A Semantic Analysis of Run: a Corpus Study an Undergraduate Thesis
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A SEMANTIC ANALYSIS OF RUN: A CORPUS STUDY
AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra in English Letters
By ALEXANDRA IRA INDIRA SARI Student Number: 154214049
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS FACULTY OF LETTERS UNIVERSITAS SANATA DHARMA YOGYAKARTA 2019 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
A SEMANTIC ANALYSIS OF RUN: A CORPUS STUDY
AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra in English Letters
By ALEXANDRA IRA INDIRA SARI Student Number: 154214049
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS FACULTY OF LETTERS UNIVERSITAS SANATA DHARMA YOGYAKARTA 2019
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Be kind to one another (Ellen DeGeneres)
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I dedicate my thesis
To my
loving parents, dearest brother, and wonderful best friends.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It is a genuine pleasure to express my gratitude to Jesus Christ for always gives me His countless blessing of making this research.
I owe a deep sense of gratitude to Fransisca Kristanti S.Pd., M.Hum. who is willing to be my thesis adviser. Her guidance, timely advice, meticulous scrutiny, and assistance have helped me to accomplish this research. Additionally,
I would like to express my thanks to my co-adviser, Simon Arsa Manggala S.S.,
M.Hum. His timely suggestions and additional knowledge have enabled me to complete my research.
I thank profusely all the English Letters lecturers and staffs of Universitas
Sanata Dharma for their help and guidance throughout my study period. Without them, I would not be able to finish my study completely.
I am extremely thankful to my loving parents, who always support me in everything I do, to my dearest brother, Emmanuel Ivan, who is always be an admirable brother, to Rm. Mahar, Rm. Sani, and Rm. Tomi, who support me, and to all my wonderful best friends, Deni, Juan, Nes, Nova, Bagas (Tayo), Aan,
Anggrid, Abeng, and Garda for helping me survive all the stress from the first year in campus to now and for never letting me give up.
Alexandra Ira Indira Sari
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE ...... ii APPROVAL PAGE ...... iii ACCEPTANCE PAGE ...... iv STATEMENT OF ORIGINALITY ...... v LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH ...... vi MOTTO PAGE ...... vii DEDICATION PAGE ...... viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... ix TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... x ABSTRACT ...... xii ABSTRAK ...... xiii
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ...... 1 A. Background of the Study ...... 1 B. Problem Formulation ...... 3 C. Objectives of the Study ...... 4 D. Definition of Terms ...... 4
CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF LITERATURE ...... 6 A. Review of Related Studies ...... 6 B. Review of Related Theories ...... 10 1. Corpus Study ...... 10 2. Semantics ...... 11 3. Semantic Features ...... 12 4. Componential Analysis ...... 13 5. Linguistic Context ...... 14 C. Theoretical Framework ...... 15
CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY ...... 16 A. Object of the Study ...... 16 B. Approach of the Study ...... 16 C. Method of the Study ...... 17 1. Data Collection...... 17 2. Data Analysis ...... 18
CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ...... 20 A. The Possible Meaning of “Run” ...... 20 1. Possible Meaning of “Run” as Verb ...... 23 2. Possible Meaning of “Run” as Noun ...... 33 B. The Linguistic Context of Dominant Meanings of “Run” ...... 38
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION ...... 50
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REFERENCES ...... 52 APPENDICES ...... 54 Appendix 1 : ...... 54 Appendix 2 : ...... 59 Appendix 3 : ...... 60
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ABSTRACT
SARI, ALEXANDRA IRA INDIRA. (2019). A SEMANTIC ANALYSIS OF RUN: A CORPUS STUDY. Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters, Faculty of Letters, Universitas Sanata Dharma.
The word “run” is commonly used in society within daily conversation. Most English learners understand “run” as a quick movement of two legs and faster than a walk. However, in practice, “run” has other meanings and the meanings change depending on the context. The fact that “run” carries various meanings applied in different context makes it interesting in this research focus. This research has two objectives: (1) to analyze the possible meaning of “run” from clauses in British National Corpus and (2) to identify the linguistic context of the dominant meaning of “run”. To accomplish the aim, theories of corpus study, semantics, semantic features, componential analysis, and linguistic context are applied in this research. Semantics approach was utilized in this research to analyze the meanings and linguistic contexts. The methodology used in this research was qualitative method to identify and elaborate “run” through some test of semantic features. Then, this research grouped the results of the analysis to show the frequency of the meaning. Later, the linguistic contexts were analyzed through the explanation of each lexicon. All analysis was described with some examples of clauses. The finding of this research presents several possible meanings of “run” as verbs and nouns. Nevertheless, this research finds three dominant meanings of “run” as verbs, and no dominant meanings of “run” as nouns. Those three dominant meanings are “to control or manage something”, “to move with two legs more quickly”, and “to operate a computer or program”. These three dominant meanings reveal the linguistic context of “business”, “education”, “charity”, “politics”, “sport”, and “technology”. “Politics” is the only linguistic context that appears more than one times.
Keywords: semantics, run, linguistic context, corpus
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ABSTRAK
SARI, ALEXANDRA IRA INDIRA. (2019). A SEMANTIC ANALYSIS OF RUN: A CORPUS STUDY. Yogyakarta: Program Studi Sastra Inggris, Fakultas Sastra, Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Masyarakat sering menggunakan kata “run” dalam berkomunikasi. Mayoritas, masyarakat yang menggunakan bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa kedua memahami “run” sebagai sebuah perpindahan yang lebih cepat daripada berjalan menggunakan kedua kaki. Realitanya, kata “run” memiliki lebih dari satu arti dan kata tersebut dapat berubah arti berdasarkan konteksnya. Mengacu pada fakta tersebut, fenomena ini menarik untuk diteliti. Penelitian ini memiliki dua tujuan: (1) untuk menganalisis kemungkinan arti dari kata “run” pada klausa-klausa yang diambil dari British National Corpus dan (2) untuk mengidentifikasi konteks bahasa dari arti kata “run” yang sering muncul. Untuk mencapai tujuan tersebut, penelitian ini menerapkan teori korpus, semantik, fitur semantik, analisis komponensial, dan konteks bahasa. Semantik merupakan pendekatan yang diterapkan untuk menganalisis arti dan konteks bahasa. Penelitian ini menggunakan metode kualitatif untuk mengidentifikasi dan menguraikan arti kata “run” melalui fitur semantik. Kemudian, penelitian ini mengelompokkan hasil analisis melalui fitur semantik tersebut untuk melihat berapa banyak arti yang muncul. Selain itu, konteks bahasa dianalisis melalui penjelasan tiap kosakata. Semua analisis dijelaskan dengan memaparkan beberapa contoh klausa. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan beberapa kemungkinan arti dari kata “run” sebagai kata kerja dan kata benda. Namun, penelitian ini menemukan tiga arti kata “run” yang sering muncul sebagai kata kerja dan tidak ditemukannya arti kata “run” yang sering muncul sebagai kata benda. Ketiga arti yang sering muncul adalah “untuk mengatur sesuatu”, “untuk berpindah dengan cepat menggunakan kaki”, dan “untuk mengoperasikan komputer atau program”. Tiga arti yang sering muncul tersebut memperlihatkan konteks bahasa seperti “bisnis”, “pendidikan”, “sumbangan atau amal”, “politik”, “olahraga”, dan “teknologi”. “Politik” adalah satu-satunya konteks bahasa yang muncul lebih dari satu kali.
Keywords: semantik, “run”, konteks bahasa, korpus
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. Background of the Study
When human beings have a conversation, they exchange their ideas through the use of various linguistic forms, including words. Understanding the ideas or thoughts means understanding the meaning of the words since meaning is one of the parts of semantics because it is the idea that words, expressions, signs, and symbols represent concepts, whether it is shown in the real word or through imagination. Those concepts have meaning and semantics deals with meaning.
For example, the meaning of “mermaid” is a representation of a person who has upper body as female but has a tail of fish as the legs. Human beings can understand the word “mermaid” even though they have not seen the real word.
In their minds, human beings carry a huge vocabulary in order to deliver their ideas and it is called lexical semantics. According to Löbner, lexical semantics is “the investigation of expression meanings stored in the mental lexicon (mouse, sock)” (2002, p. 16). Meaning to say, lexical semantics is a store of vocabulary in order to show the objective meaning, therefore, human beings can understand its meaning in general. Besides, it also shows how the lexicon has the differences and similarities features in semantic field. By identifying the features, lexical semantics cannot be completely understood by looking at a word, but by looking at a set of words that is complete and related. Brinton & Brinton also add, “the meanings of the words are interdependent” (2010, p.146).
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In short it is possible to separate the meaning of individual words.
Therefore, since lexical semantics analyzes the meaning of the word, this subfield of linguistic is applied to answer the phenomenon that appears in society, which is the word “run”.
The word “run” is commonly used in our society. This word is used quite often because it is the basic vocabulary that society knows as their knowledge of knowing English language and society knows the word “run” refers to a quick movement of the legs and making a short jump off either foot. In practice, the word “run” refers to an activity that can be applied not only to living things, but also to an object or a moment. This can be concluded that the subject who does the activity can create various meanings. Furthermore, the meanings of the word
“run” can be seen from the context of the sentence. Its context influences the meaning of the word; “run” changes meaning when the context changes. Even though “run” has a complex form in sentences, such as phrasal verb and prepositional verb, this research focuses only on the basic form of “run” in order to set the simplest analysis to be developed later by conducting further research.
In other words, this research only focuses on “run” as a verb and noun. Moreover, in linguistics, the word “run” is one of the examples of conversion. Yule explains that conversion is “a change in the function of a word, as for example when a noun comes to be used as a verb (without any reduction)” (2010, p. 57). Meaning to say, the word “run” is a kind of word formation that create a word from an existing word without change the form of word.
