Strategic Environmental Assessment (Sea)

Islamic Republic of Afghanistan Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock

Public Disclosure Authorized

Public Disclosure Authorized NATIONAL HORTICULTURE & LIVESTOCK PROJECT (NHLP)

Public Disclosure Authorized

STRATEGIC ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT (SEA)

November, 2012

Public Disclosure Authorized

Prepared by: Dr. Emmanuel D. NGOLLO International Expert Ibrahim Rahamani, HLP Staff

TABLE OF CONTENT

ACRONYMS...... 4 LIST OF TABLES ...... 7 LIST OF BOXES...... 8 LIST OF FIGURES ...... 9 SUMMARY...... 11

PART 1: SEA FRAMEWORK AND METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH...... 20

1.1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION ...... 20 1.1.1. National Context: linkage between poverty and environmental degradation ...... 20 1.1.2. Scope of the Stud...... 21 1.1.3. SEA Justification and objectives………...... 22

1.2. METHODOLOGY ...... 22 1.2.1. Concept and general views on the SEA...... 23 1.2.2. Organization of the SEA study for the Agricultural and Rural Development sector ...... 25 1.2.3. Plan and structure of the SEA report … ...... 26 1.2.4. Norms and standards of the SEA...... 26 1.2.5. Constraints and limits of the study...... 26

PART 2: ANALYSIS OF THE INITIAL STATE DE OF THE BIOPHYSICAL AND HUMAN ENVIRONMENT OF AFGHANISTAN……………………………………….……………………………27

2.1. GLOBAL PRESENTATION OF THE BIOPHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT...... 27 2.1.1. Major Climatologic Characteristics ...... 27 2.1.2. Major physical characteristics of the environment………………………………...... 28 2.1.3. Characteristics of ecosystems and agro-ecological zones…………...... 29

2.2. GLOBAL PRESENTATION OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT...... 32 2.2.1. Demographic Characteristics…… ...... 34 2.2.2. Socio-educational Characteristics ...... 36 2.2.3. Health and Nutrition Characteristics………………….………………...... 36

PART 3: POLITICAL ANALYSIS IN THE FRAMEWORK OF SEA INTEGRATION………..……...38

3.1. Policy Framework and Strategic Directions for Environmental Integration...... 38 3.1.1. Economic Growth and Poverty Reduction (EGPR)…………………...……...... 38 3.1.2. National Strategy for Sustainable Development……...... 39 3.1.3. National Agriculture Development Framework and Strategic Orientations...... 39

3.2. Legal Framework of Environmental Governance for the Integration of SEA...... 40 3.2.1. Legislation relative to Environmental Assessments ...... 42 3.2.2. Analysis of the Consistency of Environmental Governance Instruments with International Conventions and Community Agreements...... 43 3.2.3. Analysis of the Consistency with the World Bank Safeguard Policies ……………...... 44

3.3. Institutional Framework for the Integration of SEA………...... 46 3.3.1. Governmental Institutions...... 46 3.3.2. Research Institutions and Non-governmental Actors...... 50 3.3.3. Technical and Financial Partners...... 51 3.3.4. Framework for Cooperation and Exchange between the Environmental Actors...... 51 3.3.5. Analysis of the Mainstreaming of Environment into Agricultural Policies..… ……….………...…52

3.4. Analysis of Constraints to mainstream SEA into Environmental Governance Instruments ……….53 3.4.1. Constraints for Mainstreaming SEA in the Policy Instruments...... 53

3.4.2. Constraints to Implementing Coherence Environmental Policy in the Agricultural Sector...... 54 3.4.3. Constraints Related to the Incompleteness of Legislative Instruments and Environmental Governance...... 54 3.4.4. Constraints Related to the Weakness and the Non-application of the Legislation on EIA……...... 55 3.4.5. Constraints Related to the Inadequacy of the Institutional Framework in Steering SEA Procedures ……………………………………………………………………………………………………...….…...55 3.4.6. Constraints Related to Dialogue Deficit between Stakeholders Involved in the SEA Process.…....57 3.4.7. Constraints Related to the Lack of Technical Expertise in SEA……………...... 58 3.4.8. Constraints related to the weaknesses of financial capacity...... 59

PART 4: IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF ISSUES FOR THE INTEGRATION OF SEA IN THE AGRICULTURE (HORTICULTURE & LIVESTOCK) AND WATER SECTORS IN AFGHANISTAN……………………………………………………………………………...……60

4.1. Issues Related to the Development of Agriculture and the Integration of SEA...... 60

PART 5: IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF IMPACTS ASSOCIATED WITH THE NATIONAL HORTICULTURE AND LIVESTOCK PROJECT...... 62

5.1. Analysis of Impacts Related to Agricultural Sector (Horticulture and Livestock) Programs………62 5.1.1. Potential Positive Environmental Impacts of NHLP...... 65 5.1.2. Potential Negative Environmental Impacts of NHLP...... 66

PART 6: TECHNICAL PROCEDURES AND INCENTIVES MEASURES FOR THE SEA IMPLEMENTATION…….…………………………………………………………….………...72

6.1. Selection Procedures and Environmental Coverage of NHLP…...... 72 6.2. Information and Outreach Programs for Actors on the SEA Procedures ...... 79 6.3. Environmental Monitoring and Surveillance Program...... 79 6.4. SEA Environmental and Monitoring Indicators...... 80 6.5. Indicators for the Implementation of SEA...... 81 6.6. Proper Procedures of SEA Assessment …………………...... 83 6.7. Institutional Capacity Building and Coordination Measures …………………...... 84 6.7.1. Institutional Arrangements for SEA Monitoring and Implementation...... 85 6.7.2. Establishment of a Steering Committee (SC) ...... 85 6.7.3. Strengthening of Technical Services of Environmental Expertise………...……….…...... 88 6.8. Measures to Strengthen the Legislative and Regulatory Instruments.……...... 88 6.9. Measures to Strengthen Environmental Management Tools.……...... 89 6.10. Financial Capacity Building Measures...... 90 6.11. Strengthening Equipment and Technical Infrastructure Measures...... 91 6.12. Training and Human Capacity Building Measures...... 92 6.13 Costs of Implementation and Execution of SEA...... 92

PART 7: FINAL RECOMMANDATIONS ...... 94

REFERENCES ...... 101

ANNEXES ...... 119 ANNEX 1: ENVIRONMENTAL SELECTION FORM...... 102 ANNEX 2: LIST OF ENVIRONNEMENTAL CONTROL...... 105 ANNEX 3: ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL MONITORING INDICATORS IN SEA FRAMEWORK (NAURAL ENVIRONMENT)……...………………………………………………………………………106 ANNEX 4: ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL MONITORING INDICATORS IN SEA FRAMEWORK (PRODUCTION SYSTEM)………………………………………………………………………………..108 3

ANNEX 5: ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL MONITORING INDICATORS IN SEA FRAMEWORK (HUMAN ENVIRONMENT)...... 109 ANNEX 6: ENVIRONMENTAL REQUIREMENTS TO INSERT IN THE BIDDING DOCUMENTS…...110 ANNEX 7: TERMS OF REFERENCE OF THE SEA……………………………….………………………113 ANNEX 8: TERMS OF REFERENCE OF NATIONAL CONSULTANTS………………………………...114 ANNEX 9: MANDATE AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE SEA STEERING COMMITTEE……...... 121

Acronyms

ACBAR Agency Coordinating Body for Afghanistan Refugees ACIAR Australian Center for International Agricultural Research ADB Asian Development Bank CWS Clean Water Supply ALP Alternative Livelihood program ANDS Afghanistan National Development Strategy APAARI Asia Pacific Association of Agricultural Research International ARC Afghanistan Relief Committee AREA Agency for Rehabilitation and Energy Conservation in Afghanistan ARIA Agricultural Research Institute of Afghanistan AuAID Australia Agency for International Development BP Bank Policy BPHS Basic Package for Health Service CADG Central Asia Development group CARD Comprehensive Agriculture and Rural Development CBNRM Community-Based Natural Resources management CDC Community Development Council CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research CIMMYT International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center CITES Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species CMS Convention on Conservation of Migratory Species DACAAR Danish Committee for Aid to Afghanistan Refugees DDAs District Development Assemblies DFID Department for international Development EC European Commission ECO Economic Cooperation Organization EGPR Economic Growth and Poverty Reduction EIA Environmental Impact Assessment EIN Environmental Impact Note EPHS Essential Package for Hospital Services ESMF Environmental and Social management Framework ESMP Environmental and Social Management Plan FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations FDA française Development Agency GAIN Greening Afghanistan Initiative GDP Gross Domestic Product GEF Global Environment Facility GIZ German International Technical Cooperation HLP Horticulture and Livestock Project IAIDS Improving Agricultural Inputs Supply System i-ANDs Interim Afghanistan National Development Strategy IAP Invasive Aquatic Plant IARC International Agricultural Research Centers ICARDA International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas ICRISAT International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics

IDB Islamic Development Bank IDPs Internally Displaced People IFAD International Fund for agricultural Development IFPRI International Food Policy Research Institute IMP Integrated Pest Management IRA Islamique Republic of Afghanistan IRC International Rescue Committee IRDP Irrigation Rehabilitation Development Project IWRM Integrated Water Resource Management JICA Japanese International Cooperation Assistance MADERA Mission d’Aide au Développement des Economies Rurales en Afghanistan MAIL Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock MDGs Millenium Development Goals MEW Ministry of Energy and Water MMI Ministry of Mines and Industry MoPH Ministry of Public health MRRD Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation and Development MUDH Ministry of Urban Development and Housing NADF National Agricultural Development Framework NEAC National Environmental Advisory Council NEPA National Environmental Protection Agency NGOs Non Governmental Organizations NHLP National Horticulture and Livestock Project NPASP National Protected Areas System Plan NRVA National Risk Vulnerability Assessment NVETB National Vocational Education Board OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation for Development OFWMP On-Farm water Management Project OP Operational Policy PASA Participating Agency Service Agreement PEAC Provincial Environmental Advisory Council PEI Poverty-Environment Initiative PIAR Prioritization Implementation Action Plan POP Persistent organic Pollutants PPMP Pests and Pesticide Management Plan PPP Policy, Plan and Programme PPQD Plant Protection and Quarantine Directorate PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper QCD Quality Control Directorate RAMP Rebuilding Agricultural Market Program RARS Regional Agricultural Research Station RPPR Regional Participatory Poverty Reduction SAIC Spanish Agency for International Cooperation SC Steering Committee SEA Strategic Environmental Assessment SLM Sustainable Land Management TFP Technical and Financial Partners TORs Terms of Reference

UN United Nations UNCBD United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity UNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification UNDP United Nations Development Programmer UNEP United Nations Environment Programme UNESCO United Nation Education, Science and Culture Organization UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change UNICEF United Nations… Children… Fund UNODC United Nations Office on Drugs Crime UNOPS United Nations Office of Project Services USAID United States Agency for International Development USDA United State Department of Agriculture WB World Bank WFP World Food Programme WHO World Health Organization

List of Tables

Table 1: Comparative Table SEA /EIA ...... 25 Table 2: Compliance Analysis and consistency with environmental safeguard policies...... 44 Table 3: Potentially triggered World Bank Safeguard Policies …………………………………………..45 Table 4: Level of integration of the environment and SEA in the strategic guidance documents ……….52 Table 5: Synthesis of constraints for the integration of SEA at MAIL…………..…...... 55 Table 6: Compendium of common waterborne diseases in the case of irrigated agriculture ...... 66 Table 7: Summary of the selection phases and environmental compliance of the programs arising from rural development (Agriculture and Livestock) sector ………………...... 75 Table 8: Canvas for information and awareness………...... 79 Table 9: Training Themes of Required in Environmental Assessment, SEA and EIA ...... 91 Table 10: SEA implementation Cost…………………………...... 93

List of Boxes

Box 1: Summary of the main Elements of the SEA Report……...... 19 Box 2: Summary of Negative Impacts associated with Agricultural (horticulture and livestock) Development Programs ...... 22 Box 3: Framework of Best Environmental Practices in Agricultural Sector……………………………...70

List of Figures & Maps

Figure 1: Hierarchy between Policy, Plan and Program……… ...... 24 Figure 2: Place of the SEA and the EIA in the Hierarchy of policies, Plans and Programs ...... 24 Figure 3: Flow Diagram of screening to apply to Agricultural Development Programs……………...... 77 Figure 4: Institutional Framework for SEA Monitoring and Implementation...... 86

Map 1: Agro-Ecological Zones of Afghanistan, with Predominant Land Use……………………………28

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

1. Framework and Context for the Realization of Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA)

The authorities of the Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock (MAIL) of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan (IRA), aware of the country’s richness of the natural resources and the importance of the environmental preservation for sustainable development, have committed factual actions on the protection of the environment through the elaboration of a Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) in the development of National Horticulture and Livestock Project (NHLP) from the expansion of an emergency project, the Horticulture and Livestock Project (HLP), to a nationwide project.

To achieve this integration and reduce the natural and anthropogenic threats, the Afghan Government, in collaboration with World Bank through the NHLP, would like to focus on the environmental dimension through the realization of a Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) as a unifying tool for a better integration of environmental considerations into policies, plans and programs related to agricultural development.

The tool is of growing interest in many developing countries and its implementation in this agricultural program in MAIL through NHLP should allow for (i) the prospective analysis of environmental issues at the highest level of the MAIL; (ii) the assessment of the incidence of agricultural policies in line with subsequent environmental problems during NHLP implementation; (iii) the identification and analysis of different options, possible alternatives solutions or scenarios at the level of NHLP, taking into account the major issues and the sensitivity of the local environment; (iv) the identification of environmental indicators to strengthen the implementation of the NHLP, with regard to the preservation of the environmental quality, and the prevention of potential conflicts, etc.; (v) the proposals to decision-makers by providing a context of informed and transparent planning; and (vi) the implementation of harmonious decision-making in MAIL with good environmental governance tools.

More specifically, on one the hand this study is to identify a common understanding of the environmental risks associated with the development of NHLP through an analysis of institutional, legislative and regulatory frameworks. On the other hand, it is the development of structures of discussion and consultation between key stakeholders through the integration of environmental issues in existing programs and strategies in the MAIL.

2. Diagnosis of the Initial Environment for SEA Implementation in NHLP

The Afghan economy is largely dominated by the primary sector (agriculture and livestock), which occupies more than 80% of the national workforce in rural areas and between 55% and 65% nationally. Agriculture is limited by scarcity and erratic rainfall (7% the arable land is under rain-fed cultivation while 5% is irrigated). The total arable land represents about 12% of the territory. Two basic farming patterns exist: a mixed crop and livestock system, and the Kuchi pastoral system. The latter implies a nomadic existence, named after the Kuchi communities who undertake a seasonal transfer of grazing animals to different pastures (a practice termed transhumance).

Afghanistan has also long been noted for many kinds of fruit (including apricots, apples, pomegranates, and grapes) and nuts (principally almonds, walnuts and wild pistachio). Such crops can provide twenty times more income than wheat from the equivalent area. In the 1970s dried fruit, raisins and nuts contributed more than 40 per cent of the country’s foreign exchange earnings, although the years of conflict have meant that the country has lost some of its former market niches.

On the environmental point of view, most of the country appears to be subject to some degree of land degradation, as much of the land surface is used as rangeland for grazing livestock, encroachment for agricultural activities, poor land management, soil erosion, and vegetation replacement. Tree cover was formerly more extensive than at present, but inhabitants of villages harvest annual and perennial shrubs for use and sale as fuel wood and fodder, which in some cases collect them by manually uprooting the entire plant. This practice has dramatic implications and effects on surface soil stability, and leads to increased soil erosion through wind and rain, and lower water holding capacity of the soil.

The potential for re-growth is likely to be seriously affected by heavy fuelwood collection or illegal timber harvesting that far outstrips woodland regeneration, and by browsing and grazing domestic livestock, leading to an alarming destruction rate. The alternatives to forest fuels (butane gas, alternative energy, rural electrification), has not yet had significant impact and sustainable management of wood energy resources is an environmental and energy challenge of the country.

Moreover, the non-adapted agriculture and livestock and deforestation techniques have accelerated environmental degradation and are the engine of desertification, vegetation and soil degradation, with as a corollary a reduction of production potential and the progressive movement of the pastoral zone to the agricultural land.

Analysis of initial state of biophysical and human environments of Afghanistan reveals two specific situations namely: (i) continued trends in degradation of natural environment characterized by a very fluctuating and deficit rainfall regime, continues to desertification, adverse effects of natural disasters and persistence of poverty in rural areas; (ii) a transition from a pastoral, nomadic pastoralist (Kuchi) towards a tending stable and mixed settled pastoral-farmer life, creating new socio-economic issues for which the country has very little means and management capabilities.

Thus, the implementation of SEA in the NHLP by the MAIL must take into account the fragility of the environment as described above. This initial situation will be the level marker (or zero state) from which we can assess the effectiveness of SEA as well as the relevance of the mitigation measures and good practice guides that are being proposed in the framework for environmental and social management Plan (ESMP) for the NHLP implementation.

3. Diagnosis of the institutional framework and the issues related to the implementation of SEA in NHLP

The establishment of Afghanistan's National Environmental Protection Agency (NEPA) in 2005 marked a new step in the commitment of the Government to work towards the achievement of the objectives of sustainable development and the strengthening of the integration of the environment into sectoral policies. NEPA, which has designed Environmental Law, serves as Afghanistan's environmental policy- making and regulatory institution. Its role is to regulate, coordinate, monitor and enforce environmental laws. The agency is expected to play a major role in environmental protection, as well as to be the central point in dealing with the management of Afghanistan's environment so that it benefits all the citizens of Afghanistan.

Afghanistan is signatory to several international and regional agreements and conventions relating to the protection of the environment, some of which are applicable to the agricultural sector in general, and are related to the implementation of NHLP. But, the implementation of most of these conventions and their integration into the Afghan’s legislation and regulations remain limited and little concerted.

The country has adopted a wide range of legislations for the protection and sustainable management of the environment and natural resources (the Environment Act in 2007, Environmental Impact Assessment Policy in 2004, revised in 2007), which are also applicable to Agricultural sector development. Several other texts and regulations have been adopted to integrate environmental concerns into agricultural policies and to involve more broadly the rural populations (Water Law, Pastoral Law, Forestry Act, Land and State Property Regulation, Fishing Act, law on participatory management of the wetlands, etc.). But the regulatory framework, however, has limits due to the lack of enforcement, the lack of effective control, the low harmonization of the texts and insufficient coordination of stakeholders involved in the field of the environment, and above all, the lack of financial resources.

Despite the existence of a legislation on the EIA, it should be recognized that this legislation has constraints on the ground, particularly concerning: (i) the effective application of EIA procedures by private and public promoters; (ii) monitoring of the implementation of the ESMP; (iii) the expertise and the means for implementing the analysis of quality and for producing compliance reports; (iv) the ownership of the EIA process by the rural development ministries; (v) the coordination, monitoring and harmonization of rural development texts for a better consideration of the EIA procedures.

Moreover, the human capacity weakness for analysis and management of cross-cutting issues of the environment is one of the major constraints of environmental policy application of the SEA procedures at the level of MAIL. The current MAIL capabilities are very low (human resources, technical ability, methodology, data analysis, etc.) in several areas, particularly in terms of the implementation of the decision-making tools (i.e., SEA, EIA, ESMF) and their monitoring and control, as well as for environmental education, development and implementation of economic tools linking the environment to agricultural development and poverty reduction.

4. Agricultural Development Issues and linkages to SEA Integration

In the field of agriculture, the main environmental issues seem to be particularly around concerns linked to irrigated crops as well as biological and chemical degradation of soils. Concerning livestock farming, the major environmental issues lie at the level of overgrazing, the permanent settlement, forage availability and desertification of grazing routes, as well as the pollution problem generated by the biomedical waste at the point of livestock health/vaccination centers of veterinary field units. Moreover, another issue related to livestock farming lies in the management of cohabitation conflicts between the farmers and herders. These issues constitute a major constraint in the SEA implementation framework.

Agriculture is a vital area for the Afghanistan economy, both from the point of view of crop and animal production and the creation of direct jobs associated. In rural areas, livestock farming is often the first and sometimes the only source of household income. It can be expected that the development of NHLP is accompanied by (i) the clearing of forest and encroachment on rangeland for new orchards, that may result in the destruction of vegetation and ecosystems constituting ecological habitat of wildlife fauna; (ii) the switching of nomadic management of livestock, based on the extensive use of the space, to a settling mode which is strongly consumer of water resources and vegetation, associated with a continuous growth of the herd; (iii) an important imbalance between feed/forage availability and animal load, especially around water points close to the areas of crop production; (iv) a trend characterized by settling around water points leading to intensive livestock operational modes and overgrazing, particularly in periods of rainfall deficit; (v) an intensive use of pesticides, fertilizer and other chemical inputs, necessary for the improvement of horticultural production; (vi) an enhanced demographic pressure and difficulties of access to productive land, which can result in conflicts between farmers and herders.

In summary, one will keep in mind that the consideration of the NHLP issues and the integration of SEA into MAIL policies should provide guidance on good practices for the development of NHLP. These aspects will be discussed in detail in the ESMF framework.

5. Recommendations for SEA Implementation in the MAIL

Institutional Arrangements for SEA Monitoring and Implementation: The implementation and the execution of SEA in the NHLP require the establishment of functional structures that will ensure the coordination, monitoring and integration of SEA into policies, plans and programs at the MAIL level. The scheme proposed as institutional arrangement aims to put in place (i) a Steering Committee (SC) for the coordination of all SEA procedures; (ii) an Environmental Directorate at the level of the MAIL; (iii) an Environment Focal Points that will be the transmission chain for the operationalization of SEA in NHLP and other programs. These institutional arrangements for coordination and consultation will have to be discussed with the main stakeholders involved in the SEA implementation and monitoring.

Strengthening of Environmental Expertise in MAIL: The MAIL currently has a General Directorate of Natural Resources Management that can complete an "environmental function" in its programs. However, the integration of the environment in the implementation of MAIL programs must follow in a step-by- step approach, through the capacity strengthening of the various line MAIL directorates concerned.

To ensure the effectiveness and functionality of these coordinating structures, all agents concerned or involved in the Steering Committee, in the directorates, including the Focal Points and representatives of local communities, will have to receive training in SEA and EIA.

These trainees should benefit from the support and assistance from NEPA’s Division of Environmental Management and sustainable Development, to conduct the following required actions in the implementation of SEA: (a) identification of key actors for the implementation of the Steering Committee (SC) responsible for the implementation of the SEA process in the MAIL; (b) awareness and incentives for the creation of the Environment Unit in MAIL; (c) filling of the form for the selection of environmental programs (see annex 1); (d) analysis of mitigation measures proposed in the list of environmental control (see annex 2); (e) preparation of the TORs for horticultural and livestock subprojects requiring a separate EIA; (f) recruitment of consultants (local/international) and the specialized firms qualified to carry out the SEA and EIA, if necessary; (g) dissemination of the SEA and EIA reports to key stakeholders and appropriate institutions; (h) carrying out of environmental monitoring, in collaboration by the relevant MAIL services; (i) organization of workshops for information, awareness and training on the SEA and EIA in the NHLP.

Strengthening and Rigorous Enforcement of Legal and Regulatory Instruments: While highlighting the remarkable advances of the Policy on the environmental impact studies, there are no clear cuts emerging in the provisions of this text that clearly relate to the SEA in Afghanistan. Neither the Policies nor the Environment Law issued does not mention the difference between Environmental Assessment (EA, i.e. a process of estimating and evaluating significant short-term and long-term effects of a program or project on the quality of its location's environment) and Environmental Impact Assessment

(EIA, i.e. an assessment of the possible positive or negative impact that a proposed project may have on the environment, together consisting of the environmental, social and economic aspects) as this often produces some confusion in terminology, procedures and the definition of certain concepts. Therefore, there is a dire need for the completion of this policy and Law to integrate the SEAs.

Strengthening of Environmental Management Tools: The implementation of SEA requires strengthening technical measures concerning the development of a number of environmental governance tools, to be used not only to the environment Focal Points, but also to MAIL contractors and their affiliates, namely: (i) environmental guidelines and the field guides in horticulture and livestock development (e.g., sustainable land management guide, procedures for use of pesticides, etc.); (ii) a manual of environmental agreements to insert into the bidding documents of the NHLP subprojects; (iii) an environmental database relating to the fields of horticulture and livestock.

Strengthening of Financial Capacity: The implementation of the current SEA in NHLP can only succeed if appropriate environmental funding mechanisms are implemented at the level of NEPA, that is responsible for the environment with important portfolio for agriculture sector that could support MAIL in implementing the SEA in NHLP.

This situation fully justified the inclusion of the financial aspects of the environment in the budget planning of MAIL at substantial levels, which is not the case for the moment. Because of the lack of funding in NEPA for its core activities, it is necessary to seek other potential sources among which: (i) the international agencies, specialized and/or involved in the environment; (ii) the introduction of the ecotax and the application of the "polluter-payer"; (iii) the exploration of the carbon credit segment; (iv) opportunities for direct funding from local authorities and financial partners.

Strengthening of Human Capacity: The training of actors involved in the implementation of SEA is a key step that must intervene early in the process. This training will not only target the Environment Focal Points in MAIL headquarters, but also officials of decentralized technical services at the provincial and district levels as well as producer groups and farmer associations that could be affected during the implementation of NHLP-related activities, aiming to strengthen the capacity of targeted stakeholders in environmental assessment control, monitoring and surveillance of NHLP, so that they can play their respective roles more effectively. This will entail to organize thematic training sessions that will enable national, regional and community structures to get acquainted of the SEA provisions for environmental selection process and the implementation.

Strengthening of Technical Equipment and Infrastructures: The SEA implementation, the monitoring and control of mitigation measures, the implementation of the Environmental Management Framework and other related environmental monitoring activities will have to be supported by a program of strengthening of technical equipment and infrastructure, through the acquisition: (i) mobile equipment for the water quality control; (ii) control equipment for emissions (gases, fumes and dust, etc.); (iii) individual equipment (gears) for protection against the pesticides effects; (iv) mini-stations for control and monitoring of meteorological parameters (wind direction, temperature, humidity, etc.); (v) biomedical waste storage containers.

Implementation of Environmental and Social Management Framework (ESMF): The development of ESMF (which will be prepared to set out the environmental assessment procedures required by the NHLP and its project objectives to assess the environmental consequences of NHLP interventions, with a view to preventing execution of interventions with significant negative environmental and social impacts. It also attempts at minimizing potential negative impacts by incorporating mitigations at the design stage and implementing mitigations at the implementation stage of the interventions) for mitigation of the identified impacts of NHLP aims to strengthen policies, plans and programs in MAIL, to ensure that the decisions to transform a woodland space into cultivated land, use of pesticides to protect crops, create pastoral infrastructures for the development of livestock farming, and to install hydro-agricultural infrastructure are acceptable both to the biophysical and human environments.

Selection and Alignment of NHLP to Environmental Programs in Agriculture: The methodology for the preparation, approval and execution of development programs in the agricultural sector is based on an environmental selection procedure for which the main steps are described below. These steps must be followed by the NHLP in accordance with the guide for technical and administrative procedures for EIA in force in Afghanistan.

The results of the selection process will determine the environmental and social measures pursuant to the SEA approach, and to highlight the major issues regarding: (i) the identification of agricultural programs that are likely to have negative impacts at the environmental and social levels; (ii) the identification of the appropriate mitigation measures for activities having adverse impacts; and (iii) the identification of programs requiring EIA.

Phase 1: Compliance to Environmental Programs in Agriculture: The first phase of the process is to implement programs compliance with the SEA procedures, the EIA or the EIN (Environmental Impact Note). It addresses the identification, classification and subjection of the NHLP in order to assess its potential effects on the environment and to comply with the provisions of SEA and EIA legislation.

- Step 1: Environmental Analysis of NHLP subprojects: This analysis needs to be done early after the identification of the candidate district in the specific agro-ecosystem for the NHLP subproject, using a selection form (in annex 1) which will be completed by the environment focal points/international consultant. The results of this selection will indicate globally: (i) potential environmental and social impacts; (ii) nuisance mitigation needs; (iii) the need for land acquisition; and (iv) the type of public consultation that will be carried out during the selection exercise (screening exercise form in annex 1).

- Step 2: Environmental Categorization of NHLP and Subprojects: The services responsible for environmental management and sustainable development (NEPA) will carry out the final review for the validation of the results of the selection. However, it is to be noted that environmental legislation in Afghanistan (2007 Environmental Law and 2007 Policy relating to the Environmental Impact Assessment) has established an environmental categorization of programs, projects and sub-projects in two categories:

1. The NHLP subprojects of Category 1 if it is likely to have significant adverse environmental impacts that are sensitive, diverse, or unprecedented, and affects an area broader than the sites or facilities subject to physical works; they shall be subjected to detailed EIA procedures.

2. The NHLP subprojects of Category 2 if its potential adverse environmental impacts on human populations or environmentally sensitive areas (e.g. wetlands, forests, grasslands, etc.) are less adverse than those of Category 1 subprojects. These impacts are site specific, and are irreversible and require only a development of Environmental Impact Note (simplified mitigation measures).

Phase 2: Development and Validation of Terms of Reference (TOR or requirements guide): The Environmental selection form (prepared as described in step 1 of phase 1), validated by different stakeholders, will serve as a basis for the preparation of Terms of Reference (TORs), to be submitted by the MAIL’s technical service (NHLP) to the Division of Environmental Management and Sustainable Development of NEPA early during the subproject preparation for framing and validation. It is a technical document that explains in detail key points of the subproject, the adopted method for environmental evaluation, and the salient points related to the issues and subproject’s associated impacts.

Phase 3: Development, Review and Approval of the Report (EIA or EIN): The environmental impact assessment (EIA) report for subprojects in category 1 or environmental impact note (EIN) for subprojects in category 2, developed early during the subproject preparation by the consultants (see TOR 16

in annex 5) committed by MAIL/NHLP, will be reviewed and validated by the NEPA’s Division of Environmental Management & Sustainable Development to ensure that all adverse environmental and social impacts have been identified, analyzed, and that effective and appropriate mitigation measures have been proposed.

Phase 4: Public Consultations and of key Stakeholders or Actors

- Step 1: Public Surveys and Stakeholders’ Consultations: The provisions of the EIA Ordinance stipulate that the information and the participation of the public must be ensured during the execution of the Environmental Impact Assessment, in collaboration with the competent bodies of the administrative province and the concerned district. The public information will involve specifically one or more meetings for subproject presentation, bringing together local authorities, local people, line organizations, and the civil society. These consultations will help identify the main problems, issues and suggestions, as well as determine the terms of consideration of various concerns raised by the involved/affected groups.

- Step 2: Dissemination of Information to Stakeholders: To meet the requirements of the dissemination of environmental information, the Division of Environmental Management and Sustainable Development of NEPA, in cooperation with MAIL/NHLP, must develop a briefing note and a non- technical summary on key issues of concern related to the NHLP, making the point on the issues of (i) the elements submitted for public consultation at the local level; (ii) the synthesis of the concerns raised by communities, groups and, eventually, persons likely to be affected/concerned by NHLP; (iii) the items published on the website of the donor (World Bank); (iv) the feasibility permit issued by the NEPA (including conditionality, reserves and the preconditions raised for its effective implementation, etc.).

Phase 5: Environmental Surveillance, Monitoring and Audit: The execution of the SEA during NHLP implementation requires constant environmental surveillance and monitoring (activities that follow-up whether the recommended environmental tools (ESMF, EIA, ESMP, recommendations for SEA) for environmental management are qualitatively carried out according to the plan) are routine activities during project implementation to ascertain that human activities do not carry risks of harmful effects on the biophysical and human environments. Environmental audits (the evaluations intended to identify gaps in environmental compliance and management system implementation, along with related corrective actions, including monitoring and reporting) of the project or subprojects are to see whether the corrective and remedy actions recommended are working during project and/or subprojects’ implemention. Indeed, environmental monitoring should reorient the work and eventually improve the implementation of executed NHLP sub-projects with respect to their environmental and social acceptability, while auditing is done on yearly or during a different time horizon basis.

Phase 6: Compliance of NHLP with Environmental Feasibility Permit: The Execution and implementation of activities such as construction or civil engineering (if any) in connection with the NHLP subprojects (if identified as mandatory for the subproject) cannot and must only occur after reasoned opinion of the Director General of the EPA (through evaluation of EIA or EIN prepared by consultants) on the environmental feasibility of such activities that will be subject to analyses and validations in different phases as described in phase 1 and step 1.

Measures of Environmental Monitoring and Surveillance: The implementation of SEA in NHLP requires environmental surveillance and monitoring subproject activities aimed at ensuring compliance to: (i) the proposed measures defined in the ESMF, including the mitigation measures recommended; (ii) the conditions laid down in legislative texts, the application ordinances, regulatory provisions, the relevant texts relating to the preservation of the environment during NHLP implementation. The Environmental monitoring will therefore check the accuracy of the assessment of some impacts and the 17

effectiveness of certain mitigation measures provided in the ESMF and applicable at the phases of design, execution and closure of NHLP subprojects.

