Chapter 1.13 Social Networking

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Kevin Curran University of Ulster, UK

Paul O’Kane University of Ulster, UK

Ryan McGinley University of Ulster, UK

Owen Kelly University of Ulster, UK

INTRODUCTION point, and the ties, lines of social connectivity (Scott, 2000). It is in man’s nature to form communities, and it is Such social network diagrams can be used to also in his nature to communicate. Psychologists measurethesocialcapitalofindividualnodes/actors: hold that man is moved by instincts, desires which a measurement, or determination of the usefulness can only find full satisfaction in a community and of the network to the actors individually, as it is by communication. Social networking (or network that measurement of usefulness to the individual theory) is not an exact science and may reasonably which not only assesses the social capital of actors, betermedasocialcatalystindiscoveringthemethod but which by extension may shape and expose the in which problems are solved; organisations are very nature of the network as an entity. Loose con- run to the degree in which individuals succeed in nections (weak ties) reflect the greater possibility achieving goals (Freeman, 2004). In the network of openness in the network (Granovetter, 2003). theory, social relationships are discussed in terms This, in turn, is more likely to bring new ideas, of nodes and ties: the former individual actors, the new opportunities, and greater scope for innovation latter, relationships within networks frequently than close networks with many redundant ties. It described diagrammatically where the node is a is clear that “the friendly network” composed of friends already have common knowledge, com- DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60566-014-1.ch177 mon interests, and common opportunities. Better

Figure 1. Social networking

still, it has access to wider social geographies. material A requires, and supplies A at a mark up Again, the group with links to many networks has sufficient to meet all the transport costs. B is in potentially greater access to other social arenas “comfortable survival,” for as a condition of title and a more extensive field of information, and to financialenhancements in an areaof high unem- thus the individuals, have links to a diversity of ployment.Thisinteractionwhenexaminedwithin networks, as opposed to those within a single the social network characterizes, not only inter- network, and can exercise more power and exact dependence that exists between the companies, more influence by acting as brokers between their but the in-group factor, and however “shocking” own and other networks not directly linked. This a statutory body for justifiable reasons, supports “polylinkage,” or “filling social holes,” places the “cosy” arrangement (Wellman & Berkowitz, greater emphasis on the qualities or attributes of 1988). That arrangement, in a very real sense, individuals.Theabilityofindividualstoinfluence runs contrary to Sociometry, which attempts their success depends largely on the nature and to quantify social relationships and which Gra- structure of their network. Figure 1 illustrates a novetter explained in finding that, “Power within social network. Company A is a large fashion organisations” comes from an individual’s power design house, a national company. within a network rather than the post or the title he Company B imports and packs material for A’s or she holds (Granovetter, 1990). In the relatively use, but so far, A has little interest in a take over simple example of companies Aand B, the power bid because of continuing government financial of each company is totally dependant on govern- enhancements and certain tax concessions. Ahas, mentlegislation, which was arrived atas theresult thus far, also ignored the lure of outsourcing to of a debate in the House and a vote in parliament. Asia, where it could control material at the point Self evidently, the individual within networks A of manufacture. Company B imports most of the and B have little to do with the present state of

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Figure 2. Matrix of group relationships

