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1. Pendahuluan Sejarah Seni Rupa Modern 1 1. PENDAHULUAN Perjalanan sejarah seni rupa modern di Eropa (sebut saja: Barat) memiliki benang merah yang jelas dan tegas. Alur dan bentangannya memperlihatkan satu kesatuan yang saling berhubungan. Gaya atau aliran yang satu muncul sebagai akibat menentang (mereaksi) aliran/gaya sebelumnya. Penentangan -atau reaksi- tersebut didasari argumentasi atau konsepsi senimannya yang sangat kuat. Pada dasarnya perjalanan atau perkembangan seni rupa Barat selalu tidak lepas dari perjuangan terhadap nilai kebebasan dan kreativitas. Nilai kebebasan gaya yang satu ditentang oleh nilai kebebasan gaya yang lainnya, baik kebebasan segi pemilihan tema, estetika maupun teknik dan proses kreatifnya. Orientasi yang fundamental dari seni rupa Barat adalah seni klasik Yunani dan Romawi kuno. Kebudayaan klasik Yunani yang dilanjutkan oleh bangsa Romawi menjadi tenggelam ratusan tahun karena orientasi berpindah ke ajaran Kristiani, dan abad gemilang menjadi ―abad kegelapan‖. Namun kemudian abad pertengahan tersebut didobrak oleh para seniman karena dianggap tidak memberikan kebebasan dalam berkarya seni-budaya. Untuk mewujudkan cita-budaya yang bebas secara kemanusiaan, maka orientasi berkarya seniman kembali kepada seni klasik kuno (Yunani-Romawi) yang naturalistis-idealis dan didasari filsafat humanismenya. Penggalian kembali kaidah-kaidah klasik tampak semakin digalakkan. Tradisi berkarya seni rupa (khususnya seni lukis dan patung) kembali pada aturan-aturan seni klasik yang pernah berjaya. Gerakan kelahiran kembali ideal klasik ini dinamakan Renaissance (bahasa Perancis, dan renaitre dalam bahasa Itali, dan rebirth dalam bahasa Inggris). Gerakan ini menggema bukan hanya dalam bidang seni lukis dan patung, tetapi juga arsitektur dan semua lapangan budaya. Sejak Renaissance inilah akan terlihat perjalanan yang sangat jelas dari sejarah seni rupa Barat. Sehingga kita bisa menemukan sebab akibat dari gerakan seni modern. Sejarah Seni Rupa Modern 2 Konsep seni modern di Barat menunjukkan beberapa ciri yang mengarah pada pengertiannya. Sarah Newmeyer (1959:7) dalam bukunya Enjoying Modern Art menyebutkan di awal tulisannya, “Modern art may be a picture of a bison scartched twenty thousand years ago on a wall of the Lascaux caves in southern France. Or may be a picture painted by Picasso only this morning.” Penggunaan istilah modern tidak dalam hubungannya dengan kronologi sejarah melainkan ditujukan untuk menamai sesuatu kelompok karya seni yang memiliki sifat-sifat tertentu. Sifat-sifat yang dimaksudkan adalah ciri-ciri yang menunjukkan karya seni yang berbeda dengan kebiasaan sebelumnya sehingga memperlihatkan hal yang baru. Beberapa kamus mengartikan modern sebagai ―the present‖ atau ―just now‖. Namun pengertian ini tidaklah sepenuhnya sejalan. Sebab tanda-tanda kebaruan sangatlah relatif, tergantung sikap batin yang mendasari seniman berkarya. Kata modern secara umum dapat diartikan sebagai sikap atau cara berpikir serta bertindak sesuai dengan tuntutan zaman (Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, 1989 : 589). Cara berpikir modern adalah pemikiran tentang sesuatu yang baru dan biasanya dipertentangkan dengan yang lama. Maka dalam bidang seni, khususnya seni rupa, pengertian modern bisa juga diartikan sebagai suatu seni yang baru, yang didasari pola penciptaan yang baru dengan sikap dan watak yang kreatif. Bagaimanakah asal mula timbulnya seni modern di Barat abad kesembilanbelas? Adjat Sakri (1989:3-4), dalam bukunya Seni Rupa Abad Kesembilan Belas menjelaskan : ―Teori tentang kemajuan masyarakat, yang tumbuh pada zaman itu bertentangan dengan kenyataan karena kaum bangsawan dan kaum pendeta masih diberi hak istimewa dalam bidang perekonomian, sementara bangsa yang terjajah di Afrika, Asia dan Amerika diperas kekayaannya. Standar kesehatan yang baru, yang dilandasi ilmu, bertentangan dengan keadaan yang sebenarnya; industri berjalan dalam lingkungan yang buruk, Sejarah Seni Rupa Modern 3 dan kaum buruh tinggal di perumahan yang kumuh. Di bidang kebudayaan , kemajuan berhadapan dengan... Semuanya itu mengawali kelahiran watak kehidupan modern yang semakin cergas… Bukan saja bentuk lahir yang berubah, tetapi cara berpikir juga berubah. Kebutuhan mutlak untuk memperoleh laba yang besar dengan cepat agar mesin pabrik dapat berputar...