Monitoring of SEA Implementation Indicators: The implementation of SEA in the NHLP requires the monitoring of defined indicators in order to ensure the effectiveness of the process and its appropriation by the actors responsible for its implementation. Indeed, these indicators will be built as monitoring parameters which use will provide either quantitative or qualitative information on the achievement of results, the effectiveness of the procedure, the assessment of impacts, the relevance of mitigation measures, the environmental and social benefits, and NHLP sustainability.

Monitoring indicators are essential elements for the analysis of effectiveness and efficiency of SEA and contain three levels of application, namely:

(i) the strategic level indicators (effective implementation and functionality of the Steering Committee and MAIL departments, actual designation of the Environment Focal Points, effectiveness of the application of the environmental screening of NHLP subprojects, etc.), intended to verify the implementation and adoption of SEA at the highest decision-making level of the MAIL;

(ii) the technical level indicators (number and types of equipment acquired for the control of environmental parameters, types of accommodation made for the protection of the environment during the execution phases, number of officers trained for handling of installed equipment, etc.), intended to ensure the effective implementation of SEA tools, environmental governance, and technical incentive measures for the SEA implementation; and

(iii) the environmental indicators (biophysical environment (air, water, soil, fauna, flora, habitats, protected areas, sensitive areas), human environment (health, hygiene, security, socio-cultural heritage, socio-economic aspects, living environment, etc.)) intended to verify the effectiveness of environmental preservation measures implemented, the application of the legislation and the effective implementation of the ESMF.

SEA Financing and Implementation: The costs of implementation of the current SEA during NHLP implementation, estimated to about USD 2,000,000, were evaluated on a tentative period of five years (see main text for details), from costs related to such accompanying measures described in the previous sections and should be supported by MAIL/NHLP. SEA implementation costs were estimated on the basis of experiences from some countries with similar agro-ecology especially in Mauritania, Tunisia and Mali. The costs related to environmental preservation and the ESMF implementation measures will have to be inserted in the NHLP operations budgets.

Final Recommendations: The realization of SEA undertaken under the NHLP corresponds not only to the expectations of the technical and financial partners, but also constitutes a strategic axis which is expected to ensure effective consideration of the environment into the NHLP subprojects and to strengthen the legal instruments and good environmental governance in force in the country, to guide their implementation in different agro-ecological landscapes. We strongly recommend a better involvement and ownership of stakeholders, to make this SEA a real tool of environmental planning for sound development and implementation of NHLP activities in candidate districts.

6. Summary of the Main Elements of SEA Report

Below is the summary of the main priority actions necessary to the implementation of the SEA.

Box 1: Summary of the main Elements of the SEA Report

Summary of the main priority actions necessary to the implementation of the SEA At the Government/NEPA level: for funding, implementation and ownership.  Express, at the highest level of the National Environmental  Put in place: Protection Agency, the political will to institutionalize the - a Steering Committee (SC) for the monitoring of the SEA as good environmental governance tools in policies, SEA process. plans and programs. - environment cells at the level of sector ministries to  Reread the Environment Law and to insert a general operationalize SEA. ordinance on the SEA, applicable across sectoral programs.  Develop a training program and capacity-building for the  Reread some provisions of the EIAs ordinance and put in Steering Committee, the Environment Cell and all of the place a device to monitor its effective implementation on the key stakeholders involved in the SEA monitoring and ground. implementation.  Strengthen the capacity of technical environmental expertise  Put in place a sectoral database for the SEA monitoring and services: EIA and SEA procedures and practices the development of national standards.  Strengthen the strict application of the legal provisions  Mobilize financial resources for the SEA implementation relating to the EIA. (national budget, TFP, bi- and multilateral cooperation,  Apply the provisions of the Ordinance on EIAs in what etc.). concerns the exclusive issuance of feasibility authorization At the level of NHLP: by the National Environmental Protection Agency.  Strengthen the consultation and exchange framework for  Put in place the institutional arrangements required for the the monitoring of the SEA implementation in the targeted monitoring and implementation of SEA: Coordination subproject areas and improving administrative procedures Committee, sectoral environmental cell, Environmental for processing of documents. Focal Points.  Involve community groups and local communities in the At the level of MAIL: implementation of SEA (training, information, awareness-  Designate a leader among TFP for SEA monitoring, search raising, technical support, etc.).

PART 1: SEA FRAMEWORK AND METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH 1.1. General Introduction

Perennial crops have played an important role in the rural communities of Afghanistan since time immemorial; evidence of this is the large number of specialty crops consumed worldwide, whose origin can be traced to this region. More recently, anecdotal evidence suggests the existence of formal trade in dried fruit and nuts from Afghanistan since as far back as the 1940s. These included apricots, figs, raisins and almonds, among others, to the regional and international markets, especially to the New Delhi Dried Fruit Market, where even in the midst of the Taliban regime Afghan raisins and apricots were still holding a 15 percent market share1.

The deterioration of the political and security situation throughout the country in the 1980s and 1990s led to the disruption of local markets, especially due to the destruction of market infrastructure and increased risks for traders. These factors, among several others, encouraged the partial abandonment of perennial crops, and in many cases, their substitution with poppy production; which benefited from the lack of rule of law (Juan M. Estrada, 2005).

Given the revived interest of the Government of Afghanistan in reducing production of illicit crops throughout the country, there is need to identify and support the development of high value horticultural crops with the potential to promote the sustained growth of the rural economies, while- in conjunction with deterrent measures- discouraging poppy production.

Afghanistan is a traditional livestock country and was in the past self-sufficient in livestock products. Livestock – largely sheep and goats – have traditionally been an integral part of most farming systems in Afghanistan, and range pasture, covering some 45% of the land area, has traditionally supported a large livestock population. In the 1970s the country was self-sufficient in meat and milk and had significant exports of animal fiber and high-value processed products (carpets and skin garments).

However, war and drought have seriously impaired the livestock economy. Pastoral livestock numbers fell by 50% in the late 1990s, due to the war (which disrupted trekking routes) and to the severe nationwide drought. Particularly affected have been the poorest (including the nomadic Kuchi people), for whom livestock are the principal resource. This drop in herd numbers in turn curtailed the availability of sheep for fattening, the mainstay of meat supplies to urban centers. With the reduction in hostilities and return of favorable rains, livestock numbers have begun to recover. However, poor nutrition and disease contribute to low fertility and productivity of livestock, and pasture areas are being reduced and degraded. The country now has rapidly growing imports of frozen chicken, eggs and dairy products2.

1.1.1. National Context: Linkage between Poverty and Environmental Degradation

Afghanistan is a landlocked rich country with vast natural resources, striking landscapes of mountains, plateaus, plains, deserts, open woodlands and forests with a wide variety of fauna and flora and ecosystems of particular importance. However, the country is marked by a dual phenomenon: a high poverty rate and pressure on natural resources. Once Afghanistan achieves conditions of basic personal and political security, true development will require, among other things, maintaining and enhancing the quality of the environment that Afghans depend upon for their livelihoods.

1 Alternative Livelihoods Project /East - Perennial Horticulture in Eastern Afghanistan: Subsector Overview and Implementation Strategy (2005) 2 Afghanistan Economic Incentives and Development initiatives to Reduce Opium Production (2008)

On the one hand, the 2007 National Risk and Vulnerability Assessment survey indicates 42 per cent of the total Afghan population lives below the poverty line, while about 53 per cent of the population lives in poverty. The rural area, which constitutes the majority in Afghanistan, is particularly affected by this scourge and comprises more than one quarter of the poor of the country (incidence of poverty from 36% in rural areas, compared with 21% in urban areas). Poverty is a multidimensional phenomenon, cutting both monetary poverty (low income, with $14 on average a month), and a living conditions poverty (access to the basic services such as drinking water, health and education) and a poverty of potentials (heritage, environment, etc.). The Afghan economy being mainly turned towards the primary sectors (mining, fishing, agriculture and livestock farming) the population remains heavily dependent on these natural resources for its well-being.

On the other hand, it can be seen a significant degradation of natural resources because Afghanistan most face a number of environmental issues of natural or anthropogenic origin: looming progress in desertification, loss in biodiversity, severe land degradation and soil erosion, water resources depletion, environmental pollution, etc. The rural development sector (agriculture and livestock farming), to which the NHLP belongs, is an integral part of the priority areas targeted by the Afghan authorities in their policy development and economic growth.

Indeed, the agricultural sector (including horticulture and livestock) development, which occupies more than half of the Afghan population, causes significant degradation of the environment. First, agriculture is an important sector for the national economy, contributing for more than 31% to GDP. However, in this sector, the intensification of irrigation and overexploitation of water (in a national context of very low rainfall), deforestation, the use of fertilizers and phytosanitary products and bad facilities and infrastructure cause productivity losses due to degradation and contamination of soils.

The livestock sector is one of the main economic pillars of the country, with a participation in the GDP of the about 14% a year (16-18% in the pre-war). In addition, the Afghanistan’s livestock is in constant growth (average annual growth rate of about 3%). This source of income and employment is however seriously threatened by environmental impacts: overgrazing, climate change, drought and settling, which cause significant degradation of soils and paths of transhumance (strengthening thus the desertification, soil erosion and pressure on water resources and fodder availability).

The environment plays an important role in the quality of living conditions, particularly in health. Food security is also challenged by the deterioration of the food resources that the poor are more dependent. For these reasons, the Government of Afghanistan is committed in the joint project between poverty and environment (GAIN)3 launched by UNDP in 2005 and jointly implemented with other UN agencies, to integrate the environmental dimension in economic and social policies, and in the strategic framework to combat in particular against poverty (PRSP)4 and general development policies.

1.1.2. Scope of the Study

The NHLP is imbedded into the Agriculture Production and Productivity Program (APP), which responds to the Afghanistan’s Agriculture Policy through the restoration and expansion of Afghanistan’s licit economy through the promotion of livelihoods free from dependency on poppy cultivation as one leg of the country’s global Agriculture Policy Framework (box 2).

3 Greening Afghanistan Initiative 4 Afghanistan National Development Strategy 21

The proposed NHLP that includes horticulture and livestock will facilitate and support the process of getting more and more farmers from subsistence farming into semi-specialized and/or semi-intensive market-based production systems while maintaining diversification for risk reduction and food security. This will be accompanied by a strong effort to introduce value adding processes and to identify and develop markets aiming at both import substitution and export. Horticulture5 and Livestock (including poultry husbandry)6 will constitute the sub-sectors of the program.

The Greening Afghanistan Initiative (GAIN) project which aims to strengthen national capacities and to establish institutional mechanisms for the integration of the linkages between poverty and the environment in the decision-making process also helps bridge the gaps by providing mitigation measures to adverse effects of both human and animal (overgrazing) activities on the environment. The vision of such a program is logically within the perspective of sustainable development (integration of social, environmental and economic aspects), that wishes to promote the adoption of policies and strategies promoting sustainable management of the environment.

Box 2: Islamic Republic of Afghanistan’s Defined Agriculture sector policy framework . Comprehensive and strategically cohesive poverty . Improvements in agricultural and rural physical reduction programs infrastructure and irrigation systems providing services . Public/Private sector responsibilities to meet basic human rights . Assurance of food security . Development of human resource capital. . The restoration and expansion of Afghanistan’s licit . The strengthening of local governance economy through the promotion of livelihoods free . Institutional coordination from dependency on poppy cultivation . Cross sector policy development . Strengthening of national capacities . Land tenure security . Mitigation of natural and man-made disasters . Assistance to farmers to increase production and

productivity . Environmental protection and assistance to communities to manage and protect Afghanistan’s natural resource base for sustainable growth

1.1.3. SEA Justification and Objectives

The MAIL officials, who have long realized the importance of the preservation of the environment in agricultural development, have committed technical actions7 in terms of protection of environment and sustainable agriculture development and production. However, with the complexity of environmental phenomena and the number of players involved in this issue, a global vision that would make more targeted and relevant actions is lacking. The SEA in this regard represents an invaluable tool to improve political decision-making processes by integrating environmental considerations in the formulation of the National Horticulture and Livestock Project for sustainable production and productivity.

The objective of the present SEA study is to identify, assess and describe the impacts on the environment of the NHLP and those that may result from the implementation of all of the PPP followed by the line departments of the MAIL. Specifically, The objectives of this Strategic Environmental Assessment are to: (i) integrate the goals of environmental management and sustainability as well as avoiding potential risks

5 Horticulture sub-sector will support horticulture development and supply farmers with saplings, provide equipment for trellises and establish pest control systems leading to a 20 percent increase in perennial crop production and significant exports through public private sector partnerships. 6 Livestock sub-sector will support livestock production by importing purebred sheep, establishing commercial dairy plants and poultry units for women farmers, increasing productivity and output. 7 Adoption of Integrated Pest Management by PPQD as a national policy for sustainable agricultural production, that protects the environment and human health and health against excessive use of pesticides and other agrochemicals. 22

at the earliest stages of the project planning and designing; (ii) ensure that the government decisions, policies, plans and programs in horticulture and livestock which could have direct and indirect effects in the country’s natural resources and human and community health are subject to proper environmental assessment; and (iii) ensure that the NHLP objectives and alternative means to them are identified and measures for avoidance, mitigation and compensation of any adverse environmental consequences are adopted. Finally, this SEA aims to strengthen the capacity and the environmental governance within MAIL, including through enhanced social responsibility and ensuring the continuity of the process after the phasing out of the NHLP.

1.2. Methodology

1.2.1. General Concept on SEAs

Definitions and characteristics of SEA

Strategic environmental assessment (SEA) is considered as "analytical and participatory approaches for strategic decision-making that aim to integrate environmental considerations into policies, plans and programs and to evaluate their interactions with economic and social considerations8". It is a process of assessment and taking into account environmental issues at the highest level of the decision-making process of the Government apparatus. However, the approach encompasses a wide array of tools and approaches that can be applied to the specific needs of NHLP.

SEA has a strong international anchor and is an integral part of development aid and cooperation policies, and is part of the practical tools recommended by the OECD (2006) and endorsed by the primary major donors and financial institutions (UNEP/UNDP, GIZ, WB, ADB, IDB, EU, USAID, etc.). In addition, the World Summit on sustainable development in Johannesburg in 2002 stressed "the importance of strategic frameworks and balanced decision-making, essential conditions for obtaining progress towards development goals".

So, SEA represents an important step in the planning and decision process, and is characterized by levels of hierarchy: policies, plans, programs and projects. Policies determine in a logical manner the plans, plans guide the programs and projects are developed from the programs. In more detail, the prioritization analysis between policy, plan and program is defined through coordinated linkages at the level of the planning apparatus as follows:

 Policy: It is the general conduct or the overall direction that a Government adopts and guide decision-making downstream. It is essentially an act of policy orientation.

 Plan: It is a general or director plan, or a set of coordinated and organized goals over time, often with priorities, options and measures, which aims to implement a policy in a sector or region in particular.

 Program: It is a set of actions that allow for the implementation of a plan or a policy. The program is a structured schedule and coherent commitments, instruments or activities involving smaller intervention areas (measures of financial intervention, government activities, communal or municipal activities, etc.). The diagram below gives the hierarchy between policy, plan and program that should be used during NHLP implementation.

8 L’Évaluation Environnementale Stratégique. Guide de bonnes pratiques dans le domaine de la coopération pour le développement. OECD, 2006. p.17 23

Figure 1: Hierarchy between Policy, Plan and Program

Agriculture Sector Policies Basis of Targeted Sectors: Reference: policy) - Agriculture: NHLP - NADF (Horticulture, - NEAP Plans (Commercial Ag) Animal Husbandry) - ANDS - Water Sector - Environmental - Health Sector Governance

Programs (Subsidies)

MAIL PROJECTS

PPPs may be: (i) a global agriculture policy to which horticulture as part of NHLP belongs (assistance to farmers to increase production and productivity by providing improved inputs such as agrochemicals and fertilizers and its implications on the environment); (ii) a plan of commercial agriculture for economic growth and poverty reduction may have adverse impacts (if the government does not enforce the requirements of countries receiving the fruits from Afghanistan in terms of how much the exported fruits are free of pesticides residues, the reputation of the country’s fruits will further suffer the rejection from the recipient countries); (iii) in the sector if more subsidy is available for communities to improve livestock (sheep and goats) raring, the subsequent increase of the livestock numbers will lead to adverse impacts on the environment through overgrazing in the rangelands.

Thus, the nature of decision-making varies according to the decision-making hierarchy, and the nature of the environmental assessment required. Policies, plans and programs (PPP) occurring at a more strategic level because they determine the general direction to follow to achieve the great objectives, the SEA also takes an important role and is thus upstream of the decision-making process. On the contrary, the environmental impact studies (EIA) apply to projects that achieve PPPs objectives.

Figure 2: Place of SEA and EIA in the Hierarchy of Policies, Plans and Programs

Policies Plan Program Project

Strategic Environmental Assessment Environmental Impact Assessment

The table 1 below shows the main characteristics and differences between the two types of environmental studies.

Table 1: Comparative table for SEA/EIA

SEA EIA Applies to policies, plans and programs in a broad and Applies to specific projects and in the relatively short long-term strategic perspective. term (life cycle) and their specifications. Comes in principle at an early stage of strategic Occurs during early planning of the project after the planning. settings have been established. Covers a wide range of alternative scenarios. Covers a limited range of alternative solutions Conduct independently from any project proponent. Generally prepared and/or funded by the project proponent. Based on the decision on the implications of policies, Based on project approval, and only rarely exercising plans and programs for future decisions at a lower level. feedback on policies, plans or programs. Iterative process in several steps with feedback loops. Well defined linear process with a beginning and a clearly established end (extending for example on the realization of the feasibility study at the project approval). Is not necessarily formally supported by documents. Necessarily gives rise to the preparation of an EIA document including the presentation and the content which are prescribed in advance. This document serves as a reference tool. Focuses on balanced environmental, social and Focuses on the mitigation of the environmental and economic goals in policies, plans and programs. Gives social effects of a specific project, but with rise to the identification of development results at the identification of a few options at the project level, of macroeconomic level. compensatory devices, etc. By its nature, takes into consideration the cumulative Implies a limited review of the cumulative impacts, impacts. often limiting to different phases of the project. Covers neither the facilities of regional scope, nor multiple projects. Source : OECD, 2006

1.2.2. Organization of the SEA study for the National Horticulture and Livestock Project

The implementation of the current SEA will require significant efforts to continuously strengthen the capacity of NHLP to analyze and take into account environmental issues. However, the accuracy of the steps in the application of the current SEA will be dependent upon the ownership that the MAIL Minister, as the policies decision-making authority of MAIL, will have in implementing the recommendations contained in the present SEA. In this study, all Policies, Plans and Programs (PPP) pertaining to environmental sustainability in NHLP will be considered. Therefore, the main phases of this study will be adequately formulated.

The Objectives of the NHLP’s Strategic Environmental Assessment are to: (i) integrate the goals of environmental management and sustainability as well as avoiding potential risks at the earliest stages of the project planning and designing; (ii) ensure that the government decisions, policies, plans and programs in horticulture and livestock which could have significant direct and indirect effects on the country’s natural resources and human and community health are subjected to proper environmental assessment; and (iii) ensure that the program objectives and alternative means of achieving them are identified and measures for avoidance, mitigation and compensation of any potential adverse environmental consequences are adopted. 25

1.2.3. Plan and Structuring of the SEA Report

This SEA study looks at the horticulture and livestock program in Afghanistan. Therefore, it aims to analyze all the policies, plans and programs developed by the MAIL for these areas and to determine their potential impacts on the environment and natural resources. On the other hand, more generally, it aims to draw the portrait of the country's environmental management system. As such, the analysis was focus on different thrusts, for each of the cited sections:

 Analysis of the initial state of human and biophysical environments. As a first step, this section of the study provides a description of the initial environment of the sector, through the key features that characterize socio-economic as well as biophysical environments.

 Review of development strategies and of poverty-environment relationships. This allowed having an overview of the general framework of the Afghanistan policy development, framework in which has come to form agricultural development strategy on which the SEA study looks upon.

 Review of the legal instruments and the institutional framework for SEA mainstreaming It was more specifically to assess the systems set up by the authorities to identify and manage the interactions between the environment and the main objectives and policies issues of the agricultural sector. This picture involved assessing capabilities and institutional needs for mainstreaming SEA in the NHLP development.

 Identification and analysis of the major issues related to Horticulture and Livestock Through the previous two points, we were able to assess the major potential impacts of PPPs in the agriculture and livestock subsectors, both on biophysical and socio-economic environments.

 Environmental and Social Management Framework (ESMF) The environmental and social management framework aims to establish a process of consultation and selection that allows NHLP for the implementation of SEA, in the agricultural sector in Afghanistan, to identify, assess and mitigate the potentials environmental and social impacts related to subprojects which will be developed in the targeted areas, from the planning stages. The ESMF also determines the institutional arrangements to be considered during the NHLP implementation, including those in relation to capacity building.

1.2.4. SEA Norms and Standards

This SEA report is developed in accordance with the required standards which make reference to the national legislation of Afghanistan, to the OECD proceedings, to the World Bank safeguards policies, to the international conventions on the environment ratified or signed by Government of Afghanistan. Throughout the process both stakeholder and public consultations were preferred, technical services of technology and financial partners (TFP), in order to promote a quality civic participation and a better consideration of concerned populations and stakeholders’ opinion.

1.2.5. Constraints and Limits of the Study

The mission has faced some difficulties due to the absence of comprehensive, relevant and consistent data and the absence of a national system of environmental indicators. The data are often scattered in several structures and are sometimes difficult to access. In addition, the unavailability of some key players has been a handicap to meet all the groups that were identified at the outset.

PART 2: ANALYSIS OF THE INITIAL STATE OF AFGHANISTAN’S BIOPHYSICAL AND HUMAN ENVIRONMENTS

2.1. Global Presentation of the Biophysical Environment

The Islamic Republic of Afghanistan is a landlocked country, situated in both the northern and eastern hemispheres, with a surface area of 653,000 sq. km. The Islamic Republic of Afghanistan lies between 29°35’ and 38°40’ northern latitude and between 60°31’ and 75°00’ eastern longitude on the mountainous and desert areas where the Iranian Plateau borders with the mountainous systems of Central Asia. It's positioned in the Middle East, a recognized geographical region of southwestern Asia. Afghanistan is bounded on the north by Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, on the northeast by China, on the south and east by Pakistan and on the west by Iran.

Although elevation and aridity frequently combine to make dramatic landscapes, in a country that is almost entirely agrarian these same conditions make subsistence a constant challenge, and the livelihood of most people in Afghanistan is acutely vulnerable to climatic variation. The routine hardships faced by many rural Afghans have helped shape the attributes of resilience and independence for which the country is famous.

Extracting a living from the mountainous dry lands of Afghanistan has never been easy, but decades of armed conflict, and four years of extreme drought, have created widespread human suffering and environmental devastation across the country. Warfare, lawlessness and food insecurity have made refugees of some four million Afghans – the equivalent to a quarter of the total country population at the time of the Soviet occupation in 1979. Infrastructure has been destroyed and many institutions and administrative systems have collapsed.

The population of Afghanistan as of 2011 fluctuated at around 34.3 million (World Bank, 2012), which does not include the roughly 2 million Afghan refugees still living in Pakistan and Iran, with a population growth rate of 2.6 percent (2010 estimate). The percentage of population in the rural areas is estimated at 80% while that in the urban area is 20%.

2.1.1. Major Climatic Characteristics

The climate is continental in nature, with cold winters and hot summers. Most of the country is semi-arid or arid steppe, with low amounts of precipitation and high or very high variability between years. Snowfall is concentrated in the central mountains and the higher ranges of the northeast bordering Pakistan. Winter temperatures are extremely low in both these areas, 15ºC below- for many weeks during winter. Most of Afghanistan is influenced by weather fronts from the Mediterranean, with low and erratic rainfall, typically in spring.

The highest temperatures and the lowest precipitation prevail in the drought-ridden, poorly watered southern plateau region, which extends over the boundaries with Iran and Pakistan. The east of the country lies near the margin of the monsoon system affecting the Indian subcontinent. Here, parts of the eastern provinces, including Kunar, Nuristan, Laghman, and Nangarhar, have up to 1,200 mm of rainfall in summer (roughly five times the national average).

MAP 1: AFGHANISTAN’s AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES, WITH PREDOMINANT LAND USE

The Central Mountains, with higher peaks ascending toward the Pamir Knot, represent another distinct climatic region. In the mountains the annual mean precipitation, much of which is snowfall, increases eastward and is highest in the Koh-e Baba Range, the western part of the Pamir Knot, and the Eastern Hindukush. Precipitation in these regions and the eastern monsoon area is about forty centimeters per year. The Wakhan Corridor, however, which has temperatures ranging from 9 oC in the summer to -21 oC below in the winter, receives fewer than ten centimeters of rainfall annually. Permanent snow covers the highest mountain peaks. In the mountainous region adjacent to northern Pakistan, the snow is often more than two meters deep during the winter months. Valleys often become snow traps as the high winds sweep much of the snow from mountain peaks and ridges.

2.1.2. Features of the main physical environments

Topography

Most of the Afghanistan’s total land area or about three-fourths (about 63 per cent) are mountainous, and where slopes and elevation lead to more than a quarter (27 per cent) of the land lying above 2,500 m. The huge mountain system of the Hindukush with its highest peak NawShakh (7,485 m) stretches from the northeast to the southwest, where it borders with the Kohi Baba, Feroz Koh, Terbandi Turkistan and some smaller mountain ranges, surrounded by a belt of deserts. In the northeastern outskirts Hindukush borders with the plateau of Pamir, and the range of Karakorum. This corridor extends as a narrow strip of land to a short border with China, separating Tajikistan from Pakistan. Deserts cover the southern and western parts of the country.

Rivers, lakes and wetlands

The sources of most of Afghanistan’s rivers lie in the mountains. The highest level of waters in the rivers, oscillates greatly, is in spring and early summer; in the remaining season the rivers may change into small streams or entirely disappear. Five principal drainage regions can be distinguished, with the Koh-e-Baba mountain range in the geographic center of the country as the primary watershed. With one exception of the Kabul river system, all drainage systems in Afghanistan end in closed internal basins.

The major river is the Amu Darya, which rises in the Pamirs, forms much of the northern border of the country, and traverses a large area of central Asia, drying up before it reaches the Aral Sea. The Murghab and the Hari-Rud both drain the northwest region of the Hindu Kush, flowing west then north to terminate in southern Turkmenistan, where they contribute to groundwater resources. The Helmand, which collects rain and snow-melt from the southern slopes of the Hindu Kush, is the longest river entirely within Afghanistan, its catchment extending over some 31 per cent of the country. Helmand waters flow through the arid southwest plains to enter the marshlands and lakes of the Sistan basin, which is shared with Iran. The Kabul River system, which drains around 9 per cent of the country around the capital, traverses the Jalalabad Gorge to join the Indus River in Pakistan.

With the exception of the Amu Darya, which receives inputs from countries to the north, most rivers in Afghanistan – and almost the entire supply of the country’s water for irrigation, drinking, and maintenance of wetland ecosystems – are derived from rainfall within the country’s own borders and the seasonal melting of snow and permanent ice-fields in the mountains. The persistence of snow and ice are closely related to prevailing temperature, so this source of water is likely to be at risk from continuing global warming.

There are very few lakes and marshland areas. Because of their rarity, existing wetlands are particularly valuable for people as sources of water and other resources such as reeds, and as habitat for wetland species, notably for breeding and migrant waterbirds. The largest permanent lakes are those at Band-e- Amir in the central highlands, and at high altitudes in the Wakhan Corridor. Other lakes are more variable in extent. By far the largest lies within the Sistan basin where lakes and flooded marshlands cover about 4,000 km2 of surface area during times of good water supply. As almost half of the Sistan wetlands lie in Iran, transboundary management of this resource is required. Other important wetland areas include Dasht-e-Nawar, Ab-e-Estada and Kole Hashmat Khan.

2.1.3. Characteristics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity Richness

Climatic conditions governing socio-economic behavior of living human beings are not only expressed in terms of climate averages or discrepancies between physical factors, but also take into account the soil’s biological and environmental conditions. It is mainly the connection of climatic and biological conditions called commonly bioclimatics, which determine the mode of development of a population.

The interaction between the bioclimatic specificities and particularly rural development modes such as, in the case of Afghanistan, agriculture and grazing leads to a qualified agro-ecological zoning (fig.1 above). On this basis, Afghanistan has different agro-ecological and bioclimatic zones of unequal importance.

Area of Ecological Significance

Although protected areas such as parks, ecological reserves and sites of cultural historic significance have been given little attention over the past few decades, it must be noted that Afghanistan has some world- class candidate sites in all of these categories. The sites, in fact when peace returns, may once again generate international interest and tourism revenue on behalf of Afghanistan.

There is one official National Park, the Band-e-Amir, and Ab-i-Estada and Dasht-e-Nawar waterfowl sanctuaries have been gazetted in response to petitions submitted to the Head of State in the 1970s. 29

Afghanistan ratified the World Heritage Convention on March 20, 1979. However, with the onset of war in 1979 it has been impossible for the Government to undertake further actions in the field of conservation and expansion of protected areas. The Government of Afghanistan has had the intention to establish the following six National Parks once peace returns to the country.

Ab-I-Estada and Dasht-e Nawar Waterfowl Sanctuary Located in the Hindu Kush Highands in Ghazni Province, South-East Afghanistan, Ab-I-Estada together with Dasht-e-Nawar to the North are a staging ground for migratory waterfowl and waders of the Siberian Kazakstan/Pakistan-India population, in particular the rare Siberian crane Grus leucogeranus. It is also an essential breeding ground for the greater flamingo Phoenicopterus roseus. The international importance of the two sites was recognized in the 1971 international Conference on Wetlands and Waterfowl, which adopted the Ramsar Convention. Ab-I-Estada is also an important archeological site exhibiting strategic sequences.

The Ajar Valley Wildlife Reserve

In the Hindu kush Highlands northwest of Bamiyan, the area was used as a hunting reserve by royalty since the turn of the century and protected as such since early 1950s. Proposed as a national park in 1978 the area contained ibex (Carpra ibex), Bactrian deer (Cervus elephus bactrianus), feral yak (Bos grunniens), snow leopard (Panthera unica), leopard (P. paradus), lynx (Lynx lynx), wolf (Canis lupus), jakal (Canis aureus), fox (Vulpes vulpes), otter (Lutra luttra), marten (Martes foina), and long tailed mormot (Marmota canata). The avifauna is the most diverse recorded in the Hindu kush with 60 species identified.

Pamir-Buzurg Wildlife Sanctuary In the western Wakhan Corridor on the border with Tijikistan and Badakhshan Province, the Afghan Pamir is among the most spectacular landscapes of central Asia providing habitat for the famous Marco Polo sheep along with seventeen other mammal species including ibex. Carnivores include wolf, red fox, brown bear, ermine, lynx, and snow leopard. The Afghan Pamir is one of history’s greatest crossroads and migration routes for travelers. It contains valuable archeological sites including petrography probably dating to pre-islamic times in the Wakhan Valley.

Band-e-Amir National Park In the Hazarajat Mountains of the western Hindu Kush, Bamiyan Province, the six lapis lazuli lakes of Band-e-Amir National Park are nested between 300 m high magenta rock walls in the Band-e-Amir valley. Their deep blue color is a result of the waters’ purity and high lime content. This area is reported to be one of the most beautiful landscapes in Afghanistan, and has been a popular tourist attraction since the 1950s with day tours operating from Bamiyan.

Kole Hashmat Khan Waterfowl Sanctuary On the southeastern outskirts of Kabul, Lake Hashmat Khan was used as a hunting ground since Mongol times. In the 1930s King Mohammed Zahir Shah declared it a waterfowl reserve. As of 1978, there were over 30,000 migratory birds using the lake with 157 species being identified by 1978. The lake lies in the Hindu Kush flyway and marsh area of the formerly expansive marshlands of Kabul.

Wildlife Biodiversity Richness

Situated in the middle of the Eurasia continent, Afghanistan has a wide diversity of habitats and ecosystems, ranging from steppes, semi-deserts, rainforest and lakes to shrub land, mountain woodlands 30

and mountains. Of a total area of 65.2 million hectares, approximately 30 million are rangelands, 7.9 million arable land and 1.7 million or so of forests. Phyto-geographically, the greater part of Afghanistan belongs to the west Asiatic region, the southern lowland belongs to the African-Indian desert regions and the eastern part belongs to the Sino-Japanese region. Zoo-geographically, Afghanistan is situated at the confluence of Paleartic and oriental zones. Altitudinal range and climatic differences have created conditions suitable for rich biodiversity.

Many of the larger mammals in Afghanistan are categorized by the World Conservation Union (IUCN) as globally threatened. These include snow leopard, wild goat, markhor, Marco Polo sheep, urial, and Asiatic black bear. Other mammals of interest include ibex, wolf, red fox, jackal, caracal, manul or Pallas’s cat, striped hyena, rhesus macaque, and brown bear.