business. B depends on Aand Aon the legislation ing to casual acquaintances or friends and these derived from a free vote in parliament. connections are important as they have a direct However, in a strike or work to rule situation, it impact upon productivity and individual motiva- is the individual who holds the power. Granovet- tion. Here, we concentrate on social networking ter, in the final analysis, appears to be correct, if in relation to analysis. The examples presented and only if the cosy status quo continues. It is a show how groups behave and how group politics basic law of Physics that, “Every action has an affects everyone involved, whether it be working equal an opposite reaction,” and that law appears, in a job or studying at university (Alexander & so far, to hold true in Social Networking. There Danowski, 1990). are, however, those who would claim that Social Networking or Network Theory is all theory, yet not really theoretical on account of too much SOCIAL NETWORKING methodology (Scott, 2000). The core problem with this stems from an apparent inability to test The amount of information needed to describe hypothesis in a mathematical way, that is, using even the smallest of social networks can be quite statistics as the data by its very nature negates the big. Tools from mathematics are used to help all randomsampling,whichstatisticsdemands.Here, of the tasks of social network methods (Newman, even the computer and its resources do not appear 2003). To help with the manipulation of network as being capable of handling larger and larger data and the calculation of indexes describing databases, where networks expand. We present networks, matrices are very useful for recording examples of social networking which integrate information. An example of a simple matrix is sociology and psychology within everyday life. shown in Figure 2. In particular, we use examples relating to an or- The above matrix shows the structure of a ganisation’s internal structure, but this can also be close friendship in a group of four people: Ryan, extended further to university classes as well as Tara, Paul and Geraldine. It describes a pattern the politics associated with any group in relation of liking ties with a point-to-point matrix where to sports teams and then with work and sport aside the rows represent choices by each actor. We put another example given to address this essay topic a “1” if a person likes another, and a “0” if they is the rise of social networking Web sites such as don’t. One reason for using mathematical and bebo.com.Asanoverviewtherewillalwaysbethe graphical techniques in social network analysis so called in-groups and out-groups, and so there is to represent the descriptions of networks com- willbetheinevitablegrouppoliticsassociatedwith pactly and more efficiently. This also enables the individuals involved. Social networking was us to use computers to store and manipulate the first created in 1954 by “J.A. Barnes” (Barnes, information quickly and more accurately than we 1954) where he talks about social circles relat- can by hand. The smaller, tighter networks are not

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as useful to their members as networks with lots cial Network Theory, the attributes of individuals of loose connections (weak ties) to individuals are less important than their relationships and ties outsidethemainnetwork.Thisisbecausenetworks with other points within the network (Newman, with weak ties are more likely to introduce new 2004). This approach both has its advantages and ideas and opportunities to their members than disadvantages. The advantage of this approach is closed networks. For example, people who do that it is useful for explaining many real-world things only with each other already share the same phenomena. The disadvantage, however, of this knowledgeandopportunities,whereaspeoplewith approach is that it leaves less room for individual connections outside of each other are more likely agency, and the ability for individuals to influence to have access to a wider range of information. It their success because so much of it rests within the is a lot more beneficial for individual success to structure of the network. Social networks are also have connections to a variety of networks rather usedtoexaminehowcompaniesinteractwitheach than many connections with that of one network. other, as well as between individual employees Another advantage of having connections to a at different companies. These networks provide variety of networks is the use of filling social waysforcompaniesto:gatherinformation,reduce holes. This is when individuals can bridge two competition, and cooperate with rival companies networks that are not directly linked to exercise for their mutual benefit in setting prices and poli- influence or act as brokers within their social cies. Social networking can refer to a category networks. Social network analysis (also known of Internet applications to help connect friends, as network theory) has become a key technique business partners, or other individuals together in modern subjects such as: using a variety of tools. These applications are known as online social networks and are becom- • Sociology: The study of society and human ing increasingly popular (Watts, 2004). Online social action, and includes the examination social networks are a special network service. of the origins, institutions, organisation, It is social software specifically focusing on the and development of human life. building and verifying of social networks for • Anthropology: The study of humanity. It whatever purpose. Social networks play a major is concerned with all humans at all times role in hiring, in business success for firms, and and with all dimensions of humanity. in job performance. Social network theory in the • Social psychology: The study of how in- social sciences began with the urbanisation stud- dividuals perceive, inﬂuence, and relate to ies of the “Manchester School.” Agenuine social others. The study of how our thought and network is limited to about 150 members (Cross self-awareness is social in origin. & Parker, 2004). This is sometimes known as the • Organisational studies: Organisational Dunbar number, which measures the cognitive behaviour, a distinct ﬁeld of academic limit to the number of individuals with whom any study which exams organisation through one person can maintain stable relationships. It using the methods of economics, sociol- is theorised in evolutionary psychology that the ogy, political science, anthropology, and number may be some kind of limit of average psychology. human ability to recognize members and track emotional facts about all members of a group. The Social networks operate on many levels and need to track “free riders” is important, as larger play an important role in solving problems and groups tend to more freely allow cheats and liars howorganisationsarerun,andithelpsindividuals to succeed. Free Riders are points who use more succeed in achieving their targets and goals. In So- than their fair share of resources, or shoulder less

