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A Review of Environmental Occurrence, Fate, and Toxicity Of Critical Review Cite This: Environ. Sci. Technol. 2019, 53, 13551−13569 pubs.acs.org/est A Review of Environmental Occurrence, Fate, and Toxicity of Novel Brominated Flame Retardants † ‡ † ‡ † ‡ † ‡ § † ‡ § Ping Xiong, , Xueting Yan, , Qingqing Zhu, , Guangbo Qu, , , Jianbo Shi, , , † ‡ § † ‡ Chunyang Liao,*, , , and Guibin Jiang , † State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China ‡ College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China § Institute of Environment and Health, Jianghan University, Wuhan, Hubei 430056, China *S Supporting Information ABSTRACT: Use of legacy brominated flame retardants (BFRs), including polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD), has been reduced due to adverse effects of these chemicals. Several novel brominated flame retardants (NBFRs), such decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE) and bis(2,4,6-tribromophenoxy) ethane (BTBPE), have been developed as replacements for PBDEs. NBFRs are used in various industrial and consumer products, which leads to their ubiquitous occurrence in the environment. This article reviews occurrence and fate of a select group of NBFRs in the environment, as well as their human exposure and toxicity. Occurrence of NBFRs in both abiotic, including air, water, dust, soil, sediment and sludge, and biotic matrices, including bird, fish, and human serum, have been documented. Evidence regarding the degradation, including photodegradation, thermal degradation and biodegradation, and bioaccumulation and biomagnification of NBFRs is summarized. The toxicity data of NBFRs show that several NBFRs can cause adverse effects through different modes of action, such as hormone disruption, endocrine disruption, genotoxicity, and behavioral modification. The primary ecological risk assessment shows that most NBFRs exert no significant environmental risk, but it is worth noting that the result should be carefully used owing to the limited toxicity data. See https://pubs.acs.org/sharingguidelines for options on how to legitimately share published articles. Downloaded via RESEARCH CTR ECO-ENVIRONMENTAL SCI on August 14, 2020 at 08:40:11 (UTC). 1. INTRODUCTION Therefore, as a replacement for the banned and restricted BFRs, some novel BFRs (NBFRs) have been introduced into Owing to excellent flame retardant properties, brominated market. The most common NBFRs are decabromodiphenyl flame retardants (BFRs) are used in a variety of consumer ethane (DBDPE), bis(2,4,6-tribromophenoxy) ethane products, such as furniture, textiles, carpets, electronics (BTBPE), and tetrabromobisphenol A bis(2,3-dibromopropyl castings, car components, building materials, insulators, etc., ether) (TBBPA-DBPE), which are used in place of deca-BDE, fi 1,2 to improve their re resistance. However, as mounting octa-BDE, and tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA), respec- 3−5 − evidence shows, BFRs are ubiquitous in the environment, tively.9 11 There are also a number of other NBFRs on the and they have potential to accumulate and trigger adverse market, typically including 2-ethylhexyl-2,3,4,5-tetrabromoben- effects to living organisms3,6 as well as the capability of long zoate (TBB or EHTBB), bis(2-ethylhexyl) tetrabromophtalate distance transport. Concern about security of these com- (TBPH or BEHTBP), hexabromobenzene (HBB), 2,3,4,5,6- pounds is gradually growing, which leads to strict bans and 7 phase-out of some BFRs. For example, the worldwide use of Received: May 27, 2019 penta- and octa-BDE has been strictly banned in California, Revised: October 28, 2019 7 U.S. The use of deca-BDE has also been restricted in Europe Accepted: November 4, 2019 in 2008 and was phased out in the U.S. at the end of 2013.8 Published: November 4, 2019 © 2019 American Chemical Society 13551 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b03159 Environ. Sci. Technol. 