Many of Afghanistan’s bird species are also globally threatened, including the Siberian crane, white- headed duck, marbled teal, Pallas’s sea-eagle, greater spotted eagle, imperial eagle, lesser kestrel, corncrake, sociable lapwing and the pale-backed pigeon. Among these, the Siberian crane is of particular significance. This species is categorized by IUCN as Critically Endangered and is believed to face an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild in the immediate future. Only a single breeding pair may remain in the central group, which formerly used wetlands in Afghanistan (and Iran) as stopover points during migration between breeding grounds in Russia and the main overwintering area in India. Other birds of interest found in Afghanistan include greater flamingo and houbara bustard.

The country has one endemic bird species, Meinertzhagen’s snow finch, and major breeding populations of six other restricted regional species: yellow-eyed pigeon, plain willow warbler, Brooks’s willow warbler, variable wheatear and Dead Sea sparrow. The population of yellow-eyed pigeon is particularly important because the species is rare and declining throughout its Central Asian range. Afghanistan also has significant numbers of breeding lammergeier, black vulture and other birds of prey.

Among reptiles, four species are believed to be restricted to Afghanistan: the geckos, and the lacertid lizards. The salamander occurs only in mountain streams in the central Hindu Kush of Afghanistan and is believed to be at risk from habitat modification and conflict. The freshwater fishes of Afghanistan (snow trout and loaches) have been little studied, but many are believed to be endemic.

Vegetation and Forests Classification

Afghanistan has a rich flora in a wide range of ecosystems, with representatives of cosmopolitan plants, plants distributed through the northern hemisphere, the pantropic plants, the Eurasiatic plants, central Asiatic elements, eastern elements and endemic plants. All this cosmopolitan plant distribution includes glaciers and high-alpine vegetation (particularly in the extreme northeast, including the Wakhan Corridor), montane coniferous and mixed forest, open dry woodland with juniper, pistachio or almond, semi-desert shrub, sand and stony deserts, rivers, lakes and marshland. The more closed types of mixed and coniferous forests occur mainly in the east, along the border with Pakistan, where precipitation tends to be more regular and abundant.

Vegetation cover in Afghanistan has been modified significantly through millennia of human occupation. Generally speaking, the families, which are supposed to be most advanced in their respective orders, have many endemics such as Composites of Camponulates, Leguminosae of Rosalae, Labiatae of Tubiflorae and Cruciferae of Ghoeadales.

According to historic evidence, the natural vegetation of the country was originally woodland and forest, but centuries of destruction and mismanagement have resulted in almost complete disappearance of forests from plains and valleys in many parts of the country. Scattered remnant of juniper stands on the 31

northern slopes of the Hindu kush give evidence of the previously large forests on the now barren slopes. The formerly extensive tamarix forest of southwestern Afghanistan has been heavily over-exploited and now exists as scattered bushy stands. As far as diversity is concerned, on the basis of the dominant species and ecological distribution we can distinguish 10 types of forests in Afghanistan: Spruce-fir forest, deodar forest, oak forest, juniper forest, pistachio forest, almond forest, olive forest, tamarix forest, and Haloxylon forest. Loss of forest resources, including natural forests and plantations, is the major environmental protection problem facing Afghanistan today.

2.2. Presentation of the Global Socio-Economic Environment of the NHLP

Afghanistan is an essentially agrarian country, with around 80 per cent of the population involved in farming, herding, or both. Two basic farming patterns exist: a mixed crop and livestock system, and the Kuchi pastoral system. The latter implies a nomadic existence, named after the Kuchi communities who undertake a seasonal transfer of grazing animals to different pastures (a practice termed transhumance).

Only a relatively small part of the land area (12%) of Afghanistan is suitable for arable farming or horticulture, including both irrigated as well as rain-fed farming. Prior to the Soviet occupation it is estimated that 85 per cent of the population derived their main livelihood from arable farming, horticulture and livestock husbandry, commonly in combination. More than half of all irrigated arable land lies north of the main Hindu Kush range in the drainage systems of the Amu Darya River. Much of the remaining irrigated land lies in the river basins draining southwest, west and southeast out from the central massif, most significantly the basin of the Helmand River system.

Although estimates vary, a recent source suggests about 3.3 million ha (5 per cent of the total land area) is irrigated and regularly cropped, while 4.5 million ha (7 per cent) is rain-fed and is cropped opportunistically, depending on precipitations. Most of the rain-fed land lies in a 900-km long belt lying west to east along the northern foothills and plains. Increasing rural population pressure on available land over the last two to three generations has led to more and more traditional grazing land being cultivated for rain-fed wheat crops, even on very steep slopes and in the highest mountains. Yields have proved to be uncertain and crop failures common. The environmental degradation resulting from the destruction of the original ground cover and consequent erosion is widespread and very serious. Of the remaining area, about half (57 million ha according to some estimates) is rangeland and open Artimesia steppe used for extensive livestock grazing, the rest having little or no vegetative ground cover.

Horticultural crops are an important part of the agricultural sector in Afghanistan. In the late 70s, horticulture accounted for around 40% of the country export earnings, though occupying only some 6% of the total arable land and 12% of the irrigated land. A 1997 FAO Survey indicates that an area of 140,000 ha of orchards, 92,000 ha of vegetables, 112,000 ha of cotton and 5,000 ha of sugar beet were planted in 1976. There is no breakdown of either the orchard crops or the vegetable crops although it is known that horticulture crops consisted of significant areas of grapes, apricots, apples, almonds, walnuts, mulberries and melons. Raisins, dried apricots and almonds numbered among the country’s major exports. Vegetables included large areas of potato, which is a common element in Afghan diets as well as onions, tomatoes and eggplant. While horticulture crops covered only a small part of the total agricultural and irrigated area economically they were very important. They were primarily high value cash crops, which at the same time broadened the nutritional base of the population.

After declining during the war years, horticultural production area somewhat increased after the war due to farmers’ preference for more remunerative cash crops as an alternative to poppy. Horticultural crops represented an important source of income (gross income per unit area is three to seven times that of wheat, which make horticultural crops a good alternative to poppy production). Nevertheless, there is

insufficient information on the current status of horticulture production. According to current information provided, the orchard area had declined from 140,000 ha in 1997 to 70,000 ha. During this period vegetable area had remained more or less constant at 90,000 ha.

The major fruit crops and vines include: grapes, almond, apricots, pomegranate, walnuts, pistachio, and apples trees, covering a total of 95.9% of all orchards/vineyards: Meanwhile, Afghan dried fruits (mainly almonds and apricots) accounted for 60% of the world market in 1982, but declined to 16% in 1990. The share is much lower now, but the products are still important foreign exchange earners. Horticultural crops represent the most viable alternative to poppy to cultivation; however, this will require rehabilitation of the country’s fruit processing centers and transport systems.

Horticultural production can contribute to a less vulnerable, more diverse rural economy that provides opportunities to women and men and improves their livelihoods. Peri-urban horticultural crop production, and the associated markets and processing facilities, help supplement employment in urban areas. Horticultural crops activities such as weeding, harvesting, sorting, processing, etc., provide significant labor opportunities to women. This can help address a serious consequence of the continued conflict in Afghanistan that has resulted in the widespread destruction of family life; many women have been widowed or have lost the male members of their household. Single women now head many rural households. In 1999, women heads occupied 11% of horticultural crops farms; these percentages are now likely much higher.

Horticultural crops and their wild relatives play a fundamental role in the ecosystem rehabilitation and provision of sustainable agriculture. Intercropping vegetables with fruit trees to maximize land use efficiency is part of traditional farming system of Afghanistan. Fruit trees such as pistachio and almond are known to provide optimal use of scarce water resources and marginal land, and provide some income even in years of extreme drought or crop loss.

Afghanistan is also a unique center of genetic diversity of vegetable and fruit species such as carrots, radish, melon, cherry, plum, apricot, peach, pear, apple, walnut, pistachio, fig, grapes, pomegranate, almond, etc. However, gene bank facilities have been destroyed in 1992, and the country has no capacity for maintaining varietals purity or stocking vegetable seeds. Genetic erosion of horticultural crops has been observed at both inter- and intra-specific levels.

The most recent analysis of the status of horticulture in Afghanistan was documented by the FAO in 2000. This survey clearly illustrates the disruption that has occurred in this sector and describes the primary limitations that existed at that time. The horticultural sector in Afghanistan has experienced rapid and significant changes over the course of recent years, first with a decline of activities which coincided with the beginning of the war and the emigration of refugee populations in 1980s, and followed by a gradual rehabilitation which started in the early 90s and then another decline due to the intense civil war between 1997-2002. The most recently initiated emergency horticulture and livestock project (HLP) enters in the government policy to rehabilitate and rejuvenate the horticulture and livestock sectors in order to revamp these segments of the Afghan economy.

In recent years Afghanistan has earned notoriety as the world’s largest producer of opium, contributing some 75 per cent of the global illegal supply. The opium poppy has been cultivated for many centuries in Afghanistan, but the period of conflict has led to a massive expansion in production. In the southwest and eastern provinces, in particular Helmand, Kandahar, Uruzghan, Nangarhar, Laghman and Kunar, opium poppy has increasingly replaced wheat as the most significant autumn-sown cash crop and as a spring- sown crop in Badakhshan province. In 1999 output was estimated by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) at about 4,600 tons of opium gum from a total area of 91,000 ha. This fell to 3,300 33

tons from 81,000 ha in 2000 largely because of the drought and more dramatically to 185 tons from 8,000 ha in 2001 due to a strictly enforced ban imposed by the Taliban government.

The departure of the Taliban saw a return to massive poppy cultivation in 2002, which UNODC estimates at about 3,400 tons from 74,000 ha. The farm gate price of opium gum has risen dramatically from about US$30 per kg in 2000 to its current level of about US$350–US$400 per kg in late 2002. Wheat is the main seasonal competitor crop for opium poppy. However, while it is estimated that a 2.5 tons per hectare crop of wheat might earn a farmer US$440, the equivalent land sown to poppy will earn him US$18,400. This makes opium an almost irresistible crop for rural families struggling to rebuild their lives and improve their livelihoods. It is hardly a surprise to find that 2002 also saw the spread of poppy cultivation into a number of provinces and districts where it had not been cultivated previously.

Wheat straw along with other crop residues, wild plants and weeds and fodder crops such as Lucerne, clover and vetches help to sustain livestock, especially through the winter months. Cattle and sheep provide milk, meat, wool and hides, as well as dung for fuel. Oxen are the main source of power for cultivation, while horses and donkeys provide rural transportation. Most rural families keep a cow or two for milk, and certain local breeds, such as the Kandahari and Kunari, are well recognized. There is evidence of cross-breeding with western breeds in many locations. Not all rural families keep sheep and goats but flocks are found in most villages, sometimes running into hundreds. Several different, distinct local breeds of sheep are recognized, mostly of the fat-tailed/fat-rumped type.

The estimated numbers of sheep (about 14 million) and goat (3 million) in 1978-79 fell dramatically during the ten years of Soviet war, according to some estimates by as much as 40 per cent. In the ten years after 1989, a period of comparative rural peace and good grazing, sheep numbers rose to an estimated 24 million and goat numbers to 9 million by 1999, but the persistent drought and poor grazing conditions since 1999 has led to a massive reduction in herd numbers (possibly by as much as 70 per cent) and many kuchi families who have lost all their livestock have been forced to become refugees or move into camps for internally displaced people (IDPs) close to feeding centers.

The nomadic/transhumant Kuchis are mainly ethnic Pashtun. Collectively they own about one-third of the national flock. Typically flocks are comprised of 80 per cent sheep and 20 per cent goats, with horses, donkeys and camels used for transport and their traditional homes being black goat-hair tents. Typically, many of the Pashtun Kuchis winter in Pakistan as far south as the southern Punjab and the Sind, moving back to Afghanistan in the spring and gradually into the high mountains to 3,000 m altitude and above in the summer as the snow recedes. Other smaller groups of professional herders also exist, such as the felt yurt-dwelling Kyrgyz in the Pamir who herd yaks as well as sheep, goats and camels, and the Gujar cattle owners who winter in the Punjab and North West Frontier of Pakistan and summer in upper Kunar and other border provinces.

Traditional migration routes have often been seriously disrupted in the recent years of conflict, as for instance across the Taliban/Northern Alliance front line in Takhar. Ethnic and religious antagonism between the Pashtun Kuchis and the local resident Hazaras and Aimaq in the central Hindu Kush massif has led to an outflow of kuchi from the Hazarajat. At present the retreat of the Taliban, who gave military support to the Pashtun Kuchis, means that access to the central mountains is not encouraged by the local Hazaras, who own their own resident flocks and herds.

2.2.1. Demographic Characteristics Afghanistan is culturally highly diverse, with around 20 distinct ethnic groups. Some groups tend to occupy particular areas of the country, while others are more scattered, or mainly urban. Traditional tribal rivalries are an important factor in social relationships, and the diversity of ethnic groups is reflected in 34

the current composition of the Transitional Authority. The two main languages are Pashto (the language of the Pashtuns) and Dari (a variant of Persian). Afghanistan is a Muslim country, with the majority Sunni and most of the remainder Shi’a.

Living mainly in the wide belt of land south of the Hindu Kush, Pashtuns (the largest single ethnic group)have since the 18th century, tended to be the dominant element in national governance. Four other groups – the Turkoman, Uzbek, Tajik and Kyrgyz – extend into northern Afghanistan from parts of Central Asia. Of these, the Tajiks form the second largest group in the country. The Hazara and Aimaq people live mainly in the mountainous centre, with Baluch and Brahui people in the drylands of the southwest. Of the many smaller communities, the Nuristani and Pasha’i in the northeastern Nuristan province are particularly distinct culturally and linguistically, and were only converted to Islam in the 19th century.

Despite the considerable loss of life and forced migration during the recent years of conflict, available estimates suggest that the country’s total population has risen fairly steadily from more than 8 million in 1950 to nearly 22 million in 2000. An estimated 4 million Afghans resided outside the country in early 2002. However, by December 2002, around 1.8 million had returned following the downfall of the Taliban government. Almost 50 per cent of all returnees have resettled in the central region, while the eastern, northern, southern and western regions have received 22, 21, 6 and 3 per cent respectively.

In General, we can characterize the Afghan population in the following manner:

- an important growth rate: this growth resulted in the doubling of the population in 30 years, it increased from 15.5 million in 1979 to about 34 million people in 2012. The annual average growth rate between 1960 and 2010 is 2.8% and 2.22% in 2012 according to the World Bank estimates. Urban areas are experiencing rapid population growth following the return of over 5 million expats.

- a massive rural exodus leading to an anarchic settlement: Globally, the Afghan urban populations have doubled since the 1980s, where some 30% of the people are thought to live in urban or peri-urban centers. Afghanistan’s urbanization has accelerated following the country’s dramatic event of war and regime changes over the past three years. Civil war and the destruction of towns and villages caused mass movements of people in two major directions- emigration, mainly to Pakistan and Iran, or internal resettlement to the relative safety of Kabul

- a rapid and often anarchic urbanization: Kabul, the Capital City, has grown from some 500,000 people in 2001 to an estimated 3 million at the end of 2004 to close to 3.5 million in 2011. It is in Kabul that the country’s most significant urban challenges are seen, including rapid population growth, the destruction of much of the city’s physical infrastructure due to war and lack of maintenance, land tenure issues, a sharp increase in land prices and rents, a shortage of low-income housing and a high rate of unemployment.

- a population trend: There exists an anomaly in Afghanistan reporting of population by sex. Females are underreported relative to males in the younger age groups (below age 15) because of son preference which is prevalent in the country. The reported percentage of total female population in 2010 is estimated to about 48.8%, suggesting a male dominant trend with 51.2%. Sex-selective abortion is not a likely cause for the underreporting of females, especially given the lack of ultrasound machines. More than likely, some girls are reported as boys because of stigma attached to families who have only girl children and may not wish to report the presence of girls.

- a rather young population: The age group of less than 15 years was more than 42.9% of the Afghan population in 2010 and the proportion of the 15-64 year age group is estimated at more 35

than 54.5%, while the population aged 65 and over is only 2.4% of the population. In summary, the Afghan population is rather young and the tranche of those of less than 35 years (65%) old form the majority of the population

2.2.2. Socio-Educative Characteristics

The Government aims at having a well-educated nation. Since 2002, the Government has invested heavily in the education sector and has attained progress toward the ultimate goals of educating for all of Afghanistan’s children, reducing illiteracy, and creating a skilled labor force. The Government is committed to meeting the Millennium Development Goals, and the primary education objective for the ANDS is to keep Afghanistan on track for their timely attainment.

The Government aims to increase literacy (from its current level of 28%), improve quality of education, expand the capacity of the education system to absorb more students, increase equal access to education for all (boys & girls), improve opportunities for and quality of higher education, and expand the capacity and improve the quality of vocational education and skills building. The provision of basic education and reducing illiteracy rates will remain the top priority for the Government throughout the life of the ANDS. The Government is committed to implement the priority programs endorsed in the National Education Strategic Plan.

The next priority is to improve the quality and management of education by devolving responsibility for the delivery of education services to local authorities while strengthening the monitoring and strategic planning capacity of the Ministry of Education, Ministry of Higher Education, and Ministry of Labor and Social Services. The key priority in the vocational training subsector is to align vocational training and skills development programs with the needs of the economy through improved coordination and implementation capacity at the National Vocational Education and Training Board (NVETB).

2.2.3. Health and Nutrition Characteristics Afghanistan’s health indicators are near the bottom of international indices, and far worse, in terms of their health, than any other country in the region. Afghanistan has the highest maternal mortality rate in the world, estimated in 2008 at 1,400 deaths/100,000 live births, and the highest infant mortality rate in the world (deaths of babies under one year), and estimated in 2012 to be around 122 deaths/1,000 live births. Data from 2010 suggests that one in 10 children in Afghanistan dies before they are five years old. Life expectancy is very low, infant, under-five and maternal mortality are very high, and there is an extremely high prevalence of chronic malnutrition and widespread occurrence of micronutrient deficiency diseases.

The overarching priority of the health sector is to address priority health issues through a universal coverage of a Basic Package of Health Services (BPHS). The Government is implementing the BPHS and strengthening the referral network that links patients into the hospitals that provide the Essential Package of Hospital Services (EPHS). Specifically, the Government is focusing on strengthening reproductive health services, particularly in the areas of safe motherhood and family planning; improving the nutritional status of mothers and children; and controlling communicable diseases, recognizing their adverse impact on the health of all Afghans.

Because of these factors, the implementation of SEA in the NHLP must build on the lessons learned from the implementation of HLP which serves as the reference (or base situation, zero State) level, from which we can assess the effectiveness of measures and good practice guidelines proposed in the environmental and social management framework (ESMF).

PART 3: ANALYSIS OF THE INTEGRATION OF SEA POLICY FRAMEWORK

This part refers to the strategic guidelines and the policy framework adopted by the Afghan government in regard to the integration of Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) and specifically covers the following components: i) environmental governance, including the National Strategy to Combat Poverty and the National Strategy for Sustainable Development; (ii) policy guidelines in the agriculture sector development, including the NHLP.

3.1. Policy Framework and Strategic Directions for Environmental Integration

3.1.1. Economic Growth and Poverty Reduction (EGPR)

The fight against poverty is a priority of the development policy advocated by the government of Afghanistan. This policy is part of the ANDS (PRSP) orientations and constitutes a reference framework for any action and any program supported by the development partners.

In preparing the ANDS, the Government has adopted evidence based policy making—through detailed poverty diagnostic work—to better understand the causes and effects of poverty in all its forms. Based on this analysis, the ANDS serves as a pro-poor growth strategy. By pro-poor, the Government means making investments that have a preferential impact on bringing the poor out of extreme poverty through the adoption of growth enabling policies and targeted social protection investments. Afghanistan aims to achieve pro-poor growth, where the incomes and livelihoods of the poorest rise faster than the average growth of the economy. Key findings of the Government’s 2007 National Risk and Vulnerability Assessment (NRVA) indicate that the poverty rate stands at 42 percent (or 12 million people), with per capita incomes of about US$14 per month. Moreover, food poverty was estimated to affect around 45 percent of Afghans who are unable to purchase sufficient food to guarantee the world standard minimum food intake of 2,100cal/day. Furthermore, 20 percent were situated slightly above the poverty line indicating a high level of vulnerability.

To be sustainable economic growth which in Afghanistan is agriculture-based cannot be achieved at the cost of environmental and natural resource degradation. Establishing clear environment–poverty linkage in the context of Afghan development, improving natural resource management with due consideration for the vulnerable population, preventing further degradation of the environment, and improving and maintaining the integrity of ecosystem services, is therefore the key to lasting recovery, human security, and the sustainable development of Afghanistan.

To successfully implement this strategy, the Government has endeavored to comprehensively address the security, governance, and development needs of Afghanistan, and has prepared the five-year Afghanistan National Development Strategy. The ANDS reflects the Government’s vision, principles and goals for Afghanistan, building on and in support of commitments to reach the Afghanistan Compact benchmarks and the country Millennium Development Goals. The Afghanistan Compact represents an international commitment to improve security, governance, and development conditions and opportunities for all Afghans.

Environmental management will be one of the elements of the six transversal actions included in the two priority zones (arid rural resource depleted areas, precarious human settled neighborhoods) and in the three priority areas (Security, Governance, Economic Growth and Social Development) to attain the medium and long term objectives for the execution of the planned actions under the framework of the PRSP.

3.1.2. National Strategy for Sustainable Development

One of the important areas of concern in the ANDS, as the developmental master plan for the country, that has so far been largely left out of debate and discussion by the civil society and government is sustainable development. ANDS emphasizes the critical role of not only development but sustainable development in the future of the country and in fact sets out to marry the development process in the country with the goal of sustainability in general, and sustainable agriculture in particular. Abundant water resources, rich mines and mineral deposits, expansive swaths of fertile land for agriculture, a young and energetic young population and many others are the resources that Afghanistan has in its disposal.

Sustainable development not only takes into consideration fulfilling the needs and requirements of now but also the needs and requirements of Afghanistan many years into the future by keeping the environment and the ecological system of the country from destruction especially in the rural areas. Clean and healthy environment, sustainable economic and social development, and effective management of the country’s environment through participation of all stakeholders are the strategic goals of ANDS.

The Environment as a cross-cutting issue, must be mainstreamed across all sectors and programs, especially in agriculture programs (NHLP being a pioneer program) through the development of policy benchmarks to ensure that the Government, donors and implementing agencies follow established norms with respect to the incorporation of environmental considerations into the design and implementation of projects, providing adequate oversight and monitoring of the environmental impacts in projects’ layout.

Analysis of the Level of SEA into the National Environmental Protection Agency Strategy (NEPA)

The initiation of the ANDS has provided a framework for NEPA’s strategy9 for achieving the expected interim results for environmental management. Above all, NEPA’s coordination function is to ensure that environmental issues are integrated into the ANDS and, thus, environmental priority needs are included in Afghanistan’s continued development. The growing demand from the Afghan public, international community and Government of Afghanistan for environmental information and leadership indicates that NEPA’s mandate is timely and crucial.

Thus the most effective strategy option for NEPA in the implementation of NHLP will focus on strengthening its coordination and technical capability to provide MAIL and other stakeholders with the tools to understand how environment should be streamlined into NHLP activities for agricultural development.

On poverty reduction, the degradation of Afghanistan’s environment and natural resource base, on which its population is so heavily dependent to satisfy its livelihood needs, has led to lingering poverty and health issues. Effective environmental management during NHLP implementation will revive livelihood options based on people’s investment options in horticulture and livestock that undermine workforce stability and economic productivity.

Lastly, the environmental monitoring procedures being very limited and less clear in the ANDS, it is obvious that the application of SEA in NHLP would have the advantage of facilitating a better appreciation and a global analysis of major environmental issues associated with NHLP subprojects implementation under NEPA guidance.

3.1.3 National Agriculture Development Framework and Strategic Orientations

9 National Environmental Protection Agency Strategy (NEPAS) which is the Afghanistan’s environmental policy

The ANDS strategic objective for agriculture and rural development strategy is to attract private sector investment to transform agriculture to a high-value commercial agriculture sector as a source of growth and expansive means of livelihood. The Government is implementing a coordinated agricultural and rural development program targeting two broad goals: (i) poverty reduction and (ii) the provision of alternative livelihoods. The Comprehensive Agriculture and Rural Development (CARD) Sector Strategy10 (which is being implemented and NHLP is part of this strategy) articulates a road map for the way forward in which poverty reduction through economic regeneration is the central objective. The overall focus is to support the poorest and most vulnerable segments of rural society. Of great importance, with increasing efforts towards poppy eradication, the rapid expansion of horticulture crops plays an increased role in the rural economy and is more essential than ever to limit the numbers of marginal small holders falling below the poverty line.

Most farmers are engaged in subsistence or near-subsistence agriculture, and many farming families remain food insecure and therefore face risky livelihoods often combined with chronic debt. As a result, the country’s vulnerability to natural disasters and food shortages has increased. The Agriculture and Rural Development Strategy sets out a series of programs designed to achieve improved quality of life for rural citizens – one in which food security is assured, basic services are provided, incomes increase with households actively engaged in legal activities (including horticulture and livestock), employment opportunities expansion and where people live in a safe and secure environment. Activities are usefully consolidated into two main components: a Comprehensive Agriculture and Rural Development (CARD) and the Agricultural and Rural Development Zone (ARDZ) initiatives.

Analysis of the Level of SEA Integration in the Agricultural Sector

The Comprehensive Agriculture and Rural Development (CARD) Sector Strategy seems to have integrated in its concerns the protection and rational management of land resources. For example, CARD focuses on the equitable access of the most vulnerable to natural resources (water, land, pastoral resources, etc.) and their rational and sustainable exploitation. But the CARD strategy does not set environmental targets to achieve from the impacts of horticulture and livestock farming activities (necessary for NHLP), such as land degradation or overgrazing. Because of this, the integration of the environment in the NHLP development policy faces a major obstacle which is the absence of links with the global environmental policies, though Environmental protection and assistance to communities to manage and protect local environment-base for sustainable growth is one of the key components of the policy framework of the agricultural sector, essential for sustainable management and implementation of NHLP.

With regard to the instruments of environmental governance implemented by MAIL, one should note that SEA, EIA and the ESMF are less applied and concern only the projects subject to development partners’ requirements. The projects funded by the Government budget and Arab donors (Islamic Development Bank, Arab Fund for Social and economic development, etc.), pay less attention to this type of exercise and are generally implemented without a real consideration of the problems related to environmental governance at the level of policies, plans and program.

Moreover, the main regulatory texts governing pastoral, forestry, hunting and nature protection codes encourage the preservation of natural resources and their rational exploitation, but remain less applied on

10 The fifteen programs that will provide the vehicles for reaching the objectives of the CARD strategy are as follows: National Solidarity Program, National Food Security Program, National Area Based Development Program, CARD horticulture program, CARD livestock program, National Rural Access Program , Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Program, CARD Irrigation Program, CARD National Resource program, National Surveillance System, Rural Electrification program, Rural Enterprise program, research and Extension System, the Card Emergency Response System, and the CARD Capacity Building program.

the ground since their respective laws are still on the draft and yet to be promulgated, except for the Forestry Law. This is for example to explain why the forest resources are still overexploited.

In addition, even if the CARD sector strategy and major resulting projects (NHLP, OFWMP, IAIDS, IRDP, Food Security projects, etc.) have integrated in their objectives the two dimensions of poverty and rational management of natural resources, yet it remains that these important aspects appear to be as effective in the broad policy guidelines for the sector.

Also, because of the lack of holistic environmental approach, the actions undertaken in terms of protection and conservation of the environment rather meet specific agricultural needs (protection of spaces and increasing the agricultural production, vegetation cover regeneration, dams and dikes rehabilitation, dune fixation, reservoir construction, etc.), but does not fit into a global logic of improvement of environmental policies for sustainable and integrated environmental management.

For example, the programs of development of pastoral wells, provision of agricultural concessions, development of herd trails, and control of grain-eating birds, pesticide sprays and locust control treatment do not take into account parameters such as balance between the forage capacity and water potential, environmental monitoring pesticides treated areas and their potential impacts on sensitive resources or fragile areas.

Given a lack of consistent analysis of interrelationships between the various development sectors at the plan and program levels, one sometimes faces oppositions and conflicts between rural agriculture and other technical services, the intensification of the overgrazing phenomenon around the water points and the disappearance of species or pollution of sensitive areas due to pesticides and other chemical applications.

An agricultural environmental assessment would have allowed, in such cases, to incorporate all the issues related to the development of the agricultural sector, but also to take into account the development objectives related to other sectors, which may thus contribute to the preservation of the agricultural environments in their entirety and concerted manner.

3.2. Legal Framework of Environmental Governance for the Integration of SEA

The Islamic Republic of Afghanistan adopted a directory of legislation for the protection and sustainable management of the environment and natural resources. The Environment Law n ° 912/2007, establishing the environment code, is the General regulatory framework of reference. It aims to reconcile environmental requirements with the requirements of the economic and social development.

The Environment Law is based on international standards that recognize the current state of Afghanistan’s environment while laying a framework for the progress of governance leading to effective environmental management. With respect to multilateral environmental agreements and regional cooperation, Afghanistan has primarily concentrated on “green” trans-boundary issues concerning protection and preservation with NEPA and the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation and Livestock (MAIL) dividing duties as the respective focal points. Afghanistan has signed but not ratified the Basel Convention regarding trans-boundary movement and disposal of hazardous waste, and is in the process of acceding to the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) and the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands.

The Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock is the focal point for the UN Convention on Biological Diversity (UNCBD), the UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) and the Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species (CITES). Afghanistan has also ratified the

Ozone treaties, the Vienna Convention and the Montreal Protocol, and the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) with NEPA as the focal point (NEPA Environmental Policy Paper).

The Environmental Law of Afghanistan promulgated in 2007 is quite comprehensive and covers most of the aspects of natural resources management. The law requires inter alia that planning for sustainable use, rehabilitation and conservation of biological diversity, forests, rangeland and other natural resources, prevention and control of pollution, and conservation and rehabilitation of the environment from adverse effects shall be an obligatory element of all national and local land-use plans and natural resources plans developed by all relevant ministries and national institutions. (art.23). Furthermore, it stipulates local communities should be involved in decision-making processes regarding sustainable natural resource management (art. 23, para 10), and that affected persons must be given the opportunity to participate in each phase of the project. (art. 19, para 1). This Law clarifies administrative roles at the national level and specifies the coordination required with provincial authorities. It spells out frameworks for managing natural resource conservation and biodiversity, drinking water, pollution control, and environmental education.

3.2.1. Legislation relative to Environmental Assessments

Among Existing environmental management tools existing in the environment code include the environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), as a tool to aid decision-making for the projects’ environmental and social acceptability. Thus, at the level of this Decree, it is stipulated that any activity likely to have sensitive and negative effects on the environment must be subject to prior authorization of the National Environmental Protection Agency (NEPA), through the assessment of an impact study of this activity on the environment.

The inclusive list of projects, work, activities and planning documents submitted to a study of the Environmental Impact is annexed to the decree which specifies in addition to taking account of all factors likely to affect the environment and sensitive areas.

Analysis of the efficiency of Environmental Assessment Instruments in Afghanistan

Despite the existence of the EIA regulations, it must be acknowledged that this legislation has constraints on the ground, particularly as regards:

- the effective application EIA procedures by the private and public proponents. - the monitoring of the implementation of the Environmental and Social Framework. - the expertise and the resources to be allocated for the quality analysis and compliance of reports. - the ownership of the EIA process by the sectoral ministries and sponsors. - the coordination, monitoring and harmonization of sectoral texts for a better consideration of the EIA procedures.

Indeed, the inconsistency and/or weak points identified above require a rereading of the Decree on EIAs, to ensure its actual application in the field and by all subjected projects. The following proposed elements of improvement must be taken into account in this review:

i) Add in the content of the EIA report: the analysis of the institutional framework of the environment and the sponsor Department (strengths, weaknesses and opportunities); the

directory of the national legislation applicable to the project; the directory of international conventions and agreements, ratified by Afghanistan and applicable to the project. ii) provide technical and administrative procedures of EIAs the requirement of certification of qualification for the firms and the consultants in charge to carry out EIAs in Afghanistan. iii) consult and involve representatives of local communities, civil society and associative groups from the approval phase of the TORs. iv) specify in the ESMF the role of the actors responsible for its implementation. iv) Add in the content of the EIA report the analysis of the "without project" situation. v) Apply the provisions concerning the authorization of feasibility by the NEPA and not by the sponsor Department (or guardianship) of the project

3.2.2. Analysis of the Consistency of Environmental Governance Instruments with International Conventions and Community Agreements

Afghanistan is signatory to several international conventions and agreements relating to the protection of the environment which include:

i) Convention of the United Nations on Combating Desertification (UNCCD); ii) the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), United Nations iii) the Convention of the United Nations Framework on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Kyoto Protocol; iv) Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and its amendments v) Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat; vi) the Convention on international trade in endangered species of wild flora and fauna threatened with extinction (CITES); vii) Basel Convention on Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal viii) Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer ix) Convention on the conservation of migratory species of wild animals (CMS); x) the Stockholm convention on persistent organic pollutants (POPS); xi) Rotterdam Convention on Prior Informed Consent. Regional Agreements, Conventions and Treaties

There are numerous environmental issues and resources in Afghanistan that will require a transboundary approach to management, including: (i) water sharing in the Helmand River water with Iran, agreement that was not formally ratified by Afghanistan due to political instability; (ii) Amu Darya basins with the former Soviet states with the 1946 frontier agreement between Afghanistan and the former Soviet Union and the 1958 treaty concerning the regime to the Soviet-Afghan frontier; (iii) forest management in the eastern provinces with Pakistan; and (iv) protected areas in the Wakhan Corridor and Sistan basin.

