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On-Location Film-Induced Tourism: Success and Sustainability

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On-Location Film-Induced Tourism: Success and Sustainability ON-LOCATION FILM-INDUCED TOURISM: SUCCESS AND SUSTAINABILITY by NICOLE BEATE HOFFMANN Submitted as full requirement for the degree MAGISTER HEREDITATUS CULTURAEQUE SCIENTIAE (HERITAGE AND CULTURAL TOURISM) In the Department of Historical and Heritage Studies Faculty of Humanities University of Pretoria Pretoria 2015 Supervisor: Prof. Karen L. Harris On-Location Film-Induced Tourism: Success and Sustainability Nicole B. Hoffmann Disclaimer The financial assistance of the Department of Arts and Culture (DAC) for the year 2012 and of the National Research Foundation (NRF) for the year 2013 towards this research is hereby acknowledged. Opinions expressed and conclusions arrived at, are those of the author and are not necessarily to be attributed to the DAC or the NRF. ii Table of Contents Content Page List of Tables vi List of Figures vii List of Annexures viii List of Abbreviations ix Acknowledgements xi Abstract xii Chapter 1: Introduction 1 1.1 Aim 1 1.2 Definitions 2 1.3 Theory and Methodology 13 Chapter 2: Literary Review 17 2.1. Film-Induced Tourism 17 2.1.1. Types of FIT and Film Location Tourists 22 2.1.2. History and Development of FIT 23 2.1.3. Push and Pull Factors and Hallmark Events 25 2.1.4. Destination Promotion, Authenticity and Commoditization 26 2.1.5. Positive and Negative Impacts 32 2.2. On-Location Film-Induced Tourism 33 2.2.1. OLFIT Case Studies about “Negative” Issues 33 2.2.2. Other Prominent Case Studies in Tourism Literature 37 2.2.3. Popular Television Series 40 2.2.4. OLFIT Case Studies in Long-Haul Destinations 42 2.3. Aspects of Success and Sustainability 47 2.4. Research Gaps Identified 53 iii Chapter 3: The History and Development of Film-Induced Tourism 55 3.1. From Book to Screen to Set 55 3.2. From The Mutiny on the Bounty to The Lord of the Rings and Beyond 68 3.3. Inter-Industry Collaboration 72 3.4. Conclusion 74 Chapter 4: Elements Essential for OLFIT 76 4.1. Push and Pull Factor Motivation for Film Location Tourists 76 4.2. Marketing 85 4.3. Commoditization and Consumption of the Film-Induced Tourism Product 92 Chapter 5: Success and Sustainability for OLFIT 112 5.1. Authenticity 112 5.2. Community Participation and Consultation 118 5.3. Film-Specific Factors 124 5.4. Positive and Negative Impacts 133 5.5. Tourism Area Life Cycle (TALC) 145 Chapter 6: The South African Situation 155 6.1. A World in One Country: Tourism and Film Industry in South Africa 155 6.2. South Africa as a Stand-In Location 162 6.3. International Productions and Internationally Successful South African Movies 167 6.4. Local Productions 182 6.5. South African Potential 190 iv Chapter 7: Conclusion 194 Sources 197 8.1. Books, Theses/Dissertations/Research Essays 197 8.2. Journal Articles 202 8.3. Newspaper Articles 208 8.4. Public Lectures and Conference Proceedings 209 8.5. Internet Sources and ePapers 209 8.6. Other 228 Plagiarism Declaration 252 v List of Tables Page Table 1: Types and Characteristics of Film-Induced Tourism 9 Table 2: A Comparison between the Micro-Niches of Literary Tourism (LT) and Film-Induced Tourism (FIT) 61 Table 3: Attributes of a Destination to Attract Film Projects 87 Table 4: Destination Marketing Activities and Opportunities 89 Table 5: The Criteria for Professional Film Location Tours 106 vi List of Figures Page Figure 1: The Volume of Academic Publications on FIT 18 Figure 2: Types of Film-Induced Tourists 84 Figure 3: Stakeholders of On-Location Film-Induced Tourism (OLFIT) 120 Figure 4: The Tourism Area Life Cycle 150 Figure 5: Flow Diagram of the Factors and Issues Affecting the Success and Sustainability of On-Location Film-Induced Tourism (OLFIT) 153 vii List of Annexures Page Annexure A: The Volume of Film-Induced Publications 232 Annexure B: List of Books that were adapted to Film Format 235 Annexure C: Location Visits to the “Filmpark Babelsberg” and the “Bavaria Filmstadt” in Germany 240 Annexure D: Case Study Pictures and Relevant Photographs 243 Annexure E: Location Visits to the Pretville Village and the Wild at Heart Film Sets 248 viii List of Abbreviations ATTAM Association of Tours for TV and Movies BCE Before Common Era BTA British Tourist Authority CFC Cape Film Commission CSR Corporate Social Responsibility CTFS Cape Town Film Studios DAC Department of Arts and Culture DFO Durban Film Office DMOs Destination Marketing Organizations DTI Department of Trade and Industry ECFO Eastern Cape Film Office FIT Film-induced tourism GDP Gross Domestic Product GFC Gauteng Film Commission GOT Game of Thrones HCT Heritage and cultural tourism IDC Industrial Development Corporation IMDb Internet Movie Database LOTR The Lord of the Rings LT Literary tourism NFVF National Film and Video Foundation OFFIT Off-location film-induced tourism OLFIT On-location