti Prabardhan Ayojana, Thapathali, Kathmandu.

5. Biotechnology (micropropagation, tissue culture)

Joshi, Pramila, Keshari Maiya Rajkarnikar and Hari Krishna Saiju. 2000. In vitro propagation of Elaeocarpus sphaericus (Gaertn.) K. Schum. Pp. 227-229. In: T. Watanabe, A. Takano, M. S. Bista and H. K. Saiju (eds.), Proceedings of Nepal- Japan Joint Symposium on Conservation and utilization of Himalayan Medicinal Resources: The Himalayan Plants, Can they save us? November 6-11, 2000, Kathmandu, Nepal. Society for the conservation and Development of Himalayan Medicinal Resources, Japan and Department of Plant Resources, Kathmandu, Nepal. Karki, Asha and Hari Krishna Saiju. 2000. In vitro propagation of Cardamom (Amomum subulatum Roxb.). Pp. 224-226. In: T. Watanabe, A. Takano, M. S. Bista and H. K. Saiju (eds.), Proceedings of Nepal-Japan Joint Symposium on Conservation and utilization of Himalayan Medicinal Resources: The Himalayan Plants, Can they save us? November 6-11, 2000, Kathmandu, Nepal. Society for the conservation and Development of Himalayan Medicinal Resources, Japan and Department of Plant Resources, Kathmandu, Nepal.

6. Trade Amatya, Krishna Ram. 2003. MAP trade and promotion. Pp. 104-117. Plant Resources (an occasional publication), Department of Plant Resources, Thapathali, Kathmandu, Nepal. Kattel, Lalit Prasad. 2003. A quantification study on Jadibuti trade from Daman and its adjacent area (Makawanpur. Pp. 97-99. Plant Resources (an occasional publication), Department of Plant Resources, Thapathali, Kathmandu, Nepal.

Chapter 5 Extraction Methods for MAPs

5.1. Introduction Biological functions:- They may act as reservoirs of prific synlterm they may act as poisonous setisfances which afford plants safety from herbivorous and insects. They are excretory products of plants and excess of is excreted by these method. They may act as detoxification mechanisms in plants.

ESSENTIAL OILS Essential oils are also known as Volatile oils. The volatile odoriferous oil is derived from raw materials of plant origin that impart the plant odour and other characteristic properties. They are obtained by processes such as Distillation, Extraction, Expression and Maceration etc.

Essential oils represent the active constituents of the aromatic plants and are distinguished from fatty oils by the fact that they evaporate or volatilize in contact with air or at ordinary temperature. They possess a pleasant taste and strong aromatic odour. The compounds have been found in plant tissues in either free or esterifies forms.

Essential oils occur in specialized secretary structures such as glandular hairs (Labiatae), modified parenchyma cells (Piperaceae), oil tubes called vittae (Umbelliferaeae), in lysigenous or schizogenous passages (Pinaceae, Rutaceae). The oil glands derived from the splitting opase of certain cells but are formed largely by the breaking down of cell containing oils. They may be formed directly by the protoplasm by decomposition of the resinogenous layer of the cell wall or by the hydrolysis of certain glycosides. Essential oils are usually liquid but can be solid (Camphor, Oorris) or semi solid. according to temperature.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ESSENTIAL OILS It possess pleasant aroma and fragrance, high refractive indices, optically active, Essential oils have high valuable diagnostic property. They are immiscible with water, but they dissolve in pure alcohols and most organic solvents, fats and oils but heat in water They evaporate when exposed to air leaving no oils residue behind. They are distinct from fixed oils (olive oil). They do not become of rancid on exposure to light and air. They are colourless in fresh condition but on long standing they may oxidize and resinify, thus darkening in colour. Essential oils are very complex in their chemicals. The chemical constituents of volatile oils may be divided on the basis of their biosynthetic origin into two broad classes,

1. Terpene Derivatives formed via the Acetate Mevalonic acid. pathway and 2. Aromatic compound formed via the Shikimic acid – Phenyl propanoid pathway.

CLASSIFICATION. 1. On the basis of their Utilization. (I) Perfume oils - Examples -. Rose, Sandal, Lavender, Kewada , Jasmine, Champaca.Geranium, Orris, Lotus. . (II) Flavouring oils - Clove, Peppermint, Citrus,, Nugmet, vanilla,Rosemary.

( III) Medicinal oils -Saffron, Jatamansi, Cinamomum, Mint, Ajowan, Eucalyptus, Citronella, Neroli, Jatamansi, Clove, Thyme. ( IV) Industrial oils – Palmarosa, Citronella, Ginger, Lemon, Citrus, Eucalyptus, Mahuwa,Vetiver, Comphor, Cedar oil, Juniper, etc.

2. On the basis of Volatile Nature. 1. Alcohol Volatile Oils ---- One of the most useful groups of comp[ounds usually non toxic . Benzyl alcohol,Citronallol,Gerniol,Farnesol,Linalool, Menthol, Vetiverol. 2. Aldehyde Volatile Oils. ---- It occur in volatile oils may be cyclic and acyclic. Benzaldehyde, Citral, Citrnellol, Cinnamic aldehyde, Cuminic aldehyde, Vanilline. 3. Ester Volatile Oils. ----- The most widespread constituents found in volatile oils . Borneol acetate, Eugenyl acetate, Geranyl acetate, Methyl salicylate, Lavendulyl acetate, Linalyl acetate,Terpineol.

