The Role of Local Government in Community Safety

Home , Community council, Medical (constituency), Neighborhood watch

U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs Bureau of Justice Assistance

TTHEHE RROLEOLE OF OF LLOCALOCAL GGOVERNMENTOVERNMENT IN IN CCOMMUNITYOMMUNITY SSAFETYAFETY

Monograph

C RIME P REVENTION S ERIES #2 U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs 810 Seventh Street NW. Washington, DC 20531

John Ashcroft Attorney General

Office of Justice Programs World Wide Web Home Page www.ojp.usdoj.gov

Bureau of Justice Assistance World Wide Web Home Page www.ojp.usdoj.gov/BJA

For grant and funding information contact U.S. Department of Justice Response Center 1–800–421–6770

This document was prepared by the International Centre for the Prevention of Crime under grant number 95–DD–BX–K001, awarded by the Bureau of Justice Assistance,Office of Justice Programs,U.S.Department of Justice. The opinions,findings,and conclusions or recommenda- tions expressed in this document are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official position or policies of the U.S. Department of Justice.

The Bureau of Justice Assistance is a component of the Office of Justice Programs, which also includes the Bureau of Justice Statistics, the National Institute of Justice, the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, and the Office for Victims of Crime. THE ROLE OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN COMMUNITY SAFETY

April 2001

NCJ 184218

Prepared by the International Centre for the Prevention of Crime Foreword

Increasing numbers of people no longer view the safety of their neighborhoods as the sole responsibility of the police. Throughout the world, citizens in areas plagued by crime and violence are uniting to work with local government. Together, they have the knowledge and resources to identify and remove the sources of crime, drug use, and juvenile delinquency in their communities.

Developing and sustaining these partnerships requires strong local leadership from mayors, city managers, city planners, and other elected local officials. This monograph was prepared to help create that leadership by chronicling how local public officials have used community safety partnerships to build healthier communities.

A framework for using community-local government partnerships to reduce crime now exists based on the experiences of public officials in North America, Europe, Africa, and Australasia. This framework includes the following:

• Recognizing crime and safety as a quality-of-life issue.

• Working across jurisdictional boundaries.

• Recognizing the crucial role of political leadership.

• Developing tools and measures of success that involve the community and victims of crime.

The programs examined in this monograph illustrate that this framework works best when adapted to the specific needs of a community. Good governance requires that mayors and other key local officials develop the capacity to respond to those needs.

Bureau of Justice Assistance

BUREAU OF JUSTICE ASSISTANCE iii Acknowledgments

This monograph was prepared for the Bureau of Justice Assistance, U.S. Department of Justice, by Margaret Shaw, who was assisted by Kathie Oginsky. Advice and knowledge were provided by Bernard Arsenault, Frantz Denat, Lily-Ann Gauthier, Daniel Sansfaçon, Claude Vezina, and Irvin Waller at the International Centre for the Prevention of Crime. The authors would like to thank the project advisory group for their insight, particularly Ed Summers of the U.S. Conference of Mayors, Robbie Callaway of the Boys & Girls Clubs of America, Linda Bowen of the National Funding Collaborative on Violence Prevention, Roberta Lesh of the International City/County Management Association, members of the National League of Cities, Michel Marcus of the European Forum for Urban Safety, and Sohail Husain of Crime Concern. The advice and help of staff from the National Crime Prevention Council, especially Theresa Kelly, Jack Calhoun, and Jim Copple, are gratefully acknowledged, as is the support of Jay Marshall and Patrick Coleman at the Bureau of Justice Assistance.

BUREAU OF JUSTICE ASSISTANCE v Contents

Executive Summary...... ix

I. Community Safety in Cities, Suburbs, and Rural Areas ...... 1 Introduction ...... 1 Audience for This Monograph ...... 2 Challenges for Local Governments ...... 3 Increasing Knowledge About Prevention ...... 7 Good Governance ...... 10

II. The Emergence of Community Safety ...... 11 How Local Authorities in Other Countries Are Tackling Problems ...... 11 Focus on the City...... 11 Developing and Transitional Countries ...... 12 Recent European Initiatives ...... 12 Australasia and Canada ...... 15 Recent Developments in the United States ...... 15 Summary ...... 18

III. A Framework for Community Safety ...... 21 A Strategy for Analyzing Problems and Mobilizing Resources . . 21 Safe and Healthy Communities ...... 21 Horizontal and Vertical Thinking ...... 22 Political Leadership ...... 22 Adapting Strategies to Local Needs...... 22 Building Capacity...... 24 Tools and Measurements of Success ...... 25 Basic Elements of the Local Government Approach...... 27

BUREAU OF JUSTICE ASSISTANCE vii THE ROLE OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN COMMUNITY SAFETY

IV. Limitations, Lessons, and Conclusions...... 29 Partnership Problems and Information Sharing...... 30 Evaluation and Funding Issues ...... 31 Emerging Issues ...... 32 Centralized States and Federal Nations ...... 32 Summary ...... 33