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than a fair share of the costs of its production. • Betweeness: Measures the extent to which To connect two random people anywhere in the a particular point lies “between” the vari- world through a chain of social acquaintances is ous other points in the graph. It is the most generally short. This idea gave rise to the famous complex of the measures of point centrality phrase six degrees of separation, which is a theory to calculate. It is the number of people who that anyone on earth can be connected to any other a person is connected to indirectly through person through a chain of acquaintances that has their direct links. no more than four intermediaries. Research has • Closeness: The shortest distances between shown that about five to seven degrees of separa- each individual and every other person tion are sufficient for connecting any two people in the network. The people who have the through the Internet (Hill & Dunbar, 2002). shortest paths have the best visibility into In 1995, the first social networking Web site what is happening in the network. was set up called Classmates.com. It was not until • Degree: The amount of ties to other points 2001 that Web sites using the Circle of Friends in the network. It measures network ac- social networks started appearing, and the popular- tivity for a node by using the concept of ity of these is still growing today. The most recent degrees. social networking site is bebo.com. It currently • Eigenvector centrality: Measures the has over 20 million members world-wide and is a importance of a node in the network. It free service. Through Bebo.com you can search for assigns relative scores to all nodes in the friends, browse member homepages, learn more network. about people you see every day, write and draw • Clustering coefficient: Measures the like- on other people’s white boards, join “Clubs,” see lihood that two associates of a node are as- events and parties on the calendar, keep in contact sociates themselves. Clustering coefficient with friends at other schools and colleges, share graphs measure to determine if a graph is photos privately or publicly, create quizzes about a small-world network (a class of random yourself, and blog. These social networks start out graphs where most nodes are also neigh- by an initial set of founders sending out a message bours of one another) or not. inviting members of their own personal networks • Cohesion: Measures how well the lines of to join the site. The new members then repeat this source code within a module work together process, growing the total number of members to provide a specific piece of functionality. and links in the network. These sites then offer It is expressed as either higher cohesion different features like viewable profiles, chat, and or low cohesion. The advantages of high so forth. Social connections can also be used for cohesion are robustness, reliability, reus- business connections. Blended networking is an ability, and understandability. The disad- approach to social networking that combines both vantages of low cohesion are difficult to off-line elements (face-to-face events) and online maintain, difficult to test, difficult to reuse, elements. Social computing is the use of social and difficult to understand. software, which is based on creating or recreating • Density: Individual-level density is the de- social conversations and social contexts online gree a respondents’ ties know one another. through the use of software and technology. An Network/global-level density is the number exampleofsocialcomputingistheuseofe-mailfor of ties in a network to the amount possible. maintainingsocialrelationships(Carrington,Scott, • Integration: Measures of group disper- & Wasserman, 2005). There are some indices for sion or how network links focus on specific social network analysis, which are as follows: nodes.