4. Hydrocarbon Volatile Oils ----- Cubeb, Pepperoil, Lupuline, Turpentine. 5. Ketone Volatile Oils ------Ketones occurring in volatile may be monocyclic terpene ketones; dicyclic terpene ketones and non terpene ketones. Carvone, Fenchone, Jasmone, Camphor, Menthone, Noryl, Methyl noryl ketone, Pinocomphone. 6. Phenol Volatile Oils ------The phenols occurring in volatile oils are of two types 1. those which are present naturally and 2. those which are produced as a result of destructive distillation of certain plant products. Carvacrol, Eugenol, Methyl Eugenol, Myristicin, Safrole, Thymol, Methyl Chavicol,. 7. Phenolic Ether Volatile Oils.----- Anise, Fennel, Nutmeg ,Sassafras oil 8. Oxide Volatile Oils.------Ascaridol, Bisabolone oxide, Bisabolol oxide, Cineol, Linalol oxide,Cajupat oil.

Besides, all these groups there Sulphur, Nitrogenous compounds and organic acids are occasionally present in plants.

3. On the basis of Major Groups. GROUPS OF ESSENTIAL OILS.

HYDROCARBON OXYGENATED DERIVATIVES. ( TERPENES ) Aldehydes , Ketones, Alcohols, Esters Phenols, Acids oxides 1. TERPENES. Terpenes are used to denote compounds containing in integral number of 5 –Carbon units, whether or not they contain other elements such as oxygen . Chemically all terpenes and terpenoids derived from a basic branch 5-C units. Terpenes are unpalatable, toxic possess attractive odour or taste. They have anti microbial properties and extensively used as perfumes. C C – C - C. C

Classification of Terpenes.

SN List No. of C Examples atom Hemiterpene 5 Angelic acid, Isoprene, Isoamyl alcohol, Tiglic acid Monoterpene 10 Comphor, Eucalyptys, Geraniol, Menthol,Linalool,Myrecene, Thujone Sesquiterpene 15 Farnesol, Helehalin, Lanceol, Santonine Diterpene 20 Camphorene, Geranyl Geraniol, Taxol, Murrubia Sesterpene 25 Ophibolin A Triterpene 30 Squalene, Azadirachtin, Oleanic acid Tetraterpene 40 Phytoene

Poly terpene Rubber Halogenated Marine algae terpene

Monoterpenes are very widespread in higher plants and their strong smells have made them of great importance to the perfumery industry.

Raw materials for the perfumes Nature is an important supplier of raw material to the perfumery industry. Wild plants have always been a natural reservoir of new and more exotic fragrances. However, synthetics and natural essential oils each have their own indispensable use and utility in the industry. Raw materials are available for the preparation of fragrances which may be broadly classified as:- 1. Absolutes..2. Balsam. 3.. Concretes 4.Essential oil. 5. Gums 6.Oleoresins.7.. Resinoids. Aromatic chemicals may be either. - 1. Natural and 2. Synthetics.

Absolute - A highly concentrated viscous, solid or semi solid perfume material usually obtained by alcohol extraction from the concrete. Absolutes can be further processed by molecular distillation which removes every last trace of non volatile matter. The alcohol is recovered by evaporation which requires a gentle vacuum towards the end of the process. Absolute possess an excellent odour quality.

Balsam - A resinous semi solid mass or viscous liquid exuded from a plant, which can be either a pathological or physiological product. A true balsam is characterized by its high content of benzoic acid ,Cinnamic acid or their ester derivatives such as Benzyl benzoate, Cinnamyl cinnamate etc. .

Concrete - A concentrated, waxy, solid or semi solid or liquid perfume material prepared from previously live plant matter, usually using by hydrocarbon type of solvent extraction rather than distillation or expression. It is obtained from Jasmine, Tuberose, Orris root, Labdenum leaves, Ylang Ylang etc. The advantages of concrete is that they arte more stable and concentrated than pure essential oils. .

Pomade - A prepared perfume material obtained by the enfleurage process. Civet and Natural musk are very popular.

Resinoids - A perfumery material prepared from natural resinous matter such as balsam, gum, resin, oleo-gum resin etc. by extraction with a hydrocarbon type of solvent such as petroleum ether or hexane. .Resinoids may be viscous liquid, solid or semi solid but are usually homogenous masses of non- crystalline character. Occasionally, the alcohol soluble fraction of a resinoid is called an Absolute. Resinoids are employed in perfumery as fixatives to prolong the effect of the fragrance.Resinoids like Benzoin, Galamum, Labdanum, Myrrh, Olibanum, Styrax, Opopanax are very popular.

Resins - A natural or prepared product either solid or semi solid or liquid in nature. Natural resins are exudations from trees. Oleo resins are active ingredients of spice obtained by solvent extraction of spices.

