Geology of Turkey

Home , Geology of Turkey, Karaman, Kilimli, Zonguldak basin

A GENERAL REVIEW OF THE GEOLOGY OF TURKEY

Cahit ERENTÖZ I. INTRODUCTION : Since the publication of the book these belts show common features, and «Geology of Turkey» (Türkiye Jeolojisi) their features vary as of the Tertiary. by Dr. N. EGERAN and Dr. E. LAHN in The depressions and culminations 1948, there has been no detailed publi- on the axis of these longitudinal belts cation on the general stratigraphy of are crossing transversals, particularly Turkey. Most of the later publications in the N. - S. direction of Anatolia (the are confined to detailed studies of va- Çanakkale - Menderes transversal, the rious regions. Antalya transversal, the Istanbul trans- We have compiled various data in versal, the Tuzgölü transversal, the a very general manner, together with Kızılırmak transversal, the Malatya those that have come out since 1948, transversal and the Van transversal) to introduce before the sessions of the (32). «Symposium on Applied Geology in the The Central Anatolian orogenous Middle East», held on Nov. 14, 1955 complex, situated between the Pontides in Ankara. However, we were not able folded belts in the north and the Tau- to read it in detail and had opportu- rides folded belts in the south, has nity only to show some geological maps. formed important units in Central For this reason we have decided Anatolia. to publish this documentary compil- With the exception of Ağrı Dağı ation in the present bulletin. (Mt. Ararat) in Eastern Anatolia, We have given just a few refe- reaching an elevation of 5,165 meters, rences, since it is impossible to give all the other mountain ranges vary here the names of all books and papers between 3,000-4,500 meters in height. published to this day. III. STRATIGRAPHY : II GEOGRAPHIC POSITION : 1 - Old Substratum In general, Turkey consists of lon- The oldest formation known in gitudinal mountain ranges, extending Turkey, determined by means of fossils, along the Black Sea and the Mediter- is the Cambrian, which is found on ranean shores, and of the high Anato- Mazı Dağı, in the vicinity of the town lian plateaus between these ranges. of Mardin, district of Derik, in South- The littoral mountain ranges have eastern Anatolia. The old strata of this formed large orogenous folded belts. region is exposed under the Upper Practically up to the Upper Cretaceous, Cretaceous limestones through a fault.

40 This series is, from the bottom to the sometimes chalco-schists and now and top, as follows (40) : then quartz veins are found. The marb- Red, brown quartz - porphyry les form the uppermost part of the metamorphic series; granitic contacts Dark-red sandstone are clearly observed in these marbles. Conglomerate and sandstone with The crystalline schist gravels of the volcanic elements Istranca massif form the elements of Red, clayey sandstone the basal conglomerate of the Istanbul Dark-grey, massive limestone Silurian, which proves that the age of Conglomerate and fine sandstone the massif is older than the Silurian (16). Metamorphosed limestone and do- The metamorphic series located at lomite Eskişehir, Kütahya -Balıkesir, in the Schist, schistose sandstone, glauco- south of Çanakkale, at Kazdağ and at nitic schist Uludağ (Bursa), are crossed by granitic plutons and other intrusions. The In sandstones, constituting the up- granites are in contact with marbles permost levels of this series, Trilobites on one side and with gneiss and amphi- have been found. These belong to the bolites on the other; particularly at Lower and Middle Cambrian, and the the marble contacts large skarn and series with volcanic elements beneath scheelite occurrences are found. The are Algonkian. granitic intrusion has taken place du- Leaving aside this oldest fossil-bear- ring the last stage of the crystalline ing strata, the old substratum in the schist folding. These series are found other regions of Turkey is the crystal- towards the north, in Kapıdağı and line schist series which has undergone the isles of Marmara (22). metamorphism. On the other hand, the old crystal- Many authors maintain that the line schist formations) which continue Thracian Block in Thrace (the old towards the east from the Pontides and strata of the Rodop, Istranca, Ergene, which constitute practically the core Çatalca massifs) is a continuation of of the principal range, have been also the Anatolian Block. These crystalline crossed by chloritic schists, basic and schist series are encountered in places at acidic intrusions. Of these formations, Uludağ, in the region of Kütahya-Ba- the Tokat - Yıldızeli granites have an lıkesir and south of Çanakkale, at the economic value. Menderes massif, in Central Anatolia, Speaking of the old substratum, and even continue towards east. the Menderes Massif in Western Ana- The Istranca massif, forming the tolia is worth mentioning. This massif principal heights of the Thracian Block, has undergone strong metamorphism consists of gneiss, mica-schist, quart- and contains various gneiss, mica- zite, phyllite and marble. The gneiss schists, quartzites, marbles, phyllites, is the core of the massif, which is co- amphibolites and chalco-schists. Phylli- vered in the north by more metamor- tes and marbles form the upper part phic rocks and in the south by Ter- of this series. The eastern extensions tiary formations. This massif is crossed of the massif are covered by the Cent- in many places by a granitic batholith ral Anatolian Neogene and the northern and by aplite veins. The gneiss is fre- and southern parts by Paleozoic and quently alternating with mica - schists; Mesozoic formations.