V. Examples From Practice...... 35 Borough of Brent, London, England: Community Safety and . . . . Community Empowerment...... 35 Toronto, Ontario, Canada: A Community Safety Strategy for the City...... 37 Brisbane, Queensland, Australia: Youth and Public Space Major Centers Project ...... 38 Leichhardt Municipal Council, New South Wales, Australia: Draft Youth Social Plan...... 40 Freeport, Illinois: Coalition for a Safe Community ...... 40 Hartford, Connecticut: Neighborhood Problem-Solving Committees and the Comprehensive Communities Program. . . 41 Salt Lake City, Utah: Changing the Way Government Works and the Comprehensive Communities Program ...... 42 Maryland HotSpot Communities: Reclaiming Our Neighborhoods ...... 43 METRAC, Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Taking Action Against Abuse of Women ...... 43 Amsterdam, The Hague, Rotterdam, and Utrecht, Netherlands: Big Cities Policy ...... 44 EURO 2000 Football Cities Against Racism...... 44 Aix en Provence, France: Local Security Contract and Observatory ...... 45

VI. Notes...... 47

VII. References ...... 51

VIII. Resources and Addresses ...... 55

IX. For More Information ...... 59 viii Executive Summary

Good Governance • Crime has reduced the tax base of cities by driving out residents In recent years, mayors and and businesses. municipal leaders throughout the United States have confronted Traditionally, the public has increasing problems of community viewed crime reduction as the safety. These problems have affect- responsibility of the police and ed not only urban centers but also the courts. However, in spite of in- small towns and rural municipali- creased expenditures, these institu- ties. Many other countries have tions have been unable to contain experienced similar rapid increases the epidemic of crime. The result in crime that have only begun to has been a loss of confidence in decline in the past few years. The criminal justice systems and high response of many governments has levels of public concern about been to toughen their legal and crime. Migration, rapid changes in justice systems, increasing policing populations, rising poverty levels, capacities and penalties. Despite and income disparities continue to these efforts, the social and eco- affect many countries. Crime pre- nomic consequences of crime have vention, rather than reaction or been enormous: repression, has generally played a very minor role in addressing crime • Expenditures on law enforcement problems. To have an impact on have increased tremendously. current crime problems and avoid • Criminal sentences have become even greater problems in the future, tougher. a more balanced approach and perceptual shift by society are • The number of offenders prose- necessary. cuted and incarcerated has risen dramatically. This monograph was prepared for mayors, city managers, planners, • Private security personnel and elected officials. It brings have outstripped official law together information from around enforcement. the United States and around the world on ways that public officials • Communities increasingly have used their authority to foster have resorted to fortifying safer, healthier communities. More neighborhoods. specifically, it outlines the following:

BUREAU OF JUSTICE ASSISTANCE ix THE ROLE OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN COMMUNITY SAFETY

• Why change is necessary. aspect of the quality of life in their communities. They have mobilized • Why communities can no longer local partnerships with key actors— leave safety to only the criminal the police, government agencies, justice system. community organizations, and residents—to develop safe, secure, • How knowledge about the factors and vibrant communities in metro- that lead to crime and insecurity politan as well as rural areas. These has increased. partnerships have made significant • How knowledge about how citi- gains in how crime prevention is zens can intervene effectively has viewed. For example: increased. • The narrow focus on crime pre- • The leadership, strategies, and vention has shifted to the broader tools needed to bring about issue of community safety and change. security as a public good.

• Examples of city-led projects. • A consensus has developed about the need to work for • Lessons learned from past community safety by tackling practice. the social and economic conditions that foster crime and From Crime Prevention to victimization. Community Safety • The common public view that Mayors and local government offi- community safety is the sole cials have played a major role in the responsibility of the police has evolution of community safety over changed and people now recog- the past 20 years in Europe, North nize that governments, communi- America, Africa, and Australasia. ties, and partnerships at all levels Increasing numbers of initiatives tar- must be actively engaged. get crime, victimization, and the social exclusion of individuals, • A recognition has evolved that minority groups, and neighbor- local municipal leaders play a hoods. The links between poverty crucial role in protecting commu- and social disadvantage and crime nities by organizing and motivat- and victimization have shown that ing coalitions of local partners. many agencies need to work together to prevent crime. • Increasing evidence shows that intervention targeting risk factors Mayors and local officials have can be effective and efficient in come to see community safety as a reducing crime and other social basic human right and an important problems.