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• Radiality: The degree in which a person’s properties of sexual networks are crucial to the network reaches out into the network and spread of sexually-transmitted diseases (STDs). provides new information and inﬂuence. Social contract is a political theory that explains • Reach: The manner which any member of the basis and purpose of the state and of human a network can reach other members of the rights. Within a society, all its members are as- network. sumed to agree to the terms and conditions of the • Structural equivalence: The extent to social contract by their choice to stay within the which nodes have a common set of linkag- society without violating the contract. The social es to other nodes in the system. The nodes safety net is a term used to describe a collection do not need to have any linkages with each of services provided by the state (e.g., welfare, other to be structurally equivalent. homelessshelters,etc.).Theyhelppreventanyone • Structural hole: These can be ﬁlled by from falling into poverty beyond a certain level. connecting one or more links to link to- An example of how the safety net works would be gether other nodes. Structural Hole is link- a single mother unable to work. She will receive ing to ideas of social capital, for example, benefits to the support the child so the child will if you link two people who are not linked have a better chance at becoming a successful you can control their communication. member of society. Mathematical sociology is the usage of mathematics to draw up social theories. Asocial pyramid is a model of social relation- In sociology, the connection between mathemat- ships. Social intimacy is based on what layer ics and sociology is limited to problems of data of the pyramid you are on. The person with the analysis. In mathematical sociology, the phrase least amount of social intimacy is placed at the “constructing a mathematical sociology” is used. foundation of the pyramid and the individual at This means making relevant assumptions about the top of the pyramid has the highest amount of somemathematicalobjectsandprovidingpractical socialintimacy.Sooneachsuccessivelayergoing evaluations for ideas. It can also mean detecting down, the individual has less and less intimacy. properties of the model and comparing these with For example, a random person you interact with the relevant practical data. on the street is at the base of the pyramid, but your next of kin would be very close to the top. The philosophy of Social pyramids holds that the NETWORK ANALYSIS energy a person puts into the base of the pyramid is magnified at the top. For example, if a person TherearetwokindsofSocialnetworkinganalyses gives positive energy to the people with whom offering two kinds of network data. These are Ego they are at the base of their pyramid, it will be network analysis and complete network analysis. reflectedintheirpersonallife.Viceversa,thesame Ego network analysis questions respondents in can be said for the negative energy. Another type the form of social survey, wherein each is asked of social network is a sexual network, which is about people they interact with and relationships defined by the sexual relationships within a set of within and between them (see Figure 3). Clearly, individuals. They can be formally studied using random sampling would be used, that is, from a the mathematics of graph theory (Valente, 1996). large population, and thus Ego network analysis Epidemiological studies (scientific study of fac- looks at and assesses the quality of each respon- tors affecting the health and illness of individuals dent’snetwork(size,income,age,etc).Thistypeof and populations) have researched into sexual network analysis lends itself to random sampling, networks, and have discovered that the statistical where statistics can be used to test the hypothesis.

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Figure 3. Ego network

Complete network analysis deals with a set of re- cess to and retrieval of desired information. The spondents, for example, all employees in a given computeranditsoperatormaycorrectlybedeemed company,andtherelationshipsbetweenthemsuch a single node, one part active and capable of direct- as friendships and socialising (see Figure 4). The ing,theother,thecomputer,capableofobedience. majority of research in Social network analysis Obedienceinthiscontextisitscapacitytorespond is into complete networks, where centrality by to the primary nodes’ will, for example, read the way of subgroup examination is central and the work of others, study the nature and function of only valid one. organisations, or to analyse a computer network Social networking involves the linked mea- and its topology. In the simplest of terms, the surement of relationships between people and the operator uses the computer to access particular product of their intellectual effort—knowledge/ information, or to contact a person or persons in information. That knowledge must be seen as a order to gain information: a reciprocal operation “surrogate” who reflects the information released (Carley & Newell, 1994). fromthemindsandmadeavailableforretrieval,or People are used to find content, and content is simplyviewingas thecircumstances require.This used to find people, which is a reciprocal relation- is truer than in our relationship with the computer, ship, as illustrated in Figure 5. as an electro mechanical device which affords ac-

Figure 4. Complete network

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Figure 5. Relationship between people and content

a. Bob (1.) asks his friend (2.) for information node/sole user consists of the combination of an (strong tie but limited in information). animate and an inanimate node: the former the b. (2.) directs (1.) to search engine (3.) (again, user, the latter the computer. At their interface a strong tie). exists almost infinite access to information and c. The information found here has been presuming the link with the ISP, the potential provided by others, the authors (4.) of to become part of the network of networks, the the information (weak ties with unlimited Internet. If the operators, the animate node goes information). “online,” and are consciously or unconsciously engaging in the social anthropology of their own Thissituationreinforcesnetworktheoryinthat environment, their own social network, and that weak ties provide most information and strong of the “global village.” In the context of network- ties provide limited information. Often the indus- ing, the node/operator has the choice of selecting trial application of social networking depends on strong ties with family and friends, but these “feedback” via hierarchical route and occasion- limit diversity and the exploration of weak ties ally by way of random surveys. There have been to the ever expanding realm of information. This instances when large corporations have altered node/operator, perhaps unwittingly, may enter policy, or procedures, or created innovations the new world of “face to face” experiences of gathered from the minds of employees without varied interaction (social computing), and while those persons contribution being acknowledged. such social networking tends to recruit members Such surveys have often produced new ideas to from members, it is probable that the operator boast profits, or form the basic idea for a new node will cooperate and enlarge the social site product, capable of being produced more cheaply. by inviting others from within a social network. So far, thecomputer/nodelinks to information has These “introduction services” and similar social been used as a simple social network example. connections may be organised to include business There are, however, within computing in general connections.Theattractionofthesesocialsiteslies and as a specialism, specific social networks infeaturesoffered,suchasautomaticaddressbook where data is processed into a format useful to updates, viewable updates, displayed feedback, people and feeding “the information society,” and their introduction services with the potential groups of people who both generate and depend to expand from sparse to dense social networks. on information (Wasserman, 1994). The single It is a logical assertion that social networks are