Tincture - A light coloured herbal remedy or perfumery material prepared in an alcohol base by the maceration..

Gums - A natural resinous exudates from plant parts or synthetic gums are little used in perfumery being virtually odourless. Water soluble, this related to resins (terpentines) eg Commiphora myrrah, Gaylussacia , Liquidambar orientalis, Melicope ternate.Pinus strobus.

5.2. Extraction methods EXTRACTION OF ESSENTIAL OILS

Medicinal plants are enrich in secondary metabolites and are potential sources of drugs. The primary constituents such as carbohydrate, protein, lipids, amino acids, vitamins, minerals are universally present in all kinds of plants whether medicinal or non- medicinal. The second constituents such as alkaloids, terpenoids, phenols etc. are distributed in plants have varies from species to species. Essential oils are extracted from the plant tissues in various ways depending on the quantity and stability of the compound. There are three principal methods of extraction process.

Methods of Extraction of Essential oils 1. Distillation 2. Expression 3. Extraction by solvents. From the plant material, essential oils are extracted by distillation process. There are three methods of distillation (1) Expression & (2) Extraction by solvent.

Extraction of Natural Fragrance, Perfumes and Essential oil. From the plant material, essential oils are extracted by distillation process:

1. HYDRO DISTILLATION. –( Heating of plant material with water). It is an ancient, simple and slow type of extraction process. The whole plant materials or component of plant cuts into small pieces or crushed to exposed the oil glands. Then introduce into the distillation chamber and subject to water and then heat until all volatile oil is extracted in this manner which is not affected by this amount of heat. Both oil and water is condensed in the condensing chamber. Essential oil is collected in a vessel. 2. STEAM DISTILLATION. ( By passing dry steam to the plant material). The whole or ground material is placed in a still and live steam is introduced. The oil vapourised and together with the steam, passes into a condenser. Upon cooling , the oil or essence collects on the surface of the water and is removed and filtered. The solubility of different essential oils in the steam are different and therefore fractional

distillation process are utilized in several cases. This process only isolates the volatile and water insoluble parts of a plant. Many other constituents such as tannins , mucilage and bitters are consequently excluded from the essential oils. Sometimes the resulting oil is redistilled or rectified to get rid of any remaining non –volatile matter. Some essential oils are redistilled at different temperature to obtain certain constituents and exclude others as with Camphor which is split into three fractions, white, yellow and brown.

3. HYDROSTEAM DISTILLATION. (Plant material contact in the water and the upper outlet and the water from the lower outlet.) A fresh aromatic plant material is taken directly to the distilling chamber. Steam is forced through the fresh material carrying the oil droplets to the condensing chamber. During this process, certain components of a volatile oil tends to hydrolyze, where as other constituents are decomposed by the high temperature. The plant material is suspended on a grid and water is boiled below the grid. Lower pressure steams passes. Gathered materials are placed on perforated trays. The trays contain water at the base which is heated by steam coils and free steam under pressure is also passed in the distillate is collected in a receiver. The distillate separates in two layers; the oil is withdrawn in thorough out sprays. In this process, the plant material is not in direct contact with water, but only with steam which is fully saturated, wet and never superheated.

4. EXPRESSION OR PRESSURE Citrus oils Bergamot oils are obtained from the rinds of oranges, lemons and other citrus fruits by subjecting them to various types of pressure. The expression allows the oils to come out, of course along with several impurities. This is collected, filtered; purified and utilized. A method of removing citrus oils as that of puncturing the oil glands by rolling the fruits over a trough, lined with shape projections just long enough to penetrate the epidermis of the peel. The oil globule drops into the trough and are later collected. This is known as the ‘ECUELLE’ method.

5. EXTRACTION BY ORGANIC SOLVENTS Volatile and non – volatile solvents can be used in the extraction process. The oldest method involves the use of non volatile solvents, usually oils or fats such as high grade lard( hog fats obtained from abdominal) or Suet( the hard crumbly flat deposited around the kidney of cattle and sheep), which absorb the odors and yield pomades. A uniform temperature (50oC) can be maintained during most of the process. In this extraction, the organic solvents such as acetone, alcohol, benzene, menthol, dichloromethane or petroleum ether are mainly used.

5. ENFLEURAGE ( Extraction with cold fats) Enfleurage process is carried out under normal temperature. A rectangular wooden frame or glass plates are covered with highly purified cold fats or tallow (the hard coarse fat) or lard or chassis (odourless fats). The whole flowers or component of flower petals (Rose, Jasmine, Tuberose, Champaca, Lavender, etc) are placed on it and allowed to remain for a few hours to several days. The extract is kept in

refrigerator below freezing points preferably at -15oC. The fat dissolved out slowly and eventually absorbs the perfume materials. The dissolved fat separates out which is removed by filtration. The oils may be removed from it by extraction with alcohol. Alcohol is removed completely by distillation at reduced pressure. Enfleurage is used extensively in the production of perfumes and pomades. Or the flower petals are spread over a molten layer of fat (Tallow/lard) for several days. The fat enriched with adsorbed essential oils from petals is stirred with pure ethanol. The ethanol extract is then evaporated at 00c in vacuum to give the essential oil.