film-induced tourism PR Public Relations RDP Reconstruction and Development Programme SA South Africa SARS South African Revenue Service TALC Tourism Area Life Cycle TAT Tourism Authority of Thailand TH The Hobbit ix TNZ Tourism New Zealand TV Television UAE United Arab Emirates UK United Kingdom UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNWTO United Nations World Tourism Organization US or USA United States of America WHS UNESCO World Heritage Site YA Young Adult x Acknowledgements In first place, I would like to thank my supervisor Professor Karen Harris for her guidance, support and advice throughout the writing of this dissertation. Her unwavering enthusiasm and diligent work ethic inspired me during this academic endeavour. I am very grateful to have received her encouragement in completing my Masters degree. In addition, I would like to thank Alett Nell, the faculty librarian for the Department of Historical and Heritage Studies at the library of the University of Pretoria. She managed to get hold of and locate sources for me that I could not always access myself, but that were vital for this dissertation. I am very fortunate to know such a kind and patient woman who opened avenues of research for me. During my Masters studies, I was very fortunate to have received financial support from a number of institutions that should be acknowledged here. For the year 2011, I received a UP Post-Graduate Masters Scholarship from the University of Pretoria. For the year 2012, I was awarded a Department of Arts and Culture (DAC) Heritage Bursary and for the year 2013 a National Research Foundation (NRF) Innovation Bursary. These scholarships and bursaries allowed me to perform the necessary on-location field research and to obtain valuable sources. Furthermore, I would like to thank my friends Charlene Herselman, Sian Pretorius, Margaux Mouton, Dawid Mouton, Magderie Nel, Lize van den Bergh and Yvonne Smith for your support and valuable advice during this time. Many of you were in a similar situation, where we became a “fellowship” in writing and other academic pursuits. Last, but not least, I am extremely grateful for the love and unwavering support that I experienced from my parents, Ralf and Marlies Hoffmann throughout the years of my tertiary education. Moreover, I am also very fortunate to have my wonderful siblings, Andrea and Ingo Hoffmann, who I could depend on just as much. Without the patience of my family, when I spent days on end in front of the computer, I would not have been able to complete this dissertation. xi Abstract This Masters dissertation considers the tourism niche of film-induced tourism (FIT) within the broader realm of heritage and cultural tourism (HCT). It sets out to identify the scope of different types of FIT, focusing specifically on “on-location film-induced tourism” (OLFIT). The genesis of FIT in the related niche of literary tourism is explored, thereby explaining the history and development of FIT. Furthermore, this dissertation sets out to identify key elements that are recognised as necessary for the functioning of OLFIT as well as those factors that determine the success and sustainability of OLFIT endeavours. Both the elements and factors necessary for OLFIT’s success and sustainability are elucidated with the use of international case studies, including The Lord of the Rings and The Hobbit trilogies which are regarded as best-practice. A flow diagram-model has been devised to illustrate the interconnectivity of these elements and factors and can be applied to other situations. This is followed by an examination of the film and tourism industry in South Africa, thereby evaluating the potential of the country as an OLFIT destination. Key Words: Tourism, heritage and cultural tourism (HCT), film-induced tourism (FIT), on-location film-induced tourism (OLFIT), literary tourism (LT), success and sustainability, The Lord of the Rings , The Hobbit , South African film xii Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1. Aim Film-induced tourism (FIT) 1 is a relatively new field of study that has recently emerged under the larger umbrella of heritage and cultural tourism (HCT). Globally, the latter is currently one of the fastest growing fields and macro-niches in the tourism domain.2 As a subsection of the FIT micro-niche, on-location film-induced tourism (OLFIT)3 is also becoming a fast growing and popular phenomenon. Therefore, this Master’s dissertation sets out to analyze the success and sustainability of OLFIT. By way of introduction, it is necessary to analyze the definitions of various key concepts and more specifically, the phenomenon of FIT itself. Different types of film- induced tourism will be identified to determine the scope of this tourism niche. This will be followed by a review of the existing literature to determine to what extent factors were identified relating to the success and sustainability of OLFIT (Chapter 2).
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