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To investigate meanings of the word “run”, corpus study is used to analyze the definition of the meaning “run”, yet it is the study of language as revealed in corpora of real-world text. Real world texts mean that all texts are collected from the reality in society. Corpus study is also used to strengthen investigations of language variation and the use of language from the actual patterns of use in real texts in society. Since it gives evidence about the variation and the use of language, corpus study is also important to be used because the analysis using corpus helps a lot in finding the phenomenon in the society in which the corpus can make “the results obtained are valid and the generalizations that are made have a solid linguistic basis” (Meyer, 2004, pg. 137).
To analyze the meaning of “run” from natural texts, British National
Corpus is used since it collects a hundred million words of samples of written and spoken language from the world. Therefore, British National Corpus is used to be the data source because it collects the samples from the past until present with the result that the data source is precise to be examined. Furthermore, the word “run” can be identified from the past until present to see the development of meanings that appears and give the evidence about the variation and the use of language.
B. Problem Formulation
The two research problems in this research are, as follows:
1. What are the possible meanings of the word “run” from the clauses in British
National Corpus?
2. What linguistic contexts are revealed from the identified dominant meanings of
“run”?
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C. Objectives of the Study
This research asserts on the semantic analysis and the corpus study of the word “run”. There are two research objectives. First is to analyze the possible meaning of the word “run” from the clauses in British National Corpus. The finding of the first objective is used to classify the linguistic contexts of the dominant meanings of “run” that appear from the analysis. Moreover, this research intends to find out and classify the linguistic context of dominant meanings of “run” that the clauses are found from British National Corpus as the real text in daily life.
D. Definition of Terms
The first term to be defined is semantic analysis. Semantic analysis is field of semantics that understands the language, means knowing how to use it.
This term often requires syntactic and pragmatic approach to define the meaning of the word.
The second term to be defined is corpus. Corpus is a large collection of spoken and written language, and those are used for studying the language.
Moreover, corpus is a collection of samples of words from different types, including newspaper, fiction, medical information, literary work, and government documents.
The third term to be defined is corpus study. Corpus study is a study on corpus in which “describes language variation and use by looking at large amounts of texts that have been produced in similar circumstances” (Crawford &
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Csomay, 2016, p. 5). In other word, corpus study deals with how researcher use language in various contexts.
The last term to be defined is linguistic context or co-text. Linguistic context or co-text is a set of words that strengthen the lexical item to identify its meaning. Furthermore, linguistic context or co-text can help English learners to determine meanings.
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CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
In this chapter, this research provides review of some literature in order to support this study. It covers three reviews of related studies; two of them are undergraduate theses and the other one is an academic journal. Three reviews of related studies are made in order to avoid plagiarism and to highlight the differences and similarities from those literatures and this research. After finishing the review of related studies, this research continues in making the review of related theories. Later, those theories are applied to answer the problems of this research. In the last part, this chapter reveals the theoretical framework that describes how the theories are applied to solve the problems.
A. Review of Related Studies
The first thesis entitled “The Semantic Study of the English Verbs
Meaning to Speak” is about a study of semantic features of the English words containing meaning “to speak”. It was designed to analyze the difference and how they were used in sentences. The objectives of Novriwandinata’s thesis are to find out the definition of each verb that has meaning “to speak” and to find the semantic features of the English verb that has the meaning “to speak”. To answer the problems, Novriwandinata applied theory of synonym to find the verbs that have similar meaning with “to speak”. The theory on word meaning was also used to define each verb based on four dictionaries. Novriwandinata also used theory of
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sentential meaning to support the definition and found addition feature that could appear after the verb applied in sentences. Lastly, he exerted the theory of componential analysis as his approach to analyze the semantic features of each verb and to see the differences between them.
After summarizing the thesis, the conclusion of the first problem is the definition of the verb can be found not only from the dictionary, but also by analyzing the verbs when they are applied in sentences. From the analysis,
Novriwandinata can decide the feature that cannot be found in the dictionary from analyzing sentences. Second, using the semantic features, the features of the verb can be categorized into content, condition, and reason. There are fourteen features on content, five features on condition, and thirteen features on reason.
Novriwanditana’s thesis uses four dictionaries to make a comparison about the meaning of the word “to speak” to see the characteristics of the word to help
Novriwandinata finds the semantic features of the word “to speak”. Unfortunately,
Novriwandinata does not give the exact samples of data to identify the use of verb in different contexts. Even though this research is similar to Novriwandinata’s thesis in the use of componential analysis, there are two things that are slightly different. This research chooses the word “run” from British National Corpus as the data and applies semantic analysis, componential analysis, corpus study, and linguistic context or co-text. Meanwhile, Novriwandinata’s thesis uses the word
“to speak” as his object and puts the clauses from www.nytimes.com and www.BBC.com as the data.
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The second thesis entitled “The Semantic Features of English Words
Meaning Good-Looking” was written to provide a better definition as well as the difference of the synonymous words in the data. This thesis examined the English words meaning “good-looking”. There are two objectives, first is to find out the definition of the English words meaning “good-looking” in the data and second is to see the semantic features that present the particular meaning of the words and differentiate the meaning to each other. To answer those problems, the main theory of this thesis is the procedures in componential analysis proposed by Nida, but to support the procedures, word meaning is used to reveal the definition of the
English words, meaning “good-looking” by consulting to comprehensive dictionaries and the theory of synonym to find the adjective that have similar meaning with “good-looking”.
After reading the whole thesis, the analysis on the definition of the
English words meaning “good-looking” proves that the definitions of the words are overlapping the same area as the definitions of other words. For example, the definition of the word “beautiful” is used to describe a woman and the definition of the word “handsome” explains the look of man and also the inner beauty of the man, such as his power or his authority.
Overall, this thesis is a study on analyzing the semantic features of
English adjectives, which have the meaning of “good-looking”. However, this thesis uses online article to prove the meaning of the word “good-looking” and it does not give the exact example of each definition, therefore, the comparison of each definition is quite difficult to be analyzed.
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The last is a journal article entitled “The Contrastive and Contextual
Analysis of the Verb Run” attempts at analyzing the contrastive and contextual analysis of the verb “run”. It focuses on the contextual analysis of the verb “run”, which does not include the idiomatic expression. Since the object of the journal article is the word “run”, to identify the differences meaning, the journal article uses contrastive analysis to find out the distinctive features of the word. It also utilizes contextual analysis to give evidence that even though the word has the same feature, the meaning is different because of the situational context.
After summarizing the journal article, the researcher finds that the meaning of verb “run” can be determined from the context and features. The similar context can derive different meaning, depends on the features. The same meanings come from different context and features. Additionally, when the verb
“run” has similar features, the meanings of verb “run” are different since the context also takes important effects and role on deciding the meanings.
Since this journal article was basically written as the development of
Nida’s work, firstly Isti’anah works on the journal article by collecting the context first then applies them into the sentence and the result, Isti’anah presents forty contextual analyses of the verb “run” whereas Nida’s work presents nine contextual analyses of the verb “run”. Meanwhile, this research will identify the possible meaning of English word “run” which the clauses are taken from British
National Corpus.
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B. Review of Related Theories
1. Corpus Study
Corpus study is “the study of language based on examples of ‘real life’ language use” (McEnery & Wilson, 2001, p. 1). It means that corpus study is a study of various types of language as revealed in real world text. It helps people to identify the use of language variation. Furthermore, corpus has more than a million samples of written and spoken texts with different genres that are collected from many sources in the world, such as newspaper, literary work, and fiction. Since it collects many texts, corpus study conducts in several aspects; it can describe the lexis in semantic field, it can study the aspect of grammar in syntax field, and it also can examine the aspect of context in pragmatic field.
Furthermore, corpus is being used in the pursuit of broader or large problems, such as stylistic in poem, novel and other literary works.
As this research studies about lexical semantics, this theory is applied because it helps a lot in finding the lexical meaning from the real-world text.
Moreover, “corpora have proved to be a powerful tool for the investigation of special uses of language” (O’Keeffe & McCarthy, 2010, p. 6). Meaning that this research can test the lexical theory by using corpus data. Likewise, corpus is applied to determine how frequent the lexical appear in the text.
Therefore, to determine how frequent the lexical is, British National
Corpus is used to examine the problem. As Leech, Rayson, and Wilson mention,
British National Corpus is “a sample of some 100 million words of present-day spoken and written British English” (2014, p. 1). Furthermore, British National
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Corpus as the data source is chosen to examine the problems because it collects a lot of written text of data. Since it collects many texts, there is a process of doing the corpus to get the data. Later, this research does the cyclical process of collecting data, making a group of data, and working on the analysis to get depth information about how frequent the lexical is.
2. Semantics
Semantics is an approach in linguistic that study about meaning. Griffiths explains, “Semantics is the study of the ‘toolkit’ for meaning” (2006, p. 1). It can be said that semantics approach is knowledge in vocabulary and each meaning will elaborate into the next level, which are sentence, phrase, and clause. Besides meaning is found in text, it also appears in signs, symbols, gestures, and expressions. Those forms of meaning are used within particular context. However, this research focuses on the meaning of the word.
Semantics deals with the meanings of word, which is called lexical semantics. In human being’s mind, lexical semantics is the same as vocabulary, which is a useful tool for communication within their language. Since vocabulary is a bundle of words, knowing the lexical semantics is important because it is not simple to use it. It depends on the speaker’s knowledge of the lexical and the depth of knowledge of the speaker. Moreover, the speaker must know the context of using the lexical. For example, “see” as a verb in “Can I see your book, please?” means, “to notice or examine someone or something, using your eyes
(Longman Dictionary, 2003). The meaning appears if the context is about seeing someone or something from certain distance. Nonetheless, the meaning of “see”
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changes when the context changes, for example in “…some figures for you and perhaps I’ll come and see you next week, okay?” (British National Corpus, 1994).
The meaning of “see” is visiting or meeting someone in the future, since the context is about the trainer wants to prepare something for the student and they may meet next week.
From the example above, it can be concluded that lexical semantics is a study of examining meaning of each word from several aspects, one of them by seeing the context. The meaning of the lexical increases when people have depth of knowledge in understanding the meaning by seeing the context and the function of the lexical in the sentence, whether it is a verb or noun.