x Executive Summary

A Framework for focusing solely on programs that Community Safety provide quick results, and addressing funding and evaluation are A framework for tackling commu- important activities that must be nity safety has emerged in recent thought through. years that can be used by local governments. This framework includes Examples from Australasia, the following: Europe, and North America, de- scribed in greater detail in chapter 5 • Recognizing crime and safety as of this monograph, illustrate how quality-of-life issues. this framework has been adapted to the specific needs of individual com- • Working across jurisdictional munities. The initiatives are at dif- boundaries both horizontally and ferent stages of development, and vertically. not all have reached the evaluation • Recognizing the crucial role of stage. They include 3-year strategic political leadership. plans in large cities, projects targeting youth needs in public spaces, • Adapting strategies to local small town coalitions, neighborhood needs on the basis of good analy- problem-solving committees, com- sis and targeted plans. prehensive community programs, hotspot initiatives that pool funding • Building capacity. resources, coalitions targeting violence against women, groups of • Developing tools and measure- cities working on common problems ments of success. or against racism, and local security contracts to help communities as- Limitations, Lessons sess problems and create targeted Learned, and Examples action plans. From Practice Mayors are strategically placed to Defining communities and devel- make a difference in these endeav- oping and sustaining partnerships ors. They can provide leadership to are not simple tasks. Much can be identify and mobilize key partners; learned from past successes and authorize development of a rigorous failures. Including community part- safety audit that includes an action nerships, understanding the links to plan with short- and long-term underlying problems, looking at the goals; assign staff to implement, strengths and assets of communities monitor, and evaluate the plan; and and individuals as well as risk fac- act as a conduit for exchanging tors, working on the analysis and expertise and good practices. planning process rather than

BUREAU OF JUSTICE ASSISTANCE xi I. Community Safety in Cities, Suburbs, and Rural Areas

Introduction enforcement expenditures and toughening penalties. The number Over the past 30 years, mayors of offenders prosecuted and incar- and municipal leaders throughout cerated rose dramatically, and the the United States have faced number of private security personnel increasing problems in keeping their outstripped official law enforcement. communities safe. Disorder, crime, The costs of maintaining criminal drugs, and guns have become daily justice and correctional systems reminders of the threats to living in soared to unprecedented levels. safety and security. In the 1990s, Throughout this period, crime pre- these problems soared to their high- vention, rather than repression, est levels and had a major impact played a minor role. Furthermore, on children and adolescents. Young crime prevention was seen as large- people increasingly have become ly the responsibility of the police. As the victims of violence, including this monograph makes clear, invest- homicides, and their involvement in ing in the broader approach of com- serious crime and violence has also munity safety offers much greater risen. rewards. Tragedies such as the shootings at Columbine High School in Colorado have demonstrated that BETWEEN 1980 AND 1997, NEARLY crime, insecurity, and violence are 38,000 JUVENILES WERE MURDERED IN not limited to inner cities and large urban areas. Recent surveys of THE UNITED STATES. THE RISE IN MURDERS young people have found higher OF JUVENILES BETWEEN 1984 AND 1993 levels of drug use in suburban and WAS ALL FIREARM RELATED, AS WAS THE rural areas than in cities. Guns, SUBSEQUENT DECLINE. which are kept in millions of homes across America, have been a major —Juvenile Offenders and Victims: factor in the increase in deaths of 1999 National Report young people in the 1990s.

Increases in crime and violence have affected countries worldwide. In the past few years, levels of The response of most governments recorded crime and violence have was to toughen their legal and fallen significantly in a number of justice systems, increasing law European countries and in North

BUREAU OF JUSTICE ASSISTANCE 1 THE ROLE OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN COMMUNITY SAFETY

America.1 In the United States, the There have been marked changes Federal Bureau of Investigation in the ways both local and national (FBI) reported a 7-percent drop in governments understand and tackle serious crime in 1999, the eighth the problems of crime, violence, and consecutive year that the number insecurity. Many countries now see of reported serious crimes fell. these problems as intricately linked Reductions occurred in all types of to the health of neighborhoods and crime, both violent and nonviolent, communities, to their quality of life, and they were found in all regions of and as part of a wider concern about the country. In Canada, crime rates community safety and security. have fallen for the past 8 years to the lowest crime level in 2 decades. This awareness has led to a focus In England and Wales, recorded on tackling the underlying problems crime fell 8 percent between 1993 of communities, based on careful and 1995, and a further 10 percent analysis and planning in collabora- between 1995 and 1997, although tion with citizens and local agencies. violent crime rates are still rising. It represents a more concerted and multifaceted approach to prevention, and one that is likely to be more cost effective and bring wider IN 1994, A UNITED NATIONS SURVEY OF benefits to the community than 135 MAYORS FROM EVERY CONTINENT reacting after crime and tragedies FOUND THAT CRIME AND VIOLENCE WAS THE have taken place. FOURTH MOST SEVERE PROBLEM FACING THE Audience for This WORLD’S CITIES. Monograph —International Colloquium of Mayors on Social This monograph is intended for Development, United Nations Development use by mayors, city managers, plan- Program, 1994 ners, elected officials, and others who face the challenges of crime in their communities. These leaders Despite these decreases in crime are in a unique position to mobilize rates, levels of crime and victimiza- local agencies in the development of tion are still well above those found safe, secure, and vibrant communi- in most countries 30 years ago and ties. They are strategically placed continue to be a great public con- to bring together the key actors in cern. The public is often misinformed community crime prevention. Tra- about criminal justice, as well as ditionally, they have been responsi- unaware of recent declines in crime ble for urban or rural planning and and violence.2 A number of trends for developing ties with hospitals, suggest that unless city officials schools, transportation companies, begin to approach crime problems youth and social services, police, differently, the growth, health, and the judiciary, and the business well-being of cities will deteriorate. community.