6. MACERATION (Extraction with hot fats). This method is used for MAPs whose active principles are soluble in cold water or fats for several hours during, which time all the principles that do not need heat to release them, will be released into the solution. In this extraction process, the plant materials (Rose, Violet orange, Lily, Geranium, Chrysanthemum, Lavender, etc) are placed is glass plates and it digested with hot melted fats. Leave it several days as it is at ordinary temperature or at medium temperature. After absorption of the perfumes is completed, the pomades are obtained and then treated with alcohol to dissolve out the oil and yield floral extracts. Floral extracts mixed with alcohol is removed completely by distillation process.

The direct extraction of perfumes by means of volatile solvents is a much more recent process. Petroleum ether is commonly used. After the flowers have been exhausted, the solvent is distilled off, leaving a semi solid residue, the concretes which consist of the essential oils and insoluble plant waxes. Alcohol is added the waxes are removed by filtration or by freezing and the alcohol is then eliminated. The resulting absolute is a highly concentrated form of perfume oils. 7. Cold pressing

Cold pressing is used to extract the essential oils from citrus rinds such as orange, lemon, grapefruit and bergamot. The rinds are separated from the fruit, are ground or chopped and are then pressed. The result is a watery mixture of essential oil and liquid which will separate given time. It is important to note that oils extracted using this method have a relatively short shelf life, so make or purchase only what you will be using within the next six months.

8. Solvent Extraction

A hydrocarbon solvent is added to the plant material to help dissolve the essential oil. When the solution is filtered and concentrated by distillation, a substance containing resin (resinoid), or a combination of wax and essential oil (known as concrete) remains. From the concentrate, pure alcohol is used to extract the oil. When the alcohol evaporates, the oil is left behind. This is not considered the best method for extraction as the solvents can leave a small amount of residue behind which could cause allergies and effect the immune system.

9. Florasols/Phytols

Dr. Peter Wilde was the first to recognize the unique properties of . "Florasol" (R134a), a benign gaseous solvent for the extraction of aromatic oils and biologically active components from plant materials, for use in the food, pharmaceutical, aromatherapy and perfume industries. Extraction through this process occurs at or below ambient temperatures, ensuring that there is no thermal degradation of the products. A free flowing clear oil free of waxes is produced utilizing the selectivity of the solvent.

10. Carbon Dioxide Extraction:

Liquid CO2 resulting from subjecting CO2 to high pressure, has the properties of a very inert, safe, "liquid solvent." which can be used to extract the aromatic molecules in a process similar to solvent extraction. In this method, however, no solvent residue remains, since at normal pressure and temperature, CO2 reverts back to its gaseous form and evaporates.

Essences of some aromatics like Rose Hip Seed and Calendula that don't yield essential oils can be extracted using this method. Going by popular experience a CO2 extracted essence in comparison to a steam distilled EO, seems to have a richer, more intense scent, since more of the aromatic chemicals are released through this process.

Medicinal Plant Extracts

Extraction (as the term is pharmaceutically used) is the separation of medicinally active portions of plant (and animal) tissues using selective solvents through standard procedures. Such extraction techniques separate the soluble plant metabolites and leave behind the insoluble cellular marc. The products so obtained from plants are relatively complex mixtures of metabolites, in liquid or semisolid state or (after removing the solvent) in dry powder form, and are intended for oral or external use. These include classes of preparations known as decoctions, infusions, fluid extracts, tinctures, pilular (semisolid) extracts or powdered extracts. Such preparations have been popularly called galenicals, named after Galen, the second century Greek physician. The purpose of standardized extraction procedures for crude drugs (medicinal plant parts) is to attain the therapeutically desired portions and to eliminate unwanted material by treatment with a selective solvent known as menstruum.

General Methods of Extraction of Medicinal Plants

1. Maceration: In this process, the whole or coarsely powdered crude drug is placed in a stoppered container with the solvent and allowed to stand at room temperature for a period of at least 3 days with frequent agitation until the soluble matter has dissolved. The mixture then is strained, the marc (the damp solid material) is pressed, and the combined liquids are clarified by filtration or decantation after standing.

2. Infusion: Fresh infusions are prepared by macerating the crude drug for a short period of time with cold or boiling water. These are dilute solutions of the readily soluble constituents of crude drugs.

3. Digestion: This is a form of maceration in which gentle heat is used during the process of extraction. It is used when moderately elevated temperature is not objectionable. The solvent efficiency of the menstruum is thereby increased.

4. Decoction: In this process, the crude drug is boiled in a specified volume of water for a defined time; it is then cooled and strained or filtered. This procedure is suitable for extracting water-soluble, heat-stable constituents. This process is typically used in preparation of Ayurvedic extracts called “quath” or “kawath”. The starting ratio of crude drug to water is fixed, e.g. 1:4 or 1:16; the volume is then brought down to one-fourth its original volume by boiling during the extraction procedure. Then, the concentrated extract is filtered and used as such or processed further.