3. Semantic Features
Semantic features represent the basic component meaning from each lexical. Lexical semantics has its characteristic and to share the characteristic, semantic features is used. Brinton & Brinton explains that, “features can be used to compare words and talk systematically about sense relations” (2010, p. 157).
Moreover, semantic features share the specific distinction to get further explanation about the component that represent the distinctive and similarities of the word. For example, the words below:
Eagle: [+fly], [+carnivore], [-swim] Penguin: [-fly], [+carnivore], [+swim] Owl: [+fly], [+carnivore], [-swim] Ostrich: [-fly], [-carnivore], [-swim]
From the example above, even though those animals are birds’ species, they have an element that shows distinctive features. For example, penguin is a
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bird species, but it cannot fly; it only can walk and swim. The same as ostrich that cannot fly; it only can walk and run. The example above explains that semantic features appear from many sides of the lexical. Those animals are birds’ species, meaning that the semantic features can appear from how the animals move from one place to another place and what group of animals they are in eating something. Therefore, semantic features are used to compare the features and to identify further about the specific elements of the lexical.
4. Componential Analysis
Componential analysis is part of semantic features, which explain the features of the word meaning. This theory is a method of structural semantics, which analyzes the elements of a word’s meaning. It can be used to enrich the understanding of other languages or enrich students’ vocabularies. Componential analysis is usually applied to explain the conceptual content, like gender, family, and kinship terms. For example, the word “mother” and “girl” can be compared and the result, the distinctive feature of those words is [-mature] and the similarity is [+female]. Componential analysis uses binary features to identify the features of the word, like the example below:
Walk: [+verb], [-mental], [+activity], [-stative], [+physical], [+dynamic]
Binary features are used to highlight the difference of each word.
Componential analysis from the example above proves that semantic enables linguistics to explain how words may share certain features of the same semantic
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domain. Moreover, the symbol /+/ and /-/ are also important to convince that the word is distinctive features or similar with other words.
Even though componential analysis and semantic feature are different, they relate to each other. The componential analysis explains whether the features are distinctive or similar, while semantic features explain the comparison element between the lexical.
5. Linguistic Context
Linguistic context is part of pragmatics, since pragmatic is the study of context. Based on The Study of Language book, there are two kinds of context in pragmatics; those are linguistic context and physical context. In this case, the research applies linguistic context to identify the context one by one. However, to reveal the linguistic context, semantic analysis is utilized, which is lexical analysis. Yule explains that linguistic context or co-text is “the set of other words used in the same phrase or sentence” (2010, p. 129). It means that the context is identified based on the surrounding words that have a strong effect. Moreover, these words support the phrase or sentence to analyze the context.
For example, the word “book” can be identified as “something to read” and “the activity of making a reservation”. It can be identified as “something to read” if the sentence is “I read a book in library”. It is obviously a book is a thing to read because there are “read” and “library”, which means both words are the strong clues to identify what book is. “Read” is an action of someone who is doing something and “library” is a place where someone does the action. On the other hand, book is the activity of making a reservation if the sentence is “I have
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already booked the hotel for next week”. There is a word “hotel” that supports the meaning, which someone has been making a reservation to the hotel.
C. Theoretical Framework
Since the objectives of this research are to identify the possible meanings of “run” and to find out the linguistic context of the dominant meanings of “run” from British National Corpus, theories of corpus study, semantics, semantic features, componential analysis, and linguistic context are applied in solving the problems.
In answering the first problem, this research applies corpus study, semantics, semantic features, and componential analysis to identify the possible meaning of “run” based on the features of “run” by doing some test on basic features and the additional features, then doing cyclical process in agglomerating the word “run”, which is the word “run” that stand as verb and noun.
In answering the second problem, this research employs linguistic context to describe the context of dominant meanings of “run” by identifying the meaning of each strong word within each clause and make a conclusion of it.
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CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
This chapter presents object of the study, approach of the study, and method of the study. Firstly, the object of the study explains how “run” is used in the real-world text. Secondly, the approach of the study discusses the tool to examine the problems of this research. Finally, the method of the study describes the processes in which the data were collected and analyzed.
A. Object of the Study
The objet of this research was 40 clauses that were taken from British
National Corpus at https://www.english-corpora.org/bnc/. Those clauses were collected on November 2, 2018. British National Corpus is a collection of written and spoken world text, which contains more than a hundred million clauses that are published in this corpus. Because it contained lot of clauses, these objects were collected from many sources, which those sources collected from newspapers, fictions, politics, laws, and educations. Therefore, the use of “run” in real world application is wider and gets various data.
B. Approach of the Study
The approach of this research is semantics. Lyons explains, “semantics is traditionally defined as the study of meaning” (2006, p.3). In other word, it focuses on how the listeners understand the meaning of the word and how the speakers and listeners share meanings of the word. Therefore, semantics is
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considered suitable to be used in the analysis for the identification of the possible meaning of “run”.
Additionally, this research applied linguistic context or co-text. However, the research utilized lexical analysis to identify the context. The goal of using linguistic context is to understand how the speakers or users employ the language in proper situation to avoid ambiguity. Thus, it is appropriate to reveal the linguistic context of the dominant meanings of “run”.
C. Method of the Study
In process of conducting the research, two steps were executed. First was collecting the data and second was analyzing the data. Those steps were presented below.
1. Data Collection
This research applied qualitative method on several samples. The clauses from British National Corpus were filtered and selected to analyze. The steps of data collection were as followed.
First step to do was collecting the first 100 clauses containing the word
“run” that were taken from British National Corpus on November 2, 2018. Using a computer, the researcher wrote the word “run” as a keyword at https://www.english-corpora.org/bnc/. From the first 100 clauses, only the clauses that used the word “run” as a verb and noun were selected. The clauses containing
“run” in phrasal verb and prepositional verb were eliminated and were not used as the data. After the filtering, 60 clauses remained and were used as the data of this
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research. Additionally, this research used 60 clauses which contained of spoken and written texts.
2. Data Analysis
Since there were 60 clauses as the data, this research divided them into three in order to be able to analyze them in cycles. In each cycle, the steps to analyze the data analysis were doing some test of semantic features, analyzing the result of the test, and identifying the context of the meanings. Cycles were applied to identify repeating or contrasting pattern from each. Below is the illustration of cyclical process of the data described.
From the illustration above, the cyclical process was conducted two times.
Each cycle analyzed 20 clauses to identify the feature. In results, there were 9 times of the appearance of the first dominant meaning from the first cycle. In cycle two, the findings supported cycle one because there were 7 times of the appearance of the first dominant meaning, 3 times of the appearance of the second
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dominant meaning, and 2 times of the appearance of the third dominant meaning.
There was similar pattern as in cycle one. Therefore, since two cycles had similar pattern, this research stopped the analysis after cycle two. Furthermore, the findings in cycle one and two were enough to identify the possible meanings of
“run”.
The second step was grouping the result of the test to see the frequency of the meaning. There were three dominant meanings of “run” as verbs and seven meanings of “run” as nouns. After grouping, the research described three dominant meanings of “run” as verbs and seven meanings of “run” as nouns with several examples of clauses.
To attain the second research objective, the next step to do was analyzing the linguistic context of three dominant meanings of “run” as verbs since the identified meanings of seven meanings of “run” as nouns were not too significant.
To identify the linguistic context, this research selected lexicons from the clauses, which could reveal the context. After that, this research grouped the result of the analysis to present the frequency of the linguistic context. Last step to do was describing the linguistic context of three dominant meanings with some examples of clauses.
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CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The discussion and the elaboration of the data analysis will be done in two parts. First is to answer the possible meanings of “run” from the clauses in British
National Corpus. In this part, all of the possible meanings that are found from the part of speech, verb and noun, will be discussed by providing the semantic features to see the distinctions and similarities. The second part is examining the context of those possible meaning based on their linguistic contexts.
A. The Possible Meanings of “Run”
After analyzing and examining “run” from the clauses in British National
Corpus, there are several meanings that appear. The result of the analysis, the word “run” has two functions, which are “run” stands as verb and “run” stands as noun. Moreover, the word “run” changes the meaning depends on the sentences and the part of speech with various meanings. The analysis identifies eleven possible meanings as verbs and seven possible meanings as nouns. The table below explains the distribution of categories and meanings of “run”
Table 1. Percentage of the Meaning of the Word “Run” Part of Meaning Frequency Percentage Speech To control or manage 16 40% something To move with two legs more 4 10% Verb quickly To operate the computer or 3 7.5% program To broadcast or print 2 5%
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something in media To gain knowledge or learn 2 5% something important To take someone somewhere in someone’s 1 2.5% car To produce something from 1 2.5% factory or company To leave a situation or arrangement as soon as 1 2.5% things go away To add something or someone in order to get 1 2.5% advantage To build something 1 2.5% To take care of someone 1 2.5% Something happening for a 1 2.5% short period of time An experiment or a trial 1 2.5% A quick movement of the legs to escape from 1 2.5% something dangerous or to reach a destination quickly Having a score in baseball 1 2.5% game Noun The usual type of something or someone that usually 1 2.5% happen A challenge to be as good at something as someone who 1 2.5% is extremely good Something happens at a time that is far away in the 1 2.5% future
From the table above, this research finds out that there are three dominant meanings of “run”. Those three dominant meanings are found from “run” as verbs. It can be seen that the frequency of “run” as verbs is commonly used in daily conversation. The finding shows that “run” as verbs with the meaning “to control or manage something” has the biggest percentage with 40%. The second
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dominant meaning is “to move with two legs more quickly” with 10%. The last dominant meaning is “to operate the computer or program” with 7.5%.
Since this research relies on the semantic features, to identify the meaning of “run” in each clause, the analysis found several shared features of the word within the verb category. Those shared semantic features [+verb], [+activity],
[+transitive], [+physical]. Later, in analyzing the sentences, some features are added in order to have deeper information about the distinctive features, which become crucial in differentiating its meaning and the similarity of each meaning of the lexical. To make this analysis clear, the basic distinctive features that are found from these findings are [-mental], [-stative], and [-intransitive], even though one of the dominant meanings carries [+intransitive].