High-level talks on transboundary environmental management have restarted within the framework of the Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO). ECO is an intergovernmental organization established in 1985 by Iran, Pakistan and Turkey for the purpose of sustainable socio-economic development of the member states. In 1992, ECO was expanded to include the Islamic State of Afghanistan, Republic of

Azerbaijan, Republic of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz Republic, Republic of Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Republic of Uzbekistan.

Despite this membership of Afghanistan to the environmental legislation at the bilateral, sub-regional and international levels, it should be noted that the implementation of most of the conventions and agreements and their integration into the legislation and national regulations remain limited and less concerted. The difficulties are mainly from a lack of ownership of sectoral Departments and the weakness of their capacities (technical, human and financial).

3.2.3. Analysis of the Consistency with the World Bank Safeguard Policies

For the purposes of this SEA, plans and rural development (horticulture and livestock in the case) programs were overall analyzed in connection with the World Bank safeguard policies and procedures of the OECD on the SEA.

Taking into account that these safeguard policies are consistent with the OECD procedures on the SEA and that the World Bank is a very active institutions in the sub-sectors of rural development (agriculture and water) in Afghanistan, this approach should ensure a coherent planning integrating both the preservation of natural resources and the improvement of environmental governance tools, through the realization of SEA.

The environmental and social safeguard policies consist of a set of 11 directives or operational policies. The first ten directives relate specifically to:

i) the environmental assessment (OP 4.01). ii) the natural habitats (OP 4.04). iii) the pest management (OP 4.09). iv) the involuntary resettlement (OP 4.12). v) the indigenous people (OP 4.20). vi) the forestry (OP 4.36). vii) the security of dams (OP 4.37). viii) the cultural heritage (OP 11.03). ix) the projects in international waterways (OP 7.50). x) the projects in disputed areas (OP 7.60).

The eleventh directive, which integrates the safeguard policies, concerns the dissemination of information policy (BP 17.50).

It should be noted that all these policies are not of the same rank, and the first, on environmental assessments, prevails over all others, because it precede, covers them and is the gateway to the strategic environmental assessment in environmental governance instruments.

The tables below are an analysis of consistency between safeguard policies and instruments of environmental governance, and determine policies potentially triggered by the rural development sector.

Table 2: Analysis of compliance and consistency with environmental safeguard policies

Applicable environmental Environmental governance Comments/Observations safeguard Policies Instruments OP 4.01 Environmental The 2005 Environment Act and  Conformity of all, except in the Assessment: 2007 Policy Ordinance relating to process of categorization of projects (3 OP 4.01 classifies the projects as the Environmental Impact categories against 2) follow: Assessment (EIA)  Administrative procedure for projects  Category A: Major negative Two categories are specified: screening and classification impact certain  Category 1: EIA  Partial compliance for public  Category B: potential  Category 2: EIN participation negative impact o There exists one which is  Full compliance regarding  Category C: no significant inclusive of projects dissemination of information negative impact. subject to EIA procedures NB: All these environmental safeguard  Public Consultation  Dissemination of planned policies will apply to the water and rural  Dissemination of information but the practical development sectors in framework of the l’information procedures for the conduct of SEA the public consultation are not defined  No legislation on SEAs exist in Afghanistan OP 4.04 Natural Habitats Act No. determining the conditions  Compliance with the safeguard policy of managing Wildlife and its  Programs related to the rural habitat, which lays down the development sector (National general conditions of conservation, Horticulture and Livestock in this case) protection, development and will not trigger this policy, because no exploitation of wildlife and its achievement is expected in natural habitat. habitats and protected areas OP 4.09 Pest Management Regulations relative to Pesticide  Full compliance with this policy Law and Quarantine Laws & insofar as there is a pest and pesticides Policies Implementation management plan in Afghanistan  The implementation of agricultural sector programs (NHLP, IAIDS, etc.) will certainly require the use of pesticides, including and the control against other pests and locusts  This policy will be applicable OP 4.11 Cultural Heritage Legislation concerning the  Compliance with this policy to the protection of heritage and extent where the agricultural (NHLP, archaeological sites IAIDS) and water (OFWM) sectors and development programs are not expected to have effects on cultural heritage OP 4.12 Involuntary Resettlement the state and property Act  This policy is triggered in certain irrigation subprojects which may require the population displacement and/or the expropriation of land OP 4.37 Security of Dams None  Compliance with this policy, because the agricultural programs (in NHLP) covered in SEA do not provide more than 3 m high dam construction OP 7.50 International Waterways Agreement relative to the sharing of This policy will be triggered to the extent

the Helmand River water between where the irrigation activities and the Iran and Afghanistan, but no formal construction of hydro-agricultural ratification; Amu Darya River: 1946 infrastructure could relate to the Helmand, frontier agreement with the Soviet Chakani, Pashin Lora, Hari Rud, Kabul Union; 1958 treaty concerning the and Amu Darya rivers which are regime to Soviet-Afghan frontier international waterways

Table 3: World Bank Safeguard Policies Potentially Triggered Policy Applicability World Bank Safeguards Policies Yes No TBD OP 4.01 - ENVIRONNEMENTALE ASSESSMENT X OP 4.04 - Natural Habitats X OP 4.09 - Pest Management X OP 4.11 - Cultural Heritage X OP 4.12 - Involuntary Resettlement X OP 4.20 - Indigenous People X OP 4.36 - Forestry X OP 4.37 - Security for Dams X OP 7.50 - Projects in International Water Ways X OP 7.60 - Projects Disputed Areas X

3.3. Institutional Framework for the Integration of SEA

The institutional actors involved in the sector of environment and agricultural development can be divided into three groups, namely:

i) governmental institutions; ii) socio-professional organizations; and iii) development partners. 3.3.1. Governmental Institutions

The National Environmental Protection Agency (NEPA)

It was in 2002 that for the first time in the history of the country, an authority for environmental management was mandated in the new governmental structure. The Ministry of Irrigation and Water Resources (established under the Interim Administration) was allocated the additional responsibility for environmental management and renamed as the Ministry of Irrigation, Water Resources and Environment (MIWRE). In 2005 the real support to the sustainable management of natural resources and the environment appeared in Afghanistan, with the creation of the National Environmental Protection Agency (NEPA), the country’s environmental governing body under the oversight of the cabinet of the President of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan.

Due to increasing environmental problems (urban environment, surface and groundwater, forests and rangelands, soils, air, wildlife and biodiversity, and uncontrolled import and use of agro-chemicals) to be addressed the Department of Environment was separated from MIWRE and was subsequently declared an independent Department of Environment, and given the function and the status of an independent National Environmental Protection Agency (NEPA) in 2005.

Therefore, the Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock, which is supporting the sectors of agriculture, livestock, has been awarded the management of aspects relating to the preservation of the environment and natural resources. The creation in 2005 of NEPA marked a new step in the commitment of the Government to work towards the achievement of the objectives of sustainable development and the strengthening of the integration of the environment in public policies, with as missions: - the preparation, coordination, execution, monitoring and evaluation of the Government policy in the areas of the environment, including taking account of the objectives of sustainable development and their implementation in public policy. - the application of the provisions of the law on the environment code. - an establishment and implementation of the Environment Intervention Fund.

According to the Islamic Republic of Afghan’s Environmental Law of 2007, NEPA shall carry out the following functions and responsibilities: - Maintain environmental integrity and promote the sustainable use of natural resources; - Promote conservation and rehabilitation of the environment; - Coordinate environmental affairs at the local, national and international levels; - Develop and implement national environmental policies and strategies in order to integrate environmental issues and sustainable development approaches into the legal and regulatory frameworks; - Provide environmental management services in the areas of environmental impact assessment, air and water quality management, waste management, pollution control, and permitting of related activities; - Establish communication and outreach for environmental information to ensure improved awareness of environmental issues; - Implement bilateral or multilateral environmental agreements to which Afghanistan is a Party; - Implement the Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora (CITES); - Sign on behalf of the government agreements regarding the protection and rehabilitation of the environment; - Promote and manage the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan‘s accession to and ratification of bilateral and multilateral environmental agreements; - Coordinate the preparation and implementation of a national program for environmental monitoring and effectively utilize the data provided by that program; - Prepare every two years in relation to urban areas and every five years in relation to rural areas a State of the Environment report for the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan for submission to the President‘s Office; - Prepare an interim State of the Environment report on emerging issues relevant to the environment in Afghanistan not less than every two years; - Within a period of three years of promulgation of this Act, develop a national environmental action plan, which assesses the urgency and importance of actions that should be taken in the short, medium and long-term in order to prevent, eliminate and reduce adverse effects as described in the most recent State of the Environment report, and, in consultation with

relevant ministries and institutions, determines a coordinated strategy and schedule for the implementation of those actions; - Periodically compile and publish reports on significant environmental indicators; - On an annual basis, compile and publish a report that details the authorizations granted and activities undertaken by the National Environmental Protection Agency; - Assess the effectiveness of the implementation of the Act and any regulations made under it in improving the sustainability of the use and management of natural resources and conservation and rehabilitation of the environment; - Develop and implement plans for environmental training, environmental education and environmental awareness-raising in cooperation with relevant ministries and public bodies; - Actively coordinate and cooperate with ministries, Provincial Councils and District and Village Councils, public bodies and the private sector on all issues related to sustainable use of natural resources and conservation and rehabilitation of the environment; - Monitor the implementation of the objectives and provisions of this law; - Fulfill any other functions that may be assigned by the Council of Ministers.

It is important to note that NEPA has technical Directorates, including the Environmental Control Directorate which is responsible for issuing instructions and guides organizing different steps in the administrative and legal procedures related to EIA.

Unfortunately, it is to be noted that the responsibilities of this piloting and validation service of the EIAs as well as the control of the implementation of the associated management plans remain low because of the lack of human resources and limited technical and financial capabilities.

With respect to the programs and plans managed by NEPA, we include, among others, the Community- Based Natural Resources Management (CBNRM) and the Green Afghanistan Initiative (GAIN), as well as several projects implemented through specific coordination units in sectoral ministries and financed by different donors. Some of these programs are improving the integration of the environment, by strengthening environmental capacities (training of stakeholders, cross-sectoral pilot operations), such as for example the project the joint poverty and environment (UNDP/UNEP), Capacity Strengthen for Environmental Management, a multi-year program funded the European Commission (EC), the Government of Finland, and the Global Environment Facility (GEF).

The Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock (MAIL)

The Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock (MAIL) previously called the Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Husbandry and Food (MAAHF) has a mandate to promote agricultural development, through helping farmers and managing natural resources such as water, soil and forests; strengthening the agricultural economy through profitable new crops like saffron and better ways to grow traditional crops using new dry-land farming techniques; and building cooperatives, Afghan agribusiness and exports with our farm credit, land-leasing and other state-of-the-art advances.

Since its establishment, it has undergone many restructuring and changing of names and today, after the government has defined a number of priorities for agricultural investments and policies under the National Agricultural Development Framework (NADF), the Ministry of Agriculture has been restructured and changed from MAAHF to MAIL. Currently the MAIL is the main provider of extension and support services to the farming community, and promoting the adoption of research technologies to 47

increase production. The MAIL is newly restructured into a more decentralized setup, which includes the Minister and three Deputy Ministers, aimed to improve interface with other stakeholders for more effective and efficient service delivery. The new structure with ten (10) General Directorates among which the General Directorate for Research and Extension, under the Deputy Technical Minister, comprises of seven technical departments namely: Research, Extension, Horticulture, Home Economy, Vegetables, Flower Growing, and Cereal and Industrial Crop Development, and a Directorate for each of the seven agricultural regions (corresponding to Agro-ecological zones).

The agriculture extension system aims to increase the knowledge and skills of farmers through the dissemination of improved agriculture technologies. It focuses mainly on crop improvement, Human Resource Development and collaborative program with other government departments and Non- Governmental Organizations (NGO). Staffed with more than 3,000 extension workers in the 1970s, the extension services in Afghanistan today is a broken understaffed system, with two extension agents at most per accessible district, and even none in the remote areas.

Since 2003, USAID has been providing assistance to deliver new technologies and information to farmers and herders through its Rebuilding Agricultural Markets Program (RAMP), the Dairy Industry Revitalization Project implemented by Land O’Lakes, the Participating Agency Services Agreement (PASA) with USDA, and through grants to Central Asia Development Group (CADG). More recently, extension related work is being supported through the Alternative Livelihoods Program (ALP) at the provincial and district level. Although these activities have not directly targeted the capacity strengthening needs of MAIL, they have worked directly with farmers through privately contracted extension advisors, many of whom were previously employed by the MAIL.

On the research side, over the last decade, the Agricultural Research Institute of Afghanistan’s (ARIA) research areas have focused on improvements in cereals production, grain legumes and oilseeds improvement and development, horticulture production and post harvest management, cropping systems and resource management, agro-forestry in production systems and agricultural engineering. It also carries out socioeconomic assessment and study, supervise and control seed production in collaboration with the other International Research Institutions.

The National Agricultural Research System (NARS) profits from various major scientific results, borrowing broadly from innovations made in other countries. Collaborative relations are quite extensive, particularly with institutions through externally supported projects (USAID, USDA, World Bank, FAO, etc.); International Agricultural Research Centers (IARCs) of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), including ICARDA, ICRISAT, CIMMYT, IFPRI, etc.; Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR); specialized regional programs such as Asia- Pacific Association of Agricultural Research (APAARI), Regional Agricultural Research Station (RARS), etc.

Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation and Development

Overall responsibility for rural livelihoods rests with this ministry. This includes a variety of activities from provision of seeds and medicines, to the construction of clinics, schools and village roads, to the management of village water supplies. The mandate of this ministry clearly overlaps with many other ministries. Due to the broad mandate of this ministry, which clearly overlaps with many other ministries, it works closely with a variety of UN agencies, in particular the UNDP Area Based Development Program and did not have a Directorate responsible for the Environment matters. Since 2011, the responsibilities of MRRD have been reviewed and Environment has been incorporated into the revised MRRD Strategic Intent as an important cross-cutting issue requiring attention of all MRRD rural 48

development programs. This will enable MRRD to contribute to ANDS pillar 3 on environment and natural resources management.

Ministry of Public Health

This ministry is divided into a preventative section and a treatment section. A Department of Environmental Health was first established in 1976. This department addresses health issues related to environmental pollution, such as air pollution-related diseases (respiratory infections, dust and smog), water pollution and sanitation-related diseases (intestinal, cholera, diarrhea) and liquid and solid waste- related diseases (infections, flies, rats, mosquitoes). In principle, the Department of Environmental Health has an environmental monitoring responsibility. However, it is currently unable to perform this function since laboratory facilities have been largely destroyed. The ministry is also responsible for the clean-up of environmental contamination, food safety of both imported and manufactured foods, and provision of environmental inspectors to cities. The WHO is assisting the Ministry of Public Health with a variety of health-related activities.

Other Central Government Institutions with a role in the protection of the Environment include: - Ministry of Energy and Water - Ministry of Justice - Ministry of Information and Culture - Ministry of Education - Ministry of Higher Education - Ministry of Mines and Industry - Ministry of Frontiers and Tribal Affairs - Afghanistan National Disaster Management Authority - Central Statistics Office - Department of Meteorology, - Ministry of Transportation - Afghan Tourism Organization

3.3.2. Research Institutions and Non-governmental Actors

Kabul and regional universities have an important role to play in relation to training and research. Again, capacities require strengthening through consistent and sustained support from international researchers, as well as further training outside the country. Current courses offer Bachelor level training and demand greatly exceeds capacity. Support is needed to improve both the quality and capacity of ongoing courses, and to expand current portfolios to ensure the inclusion of Masters and research programs. This would include the integration of climate change, Desertification, Rangelands and Water Resources, and Biodiversity and conservation which are currently not covered in any great detail in the curriculum.

Many Non-Governmental actors, national and international, intervening in the area of environmental conservation, protection and management are operating in Afghanistan since the fall o the Taliban and the institution of the interim Government in Kabul in 2002. They strive to restore the badly degraded environment and depleted natural resources by the decades of war, natural disasters (repeated droughts and floods), and the anthropogenic activities for the quest of livelihood (economic reasons and fuel wood). These phenomena have left and/or reduced the once Open woodland dominated by pistachios, almonds and junipers occupied pistachio (in the Northern and western provinces) and other natural 49

evergreen forests especially in the eastern region of the country, to a denuded state favoring a rapid advancement of desertification process.

During the period of conflict, many people with professional qualifications were removed from positions of authority or excluded from participating in government. As a result many individuals remained active by shifting into non-governmental organizations. Many NGOs, such as DACAAR (Danish Committee for Aid to Afghan Refugees), MADERA (a European NGO), Afghan Aid, ARC (Afghan Relief Committee), IRC (International Rescue Committee), AREA (Agency for Rehabilitation and Energy Conservation in Afghanistan) and SEA (Save the Environment Afghanistan), have strong environmental programs with high levels of training and competency for project implementation.

An umbrella organization known as ACBAR (Agency Coordinating Body for Afghanistan Refugee) was established to coordinate NGO activities. It has established a resource and information centre which collects and disseminates information to the UN, NGOs, donors and the Central Government. Although many NGOs are trying to act in the interest of the environment, financial resources are often insufficient to meet the vast needs. In addition, NGO activities, because of the lack of transparency in their actions, are often discouraged in favor of government-led implementation.

3.3.3. Technical and Financial Partners

The serious degradation of the environment in Afghanistan is a strong concern and arresting and reversing this environmental degradation should be a guiding principle underlying the reconstruction programs. Many institutions, technical partners and donors are involved in the Environmental management and protection through the funding of programs, studies and research activities that are integrated into other sectors including Health, Water and Sanitation, Energy, Urban Development, Rural Development (Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock), and Natural Resource Management. The most prominent of these actors include: the World Bank (WB), the united States Agency for International Development (USAID), the European Commission (EC), the Asian Development Bank (ADB), the Islamic Development Bank (IDB), Canadian Cooperation, the United Kingdom Department for International Development (DFID), Australian Agency for International Development (AuAID), the French Development Agency (FDA), the German Cooperation (GIZ), the World Food Program (WFP), the Spanish Cooperation, the UN agencies (including UNDP/UNEP, FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, UNESCO, UN Habitat’s program, UNOPS), and the Japanese International Cooperation Assistance (JICA), etc.

3.3.4. Framework for Cooperation and Exchange between the Environmental Actors

Through consultation and coordination mechanisms established between the technical and financial partners, three thematic environment groups (Desertification, Rangelands and Water Resources; Climate Change and Disaster Preparedness; and Biodiversity and Wetlands), funded by the Global Environment facility (GEF), have been created and issued their reports by 2008. Other thematic groups with linkages with the environment exist, particularly in the sectors of water, energy and mines.

Moreover, aware of issues related to the integration of the environment at the sectoral level, ministries such as MAIL, MRRD, MoPH, MUDH, MEW, MMI, etc. have created internal cells within the ministries, environmental services or focal points, according to the nature and the specific characteristics of their missions.

The catalyst role of coordination and support council to be played by the NEPA has been put on track these recent years with the creation of National Environment Advisory Council (NEAC) at the central level on the one hand, and on the other hand the Provincial Environment Advisory Councils (PEACs) with guideline developed and endorsed by NEPA. Provincial Environmental Advisory Councils (PEACs)

that include all relevant provincial services of the line ministries, plus the security department, are established and functioning in 19 provinces to incorporate environment into provincial planning process. In order to fill in the gaps at the local level, Environment sub-committees were created, piloted within 16 Community Development Councils (CDCs) and 8 District Development Assemblies (DDAs) in five provinces to integrate environment into development plans.

These consultation structures, whose objective is to foster a collaborative planning, coordination, and a close monitoring of the national guidelines relating to environmental issues, are functioning relatively well, based on the capacity and the resources available to fulfill their missions. The lack of such structures was a significant handicap and an impediment on the mainstreaming of environmental issues at sectoral levels. Indeed, in the absence of environmental data and coordination actions, the ministries concerned by the environment matters continue to work in isolation, without real consultation with other key actors; what most often is translated by jurisdiction conflicts, a lack of synergy and harmonization in the of programs’ implementation, monitoring and coordination.

3.3.5. Analysis of the Mainstreaming of Environment into Agricultural Policies

The above-mentioned elements show the remaining efforts to be done by NEPA and MAIL to bring together all the conditions to mainstream the environment in general and the SEA procedures in particular into agricultural sector policies.

Indeed, on an institutional level, the nature of NEPA, first a Directorate in the Ministry of Energy, Water and Environment, then erected into a full-fledged Agency, though under the direct oversight of the Presidency, does not confer enough powers vis-à-vis the other sectoral ministries. This configuration of NEPA is a handicap in the exercise of its transversal role, aggravated by the absence of methodological tools of integration and lack of technical expertise and financial capabilities required to adequately fulfill its responsibility in the matter.

On the legal domain, some specific laws complementing the Environment Law as well as environmental standards have not yet been issued of developed, and the control of the enforcement of the laws in the field is almost non-existent. Weak intersectoral coordination and the lack of global vision of environmental issues among the stakeholders are the basis of some inconsistencies and normative contradictions observed here and there, such as the human settlement on agricultural land, encroachment on rangelands for agricultural purposes, deforestation of sensitive and valuable areas for personal gains, without prior consultation of technical services responsible for the Protection of Nature.

Finally, despite the assistance provided by UNEP in various programs among which the “Capacity and Institution Building Program for Environmental Management”, the lack of analysis and management capacity in cross-cutting environmental issues is one of the major constraints in environmental policy for the initiation and application of SEA procedures in the agricultural sector in Afghanistan. Indeed, the current national capabilities are very low (human resources, skills and technical means, methodology, data analysis, etc.) in several sectoral areas (including MAIL), particularly in terms of Strategic Environmental Assessment, monitoring/control, application of mitigation measures proposed in the ESMF, environmental education, development and implementation of economic tools linking the environment, economic development and the poverty alleviation.

3.4. Analysis of Constraints to Mainstream SEA into Environmental Governance Instruments

3.4.1. Constraints for Mainstreaming SEA in the Policy Instruments

The issues of mainstreaming the Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) into national planning processes should be defined through the various linkages that exist between economic growth, the poverty reduction and the environmental preservation of the in Afghanistan.

The examination of the state of implementation of agricultural policies and related programs showed that the agricultural policies adopted by Afghanistan have rather encouraged the economic and social development and are not sufficiently taking into account the linkages between the environment, poverty and sustainable development. Strengthening these linkages, which should be at the heart of the strategic directions of the environmental policy of Afghanistan, would have the advantage of reversing environmental degradation trends, while contributing to improving environmental governance and the subsequent legal instruments.

If agricultural policy recently approved by the Government of Afghanistan, combined with the induced effects of conditionality imposed by the TFP, contributed to the knowledge, as a whole, of environmental issues and sustainability, there is no doubt that these concerns are not properly incorporated in the overall policy and various agricultural programs engaged undertaken in MAIL, and should be considered during the implementation of NHLP.

Moreover, it is also essential to affirm a strong commitment and set a clear direction in all government’s technical ministries, and MAIL in particular, to take into account the integration of the SEA at different levels. This approach would have to publicize this commitment and establish a clear strategy with concrete resulting actions, commitment to be taken at the highest level of the MAIL, in this case.

The following table summarizes the level of integration of the environment in environmental policies in Afghanistan and weaknesses concerning the taking into account of the Strategic Environmental Assessment in the governance instruments in force.

Table 4: Level of Integration of the Environment and SEA in the Strategic Guidance Documents

Good governance Level of Integration of the Environment and SEA in the Strategic Guidance Documents and Environmental Repositories ANDS NSSD Decentralization RPPR 1. Integration of Environmental Environmental Non-consideration of Very low environmental issues addressed in issues apprehended environmental issues consideration of issues in the SEA the vision 2015 by 2015 in line with in local planning of environmental planning in NHLP the MDGs NHLP issues in NHLP 2. Integration of the Low public and civil Taking into account No direction is set to Enough participatory society participation the environmental reinforce the role of the participatory approach and the in the development dimension by giving public and the actors of approach involving public consultation of policies of NHLP all stakeholders an civil society since the local stakeholders in during NHLP’s SEA important place, but current conflict the planning NHLP implementation of situation significantly SEA remains shy affects decentralization reforms 3. Integration of SEA Non-consideration Non-consideration Non-consideration of Non-consideration in policy instruments of SEA in the NHLP of SEA in the SEA in the of SEA in regional of NHLP planning, since this NHLP’s strategy decentralized programs of NHLP 52

instrument is not community planning known and new for NHLP 4. Taking account of - Strong involvement Low resources - substantial technical Non-consideration the environment in of TFP in the support allocated to the and financial support of the environment budget allocations in and the strengthening environment in generated by NGOs in budget allocations NHLP of institutional budget allocations - Low contribution of capacity the State to the local - Low contribution level of the State in the environment sector

3.4.2. Constraints to Implementing Coherent Environmental Policy in the NHLP

Consistency in the implementation of environmental policy between NEPA as a supervisory environmental body and MAIL (program sponsor) takes place in a context of agricultural specialization and separate responsibilities. Indeed, these different government institutions work in a compartmentalized manner, technical services do not necessarily share the same goals and interests are sometimes contradictory. Several factors are at the base of this inconsistency such as inter-ministerial constraints for the reconciliation of environmental issues and the introduction of SEA in the NHLP (horticulture and livestock) development, etc.

One of the NHLP factors being the agricultural specialization, the MAIL has tended to defend its own priorities and its area of expertise, sometimes against the guidelines concerning the preservation of the environment and the protection of sensitive areas. For example, one can include the inconsistency between some livestock development policy guidelines (as the growth of the herd due to provision of abundant incentives, the creation of the pastoral hydraulic infrastructure, etc.) which do not take into account environmental impacts (rangeland degradation due to resulting in overgrazing) on the fragile agro-ecological zones in terms of feed capacity of the pasture and the efficient use of water resources.

This situation underlines not only problems of consistency between the two policy options (preservation of natural resources and the environment vs. Livestock development), but also the need to consider the integration of environmental issues in a broader context so that they are effectively addressed in the comprehensive planning. The management of these issues requires an organizational effort that goes beyond the traditional definition of the sectoral areas of action, within the limits of the powers of MAIL. MAIL and NEPA shall work in close collaboration, to reconcile their specific missions with strategic directions regarding the preservation of the environment and protection of natural resources, and agricultural production and productivity.

3.4.3. Constraints Related to the Incompleteness of Legislative Instruments and Environmental Governance

The analysis of the evolution of the regulatory and legislative framework on the environment in Afghanistan demonstrates willingness to adaptation of the governance instruments, based on the appearance of environmental problems, external pressures and the conditionality of access to some financing.

Despite this commitment, it is noted that the legislative and regulatory framework in Afghanistan is characterized by the incompleteness of some texts, their non-effective implementation on the ground. Low extension of the relevant legislative instruments from stakeholders, the ignorance of the provisions related to certain international agreements, overlaps, contradictions and inconsistencies between some 53

regulations, nepotism and security are some of the constraints that are blocking the application and enforcement of environmental management tools.

3.4.4. Constraints Related to the Weakness and the Non-application of the Legislation on EIA

The Environment group of the technical and financial partners (TFP), including the UNDP/UNEP, is interested in the environmental assessment in Afghanistan for several years now but no SEA has been funded so far in any sectors, especially in agriculture. To date the TFP have not carried out work and workshops on how to enable various actors (private, public, representatives of organizations of civil society) to diagnose the reasons and deficiencies in the non-application of the environmental legislation in Afghanistan.

Unfortunately, even if the political commitment of Afghanistan for the environmental preservation is strongly stated in recent years, it is clear that legal instruments underlying this will suffer from some weaknesses which constitute handicaps for the introduction of SEA in the agricultural development, and NHLP will be no exception.

The 2005 Environment Act and Government of Afghanistan 2007Administrative Guideline on Environmental Impact Assessment Ordinance are the only legal instruments in force in Afghanistan that refer to environmental assessment. Analysis of the provisions of this Law and ordinance revealed certain weaknesses, among which:

- the lack of rigor in the application and monitoring of the EIA procedures. - the lack of monitoring of the environmental and Social Management Plan. - the weakness of human and technical capacity for the implementation of the EIA. - the lack of ownership of the EIA process by sectoral actors. - a waiver of the EIA process across subjected projects.

3.4.5. Constraints Related to the Inadequacy of the Institutional Framework in Steering SEA Procedures

In General, it was found that in Afghanistan the environment is suffering from the fact that this sector constitutes a new field in the government institutional structure and, as a result, none of the common features that classically allow in characterizing the sectoral policies is still to be in this area. This situation resulted in constraints on the political and institutional levels characterized by: (i) a lack of leadership in NEPA with multitudes involved actors, (ii) skills overlap, (iii) a low participation of the civil society and the private sector. The recent evolution of the institutional framework adopted by the Government of Afghanistan, in recent years, in the environment sector, constitutes an orientation landmark to address the effective coordination of the environmental actions.

The overlapping jurisdictions which still exist between the different stakeholders and players in the agricultural sector, the lack of effective coordination mechanisms between the technical services at different levels of administration, the dispersal of the expertise are constraints and major obstacles to the coherent integration of the environment and SEA in the different agricultural sector policies. The separation of responsibilities between institutional structures is also a significant issue, since a number of sectoral ministries are also responsible for an aspect of the problem related to environmental issues, but none of them is responsible of all of its aspects. One therefore understands that the coordination aspects can only be hindered in such a situation.

The debate on the environment in general and the introduction of SEA in particular, involves conflicting interests between different subsectors; we therefore understand that cooperation and exchange between the actors are a key element for the success for the process and decision-making at the strategic level.

To remove the institutional constraints and achieve better coordination of policies, it is important that the sustained institutional adaptation efforts are undertaken at the level of the key ministries (MAIL, MRRD, MEW, MoPH, ect.) to clarify and to define the responsibilities of each of the actors at different levels of the SEA process.

The table below provides the synthesis of the constraints related to the coordination framework for the SEA process.

Tableau 5: Synthesis of Constraints for the Integration of SEA in MAIL

Institutional Structures (Statehood) Synthesis of Constraints for the Integration of SEA in Agricultural Sector (according to stakeholders survey results) - Non-consideration of SEA in agricultural plans and - Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock programs - Lack of sectoral guides including the preservation of the environment and agricultural sector development programs - Weakness of the human and material resources in relation to the environmental aspects generated by agricultural sector development - Lack of experienced human resources for the taking into account of environmental plans and programs initiated in agricultural sector development - Absence of a training and development mechanism for personnel on economic and environmental issues in agricultural sector development - Absence of a communication and consultation strategy with other ministries and sectoral stakeholders on environmental issues relating to agricultural sector development

- General Directorate, Implementation & Coordination - Mechanisms of monitoring-evaluation less developed - General Directorate for Land Management and almost non-existent assessments or had hoc on - General Directorate for Agriculture Service programs running in agricultural sector development - General Directorate for Livestock and Animal Health - Non-application of the legislation on EIA - General Directorate for Research and Extension - Non-existence of the formal legislation relating to the - General Directorate for Natural Resources application of pesticides and other phytosanitary Management products - General Directorate for Policy and Planning - Non-application of the legislation relating to the preservation of biodiversity and natural resources - Inability to measure the effects on the environment which are due to Moroccan locust treatment - Insufficiency in laboratory equipment for plant protection and phytosanitary control - Absence of a communication and consultation strategy with other stakeholders on environmental issues - Absence of complete and reliable data on the situation of livestock and pasturelands 55

- Weakness of human capabilities that can intervene in the development of TORs and analysis of EIA reports - A lack of reliable statistics on the issues and environmental indicators related to agriculture, livestock farming and water sector - Lack of knowledge of the SEA and EIA procedures by the sectoral technical services - Non-application of the legislation relating to the preservation of biodiversity and natural resources for the planning of transhumance routes and pastoral hydraulic campaigns - Inability to measure the environmental effects due to the transhumance of herds and the settling of Kuchi herders - Failure to integrate the development plans of the pastoral wells based on the forage capacity and water potential of the pastoral areas - Pastoral extension insufficient - Absence of a national agricultural and veterinary research plan consistent with the preservation of protected areas - Nursery Growers Association - Non-application of the legislation on EIA - Poultry Farmers Association of Afghanistan - Non-application of the legislation relating to the - Fishery Farming Association preservation of biodiversity and natural resources for - Fruit Growers Association the planning of transhumance routes and pastoral - Water Users Association (MIRAB) hydraulic campaigns - Farmers Association - Inability to measure environmental effects due to the traditional practices of transhumance and the settling of the herd - Lack of reliable statistics on the environmental issues and indicators related to livestock - Lack of sufficient pastoral extension - Lack of a communication and consultation strategy with other stakeholders on environmental issues affecting the livestock sector - Lack of knowledge of the SEA and EIA procedures by the livestock husbandry technical services - Lack of sufficient financial resources (no subsidy/ grant received for years) - Lack of guidance to producers and community groups - Absence of a formalized consultation framework with the Ministry and the technical and financial partners - Lack of public awareness and information to farmers on environmental issues related to the sector - Failure to take into account the associative structures in development assistance programs - Failure to take into account the place of civil society in policy and development projects

This synthesis is made on the basis of consultation of structures and stakeholders who have formulated recommendations.