2 Community Safety in Cities, Suburbs, and Rural Areas

Challenges for Local OUR CITIES MUST BE PLACES WHERE HUMAN Governments BEINGS LEAD FULFILLING LIVES IN DIGNITY, Growing Urbanization, SAFETY, HAPPINESS, AND HOPE. Increasing Poverty, and Income Disparity —Habitat II Declaration, 1996 The 21st century presents huge challenges for mayors and local governments. Populations are This monograph sets out the expanding and migrating; towns and elements needed to bring about cities and their surrounding rural change. It presents information from areas are growing rapidly; and lev- around the world, including the els of poverty and disparities United States, on how people between rich and poor are increas- in such positions have used their ing. These developments have authority and energy to work to- already had a significant impact on ward safer communities. In the four safety and security in many coun- chapters to follow, the monograph tries and their effects are likely to discusses continue.

• Why change is necessary. • Currently, between 40 percent and 55 percent of the world’s • Why the problems of crime population lives in urban centers. can no longer be left solely This proportion is expected to to the justice system. climb to 70 percent by 2020.

• How knowledge of the • Levels of poverty have risen in factors that lead to crime many Western countries despite and violence has increased. increasing overall wealth.

• How knowledge of ways to inter- • Throughout the world, income vene effectively has increased. disparities between rich and poor families have increased. • Strategies and tools needed to bring about change. • In developing countries, the poor tend to be concentrated in partic- • Examples of local government ular areas. In developed coun- and city-led projects that illus- tries, conditions in many urban trate these themes. cores have declined while poverty rates in rural areas have increased.

BUREAU OF JUSTICE ASSISTANCE 3 THE ROLE OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN COMMUNITY SAFETY

• More women are living in poverty People in such areas are in both developed and developing excluded from taking part in the countries. The number of single employment, health, safety, and mothers has increased and they prosperity enjoyed by the rest of are likely to face more discrimi- the population. For these residents, nation in job markets and hous- poor health, crime, vandalism, ing than men. drugs, unsupervised young people, litter, pollution, and lack of ser- • Due in part to systemic racism vices add to the lack of safety and and discrimination, minority and security in their lives. immigrant populations are more likely to be living in poverty than the majority population. THE ISSUES FACING DEPRIVED NEIGHBOUR- Migration, immigration, and rapid HOODS ARE WELL KNOWN, AND MAKE SOBER growth are bringing about major READING. VIRTUALLY EVERY SOCIAL changes to the ethnic character of PROBLEM—CRIME, JOBLESSNESS, POOR urban populations. There are HEALTH, UNDERACHIEVEMENT—IS SUB- increases in indigenous populations moving to cities in Australia, New STANTIALLY WORSE IN DEPRIVED AREAS. Zealand, North America, and South THERE IS GROWING EVIDENCE THAT THESE America. Western European coun- PROBLEMS REINFORCE ONE ANOTHER TO tries have received increasing num- CREATE A DOWNWARD SPIRAL OF DEPRIVA- bers of immigrants from Eastern European, Mediterranean, and North TION AND DECLINE. African countries. —National Strategy for Neighbourhood Social Exclusion Renewal: Neighbourhood Management In many countries, the concentration of poverty and social and economic problems in particular In the United States, black com- areas has led to talk about social munities are concentrated in inner exclusion. In Britain, France, and cities. These areas experienced Germany, for example, increasing huge increases in youth crime, income disparity and concentration especially violence and youth homi- of poverty have been restricted cide, in the early 1990s. In some to certain areas of the country.3 areas, generations of children are Families who live in these areas also growing up without fathers and are often the poorest in the country the increased imprisonment of and include many immigrants and women has left many of their chil- minorities. They often live in public dren without close parental care. As housing estates in suburban or a result, the network of social con- urban areas in the worst housing trols normally exercised by these and environmental conditions.