The table also presents seven possible meanings of “run” as nouns. Those seven meanings are equally divided, which each meaning presents 2.5%. Similar with the verbs, the analysis found two shared features of the word within the noun category. “Run” as noun shares [+noun] and [+count]. The basic distinctive features that are found from noun are [-uncountable], [-compound], and [-mass], although one of the possible meanings of “run” as noun carries [+mass].
As it is mentioned in the verbs, in analyzing the sentences, some features are added. Thereafter, those semantic features help a lot in comparing each meaning of the lexical. To get further explanation about “run” as verb and noun, this research conducts in analyzing the three dominant meanings of verb and seven meanings of noun.
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1. Possible Meaning of “Run” as Verbs a. To control or manage something
This meaning is the first dominant meaning that appears based on British
National Corpus; therefore, several sentences are described to see the distinction and the similarity. “To control or manage something” means an activity refers to someone that he or she is able to organize and have responsibility to control something. The shared semantic features of this meaning are [+verb], [+activity],
[+transitive], [+organize], [+in charge]. What makes this meaning different from the other is because there are [+organize], [+in charge] and [+telic]. As Brinton &
Brinton mentioned, [+telic] “recognizes whether the situation has an endpoint or goal which is necessary for the situation” (2010, p. 161). Below are some examples of the clause.
(C1) “…such as retail, library, and garden stores. The aim will be to run
most order/purchasing and payment systems without paper except
for unusual times. We need to…”
(C2) “…even if he had wished it, he would not really have been able to
run the estates himself. It was something which Morton itched to do
-- perhaps only…”
(C3) “…this Worcester storage centre. They were donated to the local
Kurdish Refugee Association, run by Ruth Hilali. But she hasn't
been in touch with her colleagues for…”
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Semantic features of (C1) are [+verb], [+activity], [+transitive], [+telic],
[+organize], [+in charge]. The word “run” in this clause is an active verb because it explains that something or someone will organize the order/purchasing and payment systems. Automatically, something or someone is physically doing the job to control the order/purchasing and payment systems. The word “run” in this clause is transitive. The phrase “most order/purchasing and payment systems without paper except for unusual times” is the direct object of the word “run”, thus, that phrase receives the action from the verb.
Next, the word “run” is [+telic] because there is a sentence that explains the goal, which is “The aim will be to run…” Based on semantics, the words “the aim” are something or someone has an endpoint. Moreover, based on syntax, the words “will be to” are used to express the future. Therefore, since the sentence talk about the aim, which is controlling most order/purchasing and payment systems, it has a goal in the future.
The word “run” in this clause has additional features, which are
[+organize] and [+in charge]. Those features bring the word “run” into the first dominant meaning, which is to control something. “Organize” means to manage something or some people to do their job. Likewise, “in charge” means someone is having the responsibility. Hence, the word “run” in this clause is to manage the payment systems. Moreover, someone or something has the responsibility to manage the most order/purchasing and payment systems without paper except for unusual times.
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Second is (C2) which has [+verb], [+activity], [+transitive], [+voluntary],
[+organize], [+in charge] as the semantic features. The word “run” in this clause is an active verb because it describes that someone is doing an action to achieve something. In this case, the subject “himself” wishes that he would run the estates, means that the subject has a wish to manage the estates by himself. Therefore, something that receives the action is the phrase “the estates himself”.
The word “run” explains that the subject is willfully doing the action. It can be seen from the clause, “even if he had wished it”. The clause describes that the subject has a wish to manage the estates. If the subject has a wish, it means that the subject offers to manage the estates without expecting any reward.
Therefore, the verb “run” here is [+voluntary].
Since this verb has the meaning to control or manage something, the additional features are [+organize] and [+in charge]. Similar to the explanation in
(C1) “organize” means to manage something or to arrange something. In this clause, someone is trying to arrange the estates himself. Furthermore, “in charge” means something is in control with all of the responsibilities. As a result, the word
“run” in this clause, means someone is volunteering himself or herself to manage or control the estates.
Last is (C3) which shares [+verb], [+activity], [+transitive], [+voluntary],
[+organize], and [+in charge]. Similar with the explanation above, the word “run” here is an active verb because the subject is doing things. “Run” in this sentence shares [+transitive]. It has a direct object that is explained before “run”, since it is a passive voice.
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The word “run” in (C3) describes that the subject, Ruth Hilali, freely offers to take part in the association. It is shown from the word “by” after the word “run”. If it is seen from the structural, the word “by” is a preposition since it is used especially with a passive verb to say who does something. Based on semantic, the word “by” identifies that the person is presenting some actions.
Hence, the word “run” explains that the subject is volunteering herself to take part in the Kurdish Refugee Association, which shares the semantic features
[+voluntary].
Similar with (C1) and (C2), (C3) has two additional features, which are
[+organize] and [+in charge]. Since “organize” means to manage or coordinate group of people or something and “in charge” means responsible for something, thus, the word “run” here means the subject, Ruth Hilali, is having the responsibility and is willfully taking part in Kurdish Refugee Association to control it.
From the three clauses above, it can be concluded that the first dominant meaning, which is to control or manage something, of the verb “run” has the distinction and similarity in semantic features. The distinctive features that occur in those clauses are [+telic] in (C1) and [+voluntary] in (C2) and (C3). From these distinctive features, it is found that a verb has some types that occur from any clauses and depend on the sentence.
b. To move with two legs more quickly
“To move with two legs more quickly” is the second dominant meaning that is identified. This second dominant meanings show an activity of someone
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who is using his or her legs to move from one place to another. In some cases, this meaning presents an activity of someone who is moving with his or her legs in a competition. It shares the semantic features of [+verb], [+transitive], [+physical],
[+dynamic]. There are some additional features that appear, which are
[+durative], [+distance], and [+compete]. Some examples are given below.
(C4) “…on a Sunday, he would have to think long and hard before
deciding to run the 400m. In today's world he would probably
choose to run only the…”
(C5) “…would have been fewer qualifying runs. In Barcelona, Eric
Liddell would have to run two rounds of the 200m, followed by the
semi-final and the final the next…”
(C6) “…not hop, skip or jump. Indeed, they can barely manage even to
run, for they have only soft ballooning tubes to serve as stumpy
legs. These…”
Semantic features of (C4) are [+verb], [+physical], [+transitive],
[+dynamic], [+distance] and [+compete]. The verb “run” here is [+physical] because the subject physically moves his or her body to finish the aim. Usually, the word “run” in this meaning is not followed by a direct object. However, in this clause, the word “run” is [+transitive] because it is followed by direct object, which is “the 400m”. It can be described that the subject has to run as far as
400m.
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The word “run” is [+dynamic]. This clause explains that the subject has to think hard before he or she decides to run the 400m. “Run” here is about finishing the running competition, which he or she has to run the 400m. In this case, the subject has to move about in hurry to complete the aim. Therefore, “run” is
[+dynamic].
This meaning has three additional features that are found from the finding.
There are [+distance], and [+compete]. The word “run” in (C4) is [+compete] because the word “400m” is related to one of the sprint events in track and field.
In this clause, the word “run” is described as someone will take part in the 400m- sprint event.
Another finding is [+distance]. It can be seen from the word “400m”.
Distance means the length of a race. Meaning that the subject has to run in a competition, which the length of a race is 400m. Therefore, the word “run” shares
[+distance], and [+compete].
In (C5), there are [+verb], [+transitive], [+physical], [+dynamic],
[+distance], and [+compete] as the semantic features. Similar with (C4), the word
“run” is [+transitive] because it is followed by direct object, which is “two rounds of the 200 m, followed by the semifinal and the final the next…” Based on semantics, the word “run” explains that Eric Liddell has to move faster than a walk two rounds of the 200m. Because the subject has to move faster, the subject is physically using his or her body to move faster. Therefore, [+physical] is reflected from this type of “run”.
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The word “run” in (C5) is [+dynamic]. Here, the word “run” explains that the subject has to do an action in the semifinal and the final, which is running in running competition. In this clause, the subject is continuously moving with their body faster than a walk, therefore, “run” is [+dynamic].
Similar with (C4), the word “run” describes that the additional semantic features are [+distance], and [+compete]. The feature [+compete] means the word
“run” here explains that the subject joins a competition, which is running competition. In this clause, Eric Liddell has to run two rounds of the 200m, meaning that Eric Liddell has to move his body faster than a walk two rounds of the 200m. Moreover, “the semifinal” explains a round comes near to final and
“the final” explains the last game in a tournament or sport. Moreover, the word
“run” is [+distance] because the direct object explains that Eric Liddell has to run the 200m. Meaning that the subject has to finish running in competition of 200m.
Another aspect that explains “run” is about running in competition is the word “the 200m” after the word “run”. Based on syntax, the word “the” marks someone or something that is already mentioned and it is an important thing in a sentence. The phrase “the 200m” explains that Eric Liddell has to run in the 200m sprint event. Therefore, from three additional features, it can be seen that the word
“run” in this clause is about someone who is moving his or her body faster than a walk and is joining a competition.
Last is (C6) that shares [+verb], [+physical], [+intransitive], [+dynamic],
[+durative], and [+distance]. This clause explains that the word “run” is a physical verb because it is relating to the body as the body is moving. Likewise, the word
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“run” in this meaning is an intransitive verb because it is not followed by direct object.
The word “run” here is [+dynamic]. Based on syntax, dynamic verb is a verb that can be used in the simple tense, past tense, and progressive tense.
Dynamic refers to an action that the subject can take. There are three types of dynamic verb; activity, progress, and momentary action. In this clause, the word
“run” is an activity, which the subject is using their body to move with two legs.
Therefore, “run” is [+dynamic].
Since “run” here is about moving with two legs more quickly, the additional feature is [+durative]. The word “run” is [+durative] because this clause explains that the subject is performing a continuous action.