5. Percolation: This is the procedure used most frequently to extract active ingredients in the preparation of tinctures and fluid extracts. A percolator (a narrow, cone-shaped vessel open at both ends) is generally used (Figure 1). The solid ingredients are moistened with an appropriate amount of the specified menstruum and allowed to stand for approximately 4 h in a well- closed container, after which the mass is packed and the top of the percolator is closed. Additional menstruum is added to form a shallow layer above the mass, and the mixture is allowed to macerate in the closed percolator for 24 h. The outlet of the percolator then is opened and the liquid contained therein is allowed to drip slowly. Additional menstruum is added as required, until the percolate measures about three-quarters of the required volume of the finished product. The marc is then pressed and the expressed liquid is added to the percolate. Sufficient menstruum is added to produce the required volume, and the mixed liquid is clarified by filtration or by standing followed by decanting.

6. Hot Continuous Extraction (Soxhlet): In this method, the finely ground crude drug is placed in a porous bag or “thimble” made of strong filter paper, which is placed in chamber E of the Soxhlet apparatus . The extracting solvent in flask A is heated and its vapors condense in condenser D. The condensed extractant drips into the thimble containing the crude drug, and extracts it by contact. When the level of liquid in chamber E rises to the top of siphon tube C, the liquid contents of chamber E siphon into flask A. This process is continuous and is carried out until a drop of solvent from the siphon tube does not leave residue when evaporated. The advantage of this method, compared to previously de- scribed methods, is that large amounts of drug can be

extracted with a much smaller quantity of solvent. This effects tremendous economy in terms of time, energy and consequently financial inputs. At small scale, it is employed as a batch process only, but it becomes much more economical and viable when converted into a continuous extraction procedure on medium or large scale.

7. Aqueous Alcoholic Extraction by Fermentation: Some medicinal preparations of Ayurveda (like asava and arista) adopt the technique of fermentation for extracting the active principles. The extraction procedure involves soaking the crude drug, in the form of either a powder or a decoction (kasaya), for a specified period of time, during which it undergoes fermentation and generates alcohol in situ; this facilitates the extraction of the active constituents contained in the plant material. The alcohol thus generated also serves as a preservative. If the fermentation is to be carried out in an earthen vessel, it should not be new: water should first be boiled in the vessel. In large-scale manufacture, wooden vats, porcelain jars or metal vessels are used in place of earthen vessels. Some examples of such preparations are karpurasava, kanakasava, dasmularista. In Ayurveda, this method is not yet standardized but, with the extraordinarily high degree of advancement in fermentation technology, it should not be difficult to standardize this technique of extraction for the production of herbal drug extracts.

8. Counter-current Extraction: In counter-current extraction (CCE), wet raw material is pulverized using toothed disc disintegrators to produce a fine slurry. In this process, the material to be extracted is moved in one direction (generally in the form of a fine slurry) within a cylindrical extractor where it comes in contact with extraction solvent. The further the starting material moves, the more concentrated the extract becomes. Complete extraction is thus possible when the quantities of solvent and material and their flow rates are optimized. The process is highly efficient, requiring little time and posing no risk from high temperature. Finally, sufficiently concentrated extract comes out at one end of the extractor while the marc (practically free of visible solvent) falls out from the other end.

9. Ultrasound Extraction (Sonication): The procedure involves the use of ultrasound with frequencies ranging from 20 kHz to 2000 kHz; this increases the permeability of cell walls and produces cavitation. Although the process is useful in some cases, like extraction of rauwolfia root, its large-scale application is limited due to the higher costs. One disadvantage of the procedure is the occasional but known deleterious effect of ultrasound energy (more than 20 kHz) on the active constituents of medicinal plants through formation of free radicals and consequently undesirable changes in the drug molecules.

10. Supercritical Fluid Extraction: Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) is an alternative sample preparation method with general goals of reduced use of organic solvents and increased sample throughout. The factors to consider include temperature, pressure, sample volume, analyte collection, modifier (cosolvent) addition, flow and pressure control, and restrictors. Generally, cylindrical extraction vessels are used for SFE and their performance is good beyond any doubt. The collection of the extracted analyte following SFE is another important step: significant analyte loss can occur during this step, leading the analyst to believe that the actual efficiency was poor. It is environmental friendly.

11. Phytonics Process: A new solvent based on hydrofluorocarbon-134a and a new technology to optimize its remarkable properties in the extraction of plant materials offer significant environmental advantages and health and safety benefits over traditional processes for the production of high quality natural fragrant oils, flavors and biological extracts. Advanced Phytonics Limited (Manchester, UK) has developed this patented technology termed “phytonics process”. The products mostly extracted by this process are fragrant components of essential oils and biological or phytopharmacological extracts which can be used directly without further physical or chemical treatment.