41 This old massif, which plunges un- towards the east. This Silurian is ge- der the Taurides beyond the Muğla nerally comprised of conglomerate, district, reappears now and then and sandstone, arkosic and mainly quartzitic constitutes the core of the sedimentary series. According to recent surveys, strata along the Taurus Mountains. Graptolites have been found in the Finally, it forms towards east the Niğ- black schists, constituting the lower de Complex in the foreland of the levels of these series in the eastern Taurides. The old Kırşehir or Kızılır- creeks of Çengelköy (47). mak massif, covering large areas north of this complex, is a continuation of In the Zonguldak basin and south- the same complex to the north. east of Ereğli, there exist the Grapto- lite-bearing Silurian strata. The strata The Kırşehir massif consists of consist of marly schists, phyllites and gneiss, mica-schist, quartzite, phyllites dark-red sandstones (11; 40). and marbles, also strongly metamorphosed. Since the acidic and basic in- The black schists and the siliceous trusions are intermixed here, it is not schists beneath the Mesozoic strata, possible to see everywhere which intru- west of Muğla in Southern Anatolia, sion is older than the other. However, are considered to be of Silurian age. during recent surveys (Dr. BUCHARDT, There is much resemblance between 1953-1954), the contact influences of these schists and the fossiliferous Silu- the acidic intrusions on the radiolarite, rian strata of the Istanköy Island. greenstone and plaquetted limestone complex have been observed. It is pre- From the Taurus range as far as sumed that these plaquetted limestones, Adana no definite fossil - bearing Silu- containing Globotruncana, and the rian is observed. However, during re- acidic intrusions have taken place af- cent surveys, Graptolite-bearing Silurian ter the Maestrichtian and before the formation has been established along Eocene. Very rich scheelite occurrences the Kozan - Saimbeyli road, north of have been observed in the large skarn Adana. This graptolitic series found in bands, formed at the contact points of dark-grey, black schists, lies unconfor- the marbles with acidic intrusions. mably, especially under the Devonian Furthermore, the fluorite veins, related and the Permo - Carboniferous strata mostly to syenites, give unique radioac- (48). The fossil - bearing black schists tive evidences of the area. of the Silurian continue to the north as far as Pınarbaşı (18). On the other hand, Metamorphic series constitute the it has been known for some time that principal substratum of the Bitlis massif, the greyish-grey, black, thick, micaceous south of the Lake Van, in Eastern sanstones, quartz, and schists, located Anatolia. Here, also, are found various between Fevzipaşa and Bahçe, are Si- gneisses, amphibolites and mica-schists. lurian. Quartzites are alternating in these series. Marbles are also found in the 3 — Devonian upper levels. The Devonian covers quite an ex- 2 - Silurian tensive area in Turkey. The Devonian The Silurian strata in Istanbul, at sea has flooded almost the whole of Pendik, on Sedef Island and to the the country, turning the old massifs east of Çengelköy cover a large area into islands.

42 The Devonian covers large areas Towards the east, in the Taurus in the Istanbul region. The Lower range, the Brachiopod, Polyp-bearing Devonian consists mostly of quartzites, strata in the shore-line formations of limestones and secondarily of graywacke the Alanya massif belong to the Upper and schists; the Middle Devonian, of Devonian. These Devonian strata, abun- nodular limestones and of siliceous dant in fossils and almost resembling schists; and the Upper Devonian, of each other, continue to the east in the alternating clayey schists, graywacke depressions and culminations of the Tau- and conglomerates. The Upper Devo- rus mountains. Two thirds of the Pa- nian schists, so far named as the Thrace leozoic formations outcropping on the series, have been considered as Car- Taurus belts are Devonian in age and boniferous, according to the recent belong mostly to the Upper Devonian. surveys (46). These formations alternate with bluish- grey or light - coloured limestones, The Devonian of Istanbul extends bluish-black, calcareous schists, marly to Şile, Adapazarı, Karadeniz Ereğlisi, schists and sandstones (6, 8). These Bartın, Kastamonu and further east series extend to the Malatya massif, and shows similar facies in parts. between the main crystalline basement At Bartın, the Devonian is impor- schists and Graptolitic schists, and the tant because it has three layers which Permo - Carboniferous formations. can be clearly distinguished. The Lower In the east, on the Bitlis massif, Devonian starts with red, brown sand- no Devonian could be observed; where- stone - schists. Higher up, come quartz- as there exist fossil - bearing Lower ites with dark-grey limestones, which and Middle Devonian formations con- are abundant in fossils. The Middle sisting of clay, marl and sandy lime- Devonian consists of the cristallized stones and sandstones on the Hacertum and dolomitic limestones, dark or light- Dağı, at Hazru, northeast of, Diyarba- coloured; and the Upper Devonian com- kır. In the middle parts of this series prises a thick limestone series contain- there are thin, bituminous sandstones ing many fossil fragments, between and these are the only formations the Middle Devonian and the Carbo- bearing hydrocarbons on niferous (44). the lower levels of Paleozoic in the Southeastern Anatolia (39, 41). In Western Anatolia, the Devonian is found near Izmir, at Karaburun, and Further east, in the Hakkari region, on the island of Chios; it consists of the dark - brown, fossil - bearing, marly alternations of arkose, graywacke, schists, superimposed on quartzites and schist and limestone. In the south, phyllites, are Devonian in age (45). there exist certain Paleozoic schists, To the north, there exist Devonian encircling the Menderes massif, but no outcrops south of the Büyük Ağrı Dağı. fossils could be found there. These schists are considered to be Silurian 4 — Permo-Carboniferous or Devonian. These formations are The Permo - Carboniferous forma- dark schists or siliceous schists, west tions are rather extensive in Turkey. of Muğla, and towards the west, from In Northern Anatolia these formations Marmaris to Reşadiye, in the sliced are terrestrial and marine in the Zon- zone, they are grey, yellowish, sandy guldak basin, and generally marine in schists and clayey limestones (20). the southern Taurus region.