From those three clauses, it can be seen that the distinctive semantic features which are [+intransitive] and [+durative] found in (C6). Both clauses,
(C4) and (C5), do not share the two features that are found in (C6). Even though they share the same meaning, (C6) explains that “run” is only about moving faster with two legs, not as much detailed as (C4) and (C5) that explain “run” is about moving faster with two legs in a competition with some distances. On the contrary, this meaning shares several similarities. The word “run” shares [+verb],
[+physical], and [+dynamic] which bring “run” into the verb that has meaning to move with two legs more quickly. Hence, although they share the same meaning, they can share different additional features, depend on the several aspects in each clause that are sometimes determined by the context of the utterance.
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c. To operate the computer or program
This meaning is the last dominant meaning that is identified in the verb
“run”. It presents an activity of someone that is able to operate a computer or program. This meaning shares several semantic features with other verb “run”;
[+verb], [+activity], and [+transitive]. The additional features from this meaning are [+operate] and [+execute].
(C7) “…industrial action. Livingston and Norcross are two of four area
computer centers, which will run the social security and pensions
systems. A third, at Washington, Tyne and…”
(C8) “…both groups a little because they realized that the gap is growing
between those who run computers and those who don't. The
occasion was the New York Academy of…”
(C9) “…of Windows applications because while software emulation is
feasible, the only efficient way to run Mac applications would be
to include a 68000 co-processor. At next month's Apple…”
In (C7), the semantic features that occur are [+verb], [+activity],
[+transitive], [+operate], and [+execute]. “Run” in this clause is [+activity] because the subject is doing an action, which is operating the social security and pensions systems. Furthermore, the word “run” is [+transitive] because it is followed by a direct object. The direct object of this sentence is “the social security and pensions systems” which can be found after the word “run”.
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The word “run” in this meaning has two additional features, which are
[+operate] and [+execute]. Those additional features describe that “run” in this clause means the subject is using and controlling the social security and pensions systems. The word “run” shares those additional features because there is a word that explains about an operating program, which is the word “computer” that is written before the word “run” and the word “systems” after the word “run”. It can be explained that “computer” and “systems” are the clue of this meaning that shares [+operate] and [+execute].
Comes to (C8) that shares [+verb], [+activity], [+transitive], [+operate], and [+execute]. The word “run” here defines that the verb is an active verb because the subject is showing an action, which is operating the computer. The subject in this clause is the word “those” in “those who run computers and those who don’t”. Because there is a direct object after the word “run”, therefore, “run” is [+transitive]. The direct object of this clause is “computers”.
Similar with (C7), this verb has two additional features that shares
[+operate] and [+execute]. Besides [+operate] and [+execute] mean someone is controlling the machine, there is a word that defines those additional features, which is the word “computers”. A computer is a machine that is controlled by someone. In this clause, the word “those” defines that they operate a computer.
Therefore, the additional features are [+operate] and [+execute].
Last is (C9) that has [+verb], [+transitive], [+operate], and [+execute].
Here, the word “run” is [+transitive] because there is a direct object that comes
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after “run”, which is “Mac applications”. This means that the only efficient way to operate Mac applications would be to include a 68000 co-processor.
Based on the finding, there are two additional features of the word “run” in this meaning, which are [+operate] and [+execute]. Both additional features explain that the word “run” is about operating a system or program. In (C9), the word “run” explains the efficient way to operate Mac applications. Application is a computer software and Mac is a computer series, therefore, the word “run” is described to an action to operate a program or system which makes it share the features of [+operate] and [+execute].
After analyzing those three clauses, there is a distinctive feature that is found, which is [-activity] in (C9). In (C9), it shares [-activity] because the clause does not explain the subject is doing an action, but it explains the efficient way to operate Mac applications. Based on syntax, the word “efficient” is an adjective.
Based on semantics, “efficient” means doing well or not wasting time or energy or money. Therefore, (C9) is [-activity].
Meanwhile, three clauses here share similarities which are [+verb],
[+transitive], [+operate], and [+execute]. Those similarities bring “run” into “to operate a computer or program” meaning. As a result, even though they share the same meaning, they can share different semantic features, depend on the aspect of each clause.
2. Possible Meaning of “Run” as Nouns
After describing the word “run” as verbs with all three dominant meanings, this research identifies “run” as noun. From the finding, there are seven
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possible meaning of “run” as nouns. Different from “run” as verbs, “run” as a noun does not have dominant meaning, considering there are only seven meanings that occur based on the British National Corpus. Below, those meanings are described.
(C10) “…n't (SP: KBWPSUGP) (unclear) (SP: KBWPSUNK) everywhere
I go (SP:PS087) (laugh) oh (pause) you can have a run if you want
to (SP:PS088) No (SP:PS087) No (pause) I hope it stays like
this…”
The first meaning that is found is about “an experiment or a trial”. (C10) carries [+noun], [+count], [+trial], and [+experiment]. The word “run” here is
[+noun] because the word “run” in this clause is the object of “you can have…”.
The word “can have” is the verb of this clause. Therefore, it is [+noun]. However, since the clause does not explain the detail context about what is going on in the clause, this research cannot give the exact explanation about the meaning “run”.
(C11) “…on the spot who could hit Kirov? Take him out before he makes
a run for safe ground?' Manville shook his head.' Nobody big
enough,…”
The second meaning of the word “run” as noun is “A quick movement of the legs to escape from something dangerous or to reach a destination quickly”.
The word “run” in (C11) is a part of an idiom “makes a run for safe ground”.
Therefore, this meaning carries [+noun], [+count], [+distance], [+voluntary], and
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[+escape]. It is a countable noun because there is an article “a” before the word
“run”. Moreover, someone can volunteer himself or herself in order to escape from something or reach something quickly. If someone escapes from something or reaches a destination, it must be a distance of how far apart the objects are.
Likewise, the additional features of word “run” in this meaning carries [+escape] since the word “run” here is about escaping from something.
(C12) “…n't in competition with Barry Norman, but we do want to give
him a run for his money.' Author Salmon Rushdie has been busy
Christmas shopping. The…”
The third meaning of the word “run” as noun is “A challenge to be as good at something as someone who is extremely good”. Similar with the second meaning, (C12) is an idiom from the phrase “give him a run for his money”. In this case, the word “run” carries [+noun], [+count], [+challenge], and
[+achievement]. “Run” is a countable noun because there is an article “a” before the word “run”. The additional features of this meaning are [+challenge] and
[+achievement]. The feature [+challenge] is expressed because this meaning describes that someone needs to be as good as other good person to reach the target. It is also [+achievement] since it is a thing done by effort and courage.
(C13) “…and where it is heading over the subsequent 24 months.' In the
short run, it is possible that inflation will exceed the top of the
target range during…”
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The fourth meaning is “something happening for a short period of time”.
This meaning can be found in (C13). It carries [+noun], [+count], [+time], and
[+period]. This is a noun because there are two words before the word “run”, which is “the short”. Likewise, this meaning has two additional features, which are [+time] and [+period]. The feature [+time] is identified because “run” in this clause defines that the idiom talks about a point of time as measured in hours, days, months, or years and [+period] because this meaning defines a length of time, which the length of this meaning is short time or in the near future.
(C14) “…then run out needlessly when failing to react to Emburey's call
for a third run, and Paul Jarvis was lbw to his first ball. Tufnell
was also adjudged…”
The fifth meaning of the word “run” stands as noun can be found in (C14).
It carries the meaning of “Having a score in baseball game”. This meaning carries
[+noun], [+count], [+accomplish], [+baseball], [+point], and [+score]. The word
“run” here is [+noun] and [+countable] because there is an article “a” before the word “run”, and “third” indicates that “run” can be counted by numeral.
Furthermore, this meaning has some additional features, which are [+accomplish],
[+baseball], [+point], and [+score]. Different from several meanings identified in the previously explained clauses, this meaning is not an idiom. However, this meaning can be found in baseball game since there are several clues that are defined in this clause. Those clues are “third” and “ball”. Base on Official
Baseball Rules book, a “run” in baseball game means “the score made by an
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offensive player who advances from batter to runner and touches first, second, third and home bases in that order” (Gaski, 2018, p. 149). From the explanation of the book, it can be concluded that “run” as a noun is a score in baseball game.
(C15) “…the Invincible Sun God, with its undertones of the Emperor
Commodus. The normal run of classical cults such as Mars,
Jupiter, Juno, Minerva, Apollo and…”
The sixth meaning that can be found from the finding is “the usual type of something or someone that usually happen”. This meaning share [+noun],
[+mass], [+usual], and [+common type]. “Run” in (C15) is noun because there is an article “the” before the word “run”. However, this noun is a mass noun because usual type cannot be counted by numeral. Additional features of this meaning are
[+usual] and [+common type]. Those two additional features define that the word
“run” in this clause is a characteristic of something, which is the characteristic of classical cults.
(C16) “…the agreed punisher can be overwhelming. This must be resisted.
In the long run it does not work; if it did, the parents would not be
asking…”
The last meaning of “run” is “something happens at a time that is far away in the future”. This meaning can be found in (C16) that carries [+noun], [+count],
[+time], and [+period]. Those semantic features are similar with (C13), however, the meaning between (C13) and (C16) are different. In (C16), the word “run” is a
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noun because there is the article “the” before the word “run”. Since the meaning talks about a period of time, the word “run” is countable because the period of time can be counted by numeral. The additional features in this meaning are
[+time] and [+period]. Similar with (C13), this meaning is an idiom, which discusses about a point of time as measured in days, weeks, or months and a length of time, however, which in this clause, the length of time is long time or in the future.
From the explanation above, the conclusion is there are several distinctive features that occur from the word “run” as a noun. Even though they share similar features, the meanings are different. Those meanings depend on the context of the clause. There is also [+mass] that is found in (C15), apart from the other clauses which share [+count].
B. The Linguistic Context of Dominant Meanings of “Run”
After describing the possible meaning of “run”, it can be found that there are three dominant meanings of “run” that occur. Those three dominant meanings are identified as verbs. It can be concluded that “run” is used as verbs in daily life.
