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Open Chheang Dany CRIMJ2016 THE PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY SCHREYER HONORS COLLEGE DEPARTMENT OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE A REVIEW OF THE SOCIO-HISTORICAL, CRIMINOLOGICAL, AND THEORETICAL UNDERSTANDINGS OF THE CAMBODIAN AMERICAN POPULATION: A CALL FOR MORE COMPREHENSIVE, EMPIRICAL RESEARCH DANY CHAN CHHEANG FALL 2016 A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a baccalaureate degree in Administration of Justice with honors in Letter, Arts, and Sciences Reviewed and approved* by the following: Eric J. Connolly Assistant Professor of Criminal Justice Thesis Supervisor Elizabeth Montemurro Professor of Sociology Honors Adviser * Signatures are on file in the Schreyer Honors College. i ABSTRACT The collective view of Asian Americans as model minorities is evident with the extensive number of statistical data that offers support for the academic and socioeconomic success of Asian Americans. This perception presents substantial issues as it overlooks the needs and difficulties that many Asian ethnic groups face, such as overrepresentation in the juvenile justice system, socioeconomic challenges, and behavioral health problems, including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, and substance use. Southeast Asian Americans, particularly Cambodian Americans, are at most risk for these explicit concerns with deportation being a prevailing issue, yet research in this area is lacking and not without numerous limitations. This thesis attempts to merge information from existing research on this at-risk group from a socio-historical, criminological, and theoretical standpoint in order to lend evidence for more comprehensive empirical studies on the Cambodian American population. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................... iii LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................... iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................................... v Chapter 1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 1 Southeast Asian American Populations ........................................................................... 3 The Cambodian American Population: Before Resettlement .......................................... 4 The Cambodian American Population: During and After Resettlement .......................... 6 The Cambodian American Population: Deportation ........................................................ 7 Lack of Research .............................................................................................................. 9 Data, Risk Factors, and Theories ..................................................................................... 10 Need for Greater Understanding ...................................................................................... 12 Chapter 2 Empirical Data ............................................................................................. 14 Asian Americans: Brief Overview of Arrests and Criminal Activity .............................. 14 Southeast Asian Americans: Within-Group Differences, Crime, and Deportation .......... 16 Cambodian Americans: Background, Crime, Delinquency, and Deportation ................. 18 Limitations and What is Needed ...................................................................................... 20 Chapter 3 Criminogenic Risk Factors .......................................................................... 23 What is Known about Criminogenic Risk Factors ........................................................... 23 First-Generation and 1.5-Generation: Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder ........................... 24 1.5-Generation and Second-Generation: Behavioral Health Problems ............................ 26 Individual-Level Factors: From Conception to Childhood .............................................. 30 Limitations and What is Needed ...................................................................................... 33 Chapter 4 Criminological Theories .............................................................................. 36 General Strain Theory ...................................................................................................... 37 Social Learning Theory .................................................................................................... 41 General Theory of Crime: Low Self-Control Theory ...................................................... 43 Social Disorganization Theory: Neighborhood Disadvantage ......................................... 44 Chapter 5 Conclusion ................................................................................................... 47 BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................ 61 iii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2-1 Educational Attainment and Median Household Income by Race, 2010 ............... 15 iv LIST OF TABLES Table 2-1 UCR Violent Crime Arrests by Race, 2012............................................................. 16 Table 2-2 Aggregated and Disaggregated Demographics by Race and Ethnicity, 2010 ......... 17 v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost, I would like to thank Dr. Eric Connolly who not only accepted the role as my thesis supervisor but who also exposed me to extraordinary and high-level research projects. His passion and dedication to biosocial criminological work have led me to make the decision to continue pursuing higher education. I would also like to thank Dr. Elizabeth Montemurro, my faculty reader, whose courses paved the way for my interest in further studying Southeast Asian American populations. I cannot thank them enough for their respect, understanding, and patience. A special thanks is extended to Kaoru Watanabe, nurse and librarian at the Cambodian Association of Illinois and Killing Fields Museum and Memorial, and Sorenny Washington, both of whom extended their position from mentors to dear friends. Their guidance and emotional support have always been heartfelt. I would like to acknowledge Dr. David Ruth, my honors adviser, who was of tremendous help in guiding all the Schreyer students through the technical aspects of our theses. Lastly, I would like to acknowledge the Schreyer Honors Program for the opportunity to develop and create this thesis. The lessons I have learned during this process will be taken with me beyond my undergraduate years. 1 Chapter 1 Introduction Asian Americans comprise of only 5.8% of the U.S. populace but are the fastest growing racial group (Pew Research Center, 2016). They make up a diverse, multi-faceted population that vary by ethnic group, educational attainment (Chhuon, Hudley, Brenner, & Macias, 2010; Ngo & Lee, 2007), level of socioeconomic status (Ishii-Kuntz, Gomel, Tinsley, & Parke, 2010; Sakamoto, Goyette, & Kim, 2009), behavioral health patterns (Sangalang, Ngouy, & Lau, 2015; Wong et al., 2010), levels of acculturation (Goebert, Le, & Sugimoto-Matsuda, 2013; Le, Goebert, & Wallen, 2009), and crime and delinquency rates (Hunt, Moloney, & Evans, 2011; Lai, 2009). Aggregation of Asian ethnic groups in federal government datasets and for research purposes masks this heterogeneity. The lack of disaggregated data demonstrates a substantial issue with how Asian Americans are collectively viewed as the “model minority” – a broad generalization which asserts that Asian Americans are hardworking, overachieving participants of meritocracy (Hein, 2006). Legislators and scholars from various disciplines have consequently concluded that Asian Americans are overrepresented on college campuses (Ying et al., 2001), underrepresented in official crime statistics (Goebert et al., 2013), earn higher grade point averages (Ngo & Lee, 2007), and have higher socioeconomic standing compared to other racial groups (Byun & Park, 2012; Sakamoto et al., 2009). They continue to overlook the needs and challenges facing Asian ethnic groups in the United States, subscribing to the notion that Asian Americans do not need further assistance relative to other racial groups. However, Southeast 2 Asian populations, particularly Cambodians, are at the highest risk of facing several of these challenges, yet research in this area is lacking. Traumatized by the Pol Pot regime that enforced an auto-genocide, the Cambodian population arrived in the United States to a disorganized and ill-equipped resettlement program that relocated them to impoverished urban communities overwhelmed by violence. Many Cambodian male youths resorted to gang life and as a result were adjudicated in the juvenile justice system (Hing, 2005; Lai, 2009). Cambodians now face additional trauma as hundreds have been deported or are currently facing deportation for any prior aggravated felony conviction that may include crimes such as retail theft, bouncing a check, or public urination. Lack of disaggregated data and research, including low political urgency has left this subpopulation nearly invisible and unable to seek suitable resources. Future comprehensive, empirical studies that combines data and risk factors regarding Cambodians and criminological theories may provide insight into some forms of appropriate treatment and prevention programs and immigration policy implications relevant to the Cambodian community. For all these reasons, it is essential to have a better understanding of this unique subpopulation. The present
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