3.4.6. Constraints Related to Dialogue Deficit between Stakeholders Involved in the SEA Process 56

The introduction of the SEA in agricultural sector development requires coordination between public actors, civil society, the private sector and stakeholders of development, but also at the local level, with local communities and stakeholders at the base. Indeed, all the structures put in place (NEAC, PEAC, DDA, CDC) have shown their limits and deserve to be consolidated, both in their missions as well as in their composition, in order to take into account of the requirements of coordination and monitoring and evaluation of all of the SEA process.

The establishment of formalized coordination procedures becomes a necessity to ensure the execution, the implementation and monitoring and evaluation of SEA in the agricultural development in Afghanistan. The institutional arrangements proposed in the ESMF of NHLP meet this concern. This structure, which must be specialized in the SEA process, can serve as the interface for the extension and dissemination of the SEA from the MAIL to other players involved in the strategic choices in environmental matter and tools related to the development NHLP.

3.4.7. Constraints Related to the Lack of Technical Expertise in SEA

The Expertise in the field of the SEA is very low or non-existent in Afghanistan, and the analysis of human capacities for SEA highlights some weaknesses, among which:

(i) The lack of information, for policy-makers and government officials in charge of environmental issues in NEPA and MAIL, on the potential importance of SEA in the direction of policies, plans and programs.

(ii) Very limited experience, for government institutions (NEPA, MAIL) and community groups, for the systematic use of decision-making tools such as SEAs and EIAs.

(iii) The dispersion between the different sectoral ministries (MAIL, MRRD, MEW) of certain skills able to intervene effectively at certain stages of the SEA process.

(iv) lack of methodological tools and/or guidelines to carryout the integration of the environment and SEA in policies, plans and programs, the weakness of technical expertise in many agricultural sub-sectors (horticulture, livestock, irrigation, etc.), the lack of environmental and performance indicators in the design of strategic policies, plans and programs, and the lack of environmental data and reliable economic and accounting tools.

(v) The absence of training plans incorporating the SEA theme and the low level of partnership with research institutions and specialized training centers in these fields.

The SEA is an approach based on the mainstreaming of the sectoral aspects, the introduction of this procedure in agricultural development in Afghanistan will necessarily require a national and/or local expertise, able to make the connection with the other related approaches of assessment and analysis of the impacts and issues in different areas during NHLP implementation.

If the development of human capacity is a necessary condition in order to apply a SEA efficiently, learning about procedures and stages of SEA by MAIL elites will develop environmental performance and make strategic development choices or investment, by facilitating the decision-making related to the development of NHLP in MAIL. It is possible to largely correct these deficiencies by developing capacities related to the SEAs, a recommendation is made in this sense in the environmental and social management Framework, with regard to agricultural sector development.

3.4.8. Constraints Related to the Weaknesses of Financial Capacity

In Afghanistan, the issues relating to the environment have not yet sufficient priority to the level of budgetary arbitration. The environment sector suffers from insufficiency of budget allocation, reflecting the level of priority given to the environment though there is a specialized environmental agency, NEPA, which is directly under the oversight of the Cabinet of the President. The non-appropriation of environmental issues by key actors and their low financial mobilization capacity, almost systematic recourse to FTP for the environmental programs financing, translate how deficient the sector remains in terms of financial mobilization.

The examination of the budgetary allocations to the sector of the environment (NEPA) over the past five years shows that the support by the Government of IRA to NEPA does (not exceed 2%). This is a signal displayed by the Government to this problem and which remains well below the environmental issues and needs faced by Afghanistan to achieve the set objective. This situation leaves the management of environmental policy to almost totally dependent on external financing.

Finally, the non implementation of the Environment Intervention Fund (EIF), whose objective is the financing of the protection and restoration activities associated to the consequences of environmental degradation of different activities (including agriculture subsectors), penalizes the mobilization policy of funds planned for the environment sector.

PART 4: IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF ISSUES FOR THE INTEGRATION OF SEA IN THE NATIONAL HORTICULTURE & LIVESTOCK PROJECT (NHLP) IN AFGHANISTAN

The Agriculture Policies and strategies give guidelines for food self-sufficiency, the promotion and development of sustainable agriculture (field crops, horticulture crops, and livestock) as well as the rationalization and integrated use of the resources. Despite this willingness to integrate the protection of the environment and the poverty alleviation in the targeted subsectors, it is found that the application of these guidelines is not always effective on the ground.

So, this topic will focus on how to define and maintain consistency of issues related to the development of the horticulture and livestock subsectors in the agricultural sector, to promote and ensure a rational exploitation of available resources without irreversible environmental and health damage.

4.1. Issues Related to the Development of Agriculture and the Integration of SEA

The agricultural sector (including horticulture, irrigation, livestock, etc.) is a vital area for the economy of Afghanistan, both from the plant and animal production point of view and the creation of associated direct jobs. Livestock in Afghanistan, despite its vulnerability to climate hazards, plays an essential role in support of the national economy.

However, the consistency of the strategic axes covered by Afghanistan in its rural development sector policy, in relation with the preservation of the environment, raises issues that must be taken into account to ensure a better integration of SEA in different aspects related to livestock farming and horticulture crop production. The achievement of the objectives of the food self-sufficiency strategy adopted by Afghanistan necessarily passes by the agro-sylvo-pastoral productivity improvement and the implementation of concrete actions, to support this strategy over the long-term.

The agricultural sector in Afghanistan is limited by the lack of arable land, and its dependence on erratic rainfall, the weather and the availability of fodder and water resources; one can expect that the increase in the agricultural sector development be accompanied by:

i) the clearing of forest areas for cropping purposes, which can result in the destruction of vegetation and ecosystems constituting ecological habitat of wildlife fauna. ii) the transition from a pastoral nomadic management mode based on the extensive use of the space, to a settling one strongly consuming water and vegetation, associated with a continuous growth of the herd. iii) an important imbalance between animal load and feed availability, especially around water points close to the areas of cultivation. iv) a marked trend to settlement around water points that can promote the onset of intensive operating modes and overgrazing, particularly in periods of precipitation deficit. v) use of pesticides, phytosanitary products, fertilizer and other chemical inputs necessary for the improvement of agricultural production. vi) the deficit in irrigation water, previously existing irrigation systems have been damaged or destroyed by the war, and have become unusable due to abandonment. vii) the development of irrigated agriculture that can promote waterlogging and salinization of soils, the proliferation of invasive aquatic plants (IAP) and the development of water-borne diseases (Malaria, Bilharzia, etc.); 59

viii) enhanced demographic pressure and difficulties of access to productive land, which can result in conflicts between farmers and herders. ix) Encroachment on rangeland for cropping purposes resulting in an acceleration of land degradation through water and wind erosion.

In summary, one will include consideration of the agricultural development issues and the integration of SEA into agricultural development policies to provide guidance on good practices for the development of NHLP (horticulture and livestock). These aspects will be discussed in detail in the Environmental and Social Management framework.

PART 5: IDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF IMPACTS ASSOCIATED WITH THE NATIONAL HORTICULTURE AND LIVESTOCK PROJECT

The evaluation of the specific impacts associated with the development of National Horticulture and Livestock Project (NHLP) in Afghanistan is an important step in the procedures of implementation and of execution of the SEA, through a crossed combination of environmental, social and economic issues, integrating planned or ongoing strategies, targeted by the country in the ANDS to achieve the objectives of poverty alleviation, sustainable development and of preservation of the environment.

The analysis was performed based on the identification of potential negative impacts, so as to identify the most appropriate mitigation measures that will be implemented in the ESMP, applicable to the development of NHLP. The analysis was conducted in coherence with the environmental safeguards policies and procedures of the World Bank and the OECD, including the use of Afghanistan’s provisions of the legislation on EIA, in the absence of the policies on SEA.

The sections below deal with potential impacts of NHLP and all of the actions and recommendations relating to the ESMF applicable to the Afghan agricultural sector development in general, and to its horticulture and livestock subsectors in particular.

5.1. Analysis of Impacts Related to Agricultural Sector (Horticulture and Livestock) Programs

The project (National Horticulture and Livestock Project- NHLP) objective aims to stimulate marketable output of perennial horticulture and livestock in focus areas by: (i) improving the incentives framework for private investments; and (ii) strengthening institutional capacity in agriculture. The project is designed as the first stage in a program that will unfold over the coming decade to support the horticulture and livestock subsectors nationwide. The program has been designed in collaboration with other donors (GIZ for technical assistance) under the umbrella of the MA1 Master Plan, with the expectation of obtaining additional financing and adopting common approaches and procedures for implementation.

The Objectives of the NHLP Strategic Environmental Assessment are to: (i) integrate the goals of environmental management and sustainability as well as avoiding potential risks at the earliest stages of the project planning and designing; (ii) ensure that the government decisions, policies, plans and programs in horticulture and livestock which could have significant direct and indirect effects on the country’s natural resources and human and community health are subjected to proper environmental assessment; and (iii) ensure that the program objectives and alternative means of achieving them are identified and measures for avoidance, mitigation and compensation of any potential adverse environmental consequences are adopted.

Agriculture Master Plan

The Agriculture Master Plan was endorsed by the Economic Subcommittee of the Cabinet of the Government of Afghanistan (GOA) in May 2006 as a comprehensive development blueprint for the sector that identifies priorities for investment.

The government of Afghanistan recognizes that a balanced rural development strategy requires attention to a number of crosscutting issues. In the Master Plan, the interventions associated with the integration of these issues are clearly visible in the strategies to address the commodity sub-sector priorities. These

cross-cutting themes include: (a) management of natural resources, (b) research and extension, (c) farmer associations and community participation, (d) rural finance, and (e) gender.

The Ministry of Agriculture Irrigation and Livestock (MAIL) is responsible for implementing the Plan. With limited technical capacity however, the Ministry will require substantial staff training as well as technical assistance to fill the gap. The Master Plan allocates resources for (i) training for the next generation of Afghan agriculturists; (ii) providing technical assistance for policy formulation and planning; (iii) building regulatory mechanisms; and (iv) improving the enabling environment for private sector growth and investment. Donors and multilateral institutions agree that the Master Plan is both ambitious in its goals and realistic in its approach.

The World Bank is supporting MAIL efforts with three projects the Horticulture and Livestock Project (HLP), the On Farm Water Management Project (OFWP) and the Improving Agricultural Inputs Delivery System (IAIDS) project in its agricultural development efforts for self-sufficiency in food production as well as for export for the country’s income in hard currencies.

The proposed NHLP would build on the achievements made and the good performance of its predecessor, the current HLP. However the main thrust of activities would be centered in effectively moving out of an emergency phase and into a development one. In light of this, special focus would be given to the deployment of more efficient and sustainable service delivery systems, based on increased participation and ownership of project activities by the main stakeholders at the local level, including community lead farmers and local public and private-sector extension agents. This would be key to the post-project continuity of the extension effort, thus its sustainability. In addition, as opposed to blanket beneficiary group formation and support supply, support would only be delivered on demand from, and with simultaneous strong financial commitment of, project beneficiaries. All in all, it is expected that this approach would build a more robust and sustainable development platform, promote increased effectiveness of support, decrease aid dependency, and put all stakeholders in a better track towards achievement of their own goals, as well as a better position to receive further technical assistance and support as required by their true and felt longer term development needs.

Overall, key aspects of building on HLP’s experience relevant to environmental issues include: (i) need of enhanced coordination and consistency with other rural-focused programs; (ii) enhanced targeting and continued support to IPM approach; (iii) Mainstreaming OHS/EHS Guidelines and principles into project activities; (iv) the a clear exit strategy within a long term development view, aiming at increased stakeholder ownership leading to improved quality and sustainability of the activities supported.

Total project cost over six years would be US$ 120 million, including a US$ 20 million contribution from beneficiaries, The project development objective would be to assist in the national rollout of a sustainable rural development service delivery system to specifically increase the adoption of improved horticulture and livestock production practices. This objective would be achieved by implementing efficient and effective horticulture and livestock extension service models at district and village levels and by increasing MAIL capacity and ownership in their delivery. If this goal is achieved, the proposed project would increase production and productivity of marketable horticulture products and improve animal health and productivity while helping put in place better service delivery systems.

NHLP would have three project components: (a) Horticulture, (b) Livestock, and (c) Project Management and implementation. The implementation would be decentralized with delegated authority to regional MAIL offices. Activities are detailed below.

The project design structure consists of three (03) components: 62

Component A. Horticulture. This sub-component would have the objective of building the capacity of MAIL to implement more sustainable and efficient service delivery for improved crop productivity and production in Afghanistan. To this end, the component would support three sub-components: (i) Social Mobilization and Horticulture Extension, (ii) Technical Assistance, and (iii) Investment Support (matching grant). NHLP would continue to provide both male and female farmers with extension services through farmer field schools (FFS). The project would engage Community Development Councils (CDCs) in identifying lead farmers, who would be trained and deliver FFS at village level. Group mobilization would be demand-driven. Common interest groups (CIGs) would be formed on demand at village level, and aggregated into produce marketing organizations (PMOs) at cluster level. The extension training would also be provided to public-sector extension workers at the District Department of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock (DAIL) to enhance its capacities.

Technical assistance would be provided to farmers both individually and in groups, on subjects such as orchard management, on-farm water management, integrated pest management (IPM), and marketing. Through the Investment Support subcomponent, orchard management would establish approximately 7,000 ha of new orchards on a 50 percent contribution basis. In enabling farmers’ access to water in their orchards, there would be technical coordination with the ARTF-financed On-farm Water Management Project (OFWM) to complement activities. IPM would assist MAIL’s Plant Protection and Quarantine Department (PPQD) in developing curricula and mainstreaming of IPM in MAIL projects. The marketing activities would target farmers, processors and traders, to support them on issues of post-harvest handling, quality control, and market linkages.

The investment support would also provide matching grants to PMOs in establishing Farmer Service Centers (FSCs) at district level on demand and at a minimum 50 percent farmer contribution basis. FSCs would provide collection and processing facilities, ground storage, input supply, and market intelligence. NHLP would support PMOs to develop business plans for the FSCs, including operation and maintenance plans. CIGs would also be able to access investment support for setting up processing sheds and storage facilities at village level.

Component B. Livestock. This sub-component would have the objective of building the capacity of MAIL to implement more sustainable and efficient service delivery for improved animal health and livestock productivity and production. There would be three activities under this component: (a) Animal Health with a focus on Brucellosis Control, (b) Livestock Extension including poultry husbandry, and (c) a Sheep Sector study. There are about 1,200 Veterinary Field Units (VFUs) throughout Afghanistan, staffed by para-vets engaged in private practices. HLP supported the privatization of 120 VFUs, while the EU-financed Animal Health Disease Project (AHDP) did the others. As a next step, the livestock component would support an expansion of public-private-partnerships in service delivery by strengthening VFUs in supporting MAIL to address public goods aspects under its sanitary mandate, and in providing extension services related to animal health and production to female and male livestock owners.

Based on the characteristics of the specific geographical areas defined for the rollout of the services, NHLP would design and implement a brucellosis surveillance and vaccination campaign under MAIL’s sanitary mandate. In addition, VFUs staff would be trained to provide extension services on animal health and production. In ensuring access by women to these services, NHLP would retain 25 female livestock extension workers under HLP and train female lead farmers at village level. Similar to the capacity building envisioned as part of the Horticulture Component, NHLP would strengthen DAIL capacity in service delivery by training DAIL livestock extension workers and engaging them in service delivery. NHLP would also support women’s poultry husbandry by setting up small poultry units as a pro-poor 63

contribution to food security. In addition, the project may pilot commercial poultry sector development. The livestock component would also finance a sheep sector study, to identify alternative winter feeding practices for small ruminants owned by Kuchi (nomadic populations).

Component C. Project management. This would support MAIL’s management of implementation, in particular, decentralized project implementation at regional level. NHLP implementation would be channeled through four regional offices, staffed by a regional manager and specialists in horticulture (extension delivery, IPM, water harvesting, intercrops, kitchen gardening, harvesting, and post- harvesting), marketing, sound social mobilization, livestock, Gender and M&E. Activities of these regional offices would be coordinated by the central Project Implementation Unit within MAIL. It is anticipated that MAIL would directly hire key international consultants to provide technical support and exposure to innovation as required by the different components’ activities. Project management would also be in charge of coordinating and effecting project communication and dissemination, and would have overall responsibility for gender, safeguards compliance, procurement and financial management.

The analysis of the potential risk factors related to NHLP development objective has three main categories of potential impacts which can be summarized as follows:

- the clearing of forest for the development of new orchards (loss of biodiversity, wildlife habitats and rangeland, etc.); - the horticultural production systems and the pastoral practices; - the health and socio-economic environments related to agricultural technology developments.

This section discusses in detail the potential NHLP impacts (positive and adverse) which must be taken into account in the Environmental and Social Management Framework.

5.1.1. Potential Positive Environmental Impacts of NHLP a. Impacts associated with promotion of sustainable horticulture and livestock production technologies

The NHLP will contribute to the utilization of sustainable horticulture and livestock production technologies that protect the environment. It will support the ecologically and socially sustainable agricultural practices by encouraging the use of IPM and SLM techniques that favor sound management and sustainable applications of agrochemicals (pesticides and inorganic fertilizers). In addition, the NHLP will encourage the development partnership between ARIA, Universities, public extension services and the communities and other stakeholders to achieve the development objectives of the project. b. Impacts associated with support to producer organizations in using sound production techniques

The extension of new production techniques in horticulture and livestock will contribute to the optimization of yields without increase in cultivated surface areas, favoring thus the conservation of forest areas. The optimization of yields (through modern farming systems techniques) will thus lead to the establishment of conservation techniques for a longer period of time for a better processing and commercialization. c. Impacts associated with support to the financing of agricultural inputs during subprojects implementation

The use of agricultural inputs while necessary for better yields could also lead to environmental pollution (there is a risk of ground water pollution by some chemical residues) and consequently, contaminate the humans and animals by drinking and using the contaminated waters. d. Impacts associated with improved agricultural technologies

The dissemination of all the irrigation and water distribution methods in cultivated plots will help to better manage the water and soil resources by limiting their overexploitation and degradation. Adopting a policy that supports drip and sprinkle irrigation would save water particularly groundwater use and will benefit the environment by recharging the aquifer. Also, the propagation of drought resistant fruits crop varieties as planting material in orchards would save water and thus will benefit water saving and improve the environment. e. Impacts associated with Pastoral Practices and poultry husbandry

Improvement of livestock (sheep, goats, etc.) will improve the food security situation (meat, milk) as well as for monetary needs (live animal and meat sales, skins, wools, etc.) of the rural households. Also, the production of poultry husbandry is primarily a women’s activity, so that the groups formed for training and organizing distribution and sales served as a vehicle for targeting women with livestock. There have also been some undoubted successes and poultry raisers (perhaps the more well-off households) have maintained and expanded their flocks, producing eggs for sale and for household consumption. f. Impacts associated with measures of institutional development

The strengthening of environmental science specialists will allow ensure that the environmental aspects will be integrated in technological packages to be developed during the implementation in the field. In addition, the strengthening of research activities and the development of techniques to value the horticultural and livestock by-products will lead to the regeneration of soils and reduction of chemical fertilizer uses, while the strengthening of the administrative capacities of MAIL will allow a better coordination among the different department of MAIL

5.1.2. Potential Negative Environmental Impacts of NHLP a. Impacts Associated with Hydro-Agricultural Infrastructure

The construction of new hydro-agricultural facilities (irrigation network systems and retention dams) or the rehabilitation of existing ones for provision of irrigation water to orchards in arid areas can lead to negative impacts and results in the relocation of activities that were carried out on these spaces.

The creation of new irrigated perimeters will require the clearing and deforestation work, which can lead to: (i) potential population displacements, loss of land, expropriations; (ii) socio-economic problems on certain vulnerable groups living in the area of direct influence of development programs; (iii) disturbances on natural habitats and biodiversity; (iv) loss of pasture and conflicts between pastoralists and farmers. The construction of other types of infrastructure under the implementation NHLP could concern facilities such as bonded warehouses, storages, silos, industrial agro-processing units, herd standings, slaughterhouses, etc. These infrastructures could generate other impacts, such as dust emissions and noise, air pollution (smell), or occupy land surfaces that could no longer be exploited by the local people. b. Impacts Associated with Hydro-agricultural infrastructure

Hydro-agricultural infrastructure developments, even if they are necessary for agricultural development, will contribute to the destruction of natural habitats and promote the proliferation of water-borne diseases.

Indeed, in areas where water is permanently found, one could witness the prevalence of water-borne diseases such as Malaria, Bilharzias, Schistosomiasis, Diarrhea, etc. The installation of irrigation canals and agricultural water traps create multitudes of habitats that favor the proliferation of insects and mollusks, vectors and intermediate hosts of various parasitic diseases and the best-known are: malaria, filariasis, intestinal and Genito-urinary diseases, schistosomiasis, etc.

The table below gives the directory of diseases related to water, their mode of transmission as well as the prevention strategy to be adopted in the framework of the implementation of agricultural development programs.

Table 6: Compendium of Recurrent Water-borne Diseases in Irrigated Agriculture

Transmission Mode Potential Risks Prevention Strategy Transmitted by Classic Typhoid fever ,  Improve the water quality drinking water cholera  Avoid the occasional use of non- Non Classic Epatitis improved water sources Direct Diarrheas Amoeba Dysentery  Increase the amount of water used contamination Skin and Eye Infections scabies, trachoma  Improve access and the security of supply

Based in water By contact Schistosomiasis  Reduce the need for contact with By contact Bilharzias infected water  The feco-urinary pollution of surface waters  Control the mollusks and the Cyclops Transmitted by Living near the water Trypanozomiasis  Improve the management of insects related to Malaria surface water water Developing in water Leischmania  Destroy and/or avoid the appropriate nesting places, reduce contact with the exposed places  Use of bed nets c. Impacts Associated with Production Systems and Agricultural Intensification:

The increase in horticultural production requires intensification techniques that pass through the effective control of enemies (pests) of crops and the use of agrochemicals (fertilizers and pesticides) in the orchards. The use of pesticides and other chemicals is a significant risk factor in both horticulture (human) and livestock.

Given the drastic climatic conditions and the state of soils in Afghanistan, one could expect that the development of agricultural programs (such as horticulture) induces an increase in the use of pesticides, which may constitute risk factors leading to accidents and poisoning in the populations, either by their direct use (sprinkling, spraying), bad storage, or indirectly by the empty containers and packaging re-use.

The use of pesticides in horticulture is never without risk to the health of populations, as exposure to pesticides can occur during work time (necessity of wearing gears during pesticide applications), or through the contamination of the environment or food (residues in water or in agricultural produce requiring the establishment of residue analysis laboratories). The people most vulnerable to pesticides are generally farmers and pesticide applicators who for the most part, lack of appropriate protective equipment. The policy of giving good inputs, agrochemicals and etc to the lead farmers that will improve 66

production while the market is full of all sorts of bad agrochemicals will instigate the use of bad quality pesticides available in the market. This requires a strict legislation and control enforcement throughout the NHLP implementation period

Adopting a strict policy of IPM approach and dedicating more resources to it as well as planning and establishing more centers for testing pesticides residues will raise awareness and will help reduced excessive use of pesticides.

The repeated use of an active substance for orchards protection may result in the appearance of resistance phenomena in pests, non-specific control methods are likely to curb the spread of the pest but, at the same time affect involuntarily a large number of beneficial non-target organisms. The crop pests are thus likely to spread more quickly and require additional treatments with negative impacts on the global ecosystem.

We understand that in the absence of a real integrated pests control program, the increase in horticultural production with the onset of NHLP will result in increased use of chemical pesticides, which impacts on the environment are not without dangers. Indeed, these pesticides and various toxic residues can be mediated by water and accumulate preferentially in the water bodies, leading to a deterioration in their quality and their progressive eutrophication. Moreover, the application of these products, which can affect the plants and herbs, also constitutes animal health risk factors.

The development of the horticulture component in NHLP must target the option of sustainable agriculture which must focus on the prevention of the destruction of the soil, land and waters while maintaining the productivity by a balance between the use of inputs, pesticides and production.

In this context, one should consider the production capacity of the land as an indispensable element of the strategy and policy, the integration of environmental consideration that allows to:

i) ensure that the determination to transform a natural space into orchard is environmentally acceptable and alternative solutions are proposed. ii) show that indirect effects have been fully examined and taken into account in the development of new orchards and that mitigation measures are planned. iii) ensure that best practices are applied in the design and execution of horticultural programs. d. Impacts Associated with the Proliferation of Invasive Aquatic Vegetation (IAV)

In the framework of NHLP implementation which will consider the development of and the management of water resources through irrigations schemes (on-farm water management), the proliferation of invasive aquatic vegetation is a foreseeable impact that must be integrated into the provision of irrigation water and the creation of hydro-agricultural infrastructure.

The invasion of irrigation water in the traditional canal networks by aquatic plants can become a real threat to the environment in the development strategies of horticulture and the management of the water resources, as experienced now in different orchards. Such invasions and proliferation of noxious aquatic vegetation in irrigation water bodies by undesirable plant species have been observed as a real scourge in Mauritania, and Mali in Africa, and has been a real threat for the environment. e. Impacts Associated with Land Salinization, Waterlogging of the Soil and Water Loss

In Afghanistan, the land degradation is primarily related to four main factors: the decades of war, the natural fragility of soil due to topography, the effects of the mismanagement and exploitation of natural resources, and the aggressiveness of the climate. It can also be related to the combination of three factors: 67

the state of fragility of the soil due to the topography; the aggressiveness of the climate; the irrational management of natural resources. Land degradation factors occur, among others, by loss of fertility due to land salinization, alkalinization, and to waterlogging. Inadequate drainage and excessive irrigation are beforehand responsible for waterlogging and, to a lesser extent, losses of water in the canals and ditches by infiltration.

Irrigation also increases salinity problems which is already naturally most acute in the arid and semi-arid areas of Afghanistan, experiencing thus a faster surface evaporation and for which soils are more salty. While it is true that the lands of the arid and semi-arid regions (northern and western provinces) naturally tend to become saline, it remains that it is possible to respond to many of the problems related to the soil quality by adopting certain good practices to mitigate the potential negative impacts related to irrigation. f. Impacts Associated with the Construction/Rehabilitation of Rural Production Roads

Among the environmental impacts related to construction and/or rehabilitation of production roads, we must distinguish on the one hand, direct effects on construction sites, of tracks and the immediate vicinity of the right-of-way and, on the other hand, the indirect effects on the surrounding area.

The area of influence of a production track in rural area is measured by all of economic, social and environmental effects produced, predictable or spontaneous, coming from easy access and a decrease in transportation costs to areas otherwise difficult to access. It sometimes happens that the scope of these indirect effects is more significant than that of direct impacts.

It thus appears that the construction and rehabilitation programs of production roads are likely to generate potential adverse impacts, in respect of which: (i) the disruption of economic activities, (ii) the degradation of natural habitats for wildlife fauna, (iii) the destruction of portions of field crops, and (iv) possible expropriation or occupation of private land. Moreover, the improvement of production roads could generate indirect impacts where easy access related to the new roads could promote the increase of exploitations of natural resources (fauna, forests, coal, etc.) and the development of poaching. In operation phase, the increased traffic on the production roads may lead to risk of accidents, especially at the level of the riparian villages.

On the other hand, the non-rehabilitation of the borrowing sites and quarries for the extraction of necessary construction materials for the roads can promote the proliferation of vector insects (malaria) and the development of bilharzias (schistosomiasis). Despite the relevance of these factors of impacts, it can be concluded that overall these risks will be probably limited, when taking into account the climatic conditions of Afghanistan. g. Impacts associated with Pastoral Practices and Overgrazing

Despite the substantial contribution of livestock to the economy of the country, it is clear that the development of the breeding programs is likely to generate different types of impacts on the environmental resources and the human environment.

The livestock breeding systems and pastoral operating modes as practiced in Afghanistan (poor management of pastoral roads, gradual settlement around sensitive and fragile areas, etc.) have adverse effects on the natural and human environments, through livestock loads which do not take account of forage availability and distribution of water points, and potential conflicts between farmers and herders.

Water points for both humans and animals present obvious health risks (Brucellosis, foot & mouth diseases) for local populations. Similarly, transhumance and the movement of livestock, on sometimes sensitive routes, may affect natural resources and generate homes for bushfires. 68

Referred below are few potential adverse effects related to pastoral practices which are summarized as follows: (i) pasturing and the settling of livestock cause selective grazing of plants by animals, disturbing and influencing local floristic composition; (ii) loss of biodiversity associated with overcrowding, trampling on vegetation cover, the excessive fodder exploitation and the disappearance of the vegetation; (iii) the risk of pollution of wells and water bodies by animal manure; (iv) the soil compaction, erosion and soil degradation; (v) the destruction of the rivers banks; (vi) the disturbance of the ecosystem to the level of sensitive areas; (vii) the risk of bushfires on the pastoral routes and areas of settlement; (viii) the logging and Bush fires on livestock routes and settling areas; (ix) social impacts and conflicts between farmers and herders; (x) transmission of animal-borne diseases (zoonotic disease) to human.

Overgrazing occurs when the land occupation by animals, in number and species exceeds their carrying capacity. Overgrazing can lead to the depletion of beneficial forage species and disseminating indigestible weed for livestock. It may be responsible for increased soil erosion caused indirectly by the shrinking of plant cover, and directly by the loosening of soils which are disturbed and exposed to the combined actions of water and wind. The livestock Movements disfigure the soils and trigger a mechanism that can result in the formation of gullies, soil compaction and erosion, and consequently their declining fertility. h. Impacts associated with biomedical waste of veterinary services

Among the activities and related facilities attached to the development of livestock farming, it is necessary to identify and analyze the sources of potential impacts related to vaccination and Veterinary assistance services (rendered by veterinary field units-VFUs) that can generate biomedical waste and constitute risk factors for the environment and for local populations. In the livestock sector development programs, one could fear that the production of untreated biomedical waste, derived from veterinary services in rural areas, in the areas of immunization and hardstandings, causes effects unwanted on the natural environment and constitute factors of risk or health hazards for the local populations (reuse the vials and syringes by neighboring populations, pollution of the environment by waste, etc.). These risk factors must be taken into account, in order to better manage and minimize the production of biomedical wastes in the livestock breeding and animal health program areas. i. Impacts associated with the slaughterhouses A slaughterhouse, the simplest it could be, houses enclosures for livestock and conducts operations such as slaughtering, removal of skin and blood, the slaked and the evisceration of the animals, as well as the whaling and the cutting for the sale. Liquid and solid effluents represent most of the pollutants (e.g. Herat municipals) that the slaughterhouses generate. The odors emitted by putrefaction and decomposition of organic substances, even though they are the only factors of air pollution, are no less a continual source of inconvenience.

The main hazards, under the NHLP, to which the staff of slaughterhouses will be exposed range from scrapes to cuts, induced blades and other cuttings tools, to falls due to slippery floors, burns and scalds caused by hot water and steam. Moreover, the risk of diseases contracted by animals, such as brucellosis, anthrax, acute and chronic respiratory syndrome, the skin diseases, Erysipelas, nose mucus, tularemia and fever, also constitute potential effects to the health of slaughterhouses workers.