Parameters for Selecting an Appropriate Extraction Method

i) Authentication of plant material should be done before performing extraction. Any foreign matter should be completely eliminated. ii) Use the right plant part and, for quality control purposes, record the age of plant and the time, season and place of collection. iii) Conditions used for drying the plant material largely depend on the nature of its chemical constituents. Hot or cold blowing air flow for drying is generally preferred. If a crude drug with high moisture content is to be used for extraction, suitable weight corrections should be incorporated. iv) Grinding methods should be specified and techniques that generate heat should be avoided as much as possible. v) Powdered plant material should be passed through suitable sieves to get the required particles of uniform size. vi) Nature of constituents: a) If the therapeutic value lies in non-polar constituents, a non- polar solvent may be used. For example, lupeol is the active constituent of Crataeva nurvala and, for its extraction, hexane is generally used. Likewise, for plants like Bacopa monnieri and Centella asiatica, the active constituents are glycosides and hence a polar solvent like aqueous methanol may be

used. b) If the constituents are thermolabile, extraction methods like cold maceration, percolation and CCE are preferred. For thermostable constituents, Soxhlet extraction (if non- aqueous solvents are used) and decoction (if water is the menstruum) are useful. c) Suitable precautions should be taken when dealing with constituents that degrade while being kept in organic solvents, e.g. flavonoids and phenyl propanoids. d) In case of hot extraction, higher than required temperature should be avoided. Some glycosides are likely to break upon continuous exposure to higher temperature. e) Standardization of time of extraction is important, as: • Insufficient time means incomplete extraction. • If the extraction time is longer, unwanted constituents may also be extracted. For example, if tea is boiled for too long, tannins are extracted which impart astringency to the final preparation. f) The number of extractions required for complete extraction is as important as the duration of each extraction. vii) The quality of water or menstruum used should be specified and controlled. viii) Concentration and drying procedures should ensure the safety and stability of the active constituents. Drying under reduced pressure (e.g. using a Rotavapor) is widely used. Lyophilization, although expensive, is increasingly employed. ix) The design and material of fabrication of the extractor are also to be taken into consideration. x) Analytical parameters of the final extract, such as TLC and HPLC fingerprints, should be documented to monitor the quality of different batches of the extracts.

Steps Involved in the Extraction of Medicinal Plants

In order to extract medicinal ingredients from plant material, the following sequential steps are involved:

1. Size reduction 2. Extraction 3. Filtration 4. Concentration 5. Drying

1. Size Reduction: The dried plant material is disintegrated by feeding it into a hammer mill or a disc pulverizer which has built-in sieves. The particle size is controlled by varying the speed of the rotor clearance 57

between the hammers and the lining of the grinder and also by varying the opening of the discharge of the mill. Usually, the plant material is reduced to a size between 30 and 40 mesh, but this can be changed if the need arises. The objective for powdering the plant material is to rupture its organ, tissue and cell structures so that its medicinal ingredients are exposed to the extraction solvent. Furthermore, size reduction maximizes the surface area, which in turn enhances the mass transfer of active principle from plant material to the solvent. The 30-40 mesh size is optimal, while smaller particles may become slimy during extraction and create difficulty during filtration.

2. Extraction: Extraction of the plant material is carried out in three ways: i) Cold aqueous percolation ii) Hot aqueous extraction (decoction) iii) Solvent extraction (cold or hot)

I. Cold Aqueous Percolation: The powdered material is macerated with water and then poured into a tall column. Cold water is added until the powdered material is completely immersed. It is allowed to stand for 24 h so that water-soluble ingredients attain equilibrium in the water. The enriched aqueous extract is concentrated in multiple-effect evaporators to a particular concentration. Some diluents and excipients are added to this concentrated extract, which is then ready for medicinal use.

II. Hot Aqueous Extraction (Decoction): This is done in an open-type extractor. The extractor is a cylindrical vessel made from type 316 stainless steel and has a diameter (D) greater than the height (H), i.e. the H/D ratio is approximately 0.5. The bottom of the vessel is welded to the dished end and is provided with an inside false bottom with a filter cloth. The outside vessel has a steam jacket and a discharge valve at the bottom. One part powdered plant material and sixteen parts demineralized water are fed into the extractor. Heating is done by injecting steam into the jacket. The material is allowed to boil until the volume of water is reduced to one- fourth its original volume. By this time the medicinal ingredients present in the plant material have been extracted out.

III. Solvent Extraction: The principle of solid-liquid extraction is that when a solid material comes in contact with a solvent, the soluble components in the solid material move to the solvent. Thus, solvent extraction of plant material results in the mass transfer of soluble active principle (medicinal ingredient) to the solvent, and this takes place in a concentration gradient. The rate of mass transfer decreases as the concentration of active principle in the solvent increases, until equilibrium is reached, i.e. the concentrations of active principle in the solid material and the solvent are the same. Thereafter, there will no longer be a mass transfer of the active principle from plant material to the solvent.

3. Filtration: The extract so obtained is separated out from the marc (exhausted plant material) by allowing it to trickle into a holding tank through the built-in false bottom of the extractor, which is covered with a filter cloth. The marc is retained at the false bottom, and the extract is received in the holding tank. From the holding tank, the extract is pumped into a sparkler filter to remove fine or colloidal particles from the extract. 4. Concentration: The enriched extract from percolators or extractors, known as miscella, is fed into a wiped film evaporator where it is concentrated under vacuum to produce a thick concentrated extract. The concentrated extract is further fed into a vacuum chamber dryer to produce a solid mass free from solvent. The solvent recovered from the wiped film evaporator and vacuum chamber dryer is recycled back to the percolator or extractor for the next batch of plant material. The solid mass thus obtained is pulverized and used directly for the desired pharmaceutical formulations or further processed for isolation of its phytoconstituents.