43 The Carboniferous of the Ereğli- stones bearing Productids. among thin, Zonguldak basin plays an important black limestone bands, conglomerates part in the economy of Turkey, from the and sandstones, lying under limestones, point of view of the fuel supply, and whose age is probably Triassic (9). hence this basin has been studied in In the northeast, the dark lime- great detail by the Carboniferous Ser- stones, bearing Fusulinids and Corals vices of the Mineral Research and Ex- west of Kargı, which overlie the crys- ploration Institute of Turkey. We shall talline schists and amphibolites forming mention this basin very briefly here. the main core of the Ilgaz Mountains, The Lower Carboniferous in Zon- belong to the Permo - Carboniferous. guldak, as everywhere else, is of the Further east, towards the Tokat Moun- marine facies, whereas the Upper Car- tains, Permian limestones are found boniferous bears coal and is terrestrial. scattered at isolated places. From here The dolomitic limestone bearing Pro- as far as Bayburt, the Permo-Carboni- ductids, Syringopora and Lithostrotion ferous strata, which cannot be properly in the Zonguldak basin are Visean in determined, attain a great thickness (up age. The existence of Tournaisian bet- to 1500 meters). Here, the dark-grey ween the Devonian and the Visean is limestone banks, rich in Fusulinids, doubtful. The Visean limestones extend Corals, and Spirifer fossils, together nearly as far as Amasra. with pinkish-red sandstone, arkose and quartzites, are found (25). Of the coal-bearing formations, which are designated by their local According to the recent surveys names, the Alacaağzı forma- carried out at Cebeciköy, near İstanbul, tion consists of clayey and sandy many fossils have been found in the shales; the Kozlu formation blue limestones identifying the Visean. of alternation of conglomerates and Since these limestones are below the hard sandstones; and the K a r a d o n Thracian schists of the Devonian age, formation mainly of conglomera- these clayey schists must also belong tes with sandstones and refractory clay. to the Permo-Carboniferous, if the new theories prove to be true (46). The principal coal-yielding strata of this region lie between Çamlı - Kan- The bluish or blackish sandstones, dilli - Zonguldak - Kilimli - Gelik and marbles and limestones, abundant in these formations extend partly as far as fauna in the southern shore - line of the Amasra (43, 44). Marmara Sea, at Dursunbey between Bursa and Gemlik, and at Balya, are of The Permian is seen only as a thin Carboniferous or Permian age. Further layer overlying the Carboniferous series south, in the vicinity of Soma, Fusul- at the Ereğli - Amasra district. inids have been found in the lime- In the district of Ankara there are stones between phyllites and schists. also Permo - Carboniferous formations These limestones extend, further south, between Elma Dağı and Haymana. as far as the gulf of Çandarlı. Apart The Permo - Carboniferous deposits, in from these, there is a sanstone, schist, many outcrops, consist of light, dark, limestone, conglomerate series, abundant detritic or sometimes compact lime- in Fusulinids, overlaying unconformably stones bearing Fusulinids and in the the Devonian at Karaburun, İzmir; neighbourhood of Yalıncak, southwest this series is compared with the Carbo- of Ankara, there exist Visean lime- niferous of the island of Chios.

44 Further south, on the western ex- rine. Carboniferous at Hazru, in the tremity of the Taurus ranges, the Per- northeast of Diyarbakır, and consists mian near Muğla consists of black of ferruginous, hard, yellow greenish plaquetted limestones. Here, no Carbo- quartzitic sandstones and limestones niferous could be detected. These Per- (38, 41). mian limestones extend towards the The Carboniferous at Hakkari east as far as Fethiye. starts with a light-yellow, thin marl, Further east, the Permo - Carboni- overlain by dark limestones which ferous covers a wide area in the Taurus contain many fossils. Tanin Dağı, situ- ranges, extending as far as Malatya. ated in this region, is of Permo - Car- While the Mesozoic formations extend boniferous age, and these are referred over wide areas on one side of the to as Tanintanin formations Taurus Mountains, schist and sandstone in the literature (2, 45). series, containing important limestones of Permian age, continue far away in 5 - Mesozoic the form of complexes. The Mesozoic in Turkey begins In the littoral formations of the with the Triassic transgression and is Alanya massif, the marmorized, bluish spread over extensive areas. Since the Permian limestones abound in Fusuli- series in some of the limestone facies nids. Usually it is not possible to belonging to Mesozoic cannot be dis- distinguish between the Carboniferous tinguished from one another, they are and the Permian formation in this considered as «Comprehensive Series»; region. . however, in these series containing the Triassic, the Jurassic and the Cre- The highest orographic peak of the taceous, the Cretaceous limestones are eastern Taurus is Aladağ (3,700 meters). more predominant. The northern part of this mountain, the Black Aladağ, is Carboniferous ' and In these massive limestones some- shows milder morphological lines; times plaquetted series and sometimes, whereas the southern part, the White on lower levels, dolomitic, radiolaritic Aladağ, belongs to the Cretaceous and siliceous series and even marmo- (5,6,8). rized limestones are found, which constitute important horizon landmarks. The Permo - Carboniferous of the Kayseri - Malatya region is a dark- Apart from these, there exists the blue, often blackish limestone forma- greenstone complex, which tion. In these limestones are found cal- is widespread in Anatolia and which careous, marly schist layers containing we include in the Mesozoic. This is a thin layers of sandstones, or mostly complex made up of acidic and basic bitumen. A major, part of the southern intrusions, spilites, diabase, serpentin- mountains of Malatya consist of grey ized rocks, peridotites, radiolarites, limestones, all belonging to the Permo - clayey schists, sandstones and lenticular Carboniferous age. or seam limestones. Usually Rosalines are found in the limestones of this In the east, on the Bitlis massif, series. Likewise in this series the serpen- Permian limestones are observed lying tines contain rich chrome bedding. unconformably over the old substratum of crystalline schists. Furthermore, the Quite a lot of discussions have Permian is found overlying the lacust- been made concerning the age of the