4 Community Safety in Cities, Suburbs, and Rural Areas

people as parents, employees, and victimization in some American friends, and neighbors has been towns and rural areas such as those reduced. This has major conse- close to the Mexican border. quences for the future. The proportion of African-American, Asian/ Unemployment, Drugs, and Pacific, Hispanic, and Native Young People American children is expected to While North America is currently 4 increase for the next 20 years. experiencing a better economic climate, in other countries changing labor and trade markets, technologi- BETWEEN 1988 AND 1997, THE NUMBER cal developments, and the loss of OF JUVENILES LIVING IN POVERTY GREW 13 unskilled jobs have increased the PERCENT. THE NUMBER OF BLACK JUVENILES extent and duration of unemployment. This situation has especially IN POVERTY DECREASED 2 PERCENT, COM- affected young people, increasing PARED WITH A 21-PERCENT INCREASE FOR their vulnerability to drugs, gangs, WHITE JUVENILES AND A 32-PERCENT illness, and crime. More adolescents INCREASE AMONG ASIAN/PACIFIC and young adults are now out of school, job training, or work. For ISLANDERS. example,

—Juvenile Offenders and Victims: • In several European countries, 1999 National Report youth unemployment rose between 1991 and 1995 from 15 percent to 20 percent for Poverty in America has also young men, and from 19 percent increased outside the big cities, to 23 percent for young women affecting the majority white popula- (Pfeiffer, 1998). tion in rural areas, especially in the South. Between 1988 and 1997, for • In Australia, full-time employ- example, white juveniles living in ment among teenagers fell from poverty increased by 21 percent. 56 percent in 1966 to 17 percent in 1993 (National Crime In a number of countries, prob- Prevention, 1999). lems for small- and medium-size towns and rural areas are growing. • In the United States, unemploy- In England and Wales, some of the ment is especially high among highest increases in reported crime African-American and Hispanic in the 1990s have been in rural youth who have few educational areas (Hosain, 1995). In the United skills. In one city, 63 percent did States, while overall levels of report- not graduate from high school ed crime fell for the past 8 years, (Rosenbaum et al., 1998). there have been increases in crime

BUREAU OF JUSTICE ASSISTANCE 5 THE ROLE OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN COMMUNITY SAFETY

Drug and alcohol abuse has Offending and Victimization become more prevalent among In most countries, similar patterns young people. This has been the of crime and victimization can be case in European countries over the found in areas with many social and past 10 years, especially in areas of economic problems. We know from high unemployment.5 surveys in a number of countries that a small number of serious or persistent offenders are responsible SMOKING, DRINKING, AND DRUG USE AMONG for the majority of crime, especially YOUNG TEENS IS HIGHER IN RURAL AMERICA serious crime. In many countries THAN IN THE NATION’S LARGE URBAN surveyed, 6 to 7 percent of young males are responsible for 50 to 70 CENTERS. . . . SINCE 1990, DRUG LAW percent of all crimes and 60 to 85 VIOLATIONS HAVE INCREASED MORE IN SMALL percent of serious and violent COMMUNITIES THAN IN LARGE CITIES; DRUGS crimes (Loeber and Farrington, ARE AS AVAILABLE IN SMALL COMMUNITIES AS 1998). THEY ARE IN LARGE CITIES, AND ADULT DRUG A large overlap exists between USE IN SUCH COMMUNITIES IS EQUAL TO victimization and offending. Those THAT IN LARGE METROPOLITAN CENTERS. AT who are victimized tend to come from the same backgrounds and THE SAME TIME, MID-SIZE CITIES AND areas as those charged with offend- RURAL AREAS ARE LESS EQUIPPED TO DEAL ing, and people are often revictim- WITH THE CONSEQUENCES. ized. A 1992 British survey found that 4 percent of victims suffer 40 —No Place to Hide percent of the crimes. In the United States, 50 percent of violent crime takes place in about 3 percent of In the United States, a recent addresses. study by the National Center on Violence against women and Addiction and Substance Abuse children is widespread. In develop- commissioned by the U.S. Confer- ing countries, it is estimated that ence of Mayors found that drug use between 33 and 50 percent of all was higher among young teens in women are victims of violence mid-size cities and rural areas than from male partners.6 In the United in large metropolitan centers. Eighth States, the number of children who graders in rural areas were 83 are abused or neglected almost dou- percent more likely to use crack bled between 1986 and 1993. We cocaine and 70 percent more likely know that violence in the family to have been intoxicated than their often leads to other problems, peers in large cities. including crime and ill health, as children grow up.