Nevertheless, this research only describes three dominant meanings of “run” as verb since the appearance of seven meanings of nouns are not too significant.
Therefore, in this part, this research conducts the linguistic context of three dominant meanings to see further about the use of “run”. Below, some linguistic contexts are described based on the dominant meanings.
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Table 2. Linguistic context of Three Dominant Meanings of “Run” Meanings Linguistic Context Frequency Percentage Business 6 15% To control or Education 2 5% manage Charity 2 5% something Politic 2 5% Unclassified 4 10% To move with Sport 2 5% two legs more Unclassified 2 5% quickly To operate a Politic 1 2.5% computer or Technology 1 2.5% program Unclassified 1 2.5%
The table shows that in “to control or manage something”, business appears three times more often than charity, education, and politic. It means that controlling or managing something is usually about controlling some businesses.
However, the distributions of the linguistic context in the second and third dominant meanings are equally divided. Additionally, there is an unclassified linguistic context since those clauses do not give clear explanation.
Besides those things, it can be seen from the first and third meaning, which they share similar linguistic context. It is politic linguistic context.
However, it seems unique because “to control or manage something” and “to operate a computer or program” almost share similar features. The difference is only on the additional features and in the [+transitive] features. Below, the further explanations are given.
1. To control or manage something
The first dominant linguistic context that appears from this meaning is business. There are several types of business, those are private business which is
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run by family or group of people, government business which is run by administration, and trade between countries. Here some clauses are explained.
(C17) “…lowering the taxes (SP: KDMPSUGP) (unclear) (SP:PS0PN)
Everybody come here, this is the place to run a big business
(SP:PS0RD) Yeah (SP:PS0PN) cheap labour (SP:PS0RD) Yeah
(SP:PS0PN) you can fiddle all…”
It is obvious that (C17) is about business because there are some supporting words about it. Those are “taxes”, “business”, and “cheap labour”.
“Tax” is about an amount of money that someone must pay to the government.
“Tax” and “business” are related to each other. Moreover, “business” is an activity of making money and someone must pay the money according to the income. Therefore, this clause is about someone asks his or her friends to manage a business. Furthermore, there is “cheap labour” which means someone works hard to get very little money. A business needs employee to work for the business, therefore, “cheap labour” is a strong word to get the information about the linguistic context. Thus, this clause shows that to manage or control something is usually appeared in business.
(C18) “…campaign would continue into 1990. The closing of a total of
2,651 business enterprises run by government ministries and party
organs was reported in November 1989 and January 1990…”
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In (C18), the words “business” and “enterprises” are strong enough to classify this clause into business linguistic context. “Enterprise” means a company or business. It can be seen that a person who is controlling the enterprise is government ministries and party organs. Even though this clause does not explain what kind of business the government controls, but both words are understandable to see the linguistic context. This clause seems unique since it also can be categorized as political linguistic context. However, the focus is on “business enterprises”.
The second distribution linguistic context in this meaning is education.
There are two clauses that explain the linguistic context. Below the examples are given.
(C19) “…The clergy daughters' school at Cowan Bridge (pause) run by
the Reverend William (-----). Charles and Emily followed a
couple of months later…”
Clause (C19) explains about the next distribution linguistic context of
“run” in this meaning, which is education. This linguistic context has “school” as the strong word. “School” is an educational institution is used to provide the learning of student in order to get knowledge and skill under the direction of teacher. In this clause, the school is controlled by Reverend William, which perhaps, the school is about religious school or something. Furthermore, the person who learns in that school is the “clergy daughter”. This also can be the strong word to identify the education linguistic context of this clause.
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(C20) “…man -- can buy such a place, set himself up as headmaster, and
run it as he likes. Indeed, that is precisely what Edward
Crumwallis had done…”
Clause (C20) explains about school as well because there is a word
“headmaster”. Even though this clause does not explain more about the condition or place, but “headmaster” is the clue of school. “Headmaster” is the principal in education system, usually they can be found in school and university. However, this clause is also unclear in explaining the linguistic context.
The third distribution linguistic context that appears from the finding is charity. This linguistic context has two examples to get further information about the linguistic context.
(C21) “…this Worcester storage centre. They were donated to the local
Kurdish Refugee Association, run by Ruth Hilali. But she hasn't
been in touch with her colleagues for…”
The clause above explains about charity. It can be seen from the word
“donated” and “refugee”. Semantically, “donated” means giving money or goods to support people who need them, while “refugee” is “someone who has been forced to leave their country, especially during a war, or for political or religious reasons” (Longman Dictionary, 2003). From both strong words, it can be concluded that this clause presents people who has been forced to leave their
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country are given a help to get their place for living their life, which the association is managed by Ruth Hilali. Therefore, this clause is about charity.
(C22) “…built by local youngsters with the help of public subscriptions,
continues to be run by the Fairbridge Drake charity, but it is now
sponsored by Scottish Nuclear Fuels…”
Clause (C22) has “charity” as the strong word. Even though this clause only has one strong word, this clause is a part of charity linguistic context since
“charity” is about an organization or voluntary who helps other and raise money.
Perhaps, the organization is built by local youngsters and after that, it continues to be controlled by Fairbridge Drake.
The fourth linguistic context that is identified is politic. This linguistic context has two clauses to be described.
(C23) “…Maquis, no risorgimento fighting British Imperialism? Well, the
wartime resistance movement was run by the Communists, who
stood almost single-handed against the Nazi menace, and
suffered…”
In clause (C23), there are “fighting”, “imperialism”, “wartime”,
“movement”, “communist”, “resistance” and “menace” as the strong words.
Politic is not only about government, a war can be categorized politic in order to get power. Semantically, “fighting” is the action of conflict. “Imperialism” is a
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political system where one country rules other countries. “Wartime” is a period of time during the war. “Resistance” is fighting someone who is attacking the other.
Moreover, “movement” is a group of people who are working together to get the aim. “Menace” is the act of threatening. From those meanings of word, it can be concluded that this linguistic context is a politic because each word explains about the fight to get power to control other country. Therefore, this clause is identified as politic.
(C24) “…were regarded as acceptable to the Army and to the business
elite which had effectively run the country since the military
coup of 1954 see pp. 13677-81. None emerged with…”
In clause (C24), it has “army”, “country”, and “military coup” as the strong words. Those words indicate political situation. Based on semantics,
“army” is the governmental organization in charge of state’s army. “Country” is a land or district. Last is “military coup” which means a coup carried out by armed groups that consist of military or soldier who were dissatisfied with traditional government policies. From those three strong words, it can be concluded that the clause talks about something that is acceptable to the Army and to the business elite which is effectively controlled the military coup in 1954. Therefore, the clause is identified as politic.
The last linguistic context of this meaning is unclassified. This linguistic context gives unclear information. Two clauses are described below.
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(C25) “…Having decided how long the intervention is to last, ask the
parents to run it for that time and then immediately return to the
baseline condition. If,…”
This clause above does not give the clear information about the situation and condition. The clause does not explain about what kind of intervention, since there are some conditions of intervention, such as medical or political aspect. It is to general to conclude the linguistic context, therefore, this clause is unclassified.
(C26) “…return to the baseline condition. If, for example, the intervention
is to run for six weeks, the parents should stop after that time and
then repeat the…”
Clause (C26) is s continuation of (C25). Even though both clauses are related, the linguistic context still does not appear. This clause does not have a strong word to identify the linguistic context. Similar with (C25), this clause is also too general to be concluded.
2. To move with two legs more quickly
The second dominant meaning of “run” has two linguistic contexts, which are sport and unclassified. Both linguistic contexts have equal distribution in this meaning. Below, the explanations are presented.
(C27) “…on a Sunday, he would have to think long and hard before
deciding to run the 400m. In today's world he would probably
choose to run only the…”
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This clause presents “run” and “the 400m”. As it is explained in the first part, “run” is about to move with two legs faster than a walk. Since this clause talks about someone thinks before decides to race the 400m, the word “400m” is also a strong word to explain the linguistic context. “400m” is a kind of sprint events. It is an athletics, track, and field that races over short distances. Usually, there are three sprints that are currently held at these events, those are 100m,
200m, and 400m. From the distance, it can be concluded that this clause is about sport.
(C28) “…would have been fewer qualifying runs. In Barcelona, Eric
Liddell would have to run two rounds of the 200m, followed by
the semi-final and the final the next…”
This clause (C28) has “two rounds of the 200m”, “semi-final”, and “final” as the supporting word to see the linguistic context. “Two rounds of the 200m” is about someone has to run in a track with 200m length and this person has to run two times. This phrase shows that this clause is about running in a sprint event.
Moreover, there are “semi-final” and “final” that support the linguistic context.
Semantically, “semi-final” is similar with last four, means that there are only four contestants left to compete through final. Furthermore, after the contestants win the semi-final, they compete in “final”. It means the last game in a tournament which decides the winner of the game. As the result, this clause is about Eric
Liddell runs in sprint events. Thus, the linguistic context of this clause is sport.
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The next linguistic context is about unclassified. This linguistic context is similar with the previous linguistic context since the clause shows unclear situation.
(C29) “…Not too small. (SP:PS0H8) (unclear) (SP:PS0H8) What was
that? You were going to run and er jump were you? (unclear)
(SP:PS12C) I I stopped. (SP:PS0H8) You missed…”
This clause does not give the clear information about what is going on there. This clause seems like a conversation; however, the clue of the situation is not explained here. Based on the clause, it is a conversation between two people who want to move his or her legs more quickly and jump. Therefore, this clause is identified as unclassified linguistic context.
(C30) “…not hop, skip or jump. Indeed, they can barely manage even to
run, for they have only soft ballooning tubes to serve as stumpy
legs. These…”
Similar with the previous clause, (C30) gives confused linguistic context, since there is “ballooning” word. Semantically, “ballooning” has several meanings in different linguistic context. In biology, “ballooning” means the process which is used by spider and other invertebrates to travel through the air.