45 comprehensive series and the greenstone fossils, collected in this formation, have complexes. Even today this question has been determined as : Micraster, Alec- not been quite settled. Certain authors tryonia, Cyclolites, Hippurites etc.. (3). claim that the greenstones begin with The calcareous marl series passes the Paleozoic, particularly in the south- in the upper parts, to tuffaceous sands. west, and some others consider that This series is considered to belong to they begin with the Triassic or the the Upper Campanian, as it lies between Jurassic in the Taurus Mountains, and the Turonian - Lower Campanian flysch still others assert that they begin with and the Maestrichtian limestones. Lower Cretaceous or Upper Cretaceous, and many others are of the opinion As for the white limestones, at the that they are, generally speaking, Me- uppermost level, these are found over sozoic in age. or buried in the Eocene marls in the Kocaeli-Şile District; the Kocaeli Şile district. These series become thicker Triassic is in transgression with the in the Agva Creek, towards the east. Silurian and Devonian layers, situated Echinoeorys, Coraster, Inoceramus, in the west, where the Lower and Hippurites etc. are found in these Middle Triassic exists. Al the base it white limestones (3). is conglomeratic, and contains, from The Cretaceous formation of Sarı- the bottom upwards, red sandstones, yer and Zekeriya Köy, near İstanbul, grey massive limestones, nodular lime- consists of massive, calcareous, dacitic stones and lignitiferous clayey schists lava, tuff, marl and conglomerate inter- with intercalations of plaquetted lime- calations (9). stones. These plaquetted limestones are yellow externally and when broken are The Mesozoic formations of Ereğli, blue-black in colour. The grey lime- Zonguldak and Bartın region constitute stones are Werfenian, the plaquetted the roof of the productive Carbonife- ones Ladinian and the nodular lime- rous. The Triassic and Jurassic have stones are probably Virglorian (4). not been found here until present time. Thus, the Mesozoic in this area starts Werfenian formation, found in Şile, with the Lower Cretaceous overlying is also present in Gebze. However, while unconformably (with a basal conglome- in Şile the Virglorian contains nodular rate) the Carboniferous and the Per- limestones, in Gebze massive and coral- mian. Higher up, until Senomanian, bearing limestones are found in the these basal conglomerates are followed same formation. The Upper Triassic is by massive limestones, Velibey sand- not found in Gebze (3). stones, sandstone and marl scries and In this region the Cretaceous ap- finally by Wild-Flysch horizons. Vol- pears above the Triassic. There is no canic rocks, that are first observed in Jurassic. The Cretaceous begins with the Turonian, are found together with grey conglomerates and is represented, marls, radiolarites, flysch and marly upwards, by flysch, marl series, inter- limestones. Then, the agglomerate-tuff calated with limestones, and white series are followed by a flysch which limestones. The flysch is Turonian or is an alternation of marly and bedded earlier in age; it is intercalated with limestones. Thus the stratigraphic tuffs. Towards the upper parts it passes cycle is completed up to the Maest- to a coarser flysch, where sandstones richtian or probably the Danian. The and microfossils abound. Some macro- geological sections of all the Cretaceous

46 formations in this area have been deter- stones and radiolarites. This series be- mined in detail by Dr. M.TOKAY (43,44). longs to the Upper Liassic. Overlying The Mesozoic in the Çankırı-Kızıl- these layers, appears the Dogger forma- ırmak region is generally in the form tion containing Ammonites. The Malm of a complex facies and is is represented by thin-layered lime- widespread, the Cretaceous being pre- stones which outcrop especially at Yaka- dominant. The enormous andesitic cık and the Bosphorus gorge. They are masses of the Senonian (the Galatia light in colour, now and then pinkish, massif) are overlying these beds. and contain siliceous fragments. Apty- chus is abundant in these layers. The Triassic. - Jurassic formation cannot be observed between the Pa- In the west, in the Ayaş region, leozoic massif of Bolu and the Cre- from the north of Eskişehir to the taceous, and the latter is represented southeast of İznik Lake, Jurassic for- mainly by limestones and eastwards by mations are found in many places. flysches. In this region the Upper Cre- In the Tokat region, the Mesozoic taceous is better recognized than the is Cretaceous and is represented by other levels of the Mesozoic. Further limestones, marls, sandstones, conglo- east, towards Mengen, the limestones merates and flysches. Between Ordu and the dark - coloured schists, as a and Giresun and on the southern moun- whole, are supposed, with some reserve, tains, andesitic lava, tuffs and agglo- to be Triassic. Here the Cretaceous merates intercalated in these series be- consists of the radiolaritic series or come predominant; they alternate with schistous limestones. At Kabalı Dağ, flysches, marls and limestones towards Çerkeş, the Lower and Upper Cre- the east. The fossils found in the lime- taceous massifs predominate. The pre- stones and marls invariably show the sence of the Jurassic is doubtful. Upper Senonian. Along the shore-line In the northern districts, Karabük - in these series, Inoeeramus is more Safranbolu, the Cretaceous is represen-, abundant, whereas the Rudistes are ted by large massifs of the limestone less frequent. and flysch facies. In the Bayburt region, the Meso- Despite the fact that the white zoic begins with the Jurassic. The Lias- marmorized limestones and the Çaldağ sic is represented by black, sandy, massif, in the Mezarlık Tepe district oolitic limestones and shows a thickness north of the city of Ankara, are as- of 2,000 meters. The Malm is trans- sumed to be Permo-Triassic, no fossils gressive over the Liassic. The pink- could be found to confirm this assump- coloured thick-layered limestones form tion in surveys conducted recently. a detritic series with sandstones and conglomerates. In this district, the Jurassic begins with a base conglomerate, Liassic in In the same region the Lower Cre- age, and continues in an alternation of taceous, like the Jurassic, is also wide- marls and sandstones (flysch) or with spread and is from 2,500 to 3,000 grey limestones and red sandstones. meters thick. The bottom of the Cre- Ammonites, Belemnites and Crinoids taceous formation consists of white are found in ample quantities in these plaquetted limestones and marls, and red sandstones which are overlain by the top of a sandy, conglomeratic, a complex series with calcareous sand- detric series.