6 Community Safety in Cities, Suburbs, and Rural Areas

A major problem for many coun- one country to another (Farrington, tries is the overrepresentation of 2000). They include poverty and indigenous and racial and ethnic poor environment, poor parenting minority groups in criminal justice practices, family conflict and systems. The proportions of violence, early signs of aggressive immigrant children and second- behavior, spending too much time generation children in justice sys- with friends and without adult con- tems have increased significantly in tacts, doing poorly at school or a number of European countries.7 dropping out, failing to learn good work skills or have employment Increasing Knowledge opportunities, living in areas that About Prevention lack services and facilities, and having access to drugs. These factors Risk and Prevention— place children at risk and affect People in Trouble Have their development from birth to Multiple Problems adulthood. More about the actual benefits of tackling community safety is known Early Intervention Is Effective today and underlines the impor- Researchers have studied the tance of investing in prevention. effectiveness of interventions, par- Evidence is accumulating about the ticularly in deprived areas where factors that put people and areas at families and children are most at risk of becoming involved in crime risk (Sherman et al., 1997; Interna- and victimization. It is remarkable tional Centre for the Prevention of how similar these factors are from Crime, 1999a). Interventions include

Figure 1 Prevention Programs Targeting Risk Factors for Youth Ages 12–18 Showing Reductions in Delinquency

Responsibility and assistance Ð72% (Halt, Netherlands)

Incentives to complete school Ð71% (Quantum Opportunities, USA)

Functional family therapy Ð40% (Lund, Sweden)

Training and support to find Ð33% employment (Job Corps, USA)

Ð80 Ð70 Ð60 Ð50 Ð40 Ð30 Ð20 Ð10 Ð0 Percent crime reduced

BUREAU OF JUSTICE ASSISTANCE 7 THE ROLE OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN COMMUNITY SAFETY

projects that provide preschool excluded have shown that work home visits and give children a head skills, job training, and mentoring start in school. They have shown can all help to reintegrate them into impressive long-term reductions in their communities. delinquency, lower school dropout rates, and improved quality of life Broken Windows and for children and parents. Parent Brownfields training and family therapy projects Many countries have demonstrat- designed to strengthen parents’ ed that changing the environment child-rearing capacities have simi- and situations that encourage crime larly shown both short- and long- are effective strategies. Cleaning term benefits. up rundown streets, changing the design of buildings or public spaces, Other research has demonstrated and improving lighting and surveil- that widespread intervention pro- lance all reduce the opportunities grams in schools can help reduce for crime. Studies of such efforts bullying behavior and improve have demonstrated reductions in school climate and academic household burglary, car theft, graf- performance, as well as decrease fiti, and vandalism. For example, school disruptions and dropout in the Netherlands, England, rates. Programs targeting youth who and Wales, the rate of household have dropped out of school or been

Figure 2 Reduction of Criminal Activity in Public Places Where Boys and Girls Clubs Are Present

Crack presence Ð25%

Drug activity Ð22%

Juvenile crimes Ð13%

Ð25 Ð20 Ð15 Ð10 Ð5 Ð0 Percent crime reduced

8 Community Safety in Cities, Suburbs, and Rural Areas

burglaries has been reduced by families, police departments, school about 75 percent by neighborhood systems, labor unions, social service watch programs, improved security, agencies, youth groups, housing and marking personal property. developments, and justice systems. Vandalism and disorder have been reduced by increasing surveillance Costly Examples on public transportation, closed- Dealing with the impact of crime circuit television cameras, and is expensive. Although people may requiring bar owners to change their feel that something is being done serving practices. Much of this work when tough measures are taken has been initiated by the police in against crime, this approach does collaboration with local mayors, not deal with the long-term conse- agencies, and community members. quences for families or help to prevent future delinquency. Children These experiences demonstrate growing up in poverty, lacking ser- that approaches that are carefully vices and supports, are vulnerable planned and build on past knowledge to long-term involvement in drug reduce crime and reduce risk factors. use and crime. Most prisoners will They improve the lives of those eventually be released from prison, involved and demonstrate that the but generations of children may most effective intervention projects have been raised without close are those that include agencies and parental care. institutions at the local government level: community organizations,

Figure 3 Cost of Crime Per Capita in Selected Countries

Criminal Justice England

France Private Security

Property loss Netherlands (estimate)

Australia Sheltered lives (estimate)

Canada

USA

$0 $200 $400 $600 $800 $1,000 $1,200 $1,400

BUREAU OF JUSTICE ASSISTANCE 9 THE ROLE OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN COMMUNITY SAFETY

There are considerable differences expenditures, they have not been in the costs and benefits of action able to contain the huge increases to prevent crime, compared with in crime that have occurred over the action after it takes place. Preven- past 40 years. tive action can be up to 10 times more cost effective than traditional Fear of crime and violence has control measures such as incarcera- led to fortifying neighborhoods, tion. Money invested in crime pre- excluding individuals, and imposing vention also brings benefits such as tougher sentences. These reactions improved education, job skills, and do not deal with the long-term prob- health. lems of the excluded nor with the spread of crime and insecurity to small cities and rural areas in the LOCAL LEADERS ARE ACUTELY AWARE OF THE United States. In many countries, the public has lost confidence in MANY COSTS OF CRIME TO THE COMMUNITY criminal justice systems. An ap- AND THE NEED TO REDUCE OR PREVENT IT. proach is needed that balances OUTLAYS FOR LOCAL LAW ENFORCEMENT good policing and justice with AND OTHER CRIMINAL JUSTICE ELEMENTS well-planned prevention.