Finally, other foreseeable adverse effects, not less important, affecting natural and human environments related to slaughterhouses, can lead to: (i) the arrival of the flogs of dogs, carnivores, insects, rodents, flies, and other vectors, etc.; (ii) various nuisances to the neighboring residents due to noise (animals awaiting slaughter; movement of vehicles and slaughter activities) and smell; (iii) the use and waste of

water for the cleaning of the premises; (iv) health risks due to the poor inspection conditions, facilitating the release of meat unfit for consumption. j. Impacts associated with the polarization on the activities of horticulture and livestock in the NHLP areas

The current Strategic Environmental Assessment notes that there could be an expansion of agricultural and livestock activities in HNLP implementation areas offering particularly good natural conditions and potentials in land pasture and water resources, etc. This dynamics of polarization of human activities and population towards these areas with good potentials could lead to pressure on environmental factors, but also to social and economic factors, resulting in: (i) a strong demographic growth; (ii) the alienation and the abandonment of other zones/regions where agricultural activities are dependent on the weather vagaries; (iii) possible migrations, temporary or permanent, towards more favorable territories; (iv) an expansion, concentration and a possible settling of livestock farmers (Kuchi) around the ponds, rivers and other water sources; (v) risks of depopulation and marginalization of certain areas and regions that are the most affected by the weather vagaries/droughts and the desertification phenomenon; (vi) an accelerated degradation of the natural environment and sometimes of sensitive areas (soil degradation, erosion, pressure on the fauna and flora reserves, etc.).

Box 3: Summary of Negative Impacts Associated with Agricultural (Horticulture and Livestock) Sector

Potential Negative Impacts Associated with Agricultural (Horticulture and Livestock) Development Programs Human Environment:  Displacement and resettlement of populations.  Risks associated with the use of phytosanitary products on human health: risks for health and security during pesticides management (contamination of livestock by drinking; poisoning in case of misuse; residues on food product; mismanagement of packaging; etc.).  Potential conflicts: access to local resources, socio-cultural level, land use; between farmers and pastoralists.  Arrival of new migrants, installation of the hamlets of crops and increase in human settlements.  Decline in soil fertility due to cultural practices.  Prevalence and development of water-borne diseases risk.  Nuisances and effluent discharges.  Polarization of agro-pastoral activities and marginalization of some territories, etc. Biophysical Environment:  Deforestation and degradation of wildlife habitat.  Biodiversity reduction at the ecosystems or species level.  Waterlogging, salinization or degradation of soils, loss of fertility.  Depletion and degradation of water quality.  Loss and irrational management of water resources.  Clearing of forested areas and destruction of sensitive habitats.  Destruction of non-target species by pesticides.  Soil erosion, disruption of the hydrological cycle.  Degradation of vegetation cover.  Degradation of the water quality (pollution of groundwater, rivers, other surface water)).  Risk of resurgence of pests.  Risk of development of invasive plant species.  Pollution by biomedical wastes, etc.

6. TECHNICAL PROCEDURES AND INCENTIVES MEASURES FOR THE SEA IMPLEMENTATION

The analysis of environmental governance instruments shows that agricultural sector development has not been the subject of any study on the SEA. This situation will be taken into account during the implementation of the present SEA that will include several accompanying measures, in respect of which:

 strengthening of the legal and legislative instruments with regard to:  the methodology for the preparation, approval and execution of sub-projects (environmental selection or screening process) to identify the potentials environmental and social impacts that can arise from the implementation of NHLP subprojects;  the subjugation of the sub-projects, according to the EIA procedures;  institutional arrangements for implementation and monitoring/evaluation of SEA procedures:  strengthening measures for technical capacity in the agricultural sector in the SEA matters;  the coordination and the implementation of SEA at the local level;  the identification of the actors involved and the clarification of their roles in the SEA process;  monitoring and surveillance measures required;  the procedures for public and key stakeholders’ consultation;  the timetable for the implementation of the advocated measures in the SEA framework;  the resources available for the implemention of SEA.

6.1. Selection Procedures and Environmental Coverage of NHLP

The methodology for the preparation, approval and execution of the National Horticulture and Livestock Project (NHLP) should be based on an environmental selection procedure for which the main steps are described below, in accordance with the guide for the technical and administrative procedures of the EIAs in force in Afghanistan.

The results of the selection process will determine the environmental and social measures pursuant to the SEA approach, and should allow to highlight the major issues regarding: (a) the identification of subprojects which are likely to have negative impacts at the environmental and social level; (b) the identification of appropriate mitigation measures for activities having adverse impacts; (c) the identification of subprojects requiring Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA); and (d) the institutional responsibilities entrusted such as: (i) analysis and approval of the selection results; (ii) implementation of proposed mitigation measures; (iii) validation of the EIA reports; (iv) monitoring of environmental indicators in the implementation of subprojects; and (v) identification of subprojects likely to result in the displacement of populations or land acquisition .

The selection process (or screening) includes different phases and steps outlined below.

Phase 1: Environmental Compliance of subprojects Associated with the NHLP Implementation

The first phase of the process is to implement compliance of subprojects with SEA procedures, EIA or the EIN. It focuses on the identification, classification and subjection to NHLP, in order to assess its potential effects on the environment and to comply with the provisions of the SEA and the EIA legislation.

Step 1: Analysis of Environmental Issues

For this, selection form is designed (which appears in the annex 1 to the present report) which must be completed by a team of specialists under the following technical departments in MAIL (Directorate General of Agriculture Services, Directorate General of Livestock Production and Animal Health, Directorate General of Natural Resources Management); Associative and Producers Groups; the leader of the TFP in charge of environmental issues.

Step 2: Environmental programs classification

The environmental legislation in Afghanistan (2007 Environment Act and relating 2007 Policy relating to the Environmental Impact Assessment) has established an environmental classification of projects and sub-projects in two categories:

- programs or projects to category 1 are programs or projects likely to have significant adverse environmental impacts that are sensitive, diverse, or unprecedented, and impact to energy sector area than the sites or facilities subject to the physical works of the activity. Programs of hydro- agriculture infrastructure, the implementation of pastoral works, water supply programs, irrigation, land clearing, delimitation of transhumance routes, installation of slaughterhouses, pesticide spraying programs, etc., fall into this category and should therefore be subject to the procedures of detailed EIA with an Environmental and Social Management Plan of (ESMP); - programs or projects of category 2 are related to programs or projects for which the activities are likely to have significant adverse impacts on human environments or environmentally sensitive areas that are less adverse than those of Category 1 activities, and are site specific and in most instances not irreversible and requiring only a development of an Environmental Impact Note (or the application of simplified mitigation measures). The maintenance programs of installations, production roads or already existing transhumance trails, repair of annexes facilities or pastoral works, etc., fall into this category; - Any activity that is likely to have significant adverse impact on the environment of an area determined to be environmentally sensitive; and - Any other activity that is likely to have a significant adverse impact on the environment and which is determined by NEPA to be a prohibited activity.

Based on the analysis of information contained in the results of the selection form and after determining the right environmental category of the subprojects, and therefore the extent of the environmental work required, the Environmental Focal Points will carry out a synthesis of recommendations to determine if: (i) an environmental work is necessary or not; (ii) the application of simple mitigation measures will be enough through an Environmental Impact Note; or (iii) an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) shall be required.

According to the selection results, the following environmental work may be carried out on the basis of the use of the environmental and social control checklist (attached in annex 2) or will be commissioned an Environmental Impact Assessment or an Impact Note that will propose appropriate corrective measures as well as the ESMP, as the case may be.

In the case of subprojects requiring the application of simple mitigation measures, an EIA is not necessary; the environmental and social control checklist (attached in 2) shall be completed by the Environmental Focal Points (EFP), describe simple mitigation measures for the environmental and social impacts which do not require a full EIA. In these cases, the EFPs, in connection with the environment 72

technical services, will consult the checklist of the ESMF to select sensitive aspects of biophysical and human environments to take into account in the development of the note.

In the case of subprojects requiring an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), the results of the environmental selection will indicate planned activities subject to EIA and ESMP. In this case scenario, the technical services will indicate the required profiles for consultants qualified to be recruited for the completion of the EIA, according to the national procedure established in the matter which may eventually be supplemented by the provisions required by the donor.

Phase 2: Development and Validation of the Terms of Reference (or specifications)

Environmental selection form, validated by different stakeholders, will serve as a basis for the preparation of the draft Terms of Reference (or specification notes) to be submitted by the department and/or sponsor technical service, to the Division of Sustainable Development and Environmental Assessment of NEPA for classification and validation. It is a technical document which explains in detail the decisive points of the program and/or project, the approach to environmental assessment, highlights related issues and to impacts related to the program or project.

The TORs to be developed by the MAIL must include at least the following relevant elements: (i) a technical description of NHLP; (ii) a brief description of the initial state of the environment (biophysical and human); (iii) the interrelationships between NHLP components with the biophysical and human environments; (iv) the determination of the scope of the study and the area of influence of the NHLP; (v) the list of issues, potential impacts, local concerns and the major issues arising out of the NHLP; (vi) the establishment of environmental priorities according to the sensitivity of the environment; (vii) the plan and methodology of the public and the actors; (viii) the dissemination of information to the concerned and/or affected players.

Once draft Terms of Reference is prepared, the dependant promoter transmits the file for approval to NEPA, which has a maximum statutory period (as determined by the Law- 14 days) to comment and validate.

Phase 3: Development, Review and Approval of the Report (EIA or EIN)

The assessment report (EIA or EIN), developed by the consultants committed by the sponsor Department, will be reviewed and validated by the Division of Sustainable Development and Environmental Assessment of NEPA which will ensure that all environmental and social impacts have been identified and analyzed, and that effective and appropriate mitigation measures have been proposed for the implementation of the program or project. In case of the validation of the report (EIA or EIN), the Division of Sustainable Development and Environmental Assessment must develop a detailed report to the attention of the Director of NEPA in which he/she gives a reasoned opinion on the environmental and social feasibility of the subproject and seeks the issuance of the feasibility permit for the subproject.

Phase 4: Public Consultation and Dissemination of Information

Step 1: Public Investigation and Stakeholders Consultation

The provisions of the EIA Ordinance stipulate that information and the participation of the public must be ensured during the execution of the EIA, in collaboration with relevant bodies of the administrative division and the concerned district. The information of the public comprises specifically one or more meetings of program and/or the subproject presentation, bringing together local authorities, people, concerned organizations, the civil society, etc. These consultations will allow identify major problems, 73

issues and suggestions and determine the terms of consideration of the various concerns raised by concerned and/or affected groups. The results of consultations and public inquiries will be incorporated in the EIA report and will be made available to the public by the most appropriate channels.

Step 2: Information Dissemination to Stakeholders

To meet the requirements of the dissemination of environmental information, the Division of Sustainable Development and Environmental Assessment of NEPA, in cooperation with the MAIL, must develop a briefing note and a non-technical summary of major concerns to the NHLP subproject making the point on the following issues: (i) the items in the consultation of the public at the local level; (ii) the synthesis of concerns raised by communities, groups and, possibly, for people who might be likely affected or concerned by the NHLP subproject; (iii) items published on the site of the donor; (iv) the feasibility permit issued by NEPA, including conditionality, reserves and preconditions raised for effective implementation, etc.

Phase 5: Environmental Audit, Surveillance and Monitoring

The implementation of SEA in the NHLP development requires audits, surveillance and environmental monitoring programs that are to be implemented. Indeed, aspects of environmental monitoring, which concern both the phase of implementation as well as exploitation of the installations, infrastructure and equipment (in the case of civil works), should reorient the works and eventually improve the implementation of NHLP subprojects with regard to their social and environmental acceptability.

The audit, surveillance and monitoring programs are relevant insofar as they enable planners to ensure that: (i) emergency response programs will be the subject of an environmental assessment a posteriori; (ii) predictions of the potential negative impacts related to specific NHLP subprojects (kitchen gardens, orchards rehabilitation, backyard poultry, small ruminants, etc.) are accurate and well circumscribed (monitoring of effects and environmental sensitivity); (iii) proposed prevention, mitigation and/or compensation measures are adequate and appropriate to the community (monitoring of effects, compensation of losses, sustainability of the actions, etc.); (iv) appropriate regulations and standards are respected and implemented (measures of compliance to the environmental governance, standards of effluents discharges, sound pollution, dust emissions standards, etc.); (v) the criteria of implementation of horticulture and livestock programs take into account the sensitivity of the environment and the preservation of natural resources (inspection, surveillance, ecosystem regeneration, restoration of natural habitats, water tables recharge, etc.).

The monitoring and the implementation of this phase will require: (a) at the national level, the involvement of the central technical services under MAIL, technical departments of NEPA and community groups involved in the NHLP development; (b) at the provincial level, the accountability of the decentralized technical services of NEPA and DAIL, local communities and local NGOs; (c) at the local level, the environmental control of proximity of the execution of local programs that must be provided under the supervision of the extension workers of livestock farming and horticulture; (d) the development and implementation of a capacity building program, awareness and training for all the actors involved in the process at the national, regional and local levels.

Phase 6: Compliance of NHLP with the Environmental Feasibility Opinion

Execution and implementation of the civil work activities of subprojects under NHLP implementation cannot and must occur only after reasoned opinion of the NEPA, based on the subproject’s (and/or sub- project) environmental feasibility which will be the subject of analysis and validation at the different stages as have been described above.

Table 7: Summary of the Selection Phases and Environmental Compliance of the Programs arising from Agricultural Sector Development Phases of environmental selection of programs Environmental tasks and procedures to apply Concerned Institutional Actors PHASE 1: Step 1: Environmental - Identify horticultural stakeholders responsible in - Directorate and technical services of MAIL Environmental analysis of the NHLP environmental assessment and SEA procedures in the (Agriculture and Livestock). agricultural development. compliance of - Division of Sustainable Development and program/ NHLP - Identify and classify NHLP, according to the subjection Environmental Assessment of NEPA. procedures requiring an EIA or an EIN within agricultural - Associative Groups and producer sector development. organizations. - Analyze the sources of impacts and the potential effects - TFP leaders in charge of environmental issues of NHLP subprojects on the environment and ensure in Afghanistan conformity with the provisions of legislation on EIA

(SEA not in the legislation). - Filling of the selection form attached in the annex 2. Step 2: Environmental - Proceed to the environmental classification of NHLP classification of the NHLP subprojects in either category 1 (subject to EIA procedures) or category 2 (subject to the EIN) of the national environmental guidelines classification - Proceed with the validation of the selection and classification of the subprojects. - Apply the provisions of environmental legislation on EIAs (2007 Ordinance and relating to EIA). PHASE 2: - Carry out the analysis of compliance of the TORs Development and validation of the Terms of submitted by MAIL/NHLP. Reference (or specification Notes) - The TORs must be consistent with the procedures of the 2007 Ordinance on EIA and contain at a minimum of all the elements listed in the guide. - Proceed with the validation of the draft TORs which will form the basis for the implementation of the EIA or the EIN, as the case may be. PHASE 3: - Proceed with the compliance analysis of the report Preparation of the report (EIA or EIN) submitted by MAIL/NHLP. - The report must be in conformity to the format indicated in 75

the 2007 EIA Ordinance and procedures manual and contain all of the items indicated in the TORs. - Proceed with the validation of the report. PHASE 4 Step 1: Consultation of - Organize the stakeholder consultations and public - Department and technical services of MAIL Public consultation stakeholders and public investigations in the phase of validation of the TOR, in (Agriculture and Livestock) investigation accordance with planned provisions of environmental and Information - Department of Sustainable Development and legislation. Dissemination Environmental Assessment of NEPA. - Take into account the concerns raised by stakeholders. Step 2: Dissemination of the - Associative Groups and producer - Disseminate to stakeholders the executive summary of Information organizations. the report, including: ( i) the provisions for taking account of the concerns raised by the people, groups and, - TFP leaders in charge of environmental issues possibly, for people who might be affected or concerned in Afghanistan by the subproject; (ii) the mitigation measures proposed;

(iii) the cost, schedule, and the role of stakeholders; (iv) the feasibility permit issued by NEPA, including the conditionality, the reserves and the preconditions raised for its effective implementation, etc. PHASE 5 - Provide environmental audit, surveillance and Environmental Audit, Surveillance and Monitoring monitoring programs to ensure that the interventions carried out, disaster and prevention of dangers, integrate the consideration of environment and natural resources preservation. PHASE 6 - Ensure that the execution and the implementation of NHLP Compliance with opinion on Environmental targeted subprojects (Horticulture and Livestock) are Feasibility consistent with the provisions of the feasibility permit to be issued by NEPA

Figure 3: Flow Chart for Screening Scheme Applicable to Agricultural Development (including NHLP) Programs

PHASE 1: Alignement to Environmental Programs

Step 1: Step 2: Filling of selection form for environmental programs Selection and NHLP subprojects’ Classification Validation

PHASE 2: Development and validation of Terms of Reference or responsibilities note

PHASE 3:

Development and validation of the report (EIA OR EIN)

Step 1 : PHASE 4: Step 2: Consultation of actors and Information public surveys Public Consultation and Information Dissemination dissemination

PHASE 5: NHLP Subprojects’ Audit, surveillance and environmental monitoring

PHASE 6: NHLP (subprojects) alignment for issuance of the feasibility permit

6.2. Information and Outreach Programs for Actors on the SEA Procedures SEA is a new vision in Afghanistan; its implementation requires information campaigns and outreach to all stakeholders, particularly on the nature of the potential impacts and environmental and social issues related to the NHLP development and implementation.

In this process, the Steering Committee, the environment cells and the agricultural Focal Points, local associations, producer groups, NGOs and local communities should be mobilized as a team in the foreground. The technical departments of social development (Women affairs, Education, Public Health) will also be closely associated with the development and the conduct of awareness and community mobilization during the SEA implementation.

The Steering Committee, because of the potential presence within it of senior officials of the sectoral departments and ministries (NEPA, MAIL, MEW, MRRD, MoPH, Education, Security, etc.), should conduct campaigns of information and lobbying the Government, Corporate Firms and technical partners. The relay should be ensured at the level of technical services by the sectoral environment cells, through the Focal Points who will play the role of real communicators. An important role in the success of the awareness and information campaigns belongs to NGOs and local actors who, with a confirmed expertise in different areas, should be involved in this process.

Information, education and communication for behavior change must focus primarily on environmental problems related not only to horticulture and livestock subprograms, but also on the subprojects which would be initiated in during NHLP (Horticulture and Livestock) implementation. These interventions must be designed to modify qualitatively and in a sustainable manner the behavior of local populations on the preservation of natural resources and the protection of the environment. In this context, local elected officials and their technical teams need to be more mentored to better support the SEA activities in their constituencies and areas of intervention.

During the implementation of SEA the production of training equipment and materials should be considered to ensure a wide coverage to the target populations. The rational use of the information and communication channels for the transmission of messages should also have to be strengthened. Finally, it should be noted that the role of public media should be capitalized in the awareness campaign process, to relay the relevant messages at the national, regional and local levels.

6.3. Environmental Monitoring and Surveillance Program

Despite the knowledge of certain environmental and social phenomena related to the generic impacts of NHLP, it is no less that there is still a degree of uncertainty in the accuracy of other potential impacts, especially for those concerning diffuse impacts and residual impacts that may occur. For this reason, it is necessary to develop an environmental surveillance and monitoring program that will be implemented under the SEA implementation framework in NHLP.

Environmental Surveillance and Monitoring Elements

The implementation of SEA requires environmental monitoring and surveillance to ensure compliance of: i) the measures proposed in the ESMF, including the mitigation measures proposed; (ii) the conditions laid down in the legislature, enforcement decrees, the regulation provisions, the relevant texts in force relating to the preservation of the environment and natural resources; (iii) hiring of firms and

their subcontractors relating to laws, regulations and requirements on hygiene, safety and public health, management of the populations’ livelihoods, protection of the environment and natural resources.

Environmental monitoring will therefore allow verifying on the ground, the accuracy of evaluation of some impacts and the effectiveness of certain planned mitigation or compensation measures in the ESMF, and for which some uncertainties remain. The knowledge gained with environmental monitoring will allow correct mitigation measures and, possibly, to revise certain standards for the protection of the environment, in accordance with the SEA procedures. Environmental monitoring in this case concerns all the NHLP components attached to horticulture and livestock, and applies to all subprojects that will be carried out in the targeted areas.

It is important to note that environmental monitoring and surveillance measures may require physicochemical analyses, biological, bacteriological, toxicological and health tests, etc., to fully cover all the concerns, issues and potential impacts associated with implementing NHLP.

The table below provides the communication framework to be implemented under the SEA implementation under NHLP.

Table 8: Information and Awareness Framework concerned Actors Awareness and Communication Themes Target Objectives

 MAIL Departments  Information and awareness-raising  Educate decision-makers and the campaigns on the SEA process sectoral ministries/departments  Technical Services  Awareness on environmental and social on the implementation of SEA  Local Communities issues related to water and NHLP on water and agricultural  Producer Groups and (horticulture, livestock) development (horticulture, livestock) Associations programs development programs  Do TFP lobbying  NGO  Awareness on best horticultural and  Local Associations pastoral practices  Inform local authorities and socio-professional groups on the  Awareness on sustainable land management  Etc. integration of environmental  Awareness on the effects of pesticides issues into NHLP  Awareness on health, safety, hygiene and  Ensure the participation and sanitation aspects involvement of key actors in all  Etc. phases of the SEA process in MAIL

 Raise producer groups awareness on best practices to be applied in horticulture and livestock

6.4. SEA Environmental and Monitoring Indicators

The framework for environmental monitoring and surveillance for SEA implementation in NHLP must be applied both in the execution phase of works associated with on-farm water management, pastoral development and animal health programs, in the operation phase initiated in considered areas. In such referred programs technical aspects below will be monitored and followed-up by the environmental Focal Points, but also by provincial environmental services, local communities and producer groups (farmers, pastoralists, and water users, etc.). The elements below give an indication for the different stages of environmental monitoring and surveillance to be implemented in the present SEA.

i. Environmental monitoring during NHLP design phase

In the design of plans of horticultural and livestock development, the regulations in force (texts on EIA procedures, Environment Law and texts on natural resources, etc.) should be respected in all stages and must be consistent with environmental issues and sustainability, regardless of the stage of evolution of the NHLP. The planning and programming of NHLP activities will have to be made according to the measures dogged in the Environmental and Social Management Framework (ESMF).

ii. Environmental Monitoring during NHLP Implementation Phase

During the NHLP implementation phase, environmental monitoring will particularly focus on the essential components of biophysical and human environments, namely: (i) the state of natural resources (water, air, soil, fauna, flora, water quality, fertility and soil erosion); (ii) biodiversity; (iii) ecology and impacts on the natural environment; (iv) impacts of pastoral practices; (v) effects of pesticides and plant protection products; (vi) the potential impacts on the human environment (expropriation, displacements and resettlements, loss of land, conflicts of access to resources, disruption of the socio-economic balance, spread of disease, hygiene aspects, sanitation and safety, pollution and nuisances, etc.).

At this stage of the NHLP, enforcement of environmental standards and of proposed mitigation measures from the ESMF will be required and will need not only to oversee the activities initiated by the MAIL, but also apply to contractors in charge of the implementation of NHLP subprojects.

iii. Environmental Monitoring of Post NHLP

The post-NHLP environmental monitoring should be carried out to verify the effectiveness of SEA and accompanying measures which have been proposed in the ESMF. This monitoring shall be carried out by the Environmental Focal Points, in collaboration with various stakeholders in the MAIL.

Post-NHLP Environmental monitoring of SEA concerns the analysis of the process effectiveness with regard to the control of the evolution of certain receptors of impacts (natural and human environments) affected by the NHLP, with purpose to: (i) ensure compliance with the conditions for the application of the SEA process and subsequent legal instruments, the laws, regulations and other environmental requirements, with reference to hygiene, health and protection of natural resources and the livelihood of the populations;

(ii) follow the evolution of soil erosion phenomena, the vegetation cover regeneration and the reconstitution of the deforested areas, the development of sensitive areas and wildlife reserves;

(iii) monitor the level of evolution of water-related diseases or other disorders related to NHLP;

(iv) follow the level of implementation of proposed measures in the SEA and the ESMF, especially with regard to the effectiveness of the mitigation measures implemented, the level of realization of commitments by the NHLP proponents and implementers relative to the environmental requirements contained in the bidding documents, if bidding is necessary.

6.5. Indicators for the Implementation of SEA

The implementation of SEA in the NHLP requires the application of indicators in order to ensure the process effectiveness and its ownership by the actors responsible for its implementation. These indicators will be built as monitoring parameters which will provide either quantitative or qualitative information on the achievement of results, the effectiveness of the procedure, the assessment of the impacts, the relevance of mitigation measures, environmental and social benefits and NHLP sustainability.

As such, these indicators are essential elements for the analysis of SEA effectiveness at three levels, namely: (i) strategic level indicators, intended to verify the implementation and ownership of SEA at the highest decision-making level and with partners (Government, Ministerial, departmental secretariats, cooperation agencies, TFP, etc.); (ii) technical level indicators, intended to ensure the effective implementation of SEA tools, environmental governance and technical measures to accompany the implementation of SEA; (iii) environmental level indicators, to verify the effectiveness of environmental preservation measures implemented.

a. Strategic Level Indicators

Strategic indicators to monitor in this study concern in particular the elements which involve decision- makers in the choice of NHLP, and are specifically designed legislative, institutional instruments, arrangements and other legal provisions that are likely to influence directly or indirectly on the natural resources and their conservation.

In the present study, the identified strategic indicators concern in particular: (i) the effective implementation and functionality of the Steering Committee; (ii) the effective implementation and functionality of the Environment Cell at the level of MAIL; (iii) the actual designation of the Environment Focal Points at the level of the concerned technical services; (iv) the effectiveness of the application of the environmental screening of NHLP subprojects; (v) information notes addressed to the TFP and the NEPA on the implementation of SEA; (vi) the decrees, regulations, laws or guidelines developed for the introduction of SEA in the agricultural development programs and its implementation in NHLP, if they exist in Afghanistan; (vii) the improvements made to the Ordinance on the EIAs for its adaptation to the current situation of NHLP; (viii) the concrete actions implemented for the effective execution of the provisions of the Ordinance on the EIAs; (ix) the meetings, gatherings or formal exchanges, with the sectoral ministries, TFP and associative groups on the implementation of SEA; (x) the number and types of agricultural guides developed and implemented; (xi) the level of application of IWRM in irrigation schemes construction and on-farm water programs; (xii) the level of application of procedure manuals for pesticides management; (xiii) the level of increase in the list of SEA or EIA carried out in other sectors in Afghanistan; (xiv) the level of increase in the list of environmental feasibility permits issued by NEPA; (xv) the list of the agricultural production guides developed and applied in NHLP development; (xvi) the budget allocation approved by MAIL for SEA implementation.

b. Technical Level Indicators

Technical level indicators identified in this study are those that are attached to the operational phase of the NHLP, Taking into account the technical aspects of the subprojects, with regard to their fitness to environmental and social issues: (i) functioning of the facilities and acquired environmental control equipment; effective application of tools and guides of best practices, capacity building measures (training, awareness-raising, education, equipment, etc.). 81

Indicatively, this should include technical level indicators below, applicable especially to the NHLP implementation phase: (i) the number and types of equipment acquired for the control of environmental parameters (piezometers mini-stations, laboratories, dust collectors, etc.); (ii) the types of accommodation made for the protection of the environment during the construction phases (in the case of rural production roads) ; (iii) the number of officers trained for handling of installed equipment; (iv) types of agricultural guides developed and applied in the NHLP; (v) the medical statistics on poisoning due to pesticides and other plant protection products; (vi) the number of firewall for the preservation of transhumance routes; (vii) types of local conventions/agreements developed and applied for the management of livestock around water points; (viii) the number of producers aware on hygiene, health and safety measures; (ix) the number of actors trained in the assessment and review of environmental management; (x) the number of displaced and resettled people in the framework of horticultural and livestock programs; (xi) the effectiveness of the implementation of the resettlement plan and level of application of the compensation measures.

c. Environmental and Social Level Indicators

In this topic, targeted environmental indicators are composite or combined parameters that take into account the factors of pressure affecting the receiving environments: (i) biophysical environment (air, water, soil, fauna, flora, habitats, protected areas, sensitive areas, etc.); (ii) human environment (health, hygiene, security, socio-cultural heritage, socio-economic aspects, living environment, conditions of access to natural resources, etc.). The integration of these indicators in the monitoring framework will allow having a general idea of the evolution of the environmental situation under the influence of the changes and the potential impacts that might be generated by the NHLP in the agricultural sector development in Afghanistan. They therefore focus on the environmental aspect and reflect a status of the environment as a result of the NHLP implementation. These indicators will need to be monitored regularly at different stages of NHLP development and implementation.

The tables below (Annex 3, 4, and 5) provide the framework of environmental monitoring, indicators and the elements of the environment which will require surveillance. It is given as a guide and provides guidance on the relevant parameters to take into account, the timetables and the role of the various actors involved in the monitoring of NHLP programs. It should be noted that some parameters evolve and should be reviewed periodically, to adapt them to the current environmental context.

6.6. Proper Procedures of SEA Assessment

According to the OECD and World Bank procedures, it is important to evaluate the present SEA to determine, on the one hand, if the objectives have been met entirely or in part, and on the other hand to ensure control of the quality of the SEA process, with regard to the respect of the steps.

The main expected result of a SEA being the development and ownership of a process, and not a product, the quality of SEA control will therefore consist to examine to what extent the procedures have been conducted in a satisfactory manner. The evaluation could be limited to a relatively simple exercise of checks if SEA has suggested more viable alternative solutions and a realistic and achievable Environmental Management Framework.

In a more ambitious option, one may be seeking to determine if SEA has led to the development and implementation of more sustainable NHLP, in connection with the effective integration of the environment. Moreover, one can extend the field of evaluation to institutional issues and capacity building, which exert a strong influence on the process of SEA implementation.

The key points to consider in the evaluation of a SEA process include the quality of the information, the degree of participation of stakeholders, the objectives assigned to SEA, analysis of the impacts on the environment, concrete actions envisaged to SEA and the obstacles have to be overcome. The evaluation of the real impact of SEA on the sustainability of the NHLP focuses on the review of the validity of the assumptions made for the NHLP subprojects’ development; the effects of SEA on the process of decision, implementation, the objectives of development and transparency of the management of environmental-related issues of NHLP, and the results of SEA in terms of institutional capacity building.

In the long term, however, the development progress, in parallel to the maintenance of environmental sustainability in the NHLP, will also constitute key measures to the SEA success.

Finally, one may use other elements of analysis to specifically assess the performance and effectiveness of SEA, in respect of which:

(i) the benefits brought by SEA in terms of success and sustainability in NHLP implementation; (ii) the contribution of SEA to the strengthening of the capacities of key stakeholders; (iii) the transparency of decision-making, (iv) the accountability of decision-makers about the environmental implications of NHLP; (v) the impact of the results and monitoring established by SEA on the orientations and the implementation of NHLP to make them more respectful of the environment; (vi) the effectiveness of the level of cooperation between the SEA team and the NHLP team; (vii) the level of public participation in the process.

6.7. Institutional Capacity Building and Coordination Measures

The current situation of environmental management at the level of the MAIL, belongs to the General Directorate of Natural Resources Management (Development Forestry & Rangeland), has many shortcomings that have been deplored by stakeholders that have been consulted in this study.

The General Directorate, which comprises the Directorate of Environmental Management among others, is not well structured to be responsible for EIA issues. However, the environmental monitoring which is the responsibility of NEPA, is relatively short of capacity when considering the issues of the environmental, social and health issues related to hydro-agriculture facilities and irrigation schemes: no stations or laboratory measurements and analysis, no qualitative monitoring of water quality and aquatic wildlife, no health monitoring of water quality and water-borne diseases, etc.

This situation of disability, which also characterizes the MAIL, will have to be corrected very quickly so that the negative trend is reversed in the framework of the SEA implementation. The establishment of a strong and equipped Environment Cell within the Directorate of Environmental Management in MAIL (with skilled and diverse human resources, as well as with adapted measuring equipment and for convenience analysis) should ensure a good coordination of the SEA process. Taking into account the

institutional capacity building actions proposed below, this would allow for an effective implementation of SEA in NHLP development.

6.7.1. Institutional Arrangements for SEA Monitoring and Implementation

The implementation and the execution of SEA for the NHLP require the establishment of functional coordination and monitoring structures that will ensure the integration of SEA into NHLP implementation. The diagram below is proposed as an institutional arrangement to implement: (i) a Steering Committee (SC) for the coordination of all SEA procedures; (ii) an Environment Cell at the level of MAIL; (iii) Environment Focal Points who will be responsible for the operationalization of SEA in NHLP. These institutional arrangements for coordination and cooperation should be discussed with the main players involved in SEA implementation and monitoring, which constitutes a sovereign mission vis-à-vis the NHLP.

6.7.2. Establishment of a Steering Committee (SC)

The establishment of a sustainable structure as a focal body at the level of the above-mentioned rural development institutions responds to the concern to provide these sectoral ministries with an operational coordination framework, functional and effective, in order to:

i) institutionalize the practice of SEA and EIA in the rural sector development-related ministries. ii) ensure taking into account the environmental and social aspects in the targeted programs. iii) ensure the monitoring of environmental and social performance indicators in the SEA. iv) develop a prospective vision of an Environmental Management System (EMS) to register in the long term quality process.