47 The Upper Cretaceous, in this re- yas and Apolyont- Lakes, is of Liassic gion, is represented by the greenstone age and contains Belemnites and Cri- complex series, containig reef (Rudistic) noids. Overlying these limestones of the limestones. These limestones have 800 Liassic age are Phylloceras - bearing meters of thickness; at the base they limestones, grey sandstones, marly pud- are rich in fossils. In the same region dings, flinty and crystallized limestones an Upper Cretaceous flysch is also (1, 17). present (25). The dolomitic limestones lying in In places, Jurassic limestone of the vicinity of Soma are probably Lias- Bayburt passes laterally into a flysch sic. At Balya, the Triassic is represent- facies towards the east. Especially south ed by conglomerates, sandstones and, of Yusufeli this flysch facies shows a over them, by black schists containing wide extension. The lower horizons of Halobia. This in an Upper Triassic the Liassic limestones, south of İspir, formation and it overlies the Permo - belong probably to the Upper Triassic, Carboniferous. since some micro-organisms are found Th age of the grey massive lime- in the alternating clayey and sandy stones in Kemalpaşa is Cretaceous. horizons that show facies changes towards the lower formations. Further south, in the Ege region, the Mesozoic is not extensive; it is in In the south of Erzincan and in the form of massive and plaquetted li- the Tunceli region, the Mesozoic is mestones, becoming schistous towards generally of the Lower Cretaceous age. the top. In the Izmir region, the Cre- This formation consists of limestone, taceous is generally represented by fly- serpentine and radiolarite complex. sches, which comprise lenses of lime- . The limestones in this, complex are stone with Rudistes, conglomerates, white, grey and pink. It is very likely schists and marls. that the age of this greenstone complex is Lower Cretaceous. In the Muğla - Fethiye region, the dark-coloured dolomitic limestones are The Upper Cretaceous in this re- Triassic in age. In many parts of these gion lies discordantly with a conglo- limestones fossils have been found. The merate over the Lower Cretaceous limestones containing Diplopora extend complex. They are of the flysch and down to the Bodrum harbour. The limestone facies. The limestones are same Triassic occurs now and then as reddish-pink, blue and grey in colour, far as- Fethiye. fine-grained, with an abundant micro- It is possible that the plaquetted fauna. The flysch facies begins with a limestones overlying the Triassic form- conglomerate consisting of serpentines ations are Jurassic - Lower Cretaceous and radiolarites, and shows a thickness in age. At contact points of these pla- of 1,800-2,000 meters (24). quetted limestones with large peridotite In the southern Marmara region, masses, the limestones contain, here between Gemlik and Bursa, lies the and there, Hornstein levels. These pla- Triassic formation which is represented quetted limestones pass into flysch fa- by the Halobia sandstones, micaceous cies in the Marmara Island. Occasion- marls, conglomerates and limestones. ally, reef limestones overlie these pla- The Jurassic, widespread on the litto- quetted limestones; the former are pro- ral mountain ranges, between the Man- bably of the Upper Cretaceous age. At