SKYROCKET; LOCALLY SUPPORTED HOSPITALS, Public opinion shows consistent SOCIAL SERVICES, AND SCHOOLS SUFFER AS support for prevention. A 1994 sur- THEY ABSORB THE COSTS OF CRIME AND ITS vey found that 61 percent of Canadians felt government re- EFFECTS ON VICTIMS. sources should be spent on prevention rather than criminal justice. In —Creating a Blueprint for Community Safety America, 54 percent felt increased spending on social and economic problems, rather than police or Good Governance prisons, was a more effective response to crime. The social and economic consequences of crime are enormous. To have an impact on current Expenditures on policing, the crime problems and avoid greater courts, prisons, and private security problems in the future, municipal have grown enormously. Crime leaders must shift how they think causes serious problems for local and act. Seeing community safety government when towns or city cen- as a basic human right, good gover- ters decay as residents, businesses, nance insists that local government and jobs move away, reducing the leaders bear the primary responsi- tax base. Traditionally, crime pre- bility for fostering safe and healthy vention has been regarded as the communities. responsibility of police and prosecutors. Yet in spite of increased

10 II. The Emergence of Community Safety

How Local Authorities in councils brought together a range of Other Countries Are local people and agencies to develop prevention projects in their com- Tackling Problems munities throughout France.8 The In recent years, in an increasing European Forum for Urban Safety number of countries, crime preven- (EFUS) was set up in 1987 to link tion projects have reduced the mayors across Europe, developing opportunities and increased the risks community safety through strong of committing crime by changing city partnerships. EFUS now policing practices or the city envi- includes more than 100 local ronment. Some countries have authorities. focused on renewing poor neighborhoods and others on strengthening In the past two decades, a series the ability of residents to integrate of international meetings has better into society. In both cases brought together mayors, police there has been an emergence of executives, judges, community community-based strategies and leaders, policymakers, crime expertise, bringing together local prevention practitioners, and partnerships, with local authorities researchers to discuss ways of cre- playing a key role. There has been ating safer communities. Meetings a shift from the narrower notion of were held in Strasbourg (1986), crime prevention as something the Barcelona (1987), Montreal (1989), police do to the broader idea of Paris (1991), and Vancouver community safety, which is a (1996). The U.S. Conference of community responsibility. Mayors and the National League of Cities took part in the first Focus on the City European and North American Conference on Urban Safety and Since the 1980s city leaders have Crime Prevention in Montreal in begun to take a leadership role in 1989. The Federation of Canadian crime prevention. In France, for Municipalities and EFUS were also example, the Mayors Commission represented, and the conference on Security (Bonnemaison, 1982) established an Agenda for Safer led to the creation, in 1982, of a Cities. These organizations took part system of city contracts with may- in a followup conference in Paris ors that enabled them to create local (1991) that brought together 1,600 crime prevention councils. Under the people from 65 countries, who set leadership of their mayors, these

BUREAU OF JUSTICE ASSISTANCE 11 THE ROLE OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN COMMUNITY SAFETY

out seven steps to make world developing and implementing local communities safer. strategies. Developing and Transitional Countries KINGSMEAD ESTATE, Attempts to establish city-based HACKNEY, UNITED KINGDOM crime prevention strategies have STARTING WITH CIVIL INJUNCTIONS TO STOP also been made in developing countries.9 A Latin American forum on GANGS AND CRIMINAL INTIMIDATION, THIS urban safety was held in Cordoba in LOCAL COUNCIL, TENANTS, AND POLICE 1998. In Africa, an International PARTNERSHIP HAS MOVED ON TO COMMUNI- Forum of Mayors for Safer Cities TY DEVELOPMENT, E.G., RENOVATING PROP- was held in Johannesburg in 1998, bringing together nearly 60 mayors ERTIES AND STARTING DROP-IN CENTERS from across the continent (Institute AND ACTIVITIES FOR YOUNG PEOPLE. . . . for Security Studies, 1999). A Safer BURGLARIES FELL FROM 340 IN 1992 TO 50 IN 1993 AND RESIDENTS HAVE GAINED CONFIDENCE. CITIES THAT ARE SAFE FOR ALL PEOPLE WILL, IN TURN, MAKE THE WHOLE WORLD A —Reducing Neighbourhood Crime SAFER PLACE, FOR FEAR OF CRIME AND VIO- LENCE IMPRISONS PEOPLE IN THEIR HOMES AND MAKES THE REALIZATION OF ALL OTHER Recent European Initiatives HUMAN RIGHTS MORE DIFFICULT TO In more than 20 countries, local ACHIEVE. . . . PREVENTION STRATEGIES authorities and communities are ADDRESSING THE ROOT CAUSES OF URBAN developing community-based policies and programs with the support CRIME HOLD CONSIDERABLE PROMISE. of national government bodies that promote community safety. —U.N. Secretary General Kofi Annan, 1998 In England and Wales, local governments have been mobilized by Cities Program was also launched two major initiatives that began in 1996, with pilot projects in in 1998. Under the Crime and Johannesburg, Durban, Dar es Disorder Act, each local authority Salaam, and Abidjan.10 South Africa and its police force must establish has placed a strong emphasis on a multiagency Community Safety community-based solutions and Partnership to include health, proba- local autonomy. Its 1999 manual for tion, and other authorities, as well local community-based crime pre- as youth representatives. In 3-year vention, Making South Africa Safe, cycles, these partnerships will provides a clear framework for