In sport, “ballooning” means the sport of flying in a balloon. In this case, both linguistic contexts are related to legs. However, the strong word does not appear
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in this clause and makes this clause confusing. Thus, this clause is identified as unclassified linguistic context.
3. To operate a computer or program
This meaning is the last dominant meaning of “run”. As it is mentioned above, this meaning only has three linguistic contexts with equal distribution. The first linguistic context to be described is politic. Here the example is given.
(C31) “…industrial action. Livingston and Norcross are two of four area
computer centres which will run the social security and pensions
systems. A third, at Washington, Tyne and…”
The clause of (C31) presents “social security” and “pensions systems” as the strong words. Both words present the political condition, since “social security” means government systems that provide various benefits to help people with no income. Moreover, “pension systems” means an annuity that paid regularly to a retired employee, serviceman, and veteran. Based on both meanings, it can be concluded that this clause discusses about Livingston and
Norcross are two cities whereby both are the computer areas to operate the government systems to provide benefits and paid the retired employee regularly.
As a result, this clause is identified as political linguistic context.
(C32) “…of Windows applications because while software emulation is
feasible, the only efficient way to run Mac applications would be
to include a 68000 co-processor. At next month's Apple…”
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Different from the previous clause, (C32) presents “applications”,
“software”, and “co-processor”. Based on semantics, “application” is about a program of software to do particular job. In the clause, there are “Windows applications” and “Mac applications”. Those mean that the program of software only can be operated in Windows system or Mac system. Furthermore, “software” means “the sets of programs that tell a computer how to do a particular job”
(Longman Dictionary, 2003). Moreover, “co-processor” means an additional computer processor used to supplement the functionality of the central processing unit. From those meanings, (C32) is identified as technology linguistic context, since the strong words explains about machines and computer program.
(C33) “…both groups a little because they realised that the gap is growing
between those who run computers and those who don't. The
occasion was the New York Academy of…”
In clause (C33), it shows blurry condition because this clause does not give the clue about the situation. There is no path on deciding what gap that is growing between those people or group, what occasion at New York Academy, and what groups are about. As a result, this clause is identified as unclassified linguistic context.
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CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION
After analyzing and examining the data, this research concludes that in the first research objective, the result presents eleven possible meanings of “run” as verbs, moreover, this research finds that there are three dominant meanings of
“run” as verbs, which are “to control or manage something”, “to move with two legs more quickly”, and “to operate a computer or program”. The finding also presents seven meanings of “run” as nouns, which are “something happening for a short period of time”, “an experiment or a trial”, “a quick movement of the legs to escape from something dangerous or to reach a destination quickly”, “having a score in baseball game”, “the usual type of something or someone that usually happen”, “a challenge to be as good at something as someone who is extremely good”, and “something happens at a time that is far away in the future”.
As a result, the meanings of “run” as verbs are more identified than the meanings of “run” as nouns. In the meaning of “run” as nouns, the difference meanings are not significant, however, in the meaning of “run” as verbs, the difference meanings are significant.
Furthermore, this research concludes that there are ten linguistic contexts of three dominant meanings of “run”. Those are “business”, “education”,
“charity”, “politics”, and “unclassified” in the first dominant meaning, which is
“to control or manage something”. There are “sport” and “unclassified” in the second dominant meaning, which is “to move with two legs more quickly”.
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Last, there are “politics”, “technology”, and “unclassified” in the last dominant meaning, which is “to operate a computer or program”. For the unidentified, the linguistic context cannot be identified as one of those linguistic contexts.
The finding presents one shared linguistic context between the first meaning and the third meaning, which is “politics”. Nevertheless, other meanings do not share similar linguistic contexts. In the end, this research finds that two meanings share similar linguistic context, even though they share several distinctive features.
After analyzing the word “run” from corpus, it can be seen that the use of corpus study in this research is helpful and fruitful. As it is mentioned in previous chapter, corpus study is used to identify the use of language variations in real world text. From the corpus, this research can identify how often the word “run” is applied in daily use.
Additionally, to improve semantic analysis, this research suggests the future researcher to examine “run” as phrasal and prepositional verb. Besides, the future researcher can identify other lexicons to help the learners enrich their knowledge of English vocabulary.
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REFERENCES
Bintoro, Sigid. (2007). The Semantic Features of English Words Meaning “Good- Looking” (Undergraduate Thesis). Universitas Sanata Dharma, Yogyakarta.
Brinton, L. J., & Donna M. Brinton. (2010). The Linguistic Structure of Modern English. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
British National Corpus. (1994). Retrieved from https://www.english- corpora.org/bnc/
Crawford, William J., Eniko Csomay. (2016). Doing Corpus Linguistics. Routledge: Taylor and Francis Group
Griffiths, Patrick. (2006). Introduction to English Semantics and Pragmatics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Isti’anah, Arina. (2016). The Contrastive and Contextual Analysis of the Verb Run. Journal of Language and Literature, (16)1, 45-54. Retrieved from http://e-journal.usd.ac.id/index.php/JOLL/article/view/150
Lepperd, Tom. (Ed.). (2018). Official Baseball Rules. USA: Commissioner of Baseball.
Leech, Geoffrey., Paul Rayson., Andrew Wilson. (2014). Word Frequencies in Written and Spoken English Based on the British National Corpus. Routledge: Taylor and Francis Group
Löbner, Sebastian. (2013). Understanding Semantics. New York: Routledge.
Lyons, John. (2006). Linguistic Semantics: An Introduction. New York: Cambridge University Press.
McEnery, Tony., Andrew Wilson. (2001). Corpus Linguistics, An Introduction. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Meyer, Charles F. (2004). English Corpus Linguistics, An Introduction. UK: Cambridge University Press.
Novriwandinata, Advendri. (2011). The Semantic Study of the English Verbs Meaning to Speak (Undergraduate Thesis). Universitas Sanata Dharma, Yogyakarta.
O’Keeffe, Anne., Michael McCarthy. (2010). The Routledge Handbook of Corpus Linguistics. Abingdon: Routledge.
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Refugee [Def. 1]. (n.d). In Longman Dictionary Online. Retrieved March 14, 2019, from https://www.ldoceonline.com/.
See [Def. 1]. (n.d). In Longman Dictionary Online. Retrieved March 14, 2019, from https://www.ldoceonline.com/.
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Yule, George. (2010). (4th ed.). The Study of Language. New York: Cambridge University Press.
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APPENDICES
Appendix 1: Semantic Features Test of Possible Meaning of Verbs SEMANTIC NO SENTENCES MEANING FEATURES Not too small. (SP: PS0H8) (Unclear) (SP: PS0H8) What [+verb], [+physical], was that? You were going to [+intransitive], To move with two 1 run and er jump were you? [+dynamic], legs more quickly (Unclear) (SP: PS12C) I I [+durative], stopped. (SP: PS0H8) You [+distance] missed lowering the taxes (SP: KDMPSUGP) (unclear) (SP:PS0PN) Everybody come [+verb], [+activity], here, this is the place to run a [+transitive], To control or 2 big business (SP:PS0RD) [+voluntary], manage something Yeah (SP:PS0PN) cheap [+control] labour (SP:PS0RD) Yeah (SP:PS0PN) you can fiddle all The clergy daughters' school at Cowan Bridge (pause) run [+verb], [+activity], by the Reverend William (---- [+transitive], To control or 3 -). Charles and Emily [+voluntary], manage something followed a couple of months [+control] later appraisal skills er level one level two, various others, To gain [+verb], [+activity], other courses that we run. knowledge or 4 [+intransitive], There's your job (pause) the learn something [+learn] first thing I should do is say important well up and I protested about it, on [+verb], [+activity], the grounds that if they [+intransitive], To control or 5 couldn't run a great big pop [+organize], [+in manage something hall for, and I wholly agreed charge] with the idea, even if he had wished it, he [+verb], [+activity], would not really have been [+transitive], able to run the estates To control or 6 [+voluntary], himself. It was something manage something [+organize], [+in which Morton itched to do -- charge] perhaps only
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SEMANTIC NO SENTENCES MEANING FEATURES out to make up for his disabilities. She had declared [+verb], [+activity], that Edwin must [+transitive], To control or 7 henceforward run the [+organize], [+in manage something Ashwell estates, as if he had charge] already come into his inheritance. His And when I do, will all this [+verb], [+activity], To take someone get easier?' I'll run Donald [+transitive], 8 somewhere in home!' Elinor was saying,' [+achieve], someone’s car you get Maisie to bed! [+transport] for Dinah. Robert Asshe watched from the wings, To produce [+verb], [+activity], satisfied. This production something from 9 [+transitive], would run for six months, if factory or [+produce] not a year. After that, Dinah company should disappear Maquis, no risorgimento fighting British Imperialism? [+verb], [+activity], Well, the wartime resistance [+transitive], To control or 10 movement was run by the [+voluntary], manage something Communists, who stood [+action], [+organize] almost single-handed against the Nazi menace, and suffered man -- can buy such a place, [+verb], [+activity], set himself up as headmaster, [+transitive], To control or 11 and run it as he likes. Indeed, [+voluntary], manage something that is precisely what Edward [+control] Crumwallis had done usual signs of old Shallot To leave a beginning to wonder whether [+verb], situation or it is time to cut and run. My [+intransitive], 12 arrangement as elation of the previous day [+escape], [+clear soon as things go began to evaporate until I out], [+leave] away remembered Agnes, this Worcester storage centre. [+verb], [+activity], They were donated to the [+transitive], local Kurdish Refugee To control or 13 [+voluntary], Association, run by Ruth manage something [+control], Hilali. But she hasn't been in [+organize] touch with her colleagues for