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prerequisite to the creation of valuable economics as they are in the loop in relation to infor- and computer linked communities, and because mation flow through a network. These peo- it is in our nature to socialise, maybe its time we ple know individuals and subgroup’s both demonstratedthisinthesystemswedesign,forthe high and low, and because of there close- success or failure of societies may well depend on ness with everyone involved they get to see the patterns of those social networking systems. what is actually going on. (Hence Manager Perhapsagoodpointatwhichtobeginwouldbeto and Supervisor team). fullystudy,andhavingfullylearned,trytoachieve • Network centralisation: This refers to the that level of social networking which already ex- location of certain nodes within the net- ists in nature’s lower orders: ants, dolphins, and work and relates to the network structure whales (all “wireless” of course). or hierarchy/chain of command and shows who reports to whom. • Network reach: The reach here refers to SOCIAL NETWORKING EXAMPLES the direct and indirect connection or contacts between different networks or social Social networking analysis, according to Wikipe- circles. For instance, in the case of two net- dia.com, is defined as “The mapping and measur- works, these are linked via the individual ing of relationships and flows between people, or nodes using direct and indirect links groups,organisations,animals,computersorother either directly between two individuals information/knowledgeprocessingentities.”This or subgroups linked through bridge nodes in effect means that it relates to any network of across the network. people who are known as nodes. These nodes are • Peripheral players: These people are connected to others via associations or connec- simply the dark horses within the network. tions. These nodes or people connections have Although these nodes are not directly con- seven status types, which are as follows: nected to others, they still play a significant role in which a company would not • Degree centrality: Social networking exist without them. The classic example is nodes relate to the degree concept. This is a supplier of resources needed to create the the number of node or people connections. overall product. The supplier works exter- This in English means the number of peo- nal to the organisation, but they are still val- ple that one individual knows within, say, ued by the company, as both must coexist a company or classroom or sports club. to enable customer satisfaction through a These connections can be significant and high quality product being manufactured. hence the following phrase of – “Having • Boundary spanners: These individuals friends in higher places.” are the key connectors to other subgroups • Betweeness centrality: This terminology and so these people integrate many people relates to the node/ individual with a bridge together and allow information transfer to role between two or more subgroups. flow better through more people within the Hence, there is communication flow be- network. These people are in a good posi- tween the subgroups through the runner, so tion because their social circles are large, to speak, and this has its advantages and which enables them to swap ideas, and this disadvantages. information can be channelled effectively • Closeness centrality: Individuals with this into quality goods and services. label in the network are in a good position

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Figure 6. University social network