2019, 53, 13551−13569 Environmental Science & Technology Table 1. Concentrations of NBFRs in Abiotic Matrices (Air, Water, Dust, Sediments, Soil, and Sludge) a TBBPA- region date/n unit DBDPE BTBPE HBB PBEB PBT TBB TBPH TBECH DBPE ref Matrix: Air 3 − c e− − air Madrid, Spain 2013/68 pg/m nd 0.01 d nd 2.56 nd 11.6 4.89 13 (14.3%) (14.3%) (42.9%) b air BFR production area, 2013/14 pg/m3 240 2800 9.7 4000 34 China air The Great Lakes, U.S. 2005−2013 pg/m3 0.34−2.0 0.08−2.2 0.036−1.8 0.28−4.6 0.39−3.7 14 air East Greenland Sea 2009/10 pg/m3 nd−0.06 0.001−0.66 nd−0.02 nd−0.08 23 air Residential region, 2007−2008/57 pg/m3 11 1.1 4.8 0.34 6.1 45 China air Pearl River Delta 2007/4 pg/m3 1920 30.7 528 48 Matrix: Wastewater influent Harbin, China 2009−2016/64 ng/L 22.3 2.2 55 effluent 4.7 0.4 WWTP Norway 2009 ng/L 0.40−1.82 nd nd 33 incoming Norway 2009/9 ng/L nd−5.1 nd 1.2−5.3 nd−18 40 water outgoing Norway 2009/9 ng/L nd nd 0.6−2.1 nd 40 water Matrix: Water 13552 lake The Great Lakes, U.S. 2011−2012 pg/L 0.25−10.8 0.23−0.70 0.25−32.0 1.3−7.9 0.27−10.4 60 urban Singapore 2014−2015/56 ng/L 0.04−5.22 0.0039−0.49 0.0016−0.0097 0.099−0.47 62 watershed seawater Bohai Sea, China 2015/20 ng/L 0.03−0.15 1.23−9.43 0.81−6.69 61 seawater Singapore 2011−2012/51 ng/L nd−0.062 nd−0.965 59 Matrix: Dust indoor dust Antwerp, Belgium 2008/81 ng/g <20−2470 <0.5−1740 <2−436 <2−6180 <20− 15 9960 indoor dust Barcelona, Spain NA/14 ng/g nd−4430 nd−217 nd−750 (7.1%) nd−24 (14.3%) nd−62.1 nd−508 16 (64.3%) (57.1%) (28.6%) (92.9%) indoor dust Egypt 2013/31 ng/g 0.2−2.4 0.05−0.2 0.8−7.1 0.09−0.6 64 indoor dust Melbourne, Australia 2016/45 ng/g 2400 nd−98 1.9 nd nd−9.0 66 65 fire station California, U.S. 2010−2011/27 ng/g 161 28.4 9.4 2690 2080 67 dust Matrix: Sediments Environ. Sci. Technol. urban Singapore 2014−2015/16 ng/g 1.73−4.46 0.018−0.23 nd 0.43−2.33 62 watershed dw (20%) (26.7%) (40%) surficial South Africa 2011/45 ng/g 171 34 545 96 76 sediments dw DOI: surface Dongjiang River, 2006/4 ng/g 247 1.32 858 48 sediment China dw 10.1021/acs.est.9b03159 2019, 53, 13551 leachate Gauteng, South Africa 2013/18 ng/g 51 10 11 80 Critical Review ponds dw seepage Metal recycling area, 2009 ng/g 0.077 0.028 0.032 33 sediment Norway dw − 13569 Environmental Science & Technology Table 1. continued a TBBPA- region date/n unit DBDPE BTBPE HBB PBEB PBT TBB TBPH TBECH DBPE ref Matrix: Soil farmland soil Pearl River Delta, 2007/4 ng/g 28.1 0.05 39.0 48 China dw urban soil Melbourne, Australia 2014/30 ng/g 30.0 4.79 3.52 nd−90.9 (7%) nd−90.9 86 dw (1%) soil Guiyu, China 2009 ng/g 0.53−153 0.13−15 0.041−3.3 nd−0.0019 89 dw Matrix: Sludge sewage sludge Pearl River Delta, 2007/5 ng/g 1180 0.88 4530 48 China dw primary Catalonia, Spain ng/g 354 nd nd 446 57 sludge dw secondary Catalonia, Spain ng/g 434 3.6 7.2 695 57 sludge dw sewage sludge China 2010−2013/62 ng/g 52.2 0.95 0.68 0.04 0.07 93 dw dewater Harbin, China 2011−2016/24 ng/g 255.8 19.8 0.3 3.5 5.3 160 24.3 55 sludge dw aerobic sludge Harbin, China 2012−2013/6 ng/g 303 4.41 7.55 1.11 10.3 6.03 172 92 dw − 13553 dewatered Harbin, China 2012 2013/6 ng/g 316 42.5 3.59 0.27 6 15.9 242 92 sludge dw a b c d e Date/n: sampling date and number. Mean or median value. Concentration range. Detection frequency. nd = not detected. Environ. Sci. Technol. DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b03159 2019, 53, 13551 Critical Review − 13569 Environmental Science & Technology Critical Review pentabromoethylbenzene (PBEB), 2,3,4,5,6-pentabromoto- mental matrices, including air, water, dust, and sediment, luene (PBT), and 1,2-dibromo-4-(1,2-dibromoethyl) cyclo- during their production, use, and disposal. hexane (TBECH) (Supporting Information (SI) Figure S1).7,12 3. ENVIRONMENTAL OCCURRENCES Recently, there have been many studies involving the 3.1. Abiotic Samples. 3.1.1. Air. Owing to the low vapor occurrence of several NBFRs in various environmental 13,14 15,16 17,18 pressures, the select NBFRs are not easily volatilized into the matrices, including air, dusts, sewage sludge, and air. Therefore, these substances are generally present in the air 19,20 21,22 sediments, as well as human serum. It is worth noting at low concentrations (Table 1). For example, DBDPE was that NBFRs have also been found in the Arctic, which indicates only found at concentration of 0.01 pg/m3 in two winter air that these compounds can undergo a long-range atmospheric samples in Madrid, Spain.13 In air from Stockholm and the transport (LRAT), just as the restricted and banned traditional Great Lakes, the mean concentrations of DBDPE were 1.4 and 23 BFRs.
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