5. Spray Drying: The filtered extract is subjected to spray drying with a high pressure pump at a controlled feed rate and temperature, to get dry powder. The desired particle size of the product is obtained by controlling the inside temperature of the chamber and by varying the pressure of the pump. The dry powder is mixed with suitable diluents or excipients and blended in a double cone mixer to obtain a homogeneous powder that can be straight way used, for example, for filling in capsules or making tablets.

ALKALOIDS. ( ALKALI – LIKE COMPOUNDS ) The term alkaloid was first of al introduced by W. Meissner in 1819. The medicinal values of drug plants are due to presence in the plant tissues of some chemical substances that produce a definite physiological action on the humane body. The most important of these constituents are alkaloids, essential oils, glycosides, fatty oils, resins, tannins, gums, mucilage, steroids etc. Alkaloids accumulates principally in four types of plant’s tissues 1. actively growing tissues 2. epidermal and hypodermal cells 3. vascular bundle sheath cells and 4.latex vessels. Besides they are also present in vacuoles and rarely occur in dead tissues.

OCCURRENCE.  Alkaloids are widely distributed in higher plants particularly the dicotyledonous plants but less frequently in lower plants and mycophytes. A  Alkaloids are usually found in almost all parts of plants including roots, stems, leaves, barks, flowers, fruits, seeds and in saps.  In plants, alkaloids generally exist as salts of organic acids like acetic , aconitic, oxalic, malic, citric, tartaric, fumaric acids etc. Some are basic such as nicotine, atropine, reserpine, quinine, nerecine etc and some are glycosides of sugars, amides or as esters of organic acids.

 Alkaloids are the basic nitrogen compounds of plant origin which are physiologically active.  They usually contain one nitrogen atom but may contain upto five atoms in certain alkaloids. The nitrogen may exist as a primary amine ( RNH2), or as a secondary amine ( R2NH) or as a tertiary amine ( R3N) in a heterocyclic rings.  There are 2000 alkaloids have been isolated from plants and their constituent structures also been determined.

PROPERTIES.  Alkaloids are colourless, crystalline and non- volatile solids.  They possess a bitter taste, soluble in organic solvents but insoluble in water but some liquid alkaloids ( Coniine, Nicotine) are soluble in water.  They are majority being optically active in L- form.  Several alkaloids arte deadly poisonous but in minute doses are valuable drugs.  Most of the alkaloids contain oxygen.  Alkaloids also produce insoluble precipitation when reacted with solutions of phosphotungstic acid, phosphomolybdic acid, picric acid, potassium mercuric iodide, methyl iodide etc.  Many of this precipitation have definite crystalline shapes and so may be used for identification of an alkaloid.  Biosynthetically, they may be derived from amino acids, terpenes or aromatics, depending on the specific alkaloid structure.

CLASSIFICATION OF ALKALOIDS. 1. On the basis of efficacy. ( I). MILD ALKALOIDS. - Atropine, Caffeine,Nicotine, Quinine. ( II ). POTENT ALKALOIDS.- Berberine, Cocaine, Cholidinine, Morphine, Piperine,Psilocynine, Strychnine, Semicione,Stemedine. 2. On the basis of their chemical structures.

Class Precursor of Examples 1. Pyrrolidine L - ornithine Aspartic acid, Hygrine, Strachydrine 2. Pyrrolizidine L – ornithine Retronecine 3. Pyridine As partic acid Coniine, Nicotine 4. Piperidine. Lysine Piperine, Anabasine 5. Phenanthroindolizidine L - Ornithine Adrenaline, Barzedrine 6.Indole L - Tryptophane jmalicine, Gramine 7. Imidazole L - Histidine Ergothionine, Pilosine 8. Isoquinoline L - Tyrosine Codcine, Codeine 9.Quindine or Quinoline L- Tryptophan Quinine

10. Quinolizidine L - Lysine Lupinine, Sparteine. 11. Tropane L - Ornithine Atropine, Cocaine,

Daturine, Hyoscyanine. 12. Steroidal Cholesterol, Viride Sabadilla, Proto veratrine A, Protoveratrine B 13. Phenylethylamine

EXTRACTION OF ALKALOIDS The fresh materials at first washed thoroughly and it should be free zed in a refrigerator or freezer at about -20oC to -80oC depending on the part of the plant species. The prior dried material is also used to extraction process.

For Fresh Material. Grind the plant material either with using a small volume of suitable buffer or organic solvent or a liquid nitrogen. Filter and obtain a plant extract. Homogenize the extract with menthol and allow to stand for 24 hours at ordinary temperature. Filter and get obtain a filtrate.

For Dried Material The dried plant material is then finally powdered. The powdered is moistened with sufficient water. Filter and get obtain filtrate. Add HCl or H2SO4. The acidulated filtrate liberates the alkaloid from their salts with containing the hydrochlorides of alkaloids and soluble plant impurities such as carbohydrates and pigments.