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SEMANTIC NO SENTENCES MEANING FEATURES tins of food alone each week. It costs about a 1,000 a month [+verb], [+transitive], To build 14 to run the centre. Staff here [+establish], [+build] something are desperate for donations of both food and money to industrial action. Livingston and Norcross are two of four area computer centres which [+verb], [+activity], To operate the 15 will run the social security [+transitive], computer or and pensions systems. A [+operate], [+execute] program third, at Washington, Tyne and than expected and the company has bought a new To add something [+verb], [+transitive], aircraft which will enable it to or someone in 16 [+voluntary], [+add], run extra flights. The new order to get [+increase] plane, a British Aerospace advantage 146' whisper jet' built by local youngsters with the help of public [+verb], [+activity], subscriptions, continues to be [+transitive], To control or 17 run by the Fairbridge Drake [+voluntary], manage something charity, but it is now [+control], sponsored by Scottish [+organize] Nuclear Fuels after the Chancellor sits down. IG Index, bookmakers To broadcast or to the City, now run a book [+verb], [+activity], 18 print something in on how many minutes the [+transitive], [+print] media Chancellor will take. Since the war do not make administrative sense in smaller areas. So ad To broadcast or hoc multi-council boards, run [+verb], [+activity], 19 print something in by officials accountable to [+transitive], [+print] media nobody in particular, had to be set up in the there are a number of well- established and successful [+verb], [+activity], regionally validated schemes, [+transitive], To control or 20 such as those run by the East [+organize], [+in manage something Anglian, Northern and charge] Southern RACs, leading to the award of
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SEMANTIC NO SENTENCES MEANING FEATURES the personal relations of clientelism. SIAM is a large [+verb], [+activity], Argentine industrial- [+transitive], To control or 21 commercial complex which [+organize], [+in manage something was run, by Torcuato Di charge] Tella, as a family business. Those at the top on a Sunday, he would have [+verb], [+transitive], to think long and hard before [+physical], To move with two deciding to run the 400m. In 22 [+distance], legs more quickly today's world he would [+dynamic], in race probably choose to run only [+compete] the would have been fewer [+verb], [+transitive], qualifying runs. In Barcelona, [+physical], To move with two Eric Liddell would have to 23 [+dynamic], legs more quickly run two rounds of the 200m, [+distance], in race followed by the semi-final [+compete] and the final the next was world champion at poker. She retired before her husband, but continued to run [+verb], [+activity], To take care of 24 her household according to [+organize], [+take someone her strict routine, while care] enjoying more of her own social know of your interest while a course is in preparation. Some To gain employers may not run [+verb], [+activity], knowledge or 25 courses for groups of [+transitive], [+learn] learn something returners but instead offer to important help you plan a personal programme both groups a little because they realised that the gap is [+verb], [+activity], To operate the growing between those who 26 [+transitive], computer or run computers and those who [+operate], [+execute] program don't. The occasion was the New York Academy of not hop, skip or jump. Indeed, [+verb], [+physical], they can barely manage even [+intransitive], To move with two 27 to run, for they have only soft [+dynamic], legs more quickly ballooning tubes to serve as [+durative], stumpy legs. These [+distance]
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SEMANTIC NO SENTENCES MEANING FEATURES campaign would continue into 1990. The closing of a total of [+verb], [+activity], 2,651 business enterprises [+transitive], To control or 28 run by government ministries [+organize], [+in manage something and party organs was reported charge] in November 1989 and January 1990 were regarded as acceptable to the Army and to the [+verb], [+activity], business elite which had [+transitive], To control or 29 effectively run the country [+organize], [+in manage something since the military coup of charge] 1954 see pp. 13677-81. None emerged with Having decided how long the intervention is to last, ask the [+verb], [+activity], To control or 30 parents to run it for that time [+transitive], [+in manage something and then immediately return charge] to the baseline condition. If, return to the baseline condition. If, for example, the [+verb], [+activity], intervention is to run for six To control or 31 [+transitive], [+in weeks, the parents should manage something charge] stop after that time and then repeat the such as retail, library, and garden stores. The aim will be [+verb], [+activity], to run most order/purchasing [+transitive], [+telic], To control or 32 and payment systems without [+organize], [+in manage something paper except for unusual charge] times. We need to of Windows applications because while software emulation is feasible, the only To operate the [+verb], [+transitive], 33 efficient way to run Mac computer or [+operate], [+execute] applications would be to program include a 68000 co-processor. At next month's Apple
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Appendix 2: Semantic Features Test of Possible Meaning of Nouns SEMANTIC NO SENTENCES MEANING FEATURES n't (SP:KBWPSUGP) (unclear) (SP:KBWPSUNK) everywhere I go (SP:PS087) [+noun], [+count], (laugh) oh (pause) you can An experiment or 1 [+trial], [+experiment] have a run if you want to a trial (SP:PS088) No (SP:PS087) No (pause) I hope it stays like this A quick on the spot who could hit movement of the [+noun], [+count], Kirov? Take him out before legs to escape [+distance], 2 he makes a run for safe from something [+voluntary], ground?' Manville shook his dangerous or to [+escape] head.' Nobody big enough, reach a destination quickly n't in competition with Barry A challenge to be Norman, but we do want to [+noun], [+count], as good at give him a run for his 3 [+challenge], and something as money.' Author Salmon [+achievement] someone who is Rushdie has been busy extremely good Christmas shopping. The and where it is heading over Something the subsequent 24 months.' In [+noun], [+count], happening for a 4 the short run, it is possible [+time], [+period] short period of that inflation will exceed the time top of the target range during then run out needlessly when [+noun], [+count], failing to react to Emburey's [+accomplish], Having a score in 5 call for a third run, and Paul [+baseball], [+point], baseball game Jarvis was lbw to his first ball. [+score] Tufnell was also adjudged the Invincible Sun God, with its undertones of the Emperor The usual type of [+noun], [+mass], Commodus. The normal run something or 6 [+usual], [+common of classical cults such as someone that type] Mars, Jupiter, Juno, Minerva, usually happen Apollo and the agreed punisher can be Something overwhelming. This must be [+noun], [+count], happens at a time 7 resisted. In the long run it [+time], [+period] that is far away in does not work; if it did, the the future parents would not be asking
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Appendix 3: Linguistic Context of Three Dominant Meanings of “Run”
THEMATIC LINGUISTIC NO SENTENCES WORD(S) CONTEXT To control or manage something lowering the taxes (SP:KDMPSUGP) (unclear) (SP:PS0PN) Everybody come here, this is the place to run a Taxes, business, cheap 1 big business (SP:PS0RD) Business labour Yeah (SP:PS0PN) cheap labour (SP:PS0RD) Yeah (SP:PS0PN) you can fiddle all even if he had wished it, he would not really have been able to run the estates 2 Estates Business himself. It was something which Morton itched to do -- perhaps only out to make up for his disabilities. She had declared that Edwin must 3 henceforward run the Estates Business Ashwell estates, as if he had already come into his inheritance. His the personal relations of clientelism. SIAM is a large Argentine industrial- SIAM, industrial 4 commercial complex which Business commercial, business was run, by Torcuato Di Tella, as a family business. Those at the top campaign would continue into 1990. The closing of a total of 2,651 business enterprises run by 5 Business, enterprises Business government ministries and party organs was reported in November 1989 and January 1990
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THEMATIC LINGUISTIC NO SENTENCES WORD(S) CONTEXT such as retail, library, and garden stores. The aim will be to run most Retail, stores, 6 order/purchasing and purchasing, payment Business payment systems without systems. paper except for unusual times. We need to The clergy daughters' school at Cowan Bridge (pause) run by the Reverend William (---- 7 School Education -). Charles and Emily followed a couple of months later man -- can buy such a place, set himself up as headmaster, 8 and run it as he likes. Indeed, Headmaster Education that is precisely what Edward Crumwallis had done this Worcester storage centre. They were donated to the local Kurdish Refugee 9 Donated, refugee Charity Association, run by Ruth Hilali. But she hasn't been in touch with her colleagues for built by local youngsters with the help of public subscriptions, continues to be 10 run by the Fairbridge Drake Charity Charity charity, but it is now sponsored by Scottish Nuclear Fuels Maquis, no risorgimento fighting British Imperialism? Well, the wartime resistance Fighting, imperialism, movement was run by the wartime, movement, 11 Politic Communists, who stood communist, resistance, almost single-handed against menace the Nazi menace, and suffered
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THEMATIC LINGUISTIC NO SENTENCES WORD(S) CONTEXT were regarded as acceptable to the Army and to the business elite which had Army, country, 12 effectively run the country Politic military coup since the military coup of 1954 see pp. 13677-81. None emerged with up and I protested about it, on the grounds that if they 13 couldn't run a great big pop - Unclassified hall for, and I wholly agreed with the idea, there are a number of well- established and successful regionally validated schemes, 14 such as those run by the East - Unclassified Anglian, Northern and Southern RACs, leading to the award of Having decided how long the intervention is to last, ask the 15 parents to run it for that time - Unclassified and then immediately return to the baseline condition. If, return to the baseline condition. If, for example, the intervention is to run for six 16 - Unclassified weeks, the parents should stop after that time and then repeat the To move with two legs more quickly on a Sunday, he would have to think long and hard before deciding to run the 400m. In 17 Run, 400m Sport today's world he would probably choose to run only the would have been fewer qualifying runs. In Barcelona, Two rounds of the Eric Liddell would have to 18 200m, semi-final, and Sport run two rounds of the 200m, final followed by the semi-final and the final the next
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THEMATIC LINGUSTIC NO SENTENCES WORD(S) CONTEXT Not too small. (SP:PS0H8) (unclear) (SP:PS0H8) What was that? You were going to 19 run and er jump were you? - Unclassified (unclear) (SP:PS12C) I I stopped. (SP:PS0H8) You missed not hop, skip or jump. Indeed, they can barely manage even to run, for they 20 - Unclassified have only soft ballooning tubes to serve as stumpy legs. These To operate a computer or program industrial action. Livingston and Norcross are two of four area computer centres which Social security, 21 will run the social security Politic pensions systems and pensions systems. A third, at Washington, Tyne and of Windows applications because while software emulation is feasible, the Applications, 22 only efficient way to run Technology software, co-processor Mac applications would be to include a 68000 co-processor. At next month's Apple both groups a little because they realised that the gap is growing between those who 23 - Unclassified run computers and those who don't. The occasion was the New York Academy of