Social Networking Example a social acquaintance. These, however, are the “Bridge Individuals” that connect sub- Figure 6 illustrates a model (based on a real-life groups together so information ﬂow can pass experience by one of the article authors) of a uni- throughout the entire network of people. versity course where there are many subgroups, • Network centralisation: There is no including the inferior subgroup and the superior chain of command structure as such, but subgroup, along with another subgroup that was in relation to class hierarchy the Superior indirectly connected to the inferior Subgroup. Subgroup” has the most numbers in there alliance, and so they monopolise the entire • Degree centrality: The total number of network because there is strength or power connections within the “Inferior Subgroup” in numbers. Hence, they are positioned at is 3, which is the same as the “Other the top end of the network, while the other Subgroup” that had a total of 3 connections subgroups are inferior and so lower down also. But the “Superior Subgroup” has the because it is the “Superior Subgroup” that most connections, with a total of 6. has the best information ﬂow between its • Betweeness centrality: There are 2 nodes larger alliance, and so they hold the most that act as “Bridge Individuals” and they power within the network. have the role as connectors of Subgroups. • Network reach: The “Superior Subgroup” Hence, the “Superior Subgroup” was con- is connected to the “Inferior Subgroup” nected to the “Inferior Subgroup” through through the nodes that act as “Bridge me, while the “Other Subgroup” was linked Individuals.” Also, the “Other Subgroup” to the “Inferior Subgroup” through other is connected to the “Inferior Subgroup” nodes or “Bridge Individuals.” through the “Bridge Individuals,” and • Closeness centrality: Although 2/3 of the so it is these bridge nodes that allow for subgroups appeared to be stable from the Network Reach as they connect up the dif- outside in, the “Inferior Subgroup” that ferent Subgroups and enable information consisted of a trio had barriers because 2/3 to be passed through the network. members were already friends and so they • Peripheral players: There are none in are known as “Clicks,” and therefore have this social network because “Peripheral a closer association compared to someone Players” refers to suppliers whose network whose association with them is merely as is external to a company, although if any

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Sub-Group individual had connections ornot.Thelevelofsuccessorfailuremaygodown with computer students higher up in the to the balance of power within the group, and the university, they could use these contacts to best way to explain this is by the common phrase there advantage by seeking help from ad- of the word “Cliques,” for if members in a group vanced students and this information ﬂow are friends, then they are likely to stick together, could beneﬁt any Subgroup, but this is be- and if they are in the majority they can control yond the scope of this article. group activity to there own favor at the cost of • Boundary Spanners: This basically re- minority individuals. lates to nodes that connect other Subgroups together to allow the passing of information between the networks, and hence the CONCLUSION class network diagram has four Boundary Spanners or the two pairs of “Bridge Social networks are social structures made up of Individuals.” nodes and ties. They indicate the relationships between individuals or organisations and how Here, we see that initially the number of stu- they are connected through social familiarities. dents was large enough to fill a lecture theater. They are very useful for visualising patterns. The However,asthecourseprogressed,moreandmore use of mathematical and graphical techniques in students left, and as the numbers decreased, the social network analysis is important to represent social circles became more evident. Therefore, the descriptions of networks compactly and more in subsequent years, the competition was even efficiently. They operate on many levels and play fiercer because the numbers were so small that an important role in solving problems and on how every subgroup knew who each other was. With organisations are run, and they help individuals the smokescreen gone, the social politics were succeed in achieving their targets and goals. In more serious, for the numbers were whittled today’s society, social networks allow two people down to the elite, those who really wanted to be in different locations to interact with each other there. Now that there were subgroups formed by socially (e.g., chat, viewable photos, etc.) over individualstudents,thesegroupswouldhavetheir a network. They are also very important for the own status between the in-group. For example, socialsafetynetbecausethisishelpingthesociety when it comes to a group assignment, if the with the likes of the homeless or unemployed. numbers are inadequate, then any individual may Group politics relate to “In-Groups” and “Out- take the initiative to find someone to make up the Groups,”aseachcompeteswitheachother.Social numbers, but this is not always in the control of Networking is all around us and so there is always the group, for the lecturer may intervene to make going to be friends and casual acquaintances, both up the numbers for an assignment, and if new within the subgroups and outside it. These status subgroups are not formed, then existing groups types link all subgroups together, as well as the are added, and these groups expand via the new internal structure of a group. Hence, there are individual who joins the subgroup, but the status direct and indirect connections to link everyone battle continues. Thus, the ability for the group togetherwithinaworkplace,classroom,andsports to gel as a whole may determine the outcome of club to online social circle Web sites like Bebo. the group assignment, for personality clashes com. Both these status types affect productivity, may affect the team to work together as a whole, and so individual competition aside, success is and so the big question is whether or not any new determined by how well everyone involved can members get along with the established subgroup work toward a common goal.