48 places, under this formation, the Lower gions. It is probable that the dolomitic Cretaceous and Jurassic is encountered. series and the light-red limestones are In the Beyşehir - Seydişehir - An- Triassic. However, no sufficient infor- talya region, the Triassic is represented mation is available on this subject. by the blackish - blue limestones or the Naturally, the presence of the Jurassic dark-coloured dolomites. Towards the is very probable in a formation of such top of this formation, the limestones great thickness. The Upper Cretaceous containing Diplopora can be distin- limestones, which have spread in the guished with some difficulty. These are form of a neritic facies over the marine overlain by alternating series of bluish- Permo - Carboniferous, display more black limestones and schists of great clearly the tectonics of this region; these thickness; their age is Liassic - Malm. thick limestones overlie a great green- Bituminous limestones recur in this stone mass (8). formation group. At places, the black, In the east of the Bitlis massif the calcareous schists contain Posidonomya, Mesozoic is Maestrichtianr in age and which indicate Liassic age. Further up, is in the flysch facies. the flysch layers alternate with thin- layered limestones. The schistous and The Triassic series in the Hakkari bituminous limestones, in which Exo- region is known as the Goyan For- gyra levels are encountered, belong to mation, which outcrops here and Dogger and Malm. These series are there in the south of Hakkari; the overlain by light-coloured, reefy, massive lower levels of this series consist of and thick-bedded limestones of neritic brown sandstones and limestones. Over facies; the major part of these lime- these sandstones and limestones are stones are Cretaceous. The Lower Cre- yellowish marly limestones. Cilo Dağı taceous is not apparent (6). is, generally speaking, Cretaceous. Rhynchonella and Nerinaea levels are In these regions, the Mesozoic for- found in the lower parts of this moun- mations extend in the form of a contain; these levels are probably Upper tinuous limestone series («Comprehen- Jurassic in age (2, 45). sive Series») till the Eocene. The pink limestones and schists in these series In the southeast of Siirt and south represent the radiolarite formation. The of Hakkari, the Cudi Dağı limestones Cretaceous limestones form the moun- are in the form of Comprehensive Series; tains situated between the lakes of this formation consists of the Mesozoic Suğla - Beyşehir, and are mainly zoo- limestones. The Hakkari Cretaceous genie, massive limestones. These lime- limestones are found to be mixed with stones, which contain Rosalina, are of radiolarites. the Senonian age. The Jurassic - Lower At Hazru, the Hacertum Dağı Tri- Cretaceous in the Comprehensive Series, assic consists of marly limestones and in the Akseki district, is in the form clays rich in Pseudomonotis and of marly limestones, rich in Ammonites- Myophoria. At the northern flank of This «Comprehensive Series» con- this mountain there is a coarse, reddish, tinues without change towards the east dark-grey, sandy, massive limestone, as far as Bolkardağ and Aladağ; no which extends from the Jurassis to the clear boundary between the Paleozoic Turonian; in these limestones there are and the Triassic can be noted in the asphalt horizons. The Cretaceous for- lower levels of the series in these re- mations covering a wide area overlie

49 these limestonfts. During preliminary plays facies changes in the latter for- drilling executed in the oil area and mation (42). in drilling, the Kentalan wells, the Tri- Becirman limestones. These assic layers have been encountered. limestones are of the Paleocene-Ypresian These layers are formed of green, red age and constitute in certain localities shale, sandstones and plaquetted lime- the upper boundary of the Germav stones, where Pseudomonotis and Formation. Particularly at Hermis, Ker- Myophoria have been observed (39). bent, Softak and Espandika, south of Again in this oil area exists a lime- the Dicle Nehri (Tigris River), they stone series, uniform in structure, form, at places, a dolomitic limestone known as «massive limestone» zone, white in colour, close in texture in the geology of petroleum, and which and 10 -110 meters thick, between the is Jurassic - Lower Maestrichtian in age. Germav Formation and the clastic, These massive limestones outcrop in Ypresian «Gercüş Formations the east as well as in the north and These limestones disappear completely also at the Derik Dağı, and are gener- in the Raman and Re§an areas. Cer- ally dolomitic in structure; they are tain authors consider that these lime- the only oil reservoir rocks of stones belong to the Middle Eocene, the area. Their thickness varies be- while others attribute them to the tween 400 and 1,000 meters and they Lower Eocene. show invariably a lateral facies altera- tion. These massive limestones begin 6 - Tertiary with Aptian in the south; however, as i The Tertiary is very widespread we go northward, almost all the stages in Turkey. In many places the Tertiary of the Mesozoic can be observed. Al- layers either overlap completely the though the ceiling parts of these mas- older formations or remain as islands, sive limestones have been assumed to where they could not reach the higher belong to the Lower Senonian, it was regions. In some other localities, as the discoverd during the recent surveys Cretaceous sea continued also in the that these limestones go as far as the Eocene, these two formations have Lower Maestrichtian (34, 41). formed a series, the boundary of which All of these massive limestones are cannot be determined. In such places covered by a clayey and sandy soft the boundaries are only discernible by formation alternating with grey, green- fossils. ish - grey, thick, marly strata. This In Turkey the Eocene begins gener- formation, which is of the Upper Cre- ally with the Ypresian. These lower taceous - Paleocene age, is known as levels are mostly sandy, marly series the «Germav Formation». Here and in the flysch facies. The Lutetian the Tertiary - Mesozoic boundary is is represented by limestones and the only discernible paleontologically and upper parts consist of flysch with the thickness varies between 350 and conglomeratic and detritic limestones. 850 meters. In the Mardin region this formation is named the « M a r d i n The Oligocene is generally terrest- Formation» and is Upper Creta- rial, with the exception ot the Gazian- ceous and Paleocene in age. It is the tep region in the southeastern Anatolia same as the Germav Formation so far and the Thracian region. However, it as the colours are concerned, but dis- is possible that some of the flysch and