‖ Dalam tulisan tersebut, Adjat Sakri menegaskan bahwa sikap para seniman yang terus menerus berusaha mencari gaya-gaya baru di tengah kehadiran gaya lama di tempat seniman itu sendiri, dan gaya masa kini di rantau orang. Mereka ingin menemukan wahana yang cocok untuk mengungkapkan gejolak batin yang kuat, seniman yang mengutamakan kebebasan beralih mencari bentuk yang lain. Di antara usaha para seniman abad kesembilan belas itu, menurut Adjat sakri bukan hanya bercermin kepada hasil-hasil seni masa lalu yang dianggap sebagai ‗master piece‟ tetapi juga belajar kepada seni-seni lainnya seperti Jepang dan China, seni Afrika, seni kepulauan Samudera, dan seni kebudayaan primitif yang lain. Semua bentuk itu dan berbagai ragamnya cocok dengan kebutuhan pelukis, pematung, grafikus, dan desainer pada akhir abad kesembilanbelas dan keduapuluh. Sejarah Seni Rupa Modern 4 2. LATAR SEJARAH SENI RUPA BARAT Seni Rupa Purba Beberapa lukisan dinding gua sebagai peninggalan masa prasejarah di Eropa merupakan bukti karya seni rupa tertua dari perkembangan seni rupa Barat. Lukisan gua tersebut menggambarkan goresan-goresan yang umumnya melukiskan binatang perburuan, lukisan arwah nenek moyang, tanda telapak tangan dan kaki. Lukisan dinding gua tersebut dapat digolongkan ke dalam karya-karya yang primitif. Dinamakan primitif karena dari segi cara pengungkapannya tampak adanya spontanitas, bentuk-bentuk yang diungkapkannya cenderung ekspresif, dan bukan peniruan dari realitas bentuk alam. Kecenderungan gaya ekspresi tersebut didasari oleh dorongan spiritualitas dan kepentingan magis. Para pelukisnya belum mempertimbangkan rasio mereka dalam berkarya budaya, dan tidak pula berfilsafat untuk mendasari karya-karyanya. Mereka berkarya secara intuitif dan emosional. Melalui pendekatan emosional inilah tampaknya mewarnai citra estetik yang cenderung simbolistik karena ungkapan perasaannya dilambangkan oleh simbol- simbol sebagai hasil pemikirannya yang naif (bisa juga primordial). Beberapa ahli menilai bahwa karya lukis prasejarah adalah karya kreatif manusia awal. Nilai ekspresinya yang terwujud dalam goresan visual tak kalah dengan karya lukis akademis dari para seniman moderen. Bahkan muatan magis religius terasa sangat kental dan tajam. Bahasan seni rupa Barat awal yang juga menjadi peristiwa penting sejarah budaya manusia adalah seni Mesir, Mesopotamia, dan Persia. Bangsa Mesir merupakan bangsa besar di dunia, telah menghasilkan sejumlah karya budaya yang ideal- konvensional dan monumental. Orang-orang Mesir membuat karya pada umumnya didukung oleh suatu spirit tertentu yang berhubungan dengan kepercayaan religinya. Pembuatan patung, relief, atau benda-benda seni lainnya, jika dianalisis Sejarah Seni Rupa Modern 5 akan dihubungkan dengan kehidupan setelah mati. Soedarso Sp (2000:12) menyatakan bahwa para seniman pada masa itu adalah orang-orang yang mengetahui akan resep-resep tertentu dan sekaligus merupakan pekerja-pekerja yang baik. Gambaran tentang dunia diekspresikannya dengan caranya sendiri. Salah satu contoh: orang-orang Mesir Purba menggambarkan ruang dengan jalan membuat garis-garis dasar bersusun-susun makin ke atas berarti makin jauh. Seni Rupa Klasik Perkembangan berikutnya di Yunani merupakan perkembangan seni rupa yang telah mencapai puncaknya. Tidak salah jika secara umum perkembangan seni rupa Yunani termasuk perkembangan seni rupa klasik purba. Seni rupa klasik Yunani Purba ini bergaya naturalisme yang diidealisir. Gaya peniruan terhadap bentuk alam yang selalu ditampilkan secara sempurna berdasarkan pendekatan intelektual ini dihasilkan oleh suatu proses kebudayaan yang berlandaskan kerangka filsafat humanisme. Sifat-sifat naturalistis pada karya seni rupa Yunani adalah suatu upaya mendekati peniruan terhadap bentuk alam, khususnya bentuk manusia yang realistik sebagai perwujudan dari pemujaan pada nilai-nilai kesempurnaan manusia. Manusia sebagai mahluk hidup dipandang memiliki kelebihan dari mahluk lain. Di antara budi daya manusia yang menghasilkan produk budaya yang tinggi ialah rasio. Oleh karena segala sesuatu pertimbangan kekaryaan didasari pendekatan rasional maka akan menghasilkan karya seni yang cenderung kaku, dingin, dan menghindari bentuk-bentuk ekspresif dan emosional. Hal ini sangat berbeda dengan kesenian purba yang primitif dari zaman sebelumnya. Kesenian Yunani yang mengutamakan imitasi alam dengan ditambah sedikit idealisasi menghasilkan suatu jenis kesenian yang tidak emosional, dan penuh perfeksi (Soedarso Sp, 2000:13). Sesuatu yang kreatif spontan tidak mendapat tempat. Kreativitas seniman dibatasi oleh kerangka intelektual. Sejarah Seni Rupa Modern 6 Pada umumnya kesenian yang seperti ini dipergunakan oleh penciptanya untuk melukiskan dewa-dewanya yang dianggap berbentuk sebagai manusia yang sempurna, sehingga kesenian ini tidak lain adalah bentuk konvensi saja. Meniru bentuk dewa seperti bentuk manusia yang ideal ini berarti mewujudkan ide tentang keluhuran Dewa. Untuk ini sering dinamakan pula tendensi antropomorfisme. Pewaris kesenian Yunani (Klasik) ialah bangsa Romawi. Bangsa Romawi dapat dikatakan sebagai bangsa yang besar yang mampu menyerap dan mengembangkan kesenian (dan kebudayaan) klasik Yunani. Pengembangan tradisi klasik tetap berakar pada tradisi Yunani. Karya
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