To promote the taking into account the requirements of the targeted environmental and social programs in the SEA framework, it is important, in the immediate future, to strengthen the capacity of the agents of different technical services of NEPA and of MAIL to enable them to design or ensure, in their respective fields, that the necessary environmental measures will be taken into account in the implementation of SEAs.

The SEA Steering Committee will therefore constitute the strategic coordination level that must ensure the consolidation of the concerned ministries for the establishment and the effective management of the SEA process in their sectors. Its essential roles will be:

i) to ensure external strategic monitoring concerning the compliance of the future NHLP with economic policy and synergies with the other agricultural programs; ii) to provide strategic direction to MAIL on the SEA through the Environment Cell;

ii) to integrate the SEA and environmental issues into the planning of MAIL; iii) to plan the whole SEA implementation process in agricultural sector: formulation of programs, meetings of consultation on SEA, consultation with TFP, etc; v) to plead with the authorities for the implementation of SEA in the NHLP.

vi) to ensure the support/council to the Government and the TFP on SEA and environmental governance. vii) to lobbying the TFP and the Government for the mobilization of necessary financing for the SEA implementation in MAIL.

Observations: In the proposed coordination scheme, an essential role should be vested to the NEPA’s Directorate of Environmental Management and Sustainable Development as an administration responsible for the management of the EIA procedures, for external operational monitoring of SEA procedures. The chart below gives an indication of the institutional framework proposed.

Figure 4: Institutional Framework for SEA Monitoring and Implementation

LEVEL OF INTERVENTION COORDINATING STRUCTURES ROLE IN THE SEA IMPLMENTATION

 Coordination STEERING COMMITTEE  Supervision

 Planning  Facilitation

 Capacity building

National (NEPA) Environment Cell Environment Cell  Horticulture Livestock Operationalization of SEA  Sectoral Aspect of SEA  Technological Research

 Application of best practice directives  Environmental monitoring

 Etc. Focal Point Focal Point

Agriculture-MAIL Environment-NEPA

NEPA Provincial Technical Services, DAIL, Local Communities

 Provincial Environmental Monitoring  Social Mobilisation Provincial/Local  Sensitization/information  86 Local Monitoring

6.7.3. Strengthening of Technical Services of Environmental Expertise

To ensure efficiency and functionality of these coordination structures, all the agents concerned or involved in the Steering Committee, in the Environment Cells, including the Focal Points and representatives of local communities, must receive training in SEA and in EIA. These national experts should benefit from the support and permanent technical assistance of the Directorate of Environmental Management and Sustainable Development of NEPA, the Directorate General of Natural Resources Management of MAIL and the NHLP national coordination, to conduct the following activities required for the implementation of SEA:

i) filling of the environmental selection form (see annex 1); ii) analysis of proposed mitigation measures in the list of environmental and social control (see annex 2); iii) preparation of TORs for NHLP subprojects requiring a separate EIA OR EIN; iv) dissemination of SEA and EIA reports to key stakeholders and appropriate institutions; v) carry out environmental monitoring, in collaboration with appropriate services in provincial DAILs; vi) organization of information workshops, awareness and training on SEAs and EIAs in provincial DAILs.

6.8. Measures to Strengthen the Legislative and Regulatory Instruments

While stressing the remarkable advances that led to the issuance of the 2007 Environmental Act and its 2007 Ordinance of EIA, the conclusion which emerges from the overview of this law is that the provisions of this text are clearly insufficient to supervise and regulate the SEAs in any sector in Afghanistan. SEA being a new concept in Afghanistan, it is not therefore mentioned in this Environment Law. In addition, the lack of clarity between the Environmental Assessment (EA, i.e. a process of estimating and evaluating significant short-term and long-term effects of a program or project on the quality of its location’s environment) and the Environmental Impact Study (EIA, i.e. an assessment of possible positive or negative impact that a proposed project may have on the environment, together consisting of environmental, social and economic aspect) often produces some confusion in terminology, procedures and the definition of certain concepts.

Also, with a view to improvement of legislative instruments for a better integration of the environment, both in the Policies, Plans and Programs (SEA) and in the projects (EIA), two measures are proposed:

 the review of the Law on EIAs that takes into account the following elements: (i) add in the content of the EIA report the analysis of the institutional framework of the environment and the sponsor Ministry’s strengths, weaknesses and opportunities, (ii) the list of national legislations applicable to the project (NHLP in this case), (iii) the list of the international conventions and agreements ratified by Afghanistan and applicable to the project; (iv) provide technical and administrative procedures of EIA as the requirement of certification of qualification for the firms and consultants to carry out EIAs in Afghanistan; (v) involve representatives of local authorities from the phase of TOR approval; (vi) specify in the ESMF the role of actors

responsible for its implementation; and (vii) add in the content of the EIA report the analysis of the situation "without project".

 the development of a decree on SEAs, applicable to all policies, plans and programs in Afghanistan, that will be the legal and regulatory framework for the integration of environmental issues in the country’s strategic directions.

6.9. Measures to Strengthen Environmental Management Tools

The implementation of SEA requires strengthening technical measures concerning the development of a number of environmental governance tools, to be used not only to the environment Focal Points, but also to companies and their subcontractors, namely:

i) environmental guidelines and the agricultural sector guides to be applied in the NHLP implementation (e.g., sustainable land management guide, pesticides use procedures, etc.).

ii) a manual of environmental clauses to insert into the bidding documents of NHLP investment sub-projects.

iii) an environmental database relating to the livestock sectors (small ruminants and poultry).

Development of Guidelines for the Sustainable Land Management (SLM) and Pesticides Management

The development of guides and/or guidelines for the Sustainable Land Management of (SLM- USAID, 2011) and the use of pesticides (cf. PMP-IAIDS project, 2011) provide a response to a concern related to the implementation of SEA where these documents can serve as practical guides for the improvement of environmental conditions related in particular to horticultural and pastoral activities, and to the preservation of land and natural resources.

The application of SLM and the judicious use of pesticides (through IMP) being key elements in improving the horticultural and livestock programs, it is important that practitioners in these fields, and especially those who will be benefiting from the implementation of NHLP, have appropriate instruments and easy to use, that can be used consistently for the productivity and the preservation of the environment.

Development of an environmental database

The environmental database is a decision-making tool and a natural environment analysis tool that allows not only for a coherent planning of the territory, but also to ensure the dissemination of information for better coordination of agricultural programs. It is therefore important to ensure that the implementation of SEA in the agricultural development is supported through the provision of a reference environmental data, giving specific guidance on the major issues, which are informed through an accessible documentary basis by the various specialists. This guidance is a key element to support the implementation of SEA during the NHLP implementation.

This environmental database will be able to supply not only the agricultural technical services to information system, but can also be used as repository to better assess the potential impacts, the effort deployed and mitigation measures used for the sustainable management of the agricultural sector.

It is therefore necessary to have such a database as a monitoring and control tool for potential environmental risks arising from the implementation of NHLP. Indicatively, among the major areas and the types of data that can be collected for this database, one should include:

- Environmental parameters of horticulture and livestock concerning: (i) ecological monitoring of routes and transhumance zones (Kuchi Nomads); (ii) monitoring of vegetation indices, acquisition of satellite images and the data processing software and pictures of the agro-ecological diversity, (iii) evolution trends of transhumance areas, (iv) monitoring of the evolution of natural resources,

(vi) environmental protection and prevention systems, (vii) monitoring of the transformations of pastoral ecosystems into agricultural zones, (viii) monitoring of trends and factors affecting ecosystems, (ix) monitoring of the desertification and land degradation phenomena, (x) the control of greenhouse gases emissions, (xi) the monitoring of the appearance of exotic invasive species, (xii) the monitoring of acidification and eutrophication phenomena of agricultural ecosystems, etc. - Environmental parameters and monitoring of water resources, including: (i) control of the increase or the water deficit in the main watersheds, (ii) monitoring of factors and signs of shortage, control of the level of pollutants in water, (iii) control of the degradation of water quality in the water supply facilities, (iv) monitoring the frequency and intensity of natural disasters, (v) control of the ability of groundwater recharge, (vi) alert plans and monitoring of the flood spots, (vii) control of water resources potential, (i) the mapping of water users (water for rural household consumption, agricultural water, industrial water) monitoring of priority plans for water supply and sanitation, etc.

6.10. Financial Capacity Building Measures

Since 2002 after the fall of the Taliban, NEPA was created in 2005 and one of the objectives was to centralized the efforts of several donors and funding agencies (including the World Bank, ADB, EC, GEF, several Bilateral Agencies) that have provided assistance to the country in the framework of National Environmental Strategy (NES) and the integration of environmental considerations into relevant ministry and sector strategies within the development process of Afghanistan's National Development Strategy (ANDS).

The financing of the environment needs sustainability, because sustainable development actions are appreciated and assessed only on the long-term with benefits that will intervene sometimes only after a long period of time. The implementation of SEA in NHLP will succeed only if appropriate environmental funding mechanisms are implemented at the level of the MAIL with portfolios for certain key programs, such as horticulture, livestock, irrigation, on-farm water management, etc.

This situation fully justifies the inclusion of financial aspects in the budget planning of MAIL to more substantial levels that they are at the moment. In view of the difficulties of feeding the NEPA with national resources in order to provide support to environmental programs in MAIL, it is necessary to seek other potential sources of funding, to include:

i) international agencies specialized and/or involved in the environment. ii) the introduction of the ecotax and the application of the "polluter-pays". iii) the exploration of the scheme of the carbon credit. iv) the opportunities of direct funding by local communities and financial partners.

6.11. Strengthening Equipment and Technical Infrastructure Measures

The implementation of SEA, the monitoring and control of mitigation measures, the implementation of the Environmental Management Framework and other related environmental monitoring activities in NHLP need to be supported by an acquisition of equipment and technical infrastructure such as:

i) mobile equipment for water quality control. ii) equipment for the control of emissions (gases, fumes and dust, etc.). iii) individual equipment for protection against pesticides application effects (gloves, masks, combinations, etc.).

iv) mini-stations for control and monitoring of meteorological parameters (wind direction, temperature, humidity, etc.). v) containers for storage of veterinary waste.

The acquisition of such equipment shall be accompanied by a training program of the NHLP’s Environmental and Social Safeguard (ESS) personnel for their use, their handling and maintenance.

6.12. Training and Human Capacity Building Measures

The training of actors involved in the implementation of SEA is a key step that must intervene at an early stage of the process. This training is not only for the Environment Focal Points, but also for officials of decentralized technical services (MAIL, MRRD, MEW, etc.), ESS personnel, and associative producer groups that can be affected by the implementation of NHLP subprojects.

These actors will have the responsibility to ensure the integration of the environmental dimension in the achievements of NHLP subprojects, ensure monitoring, environmental control and the implementation of the ESMF and ESMP in different NHLP subprojects. The training aims to strengthen the capacity of

targeted actors in environmental assessment, in the control of monitoring and surveillance programs, so that they can play their respective roles more effectively.

Thematic training sessions will be organized to enable national, regional and community structures (involved in the monitoring of NHLP) to impregnate the SEA provisions of the environmental selection process and will be centered on: i) the analysis of environmental and social issues related to NHLP and agricultural infrastructure works and equipment. ii) Introduction of EIA and SEA as environmental decision-making procedures. iii) the environmental control of work sites, their surveillance and monitoring. iv) the hygiene, health and safety aspects in the NHLP subprojects.

In order to develop these training modules consistent with certain international good practices of environmental governance, target actors will be also trained on the comparative analysis of application to the national legislation with the guidelines of the World Bank procedures and some practical cases known in the sub-region. To do this, trainers skilled in SEA and EIA should be recruited with the assistance of NEPA and the Environment Cells responsible for the conduct of SEA.

The table below gives the list of themes that can be used for basic training modules.

Table 9: Training Themes Required in Environmental Assessment, SEA and EIA

CONCERNED ACTORS TRAINING THEMES - Steering Committee to SEA - Strategic Environmental Assessment, Environmental - Sectoral Environnement Cell Impact Assessment. - Environment Focal Points - Selection procedures and environmental - Technical service agents and associatives groups: classification of programs and projects. DAIL, DRRD, MUNICIPALITY, NGOs, DoPH, - Identification of impacts, selection of mitigation WUA, FA, FFA, PGA, FGA, NGA, NSD, Civil measures and indicators. Society, Private Sector, provincial services, district - Development of the TORs and reporting analysis and local communities, etc. procedures. - Legislation and national environmental procedures. - OECD and World Bank Guidelines on the SEAs. - Environmental monitoring and implementation of the ESMF and the ESMP. - Monitoring of standards: hygiene, health, safety, pesticide management. - Safeguards procedures and World Bank environmental policies.

6.5. Costs of Implementation and Execution of SEA

The costs of implementation of SEA in agricultural sector development are estimated at approximately USD 2,000,000 (as indicated in the table below). They were assessed on a tentative period of five years (2013-2018) from the costs associated with accompanying measures, such as described in the previous sections.

The SEA implementation costs are based on the experiences from some countries of other regions, especially in Benin and Mali (Sub-Saharan Africa) and Tunisia (Middle East and North Africa). The costs of environmental preservation and the ESMF implementation measures should be inserted in the budgets of the MAIL and are not provided in the evaluation of data below.

Table 10: Cost of Implementation of SEA SEA Implementation Targeted Objectives Indicative Financing Sources Implementation Cost (USD) Schedule 1. Measures of SEA - Implement and ensure the functionality of the Steering Committee. 300, 000 National Budget and YEAR 1 of the SEA implementation and other resources to be approval process - Implement and ensure the functionality of the Environment Cells at the level execution at the strategic found of line ministries (MAIL, MRRD, MEW, etc). level - Appoint the Environment Focal Points at the level of Technical Services concerned in line ministries and ensure their functionality. - Recruit consultants for: the development of the ordinances, laws or directives on SEA, the re-reading of the Ordinance on the EIAs, partial greening of the PRSP/ANDS, the development of sectoral guides, the synthesis of practical manuals of the SLM and IWRM, use and pesticide management manuals, etc. 2. Technical measures for - Recruit consultants to develop and ensure the implementation and 1,200,000 UNDP/UNEP/TFP YEAR 2 of the SEA SEA implementation organization of training sessions for the members of the Steering Committee, approval process the Environment Cells and Focal Points. - Acquire equipment for environmental control for capacity building of the technical services of NEPA/MAIL. - Organize training and awareness sessions of the actors at the base. - Build up an environmental database on the agricultural sector development with: computer equipment, meteorological mini-station, mobile equipment for water quality and gas emission, data processing software, training, etc. 3. Additional measures for - Ensure Monitoring of the implementation and execution of SEA-related 500,000 National Budget and YEAR 3 and 5 of the SEA monitoring of the activities in NHLP (field trip, meetings of stakeholders, study tours on similar other resources to be SEA approval process process programs abroad, other ad hoc activities deemed relevant to the SEA found monitoring, etc.). - Capacity building of technical services at the provincial level, district and local communities to closely monitor SEA implementation at the rural community level. - Strengthen the capacity of producer groups and local NGOs for their involvement in the close monitoring of SEA implementation at the local level. Total cost of the SEA implementation measures in agricultural development (USD) 2,000,000 - -

PART 7: FINAL RECOMMENDATIONS

The Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) of NHLP concludes in an incomplete consideration of the protection of the environment at the strategic level, not only in the MAIL, but also in all line ministries involved in rural development. This situation is induced not only by the low interest of the environment in strategic orientation documents of Afghanistan (ANDS), but also by its marginalization in environmental public policies.

Generally, the environment is not a key factor for competitiveness of the national economy in the public policies of Afghanistan; there is a dilution of environmental concerns in sectoral programs and sometimes they are reduced to the single natural resource management.

Finally, there is no functional analysis framework and sufficiently equipped to accompany the players in agricultural sector in the application of the environmental governance tools, in connection with the poverty reduction and sustainable development strategy.

To correct these deficiencies, the Afghan authorities as well as the MAIL decision-makers need to commit themselves to improving the instruments of strategic direction in order adopt the Strategic Environmental Assessment as a tool for planning, preservation of ecosystem and sustainable development in some key agricultural programs, including NHLP.

This approach joins the expectations of technical and financial partners (TFP) and must allow MAIL to capitalize the lessons from the implementation of SEA devoted to NHLP implementation and reap the substantial benefits, to the extent that this study: i) will serve as a reference base for other SEAs to come; ii) will reduce delays and the steps required for the SEA implementation in other sectors; iii) will alleviate the time and financial costs related to the achievement of other SEAs; iv) allow to have a core of people familiar with the SEA procedures in rural development sector; v) will allow to meet the challenges of a more strategic development cooperation; vi) will allow to avoid costly errors in future agricultural programs planning. vii) will allow to involve and familiarize the public and strategic actors in decision-making for better governance. viii) will allow to support the harmonization and alignment of donor efforts.

Also, for better consideration of SEA in the agricultural sector, the following recommendations are issued, in collaboration with all structures and field actors met, namely: - the political will to institutionalize the SEAs as a tool of good environmental governance and insert it into the country’s legal and regulatory framework; - designate a leader among rural sector’s TFP for the monitoring, the search for funding, implementation and ownership of SEA; - re-read the 2007 Environment Act and insert a legislative provision on SEA, applicable to other strategic sectors such as infrastructure, extractive industry (mining, oil and gas), energy, transport, etc., to begin the gradual greening of the ANDS. - re-read the Ordinance on EIAs on some specific provisions and put in place a system to ensure its effective implementation in the field as well as other legislative instruments in force. 94

- put in place in MAIL an institutional framework for the implementation and execution of SEA through: (i) a Steering Committee (SC) for the strategic supervision of SEA; (ii) Environment Cells at the level of the sector ministries for the operationalization and the implementation of SEA; and finally (iii) Environment Focal Points, responsible for monitoring and the implementation of the SEA recommendations. - develop training and capacity building program in MAIL for organizations and associative groups responsible for SEA monitoring and implementation. - strengthen the consultation and exchange framework for the monitoring of implementation of SEA in the agricultural sector and improving administrative procedures for treatment of the files relating to environmental issues at the level of the MAIL. - involve associative groups and local communities in the implementation of SEA (training, information, awareness-raising, technical support, etc.) through decentralized structures of the MAIL. - set up a database for the monitoring of certain environmental parameters of agricultural development for better tracking of SEA (baseline, sector standards, sensitive elements, characterization of the elements of the environment: air, water, soil, etc.). - mobilize financial resources (national budget, the TFP and the bilateral and multilateral cooperation, etc.) necessary for the SEA implementation. - integrate funding for the environment and protection of natural resources in the budget nomenclature of MAIL, NHLP, as well as in Provinces and at the District levels. - implement the recommendations of the ESMF with regards: - applying stringent mitigation measures advocated for the preservation of the biophysical (air, water, soil, fauna and flora) and human (health, socio-cultural heritage, displacement and resettlement of populations, management of conflicts of access to resources, socio-economic aspects, etc.) environments; - the selection and environmental liability of programs related to NHLP implementation: (i) environmental compliance of NHLP subprojects; (ii) environmental analysis screening and classification of subprojects; (iii) development and validation of the terms of Reference; (iv) consultation with the public and key stakeholders, including public investigation and the dissemination of information to stakeholders; (v) audit, monitoring and environmental monitoring programs; (vi) compliance of programs with the view of environmental feasibility and; finally (vii) environmental programs monitoring and surveillance.

In summary, we consider that the realization of SEA for NHLP implementation undertaken by MAIL is a vision that corresponds to the expectations of the technical and financial partners, but which also constitutes a strategic axis to allow ensure effective consideration of the environment into policies, plans and programs and to strengthen the legal instruments and good environmental governance in the MAIL.

We strongly recommend a better involvement and ownership of stakeholders, to make this SEA a real tool of environmental planning and sustainable development in Afghanistan.

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1. A cost comparison of various methods of retrieving derelict fishing gear, Wiig, H. 2005, available at www.hawaii.gov/dbedt/info/energy/resource/waste/marinedebris-pacon05.pdf 2. A Preliminary Assessment of Forest Cover and Change in the Eastern Forest Complex of Afghanistan, by Wildlife Conservation Society and USAID, 2009 3. Afghanistan and FAO, Achievements and Success Stories, 2011 4. Afghanistan Food Security Outlook by USAID, Famine Early Warning Systems Network, and FAO, 2012 5. Afghanistan: Environmental degradation in a fragile ecological setting Int. J Sustain. Dev. World Ecol. 8 (2001) 279-289 6. Afghanistan: National Capacity Needs Self-Assessment for Global Environmental Management (NCSA) and National Adaptation Programme of Action for Climate Change (NAPA); GEF, UNEP, and NEPA Final Joint Report, 2009 7. Afghanistan: Post-Conflict Environmental Assessment, United Nation Environment Programme, 2003 8. Afghanistan’s Environmental Recovery: Post-Conflict Plan for People and their Natural Resources, UNEP 2004 9. Agriculture and Irrigation, Environmental Guidelines for small-scale activities in Africa, USAID, 2009 10. Applying Strategic Environmental Assessment to Development Co-operation, OECD, 2006 11. Applying Strategic Environmental Assessment: Good Practice Guidance for Development Co- operation, OECD, 2006 12. Biodiversity Profile of Afghanistan, An Output of the National Capacity Needs Assessment for Global Environment Management (NCSA) for Afghanistan; United nation Environment Programme Post-Conflict and Disaster Management Branch, 2008 13. Capacity Building and Institutional Development Programme for Environmental Management in Afghanistan, UNEP Post-Conflict and Disaster Management Branch, Progress Report, 2008 14. Environment Assessment and Review Framework for the Proposed Multitranche Financing Facility Islamic Republic of Afghanistan: Energy Sector Development Program, Environmental Safeguard Document, ADB, 2008 15. Environmental Impact Guidelines, FAO Investment Centre, 1999, No. 1 16. Environmental Methods Review: Retooling Impact Assessment for the New Century, Alan L. Porter and John J. Fittipaldi, Editors, 1998 17. Evaluation du coût de la dégradation de l'Eau en Tunisie, BM, 2007 18. Evaluation économique de la gestion environnementale au Mali : Coûts et Bénéfices, SBA, 2009 20. Evaluation Environnementale Strategique (EES) du Secteur de l’Hydraulique, Direction du Project Pauvreté et Environnement de Mauritanie, 2010 21. Evaluation Environnementale Stratégique du Développement Rural au Mali : Secteurs Agriculture, Elevage, Pêche ; Ministère de l’Environnement et de l’Assainissement, Projet Initiative Pauvrete et Environnement, 2011 22. FRAUKE DE WEIJER (2005): Pastoralist Support Strategy Draft by USAID and RAMP (Rebuilding Agricultural Markets Program in Afghanistan) presented by Chemonics International, Inc. 23. GEF, UNEP, and NEPA: Biodiversity and Wetlands Working Group’s Final Report, 2008 24. GEF, UNEP, and NEPA: Desertification, Rangelands and Water Resources Working Group’s Final Report, 2008 25. Green Afghanistan Initiative (GAIN), Program 2006-2010

26. Ground Contamination Assessment Report: Military Waste Storage Site, Astana, Afghanistan United Nations Environment Programme Post-Conflict Branch (PCoB), 2006 27. Impact des systèmes d'élevage pastoraux sur l'environnement en Afrique et en Asie (tropicale et subtropicale, aride et subaride), Marc Carrière, FAO/USAID/BM, 1996 28. Islamic Republic of Afghanistan: Afghanistan National Development Strategy 1387-1391 (2008-2013); A strategy for Security, Governance, Economic Development and Poverty Reduction, 29. Islamic Republic of Afghanistan: Afghanistan’s Fourth National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity, Submitted by the Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock (MAIL), 2009 30. Islamic Republic of Afghanistan: Draft CITES Implementation Regulation, 2010 31. Islamic Republic of Afghanistan: Environment Law, Official Gazette No. 912, 25 January 2007 32. Islamic Republic of Afghanistan: National Environmental Protection Agency Strategy for Afghanistan National Development Strategy (with focus on Prioritization), 2007 33. John Richard Hall (1999): Strategic Environmental Assessment: A Relevant Methodology for FloodPlain Planning and Development Control, Dissertation for the Partial Fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Environmentall Studies, Department of Geographcal and Environmental Studies, University of Adelaide 34. Juan M. Estrada (2005): Perennial Horticulture in Eastern Afghanistan: Subsector Overview and Implementation Strategy, Alternative Livelihoods Project /East, USAID-Afghanistan. 35. L’évaluation environnementale stratégique. Guide de bonnes pratiques dans le domaine de la coopération pour le développement, OCDE, 2006 36. Les zoonozes majeures au cameroun et leur incidence sur la population humaine: proposition d'un plan de lutte, Roqer Hempo, thèse 28 juin 1988 37. Mauritanie: UNDP-UNEP POVERTY-ENVIRONMENT INITIATIVE, 38. Multilateral Environmental Agreements: Handbook for Afghan Ofﬁcials, United Nations Environment Programme Post-Conﬂict and Disaster Management Branch, 2008 39. Natural Heritage: Supplementary Planning Guidance Strategic Environmental Assessment Environmental Report, Strategic Environmental Assessment, 2010 40. Nicholas A. Linacre, Joanne Gaskell, Mark W. Rosegrant, Jose Falck-Zepeda, Hector Quemada, Mark Halsey, and Regina Birner (2005): Analysis for Biotechnology Innovations Using Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA), International Food Policy Research Institute, Environment and Production Technology Division, Discussion Paper 140. 41. Nikolaos Silleos, Georgios Zalidis, Neki Frasheri, Konstantinos Douros, Thomas Alexandridis, Vasileios Takavakoglou, and Christos Karydas (2006): Strategic Environmental Assessment of Inappropriate Agricultural Land and Water Management in the Transboundary Lake Mikri Prespa, Report of the INTERREG IIB – CADSES for project ‘ISOTEIA’ (3B093) 42. Programme d'action nationale de lutte contre la désertification en Mauritanie (PAN/LCD), République Islamique de Mauritanie. Ministère du développement rural et de l'environnement, 2002 43. Programme de Développement intégré de l’Agriculture irriguée à Foum Gleita en Mauritanie, Ministère du Développement rural et de l’Environnement, 2008 44. Raphy Favre (2003): Grazing Land Encroachment joint Helicopter Mission to Dasht-e Laili, FAO/MAAHM 45. Socioeconomic Survey & Range Use Survey of Wakhi Households Using the Afghan Pamir, Wakhan District, Badakhshan Province, Afghanistan, by the Wildlife Conservation Society’s Afghanistan Biodiversity Project, 2007 46. Strategic Environmental Assessment at the Policy Level: Recent Progress, Current Status and Future Prospects, Ministry of the Environment, CZECH Republic, 2005

47. The debt of nations and the distribution of ecological impacts from human activities, U. Thara Srinivasan, Susan P. Carey, Eric Hallstein, Paul A. T. Higgins, Amber C. Kerr, Laura E. Koteen, Adam B. Smith, Reg Watson, John Harte, and Richard B. Norgaard, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2008 February 5; 105(5): 1768–1773. 48. The Integration of Biodiversity into National Environmental Assessment Procedures, Biodiversity Planning Support Programme of the Global Environment Facility, 2001 49. The Integration of Biodiversity into National Environmental Assessment Procedures National Case Studies Afghanistan, Produced for the Biodiversity Planning Support Programme by GEF, UNDP, UNEP, and the World Bank, 2001 50. UNEP in Afghanistan: Laying the Foundations for Sustainable Development, United Nations Environment Programme, 2009 51. UNEP Programme in Afghanistan- Annual Report 2010 52. United Nations Environment Programme: Recommended Strategy for Conflict Resolution of Competing High Pasture Claims of Settled and Nomadic Communities in Afghanistan, 2009 53. USAID/AFGHANISTAN: Water Users Association (WUAs) in Afghanistan Report, Report for RAMP -CLIN 0002- JO# 44-DAI RAMP/Development Alternatives Inc. (DAI), 2006 54. Water Management, Livestock and Opium Economy: Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit, Research and Development for a Better Livestock Productivity, DACAAR, 2009 55. WCS Afghanistan Biodiversity Conservation Project; Field Report No 4 (Wakhan Winter Avifauna) by Wildlife Conservation Society and USAID, 2007 56. WCS Afghanistan Biodiversity Conservation Project; Field Report No 6 (Wildlife Immobilization) by Wildlife Conservation Society and USAID, 2007 57. Abandoned, lost or otherwise discarded fishing gear, Graeme Macfadyen, Tim Huntington, Rod Cappell, United Nations Environment Programme Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, 2009 58. Afghanistan: Environmental Degradation in a Fragile Ecological Setting, Int. J Sustain. Dev. World Ecol. 8 (2001) 279-289 59. Evaluation Environnementale Stratégique (EES) du Secteur du Développement Rural, Direction du Projet Pauvreté et Environnement de Mauritanie, 2010 60. Land Management Affairs Law, Official Gazette #958; Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, 2008 61. Pro-poor Development Policy and Natural Resource Management in Post-Conflict Afghanistan: Changes and Challenge: Mohammad Hossein Emadi, Proceedings of the International Conference on Poverty Reduction and Forests, Bangkok, 2007 62. Reform and Rehabilitation: The Opportunities and Risks for Pro-Poor Intervention in Afghan’s Irrigation Sector, David Thomas, AFGHANISTAN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2011 63. Sultan Mahmood Mahmoodi (2008): Integrated Water Resources Management for Rural Development and Environmental Protection in Afghanistan, Journal of Developments in Sustainable Agriculture (3) 9-19 64. Umbrella Document for the National Agriculture Development Framework, Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock, 2009 65. Water Strategy meets local Reality, Afghanistan Research and Evaluations Unit, 2009 66. National Environmental Impact Assessment Policy, An Integrated Approach to Environmental Assessment in Afghanistan, IRA/NEPA 22007 67. Eric Ryan Potyondy (2006): Headwaters and Headaches: Afghanistan’s Need for International River Basin Agreements, Colo. J. Int’l Envtl. L. & Pol’y, Vol 17:1 68. Islamic Republic of Afghanistan Water Law, Ministry Justice Official Gazette No. (980), 2009

69. Afghanistan: Agriculture Sector Program, Independent Evaluation Department, Asian Development Bank, 2010 70. Need for a Park- Afghan Treaty on Management of Water Courses, Regional Institute of Policy Research and Training, Peshewar, Pakistan 2007 71. ICARDA Caravan: Review of Agriculture in the Dry Areas; N0. 24, 2007 72. Islamic Republic of Afghanistan: Country Strategy Paper 2007-2013, 2006 73. Making the Most of Afghanistan’s River Basins Opportunities for Regional Cooperation, by Matthew King and Benjamin Sturtewagen, 2010 74. A Practical Guide to the Strategic Environmental Assessment Directive, Practical guidance on applying European Directive 2001/42/EC “on the assessment of the effects of certain plans and programmes on the environment”, Department of the Environment, Welsh, Scotland, 2005 75. UNEP/FAO: Afghanistan Wakhan Mission Technical Report, 2003 76. Environmental and Social Management Framework Afghanistan Rural Enterprise Development Program Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation and Development, 2010 77. Islamic Republic of Afghanistan: ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK for the Irrigation Restoration and Development Project, 2011 78. Islamic Republic of Afghanistan Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock: PEST MANAGEMENT PLAN (PMP) FOR Improving Agricultural Inputs Delivery System (IAIDS) Project, 2011 79. Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, Ministry of Agriculture Irrigation and Livestock: PEST Management Plan for the Emergency Horticulture and Livestock Project (HLP), 2009 80. Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, Ministry of Agriculture Irrigation and Livestock: Environmental and Social Management Framework (ESMF) for the Emergency Horticulture and Livestock Project (HLP), 2006 81. Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, Ministry of Agriculture Irrigation and Livestock: Environmental and Social Management Framework (ESMF) for the On-Farm Water Management (OFWM) Project, 2009

A N N E X E S

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Annex 1. Environmental Selection Form

This selection form is designed to assist in the initial selection of activities related to the NHLP subprojects. The form was designed for the information between the hands of the implementers and planners so that the environmental and social impacts and relevant mitigation measures are identified and/or the requirements for further environmental analysis are defined. The form contains information that will allow the structures responsible for the implementation of SEA at the level of MAIL to determine the characteristic aspects of the biophysical and human environments to assess the potential impacts of the sub-projects on these environments.

Environmental and Social Selection Form 1 Name of village/town/city/province where the sub-project will be implemented 2 Name, title, function and references of the person responsible for the filling of the form Date Signature

Part A: Brief description of the area of influence of the sub-project - Provide information about the type and dimensions of the sub-project and/or project (area, land necessary, approximate size of facilities, etc.); - Describe how the installation and/or the facilities will function, including support activities and resources needed to operate, as for example the access roads, disposal sites, water and materials needs, human resources, etc. - Describe the institutional framework of the sub-project, the consultation and coordination mechanisms, the actors involved, etc.