50 marly formations in Anatolia are Oli- The Ankara district. In the south- gocene. In many of the formations it west of this district, at Sivrihisar and has not been possible to establish a Polatlı, the Paleocene is known by its definite paleontological boundary. fossils, it is represented by the flysch and sandstone, marl facies; whereas in The Neogene sea has followed up the Haymana district, the flysch begins certain routes to Anatolia and has with the Cretaceous and extends up to flooded partly the eastern, southeastern the Paleocene. and southern Anatolia and Thrace. The nummulitic formations extend- a-Eocene, Oligocene:. ing towards the east, in the limestone The Eocene in the Istanbul district, facies, are seen in the Pontides and and at Küçük Çekmece in particular, particularly in the eastern regions in advanced up to the skirts of the old the form of facies intercalated mostly Devonian massif in İstanbul and the with andesitic tuffs, agglomerates and crystalline Istranca massif and deposited lava. In the Giresun - Ordu southern the marly, sandy, thick sediments at the mountains their elements are more bottom, and the detritic, reef Eocene volcanic, whereas in the Bayburt region limestone at the top. The higher levels they are generally in the flysch facies. of the Eocene end with the conglo- They consist of sandstones and conglomeratic series, at Terkos, in the north merates, 1,600 meters in thickness at (16). the bottom and of limestones, marls and sandstones, 350 - 400 meters thick These Eocene series extend to in the middle and at the top (25). Kırklareli and further to the west, along the Istranca massif, and conti- These formations extend, by dis- nue on the other side as far as south playing facies changes, to the Bitlis mas- of the Ergene region and north of sif, south of Monzurlar on one side, Gelibolu. and to the Aras basin, to the east of Van and to Hakkari on the other side. In the The Oligocene series is of the Pri- Northern Anatolia mountains this facies abonian - Sannoisian age and extends has more or less flysch and volcanic in the flysch formation to the north elements, whereas in the south it con- of Tekirdağ, to Malkara and to Ergene. sists mainly of flysch, sandstones, marls, These flysches are in intercalation schists and thin-layered limestones. with thick sandstones, conglomerates and marls. The upper levels of Oligo- In Hakkari, the Nummulitic is cene consist also of marly series. To formed by the greyish-black, plaquetted the end of the Oligocene the area is or detritic limestones, rich in fauna, at a lagunary basin, where lignites have the bottom, and of the flysch, alter- been formed. The deposits overlying nating with the black micaceous schist them contain a completely mixed and sandstone at the top; these are fauna (37). 2,000-2,500 meters in thickness. Further up lie the Oligocene sandstones (45). The Eocene in the Şile district consists, from the bottom to the top, The Eocene formations continuing of blue marls, grey dense sandstones in the flysch facies to the south and of the Ypresian age, and of yellow west of the Bitlis Mountains, undergo limestones and marls of the Lutetian lateral facies changes in the Raman age (3). and Gaziantep regions.

51 These formations consist of reddish, In the Fethiye and Muğla interme- clayey sandstone and conglomerates al- diate zone, the Eocene is in the flysch ternating with marly limestones and of and limestone facies, which extend as shales containing gypsum lenses in the far as İzmir. The Oligocene is incor- Raman and Re§an basins, south of the porated in the Eocene flysch in the Dicle Nehri. These formations, locally neighbourhood of Acıgöl and is in the known as the «Gercüş Forma- form of a continuous series. tions»,. are of the Ypresian age. Some authors assert that these formations are b - The Central Anatolian terrestrial, whereas according to other Gypseous Formations: authors they have been formed from These series generally cover large the materials of the strong erosion in areas in the districts, of Çankırı-Yozgat the «arriere-pays» of the Paleocene ne- and Sivas-Zara. This Central Anatolian ritic sea, which is bordered by lateral Oligocene is in a terrestrial and lacus- folds. In certain strata of these forma- trine facies. After the withdrawal of the tions many Nummulites have been Eocene sea, brine and gypseous forma- identified in the intermediate limestone tions have been deposited in the lakes layers. formed in these districts during the The Eocene limestones cover wide Oligocene. These deposits have taken areas here and occupy the Midyat pla- place between the Eocene formations teaus, hence called the «Midyat and the Miocene strata and are in the Formations». These limestones form of red, green clay, gypsum and are Lutetian in age. At the bottom white limestones. Many salt deposits in they are yellowish, flinty and nodular, these regions belong to this formation. and contain many microfossils; the Although the lower levels of this gyp- upper part is a chalky, soft limestone. seous formation are of the Oligocene On the boundary of these two limesto- age, the upper ones go as far as the ne facies, at Ramandağ, an «Echinoid Neogene. Indeed, further east, in the Zone» has been established. In the Aşkale and the Aras river basin, these Urfa area these limestones are more series, which have been so far conside- chalky (41). . red as Oligocene, have been proven to The Oligocene is regressive in the exist between the fossiliferous marine Mardin area and no sedimentation can Neogene and the fossiliferous Upper be observed there; on the other hand, Miocene. reference is made to the existence of. c-Neogene: the marine Oligocene in the Gaziantep district. During the Neogene, the seas have partly flooded Turkey from the north- The Eocene is transgressive in the west, the south, the southeast and from Taurus-Aladağ region, north of Adana. the east. Breccias and marly sandstones constitute the base here. There are conglomeratic The Neogene transgression begins layers towards the top. The Oligocene with the Aquitanian. The Burdigalian is at places in the limestone, marl fa- and the Middle Miocene are widespread cies and constitutes the most recent and distinct. The marine regime does filling of the Ecemiş Corridor; these not exist after the Middle Miocene. consist of the variegated sandstones and Although repeated invasion of the sea marls. This facies is terrestrial. took place during the Pliocene, this