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REFERENCES Scott, J. (2000, March). Social network analysis: A handbook (2nd ed.). SAGE Publications. Alexander,M.,&Danowski,J.(1990).Analysisof an ancient network. Social Networks, 12,313–335. Valente, T.W. (1996, January). Social network doi:10.1016/0378-8733(90)90013-Y thresholds in the diffusion of innovations. Social Networks, 18(1), 69-89(21). Barnes, J. A. (1954). Class and committees in a Norwegian Island parish. Human Relations, 7, Wasserman, S. (1994). Social network analysis: 39. doi:10.1177/001872675400700102 Methods and applications (Structural analysis in the social sciences). Cambridge University Carley, K., & Newell, A. (1994). The nature of Press. the social agent. The Journal of Mathematical Sociology, 19(4), 221–262. Watts, D.J. (2004, February). Six degrees: The science of a connected age. W.W. Norton & Carrington, P., Scott, J., & Wasserman, S. (2005, Company. February). Models and methods in social network analysis(Structuralanalysisinthesocialsciences). Wellman, B., & Berkowitz, S. D. (1988). Social Cambridge University Press. structures: A network approach. Cambridge University Press. Cross, R., & Parker, R. (2004, June). The hidden power of social networks: Understanding how work really gets done in organizations. Harvard Business School Press. KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Freeman, L. C. (2004). The development of social Betweeness: Measures the extent to which a network analysis: A study in the sociology of sci- particular point lies “between” the various other ence. Vancouver: Empirical Press. points in the graph. It is the most complex of the measures of point centrality to calculate. It is the Granovetter, M. (1990). The myth of social net- number of people who a person is connected to work analysis as a special method in the social indirectly through their direct links. sciences. Connections, 13(2), 13–16. Closeness: The shortest distance between Granovetter, M. (2003, August 8). Ignorance, each individual and every other person in the knowledge and outcomes in a small world. Science, network. The people who have the shortest paths 301, 773–774. doi:10.1126/science.1088508 have the best visibility into what is happening in the network. Hill, R., & Dunbar, R. (2002). Social network size Degree: The amount of ties to other points in in humans. Human Nature (Hawthorne, N.Y.), the network. It measures network activity for a 14(1), 53–72. doi:10.1007/s12110-003-1016-y node by using the concept of degrees. Newman, M. (2003). The structure and function Cohesion: Cohesion measures how well the of complex networks. SIAM Review, 45,167–256. linesofsourcecodewithinamoduleworktogether doi:10.1137/S003614450342480 to provide a specific piece of functionality. It is expressed as either higher cohesion or low cohe- Newman, M. (2004). Detecting community struc- sion. The advantages of high cohesion are robust- ture in networks. European Physics Journal, 38, ness,reliability,reusability,andunderstandability. 321–330. The disadvantages of low cohesion are difficult to

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maintain, difficult to test, difficult to reuse, and or organizations. It indicates the ways in which difficult to understand. they are connected through various social fa- Network Density: Individual-level density is miliarities, ranging from casual acquaintance to the degree a respondent’s ties know one another. close familial bonds. The maximum size of social Network/global-leveldensityisthenumberofties networks tends to be around 150 people and the in a network to the amount possible. average size around 124. Social network theory Network Integration: This measures a group views social relationships in terms of nodes and dispersion or how network links focus on a spe- ties. Nodes are the individual actors within the cific nodes. networks, and ties are the relationships between Network Shape: The shape of the social net- the actors.. work helps determine a network’s usefulness to Structural Equivalence:The extent to which its individuals. Smaller, tighter networks can be nodes have a common set of linkages to other less useful to their members than networks with nodes in the system. The nodes do not need to lots of loose connections to individuals outside have any linkages with each other to be structur- the main network. ally equivalent. Radiality: The degree in which a person’s Structural Hole: These can be filled by networkreachesoutintothenetworkandprovides connecting one or more links to link together new information and influence. other nodes. Structural Hole is linking to ideas Reach: The manner which any member of of social capital, for example, if you link two a network can reach other members of the net- people who are not linked, you can control their work. communication. Social Network:Anetworkisasocialstructure made of nodes, which are generally individuals

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