Part B: Brief description of the environmental situation and identification of the environmental and social impacts 1. Brief description of the proposed sub-project Provide information on the technical description of the sub-project (components, activities, infrastructure, etc.). ______2. Description of the initial environment (a) Describe the elements of the natural environment: soil, topography, fauna, flora, water, etc., in the area of direct influence of the sub-project or the adjacent area to the area of the sub-project. ______(b) Provide an estimate and indicate vegetation that may be affected by the sub-project. ______(c) Describe the sensitive elements of the location on the environmental point of view (species threatened or protected that could be negatively affected by the sub-project).  Natural forests unaltered: Yes______No______

 Neighboring forests: Yes______No______

 Humid areas (lakes , rivers, flooded areas, etc.): Yes______No______

 Sub-project distance relative to the closest humid areas? ______km  Natural habitats for which protection is required by Afghan national laws and/or international agreements: Yes____No______

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 Other zones or sensitive areas located in the zone of influence of the program: Yes_____No______(d) Describe the elements of the human environment: socio-economic activities, sites and cultural heritage, economic potential of the area, health aspects, hygiene and sanitation, etc. ______

3. Analysis of Sensitive Areas and Fragile Ecosystems

3.1. Rivers and Lakes Ecology

Is there a possibility that, because of the implementation of the sub-project, the rivers or lakes ecology is negatively affected? Yes______No______

3.2. Protected and Sensitive Areas

Does the area of influence of the sub-project include protected areas defined by the Government or local communities (national park, reserve, protected site, cultural heritage, etc.)? Yes______No______

If the facilities and infrastructure required by the sub-project are outside a protected area (or its surroundings), are they likely to negatively affect the ecology of the protected area (for example: interference with mammals’ migration corridors or birds)? Yes______No______

3.3. Land Occupation

On the basis of the activities envisaged in the sub-project, is it planned to move populations and to relocate them on other sites? Yes ______No______On the basis of the activities envisaged in the sub-project, is it planned to expropriate land or property owners? Yes______No______

3.4. Compensation and/or Land Acquisition

Land acquisition or loss, denial or restriction of access to the land or other economic resources will they be due to the implementation of the sub-project? Yes______No______

3.5. Loss of crops, fruit trees and domestic infrastructure

Will the implementation of the sub-project cause the temporary or permanent loss of crops, fruit trees, or personal property? Yes___ No____

3.6. Historical, archaeological or cultural heritage sites

On the basis of available sources, consultations with local authorities, knowledge and/or local observations, could the implementation of the sub-project affect historical, archaeological or cultural heritage sites? Yes______No______

3.7. Landscape/esthetic

Are there opportunities that the implementation of the sub-project adversely affected the aesthetic aspect of the local landscape? Yes______No______3.8. Health, Hygiene and Security

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Are there opportunities that the implementation of the sub-project generates risk factors that may affect the health, hygiene and safety of the residents? Yes____ No_____

3.9. Noise Pollution and Emissions

Are there opportunities that the implementation of the sub-project generates a noise and emissions that may affect the health of neighboring populations? Yes_____ No_____

3.10. Solid or Liquid Wastes

Will the sub-project generate solid or liquid waste? Yes______No_____ If Yes, is there a plan for waste management, collection and disposal? Yes_____ No_____

3.11. Public Consultation

Were the consultation and participation of the public sought? Yes____ No___ If Yes, briefly describe the measures and proposals of the consulted populations.

Part C : Analysis and Environmental Selection of Sub-projects

For all sub-projects that account for more than 10% of "Yes", the subjugation procedure is triggered systematically. In these cases, the Environment Focal Points, in consultation with the concerned technical services (NEPA’s Directorate of Environmental Management and Sustainable Development, MAIL’s Directorate General of Natural Resources Development and Protection, etc.), will recommend the subjugation of the sub-project in question, submit it to the procedures of annex 1 of the EIA Ordinance and refer to part D below for environmental analysis of the sub-project.

Part D: Procedures for Environmental Analysis of Sub-projects

Environmental analysis of sub-projects is designed to specify the category of outstanding studies, depending on whether it is a full EIA or EIN. In this case, and according to the procedures of projects’ categorization, liability will be according to the following standards: (I) category A (detailed impact study); (ii) category B (Environmental Impact Note).

Criteria for environmental analysis Category Comments Sub-projects totaling between 5 and All category A sub-projects must be the subject of an 10% of "Yes". Environmental and Social Management Plan (ESMP) Sub-projects with more than 10% of A All programs initially classified in category B that "Yes". B responded "Yes" under the headings 3.1 to 3.10, are subject to category A

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Annex 2: Environmental Control List

This environmental control list is designed to help the Environment Focal Points and technical services to better appreciate the results of the analysis of the environmental selection form and adequately answer key questions below that will allow assess the effectiveness of the proposed mitigation measures in the considered sub-projects.

Proposed Mitigation Measures in the Considered Sub-projects

Agricultural Questions to be answered to complete YES NO Comments Sub-projects environmental selection form Implementation 1. Will there be loss of any vegetation If Yes, use the checklists of the and operation during the implementation or mitigation measures proposed in phases of sub- operation of activities related to the the ESMF and recommend the projects subjugation of the sub-project to sub-project? the regulatory procedures 2. Are there adequate services for the required in the matter disposal of wastes provided during the implementation or the execution of the sub-project? 3. Will prevention, safety and rescue equipment be available for the implementation of the sub-project? 4. Are there risks of pollution of the groundwater or surface waters by the activities of the sub-project? 5. Are there sensitive ecological areas in the vicinity of the area of operation that may be impacted negatively? 6. Are there impacts on the health of the neighboring residents and staff of implementation and operation of the sub-project? 7. Are there Visual impacts caused by the sub-project on the natural landscape? 8. Are there emissions that can come from the refuse of waste from the sub- project activities? 9. Are there human settlements, or sites of cultural, religious or historical importance, which are likely to be affected by the sub-project? 10. Will the sub-project require population displacement?

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Annex 3: Indicators of Environmental and Social Monitoring in SEA (Natural Environment) Environmental Monitoring Types of indicators and items to Monitoring Monitoring components elements collect periodicity personnel State of water  Physicochemical and resources (quality, bacteriological water analysis  Technical quantity, (pH, BOD, COD heavy metals, services of availability, etc.) bacteria, pesticides, nitrates...) MAIL  Pollution Semester  water analysis  Eutrophication Laboratory, Waters  Sedimentation, hydrological MoPH, NEPA regime  Operations  State of flooding Groups  Monitoring of ground waters  Monitoring of aquatic vegetation

Emission levels in the water,  Emissions control (fumes, dusts)  The health hydro- control law  Health control and epidemiological agricultural and investigations on the respiratory enforcement, related Air diseases in the neighboring areas Semester MoPH, NEPA infrastructure  Community  wearing of adequate protective equipment health centers  The Labor  Control and reduction of emissions equipment (individual Inspection masks, dust collector, installation services of filters on some equipment, etc.)  Application of prevention guidelines and labor law State of the soil  Erosion/gullies  Technical and land services of MAIL  Control phenomena of

salinization, waterlogging and  Protection of alkalinization Annual Nature, NEPA

 Valued areas  Research (ARIA) Soils  Abandoned areas  Producer groups and NGOs  Fallow areas  local Behavior and communities land use  Sensitivity to wind and water erosion (in affected area) Annual  State and main crop yields  Crop type

Evolution of  Rate of degradation of the fauna, flora, vegetation cover  Technical biodiversity and services of  Rate of reforestation the natural MAIL ecology  Evolution of vegetation types Annual  Protection of

 Biomass Production nature NEPA

 Rate of soil recovery  Producer Vegetation/Fauna  Reforestation actions, in defense Groups and and development of wooded areas NGOs

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 Clearing and deforestation (rate and  Communities conversion of forests for other uses)  Habitat alteration and conversion of land for other uses  Level of implementation of the poaching control measures  Level of control of wildlife fauna development (settlement, migration, appearance, reduction, loss, endangered, etc.) in the area  State of the avifauna (frequency, loss, decrease, etc.)  State of the plant biotopes  State of aquatic vegetation

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Annex 4: Environmental and Social Monitoring Indicators in SEA Framework (Production Systems) Monitoring Elements Types of indicators and items to collect Monitoring Monitoring Periodicity personnel  Traditional irrigation system (canals) Typology of investments  Drip irrigation system

 Sprinkler irrigation system

 State of the cultivated areas and productions  State of cultural practices

 Adoption of production techniques Evolution of techniques  Volume of consumed inputs (pesticides, and agricultural herbicides, fertilizers) performance, sanitation and water supply  Rate of adoption of integrated management methods (SLM, IWRM, IPM, etc.)  Rate of consumption of organic manure  Areas in biological cultivation

 Waste management (liquid, solid, effluents,

etc.) from processing activities  NEPA  Rate of recovery of by-products of  MAIL, MRRD processing industries  NHLP, OFWM  percentage of firms respecting environ- Annual  ARIA mental provisions in their construction sites  Producer Groups  Levels of contamination by pesticides on  DAIL receiving environments: local populations,  Local ONGs livestock, fauna, flora, air, soil, water, etc. Effects due to pesticides  Epidemiological investigation on the effects of pesticides  Application of pesticide management procedures  Consistency of the herd to the capabilities of the forage areas  State of natural resources and the environment in the animal trail areas and around water points and pastoral installation

 Level of implementation of best practices Livestock and local on the pastoral route guides practices  Conditions and facilities for livestock access to water and forage resources  Status of cohabitation between ranchers and farmers in the occupation of space  Types and kinds of conflicts between different users of natural resources (water, land, space, etc.)  State of animal health and access to VFUs  State of backyard poultry in NHLP areas  State of fisheries resources in NHLP areas  Levels of contamination by pesticides on Fishery Resources receiving environments: local populations, fauna, flora, air, soil, water, etc.  Water contamination by effluents (sewage)

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Annex 5: Environmental and Social Monitoring Indicators in SEA Framework (Human Environment) Monitoring Elements Types of indicators and items to collect Monitoring Monitoring personnel Periodicity Hygiene, health, pollution  Efficiency of the systems of waste and nuisances, and security collection, transport and disposal during operations and  Wearing of adequate protective works equipment

 Compliance with hygiene measures,  The health control law populations Displacements health and safety in waste disposal and enforcement (MoPH) management of sites and resettlement  Technical services  Presence of vectors and appearance of responsible for the water-borne diseases preservation of the  Presence of disease vectors and actions cultural heritage and socio-economic Aspects to control waterborne diseases archaeological sites (NEPA)  STD/HIV/AIDS prevalence  Community health  Epidemiological surveillance on water- Annual centers (MoPH) borne and lung diseases  Local communities  Rate of prevalence of waterborne  NGOs diseases (Malaria, Schistosomiasis,  Services responsible Diarrhea, etc.) for social affairs  Compliance with hygiene practices on  Technical services in sites charge of the housing  Traditional rulers,  Number of poisonings related to the use Elders, Mollahs of pesticides  Opinion leaders  Availability and application of safety recommendations in case of accidents  Number of displaced and resettled populations and applied procedures  Types and forms of compensation for displacement of populations  Types of infrastructure in resettlement areas  Types and nature of cultural heritage resources in agricultural areas  Finding of the technical services of NEPA, responsible for the preservation of the cultural heritage and archaeological sites

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Annex 6: Environmental Requirements to Insert in the Call for Tender (CFT)

The current terms are intended to help the people in charge of the preparation of records of calls for tenders (CFT) or markets for execution of the work related to the water and agricultural development program (bid, notebook of the special requirements - NSR - or the notebook of technical requirements - NTR, etc.), so that they can integrate in these documents specific requirements to enable optimize the environmental protection and the socio-economic environment.

These terms are applicable to all activities of construction site that may adversely affect natural resources or be sources of environmental nuisances to local populations. It should be noted that these requirements apply specifically to the operators of construction sites within water and rural/agricultural development sectors; they will serve as operational guides on the ground and are no substitute for an Environmental Impact Study.

A6.1. Environmental and Social Aspects to be included in the Bid

The bidder should propose in its offer: (i) a plan of realization of activities, including the measures to be taken to protect the environment; (ii) the state of the work of reclamation and a methodological statement describing how he will manage to avoid the negative effects and minimize the unavoidable impacts; (iii) a plan of realization and implementation of the measures advocated in the ESMP of SEA

A6.2. Environmental Aspects to be Included in the NSR

 General Requirements The winner of the market will have to respect and enforce existing laws and regulations on environment in force in Afghanistan. In the daily organization of its construction site, it must commit himself to take all appropriate measures to minimize the effects of works on the environment, by applying the requirements of the contract, and he/she must ensure that his/her personnel and subcontractors comply with and apply these requirement effectively.

 Program Implementation Within a period of 30 days from the notification of the award of the contract, the contractor shall develop and submit to the approval of the sponsor Ministry or the representative of the master of work a detailed environmental management program with the following indications: (i) staff organization management chart with clear identification of the person (s) responsible for the environmental and social management of the project; (ii) a waste management plan (type of waste, collection mode, mode and place of storage, mode and disposal site, etc.); (iii) a water management plan (mode and source of supply, used flows, releases...), planned treatment system for waste water, the disposition site and the intended control type; (iv) a general description of the methods that the licensee proposes to adopt to reduce the impact on the physical and biological environment of each phase of work.

 Environmental Journal of the Work Site The daily log of the work must include all records of accidents and/or events giving rise to a significant impact on the environment and/or on the riparian populations as well as the corrective measures that have been applied.

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 Safety of the Construction Sites The holder will be subject to specific schemes for occupational health, hygiene and safety as defined by the regulations in force in Afghanistan and organize a security and emergency mechanism adapted to the size of his/her staff and the specificity of the field operation.

 Employment of the Local Workforce The contractor is required to hire (except for technical management personnel) the most possible labor in the area where the work is carried out- failure to find qualified on-site personnel he is authorized to hire the labor force outside the work area.

 Protection of Construction Site Staff The contractor shall provide his/her workers with proper and necessary safety equipment: dust masks, anti-noise helmet, safety footwear, combination against products phytosanitary, gloves, etc.

 Information note Internal to the Company The company must develop an internal information note to educate workers on the preservation of natural resources and cultural monuments and sites, the prohibition of hunting and transportation of poaching products, Bush fires and wood cuts.

 Houses and Infrastructure Demolition Procedures The contractor should inform and sensitize the concerned populations prior to any demolition activity of houses and infrastructure and to set the terms of compensation, in collaboration with the affected people and local officials. It will commit and ensure that compensation is effectively fixed and paid to rights holders, before any demolition, in agreement with the involved stakeholders.

 Protective Measures against Noise The contractor is required to limit the noise of construction site likely to seriously disturb the neighboring residents, either by overly long, or by their extension outside the normal hours of work. All operations that may constitute sources of noise must, before be commenced, be subject to an agreement with the control engineer, with a view to minimize the discomfort for residents.

 Protective Measures against Emissions The Deposits and other possible modes of storage of fuel, lubricants or hydrocarbon, as well as maintenance of the equipment by the contractor facilities, must comply with the requirements relating to these types of installations and comply with the standards in force in Afghanistan.

 Protective Measures for Water Resources The contractor shall prevent any spill or discharge of sewage, sludge, oil and pollutants of any nature in surface or underground waters, sewers, ditches and drainage or to the rivers.

 Mesures de lutte contre l’ensablement The company must intervene preventively before the rainy season and relieve all solid waste and products clogging pipes and water flow. Waste must be deposited outside the grip of streams, at suitable

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locations requiring not cleaning and not impeding the flow of water. Deposits should be provided on a reduced thickness, in order to avoid the formation of sand dunes.

 Waste Management Measures The receptacles for receiving the waste will have to be installed in different parts of the construction site and will need to be emptied periodically. The contractor shall implement a system of waste collection, so as to avoid all potential nuisances on the surrounding environment. Equipment washing and maintenance areas will be concreted and equipped with a cesspool of oils and fats recovery. Waste oil must be stored in drums to store in a secure location pending their recovery for other potential uses.

 Procedures for Withdrawal from the Construction Site Upon completion of the work, the contractor will perform all work necessary for the rehabilitation of the sites. The contractor shall withdraw all its equipment, machinery and materials. He must not abandon any equipment or material on the site or in the vicinity. After the withdrawal of equipment, a record/minutes noting the reclamation of the site shall be prepared and attached to the minutes of the receipt of the work.

 Reception of the work (Partial Reception - Final Acceptance) To ensure a better application of current proceedings, non-compliance of current terms in the execution of a work site exposes the offender to the refusal of approval of the minutes of interim or final reception of the work and the blocking of the retention of good end guaranty. The execution of each environmental measure will have to be subject to a partial acceptance and the obligations of the holder will run until final acceptance of the work which will be acquired only after complete performance of the work of improving the environment provided for in the contract, and after conclusion of repair of reported damage.

 Notification Any distortion to requirements duly notified to the company by the control an offence must be righted. The resumption of work or additional work arising from the failure of the clauses will be the responsibility of the contractor and its subcontractors.

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Annex 7: Terms of Reference of SEA

Strategic Environmental Assessment of Agricultural Sector Development in Afghanistan

National Context

The latest NRVA survey (Spring 2007) indicates that 42 percent of the population lives below the CBN poverty line. That is, almost half of the Afghan population is unable to purchase a basic food basket to provide 2,100 calories consumption per day. Poverty levels in Afghanistan vary by season. This further compounds the understanding of poverty in Afghanistan. The Food Security Monitoring Survey (FSMS) suggests that households tend to have the richest consumption in summer following the harvest, with more restricted food consumption during winter, especially in March.

The 2005 NRVA highlighted that 20 percent of the population are located very close to the poverty line, indicating high vulnerability. Even small consumption shocks can result in substantially higher rates of poverty. For instance, a 5 percent reduction in consumption across the board will cause the poverty headcount rate to rise from 33 to 38 percent. According to the 2005 NRVA, a 25 percent upward shift in the poverty line would result in 53 percent of the population living in poverty. Meanwhile, a 25 percent downward shift in the poverty lines would reduce the poverty rate to 14 percent.

Afghanistan has the lowest level of inequality in South Asia as measured by the Gini coefficient. This however is largely due to the widespread nature of poverty across the country. However, within Afghanistan, significant inequality does exist between many segments of Afghan society. The variation in poverty between the rural, Kuchi and urban populations is significant and of great importance. Meanwhile, gender inequality is one of the highest in the world.

Poverty also varies significantly between provinces. Poverty headcount rates vary from around 10 percent to more than 70 percent, with poverty more severe in the Northeast, Central Highlands and parts of the Southeast. Entire provinces like Daikundi, Badakhshan, Zabul and Paktika represent large pockets of poverty.

The 2005 NRVA indicates a significant disparity in poverty between rural people and the Kuchi population compared to urban populations. Around 45 percent of rural and Kuchi populations appear to be poor as opposed to 27 percent of those who live in urban areas. Rural populations have the highest rates of food insecurity, with 45 percent not meeting daily minimum food requirements. Moreover, it is noted that 40 percent and 41 percent of the Kuchi and of urban population respectively are also unable to meet their minimum food intake

Agriculture and rural development

Despite some progress in establishing better governance of the country’s natural resources, a lot still needs to be done. People’s high dependence on natural resources has increased with rising poverty resulting in serious devastation of the environment. Forests have been seriously depleted. This adversely affects soil stability and weakens flood protection. According to the 2005 NRVA the consumption of the poorest in natural resources is the highest in summer while it typically falls to critical levels in winter.

Regarding water and its use in agriculture, the irrigation sector and the rehabilitation of existing assets show that a lot more needs to be done. Prior to 1979, some 3.3 million hectares were cultivated under various irrigation methods, compared to the 1.8 million hectares now being irrigated. The remaining amount employs traditional irrigation methods. Out of 7.9 million hectares arable land, 5.3 million hectares is irrigable. Irrigation water management is a high priority of the Government.

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For agriculture, the main environmental issues appear to fall today in the area of irrigated crops. The development of irrigated agriculture has indeed exacerbated the pressures on the environment. The hydro-agricultural facilities made cheaply and without compliance with minimum technical design standards, operation and maintenance (bad planning, lack of drainage, inadequate water management, increased use of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals) have promoted the biological and chemical degradation of soil (soil waterlogging, salinity and alkalinization, loss of fertility, development of weeds) and the contamination of waters and soils by pesticides. For livestock, several major problems can be tackled:

 Pasture, bush, and forests around the country have been severely affected by unsustainable management. Customary access to pasture, particularly in conditions of environmental degradation, poverty, post-conflict and unclear ownership, does not give pastoralists or families sufficient security of land and resource tenure and access to ensure that they will reap the benefits of any investments made.

 Rangelands, for example, therefore suffer from a ‘Tragedy of the Commons’ type situation where it is logical for livestock owners in any one season to ensure that their livestock consumes as much of the pasture as possible in as short a time as possible – if they do not do this then other herds may use the pasture land

 They are particularly susceptible to the impacts of desertification and drought, both in terms of the productivity of livestock and that of rainfed crop production. Rangelands are essential for Kuchi pastoralists (estimated to comprise up to 20 percent of the rural population) and for a large part of the settled population who derive their income from animal rearing and employment in the livestock industry.

 Due to the desertification of the country’s 37.3 % barren mountainous areas, the 45.2% (over 30 million hectares) of land in permanent pasture, mostly situation on the slope (sometimes steep) of the mountains, are under the pressure of some about 4 million cattle and over 30 million sheep and goats which graze here, beyond the carrying capacity of the rangeland, leading to overgrazing and alteration of the pasture land.

It is thought that scope exists to increase the efficiency of water use in those areas currently irrigated, and to expand areas under irrigation in a sustainable manner that conserves the natural resource base and contributes to the rehabilitation of degraded areas.

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Annex 8: Terms of Reference of National Consultants

SEA - National Consultant for Agricultural Sector (Horticulture & Livestock) Development

Terms of Reference

A. Task of the Consultant 1. Identify all the recent reports (after 2002) and relevant documents on agriculture (horticulture & Livestock) and socio-economic-related aspects in Afghanistan. 2. List policies and legal instruments in force (as well as the instruments of environmental governance, e.g. EIA, ESMP, etc.) relating to agricultural sector development and its socio- economic aspects (subsidies and taxation) in Afghanistan; perform an analysis (table indicating the objectives, strengths and weaknesses, the level of application, etc.); write a summary. 3. Describe and analyze the mechanisms set in place (goals, strengths and weaknesses) that organize the access to land, land management and relevant socio-economic aspects relating to Afghanistan. 4. Identify the institutional actors involved and describe their respective roles in agricultural development and its socio-economic aspects in Afghanistan; carry out an analysis (table indicating strengths and weaknesses, collaborations and existing synergies, overlaps, duplicates, etc.); write a summary. 5. Describe the existing consultation and coordination frameworks for the management of agricultural sector and its socio-economic aspects (central, regional and local levels), including the role of technical and Financial partners (TFP), NGOs and socio-professional associations, etc.; carry out an analysis of these mechanisms (objectives, strengths and weaknesses); write a summary. 6. Describe the current state of the agricultural sector in Afghanistan and specify specific agro- ecological regions. 7. Provide a summary table of agricultural production, major speculation and the production of livestock farming over the past five years (including, where appropriate, relevant schemas and maps). 8. Provide a synthetic analysis of trends on observed in agricultural production and livestock over the past decade and identify the main constraints and causes identified. 9. Describe the socio-economic activities in relation to agricultural development and analyze trends (in physical and monetary terms: quantity produced, share of GDP, jobs, etc.). 10. Present socio-economic indicators in relation to agricultural development (see the objectives of the Millennium development goals: e.g. demography, density, income, jobs including the informal sector, infrastructure, health and hygiene, education, etc.) over the past five years. 11. Describe the constraints and socio-economic opportunities in relation to agricultural development (physical, institutional, legal, or even for development). 12. Identify the major socio-economic challenges in relation to agricultural development (in terms of development strategy, poverty reduction, modernization). 13. Provide a synthesis of the measures implemented (programs and projects) for agricultural development and to promote socio-economic development in Afghanistan.

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14. Describe and analyze the objectives and the strengths and weaknesses of the previous programs (2003-2007) and ongoing (as of 2008) initiated in the agricultural sector and the improvement of the relevant socio-economic conditions relating to Afghanistan. 15. Describe the sources of pressure (including socio-economic activities) and relevant potential factors affecting agricultural and socio-economic aspects relating in the specific agro- ecological zone of Afghanistan; give relevant statistics relating. 16. Describe the major issues (in terms of strategy) in relation to the agricultural sector (horticulture and livestock) and its links to other priority areas of Afghanistan (poverty reduction, improve relevant socio-economic conditions relating, modernization). 17. In the framework of an improvement of the management of the agricultural sector and for improvement of living conditions (including access to resources and rural services) in the specific agro-ecological zone (including indigenous knowledge acquired by local populations), to make suggestions and/or recommendations: a. for an improved management of agricultural sector and relevant socio-economic-related conditions; b. for an adaptation of the legal and institutional framework to improve the management of the agricultural sector; c. for a strengthening of the management capacities of institutions.

B. Outline of the report to develop:

- Submit a report summary tiered 25 pages (without annexes) in electronic format. - Put together in electronic format about 30-50 characteristic photos relating to the theme of agricultural development and related socio-economic aspects. - Cite the source of all the exploited documents, statistics and cards inserted. - Provide the list of all references and documents consulted. - Provide the list of abbreviations and acronyms.

Note: During recommendations, specifically establish the linkage between the suggested measures, their adaptation to the specific agro-ecological region of the country, the relevant institutions and highlight the elements justifying these measures.

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SEA - National Consultant for Water Sector Terms of Reference A. Tasks of the Consultant 1. Identify all the recent reports (after 2002) and relevant documents on the theme water and socio-economic-related aspects in Afghanistan. 2. List policies and legal instruments in force (as well as the instruments of environmental governance, e.g. EIA, ESMP, etc.) relating to the management of water resources and their socio-economic aspects (subsidies and taxation) in Afghanistan; perform an analysis (table indicating the objectives, strengths and weaknesses, the level of application, etc.); write a summary. 3. Identify the institutional actors involved and describe their respective roles in water resources management in Afghanistan; perform an analysis (table indicating the responsibilities, strengths and weaknesses, collaborations and existing synergies, overlaps and duplicates, etc.); write a summary. 4. Describe consultation and coordination framework existing for the water resources management (central, provincial and local levels), including the role of technical and Financial partners (PTF), NGOs and socio-professional associations, etc.; perform an analysis of these mechanisms (objectives, strengths and weaknesses); write a summary. 5. Describe the current state of water resources in the main drainage basins and groundwater aquifers and groundwater of Afghanistan (potential, availability, quality, use, etc.). 6. Describe the socio-economic activities in relation to the area of water and analyze the trends (in physical and monetary terms: quantity produced, share of GDP, jobs, etc.). 7. Present socio-economic indicators in relation to the area of water (see the objectives of the Millennium development goals: e.g. demography, density, income, jobs included the informal sector, infrastructure, health and hygiene, education, etc.) over the past five years. 8. Describe the socio-economic opportunities and constraints (physical, institutional, legal, or even development) in connection with the field of water. 9. Identify the major socio-economic challenges (in terms of development strategy, poverty reduction, modernization) in connection with the field of water. 10. Give a summary of the resources available (over five years) in groundwater and surface water, including relevant schemas and maps. 11. Analyze sources of pressure (including socio-economic activities) and describe the potential factors that affect the quality and quantity of water resources; provide relating statistics. 12. Perform the synthesis of the measures put in place (programs and projects) to the integrated management of water resources and access to drinking water, sanitation and to promote socio- economic development in Afghanistan (at the central, provincial and local levels), a synthetic inventory of water infrastructure, characterize their workings (also identify dysfunctional), sanitation problems, etc.. 13. Describe and analyze the objectives as well as the strengths and weaknesses of the previous (2003-2007) programs and ongoing (as of 2008) initiated in the framework of water resources management and while highlighting improvements in socio-economic relating conditions in Afghanistan.

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14. Identify major issues (in terms of strategy) in relation to the integrated water resource management, socio-economic related-aspects and their linkages with other priority areas of Afghanistan (poverty reduction, modernization).. 15. In the framework of improving the hydraulic sector management in Mauritania and the socio- economic relating conditions, provide suggestions and/or recommendations: a. for an improved management of agricultural sector and relevant socio-economic-related conditions; b. for an adaptation of the legal and institutional framework to improve the management of the agricultural sector; c. for a strengthening of the management capacities of institutions.

B. Outline of the report to develop:

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SEA - National Consultant for the Biophysical Environment Terms of Reference

A. Tasks of the Consultant

1. Identify all the recent reports and relevant documents on agriculture (horticulture & Livestock) and biophysical environment in Afghanistan. 2. List policies and the directory of national and international legal instruments, conventions and framework agreements related to the sector of environment in Afghanistan; carry out an analysis (goals, forces and weaknesses, application, etc.); make a synthesis. 3. Identify the institutional actors involved in the sector of environment (at the central, provincial and local level) and describe their roles in the preservation of natural resources; perform analysis (table indicating the objectives, strengths and weaknesses, collaborations and potential synergies, overlaps, etc.); write a summary. 4. Describe the existing consultation and coordination frameworks for the preservation of natural resources in Afghanistan (national, and local levels), including the role of technical and Financial partners (TFP), NGOs and socio-professional associations, etc.; carry out an analysis of these mechanisms (objectives, strengths and weaknesses); write a summary. 5. Describe and analyze the major biophysical features of Afghanistan: climate, temperature, precipitations, winds, agro-ecological zones, soils, vegetation, fauna, and insert the relevant maps required in the matter. 6. Describe the current state of the environment in Afghanistan and to make a synthesis of the environmental profile of the country, including the environment-poverty analysis, highlighting the major environmental challenges for agricultural development sector (remediation, levels of emissions, waste, urban and rural pollution, deforestation, soil erosion, soil salinization, desertification, etc.). 7. Describe ecologically sensitive areas, areas and protected species (insert maps). 8. Describe the effects of the environmental degradation due to anthropogenic factors affecting water resources and the agricultural sector in the past ten years. 9. Describe the sources of pressure and potential factors currently affecting natural resources in Afghanistan: wildlife fauna, forest masses, mangroves, natural lakes, etc. 10. Describe and analyze the objectives as well as forces and weaknesses of past and current programs initiated in the framework of preservation of the environment, fragile ecosystems, protected areas, soils, water and biodiversity. 11. In the framework for the improvement of the management of agricultural sector development (including indigenous knowledge acquired by local populations), to make recommendations and/or suggestions: a. for better taking into account the environment. b. for an adaptation of the legal and institutional framework in relation to the management of the environment. c. for a strengthening of the environmental management capacity of the institutions.

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B. Outline of the report to develop:

- Submit a report summary tiered 50 pages (without annexes) in electronic format. - Put together in electronic format about 30-50 characteristic photos relating to the theme of agricultural development and related socio-economic aspects. - Cite the source of all the exploited documents, statistics and cards inserted. - Provide the list of all references and documents consulted. - Provide the list of abbreviations and acronyms.

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Annex 9: Mandate and Responsibilities of the SEA Steering Committee

Responsibilities and mandate of the Steering Committee (SC) in SEA Terms of Reference

Represent the concerned departmental structures to ensure a close monitoring of the SEA process, in particular in sectors covering agriculture, livestock, and provide outreach to other Ministries’ Directorates. - Participate in the whole process of SEA implementation in agricultural sector (meeting of consultation, consultation with stakeholders, information, awareness-raising, etc.). - Support the national consultants in the collection of supporting documents (policy and agricultural strategy documents, legislation and regulations, institutional aspects, etc.). - Participate in the consultation meetings with line ministries involved in the SEA. - Facilitate meetings between stakeholders and national consultants. - Participate in the framing and validation of SEA reports meetings. - Do the relay with stakeholders (technical services, NGOs, TFP, associative groups, etc.) for the dissemination of information concerning SEA and the implementation of the recommendations. - Plead with the authorities for a consideration of SEA in policies, plans and programs (PPP). - Ensure the Council support to the Government and TFP on SEA. - Ensure the extension and dissemination of SEA tools to the various line ministries. - Do the lobbying to the TFP and the Government for the mobilization of necessary funds for the implementation of SEA in Afghanistan. - Insure the interface role for information and awareness of the decentralized technical services and the concerned local authorities. - Monitor the implementation of SEA and prepare synthetic notes thereto. - Assess needs and means to resources to make available (to integrate into the costs of implementation of SEA) for the implementation of the SC activities: training, visits to sites, monitoring, information and awareness campaigns, dissemination and archiving of data, etc. - Define the role and the mandate of the members. - Develop an action plan and a work timetable, consistent with the SEA process.

The Steering Committee must be composed of high level representatives (one representative by Ministry) of: - National Environmental Protection Agency - Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Livestock - Ministry of Rural Rehabilitation and Development - Ministry of Energy and Water - Ministry of Public Health - Ministry of Mines and industry - Ministry of the Interior and Security - Ministry of Economic Affairs and Development - Ministry of Transport 120

- Ministry of Land and Urban Development - Leader of the TFP intervening in the Environment Sector - UNDP/UNEP Note: The Steering Committee will be able to appeal to any structure or any resource person whose skills are enriching contributions and to facilitate the achievement of expected results.

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