52 was restricted to a few areas. The Silifke, to the south of Karaman marine Quaternary is seen at Sinop, on one side, and towards the west, Black Sea, probably at Çanakkale, in following the Göksu area, oh the other the gulf of İzmir and at Süveydiye, side. The Burdigalian sea remained south of Antakya. further south, but the Vindobonian sea The northern Neogene sea begins has transgressed much more on the with the Aquitanian in the Ağaçlı land (15). district, northwest of Istanbul, and The eastern extension of the second between the Ergene - Saros gulf. No large sea arm advanced as far as Ma- Burdigalian could be observed here, latya and from there reached Sivas and whereas the Tortonian and the Sar- Koyulhisar. This sea by means of an- matian deposits are found at Çamurlu- other narrow arm, advancing almost han, Büyük and Küçük Çekmece, as a gorge, extended towards the east, west of Istanbul. to Bingöl, Erzincan, Erzurum and Iran and joined the Van Lake region, The Neogene is more or less wide- coming from the Eastern Anatolia. spread in the Ergene - Saros gulf basin. The Aquitanian in the Ağaçlı area The marine invasion in the south- consists of the lignitic sandstone and east enters Turkey at the soutwest marl series. The marl series at Çamur- of Hakkari, near İmadiye in Syria, and luhan, west of İstanbul, is Tortonian at Gizre, further to the southeast, and in age; however, in the intermediate after coming close to the south of Siirt - zone of the Küçük and Büyük Çekmece Şirvan-Garzan-Lice and Ergani it turns lakes the Neogene is represented at again towards the SW and reaches the bottom by limestone series identi- Gaziantep. On the other side, it fying the Sarmatian and by fresh-water touches the east of the Amik Lake at deposits towards the top. Reyhanlı, where it joins with two arms, one coming from Kozeir - Süveydiye In the Ergene - Saros gulf basin and the other from İskenderun, which the Neogene is covered by the Middle crosses Amanos Mountains by the way Miocene (Tortonian) strata and by the of Belan. Sarmatian and Pontian deposits. These series consist of sand, marl and lime- The Adana Burdigalian is in trans- stones (37). gression sometimes on the Paleozoic, but most frequently on the Cretaceous The Southern Neogene sea and partly on the Oligocene (only in of the Mediterranean. This the Ecemiş Corridor); at the bottom Neogene sea has transgressed on the there are conglomerates and towards land in the form of three gulfs (one the top algal limestones. These lime- small and two large ones) advancing stones alternate always with the marl from the Lower Miocene to the north- layers. In this area, the Helvetian is east. The small sea arm is in the represented, from the bottom upwards, Kerme gulf, at Muğla, and begins here by green marls, sands and gravels. The with the Aquitanian; the large sea arms marl and sandstone layers alternate. are at Antalya and Adana. In Antalya As for the Tortonian, it has sands and the sea arm is narrow and long, where- marls at the base, and sandy limestones as the one in Adaria is very wide. towards the top (26). At the end of The western area of the second the Tortonian the sea has regressed large gulf extends, between Mersin and from this area and has left remnants

53 of fresh - or salt - water fauna in some The Burdigalian formations, which local deposits. are very widespread between Mersin In Hatay, at Kozeir, the Burdi- and Silifke and particularly in the galian consists of the variegated, littoral districts, leave their place to glauconic sandstones and conglomerates higher strata in the south of Karaman. at the bottom, and of limestones Here the Vindobonian is well develop- towards the top (10). ed, consists of sandy and marly series and is rich in fossils. In this region In this district, the Helvetian be- the Vindobonian sea has later on re- gins with a conglomerate; to the top gressed to the south and lacustrine there is a marly and sandy limestone formations took place from Karaman series. The Tortonian contains marly in the north as far as the Konya series at the bottom, and the sandstone plain (15). series upwards. The Pliocene in this The Neogene sea, which began district is marine. This formation ex- with the Aquitanian towards the west on the Mediterranean shores, has de- tends from Süveydiye to the north of posited sandy series here. The marine Antakya as far as Kozeir and contains Pliocene is present on the Reşadiye marl series at the bottom and sandy peninsula; it consists of conglomeratic, series at the top. sandy, marly, tuff series.

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35 — TEN-DAM, A. : Stratigraphy and Sedimentation of the Lower Tertiary and Mesozoic in the Mardin Area (SE., Turkey). - (Rept. M. T. A. No. 2286, 1955, Ankara). (Unpublished).

36 — TEN-DAM, A. : Stratigraphy and Sedimentation of the Lower Tertiary and Mesozoic in the fore deep basin of SE Turkey. (Rept. M. T. A. No. 2285, 1955, Ankara). (Unpublished).

37 — TERNEK, Z. : Geological Study of the Region of Keşan - Korudağ. - (Publ. M. T. A., 1949, Ankara). 38 — TERNEK. Z. : Geological Study of the South Eastern Region of Lake Van. - (Bull, of the Geol. Soc. of Turkey No. 2, 1953, Ankara;.

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57 44 — TOKAY, M. : Geologie de la region de Bartın (Zonguldak - Turquie du Nord). - (Bull. M.T.A. No. 46/47, 1954, 1955, Ankara). 45 — TÜRKÜNAL, S. : Geologie de la region Me Hakkari et de Başkale (Turquie). (Publ. M. T. A. 1953, Ankara). 46 — YALÇINLAR, İ. : Nouvelles observations sur les terrains paleozoiques des environs d'İstanbul. (Bull, of the Geol. Soc. of Turkey, No. 1, 1951, Ankara ). 47 — YALÇINLAR, İ. : Note preliminaire sur-les schistes a Graptolites du Silurien decouverts pres d'İstanbul (NW de la Turquie). - (Rewiew of the Geogr. İnst. Üniv. İstanbul, No. 2, 1955, Istanbul). 48 — YALÇINLAR, İ. : Note preliminaire sur les schistes a Graptolithes du Şulirien de Feke au nord d'Adana (Turquie). - Review of Geogr. Inst. Univ. İstanbul, No. 18, 1955, İstanbul ).