Then mix the filtrate with lime solution( NaOH or Na2CO3). It react with acids tannins and other phenolic compounds, latter insoluble alkaloids that are set free ,precipitation come out. The solid mass obtained and it carried out with either methanol or benzene or petroleum ether. The organic liquid is then shaken with aqueous acid and allow to isolate. The aqueous liquid contain alkaloid salts with many impurities remain behind in the organic liquid. On the other hand ,the organic extract is evaporated until to get a mixture of pure alkaloid. The required alkaloid is then isolated from the mixture by fractional crystallization chromatography or ion exchange techniques.

Or The plant powdered is extracted with boiling menthol. Care should be taken in this step. Distill off . residues treated with acid. Again bases are extracted with their soluble salts . Add petroleum ether or chloroform and mix thoroughly. Allow to stand for sometime. Separate the alkaloid by the use of separation techniques.

Summary of obtaining alkaloid. Powdered plant material ------add distilled water --- filter ---- add lime solution in filtrate ------add dilute acid solution ------pour organic solvent ( menthol or benzene or petroleum ether) ------add dilute acid solution or not-----Evaporate ------separation by fractional distillation or Chromatography techniques.

Alkaloid ( NH) + HCl ----- Alkaloid (NH2+Cl- ) -----NaOH ----- Alkaloid (NH) (Free).

There are two different types of extraction:

1. Aqueous Extraction -treated with cold water as well as with hot water, because some of the plant alkaloid may be soluble in water. 2. Organic Extraction -treated with organic solvents (Acetone,Benzene. Menthol, Ethyl alcohol, Chloroform, Petroleum ether, etc) because majority of the plant alkaloids may be soluble in these solvents.

1. QUININE Plant --- Cinchona officinalis, Cinchona ledgeriana. Powdered plant material ------add alkali solution ------the alkaline mass is then mixed --- - add petroleum ether ----- washed the extraction with dilute H2SO4 alkaloid sulphate is formed. The aqueous layer is concentrated when quinine sulphate being relatively less soluble ------separate------recrystallise ------get pure quinine sulphate ( C20 H24 O2N2) H2SO4.

2. PIPERINE Plant---- Piper nigrum. Powdered plant material heated with Ca(OH)2 milk lime ------evaporated to dryness ----- residue is extracted with petroleum ether ----- evaporate petroleum ether extract ---- filter ------residue is crystallized from ethanol ------get piperine. The reaction is as follows. C17 H19 O3 N + H20 + KOH------C11 H9 O2 COOH ( Piperic Acid ) + C5H10 NH (Piperidine) Piperidine –H2O ---- C11 H9 O2 ------C – N ( Piperine.).

3. CONIINE. Plant ------Conium maculatum Powdered plant material ------add NaOH solution ----- filter------obtain filtrate ------add petroleum ether ------evaporate ether extract ----- the oily residue is care fully obtain ----- carry the fractional distillation at about 160- 167oc temperature ------get coniine.

4. ATROPINE Plant (Atropa belladonna). Plant extract ------Potassium carbonate------add ether in extract ------the ether extract is evaporated------to get residue of the crude atropine alkaloid. It is purified through oxalate ------alkaloid is obtained form fractional crystallization and treatment of the salt . At first convert plant alkaloids into their Reineckates (H E Cr (NH3)2 (SCN)4. (Alkaloid + Reineckate solution). Add acetone and then pass this solution through an ion exchange column.

5. RESIN On heating, resin is soften and ultimately melt. They are soluble in organic solvents. Resins are often associated with oleo-resins or gum resins or oleo- gum- resins. In the distillery, the crude extract of resin is then transferred in copper still which is now warmed with water. If any woody debris floating to the surface is skimmed off. The cover of the still is now fixed and the temperature is raised. The distillate is a mixture of

water and oil of turpentine. To prevent charring of the resin requisite amount of water is added. When no more turpentine passes over, the molten resin is then run through wire strainers and collected in barrels. It is then cooled and transported to market.

6. TANNIN They are the phenolic compounds and it may be hydrolyzed easily by acids or enzymes such as tannase. On treatment with acids or enzymes, condensed tannins are decomposed into red soluble compounds known as PHLOBAPHENES, which gives the characteristic red colour to many drugs. Tannins are soluble readily in water or ether but the homogenous components of tannin extract are very difficult to separate. Plants produce many kinds of organic compounds as secondary metabolites, which have been used as medium and useful chemicals in our daily life. The enormous number of secondary metabolites or alkaloids can be isolated by means of various separation methods.

Separation techniques. Primary Methods of Chromatography is used to separation of alkaloids are as follows. 1. Paper Chromatography 2. Thin layer chromatography 3. Liquid Column Chromatography 4. Gas Chromatography 5. Gas Liquid Chromatography 6. Gel Parmation Chromatography.

Alkaloids , now a days are analysed by means of advance technology. 1. High Performance Liquid Chromatography 2. Fast Protein Liquid Chromatography 3. Silica Gel Column Chromatography