12 The Emergence of Community Safety

conduct local audits of crime, vic- based on the notion that security timization, and disorder, set priori- equals prevention plus sanction and ties for action, and develop and reintegration. Prevention and reinte- initiate strategic plans.11 gration are seen as the responsibility of everyone in the community. Authorities recognize that crime The contracts require local partner- prevention partnerships are likely to ships to foster access to justice and be more effective than single agen- victim assistance, to create new cies (such as a police department or youth jobs and training, and to take a school system) working alone, action to prevent delinquency and that targeted strategies, using through youth employment, parent rigorous analysis, monitoring, and support, and sports and cultural evaluation, produce results. programs that meet local needs.

These community safety partner- Many of the new jobs, such as ships are part of the new National social mediation agents and local Strategy for Neighbourhood Re- security assistants, will be filled by newal. Since 1998, the Social youth from disadvantaged areas Exclusion Unit has produced a with high levels of unemployment.13 series of 18 Policy Action Team The local security contracts are reports as part of this strategy. The reports outline ways to achieve four objectives: less long-term unem- HANKO, FINLAND ployment, less crime, better health, and better qualifications.12 IN 1991, THIS SMALL CITY OF 11,000 CHANGED ITS CHILD WELFARE POLICIES AWAY Local governments can apply for some of the $415 million in funding FROM INSTITUTIONAL CARE; IMPLEMENTED A for developing crime reduction NIGHTLIFE STREET PATROL PROGRAM TO strategies targeted to high-risk INCREASE INFORMAL SOCIAL CONTROL; AND crime areas and families. In addi- DEVELOPED EMPLOYMENT AND APPRENTICE- tion, 10 percent of this money is to be spent on evaluating these pro- SHIP PROGRAMS TO REDUCE TRUANCY, SUB- grams to assess short- and long- STANCE ABUSE, CRIME, AND ANTISOCIAL term benefits as well as their costs. BEHAVIOR. THE RESULT WAS A 41-PERCENT A major emphasis has been placed REDUCTION IN PROPERTY CRIMES BY JUVE- on what is called “joined-up thinking,” trying to work across agency NILES, AND A 50-PERCENT REDUCTION IN boundaries at the local, regional, WELFARE COSTS BETWEEN 1991 AND 1993. and national levels (Social Exclusion Unit, 2000b). —100 Crime Prevention Programs To Inspire Action Across the World In France, local security contracts (or CLS) have been in existence for more than 15 years. They are

BUREAU OF JUSTICE ASSISTANCE 13 THE ROLE OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN COMMUNITY SAFETY

embedded within the larger city medium-size cities and with nation- contracts concerned with overall al government ministries. The social and economic renewal and agreements provide funds for the development. development of strategies and programs targeting those issues. Local Security Contracts In 1999, the Integral Programme In France, some 378 city con- on Safety and Security was tracts have been signed with may- launched to target youth crime and ors, and 720 local security contracts safety, drug-related problems, street will be completed covering most violence, robberies, vehicle-related large urban areas in the country. Job creation activities will include crime, and traffic safety. The pro- the appointment of 20,000 social- gram emphasizes working jointly mediation agents to work on pre- across ministries at the municipal vention and security issues at the local level, and 15,000 local securi- level and with community and busi- ty assistants attached to police ness groups. Current projects target departments. at-risk children and youth, particularly ethnic minorities, by providing healthy start programs and projects Belgium has adopted the French that aim to reduce school dropout system of funding city contracts. and unemployment rates. In the past 6 years, more than 30 municipal crime prevention councils, as well as the 5 major cities THE STADSWACHT OR CITY GUARDS PRO- and the 7 districts of Brussels, GRAM IN DORDRECHT, HOLLAND, RECRUITS have signed contracts. The councils AND TRAINS THE LONG-TERM UNEMPLOYED are usually required to appoint a responsible officer to administer TO WORK AS UNIFORMED CIVILIAN POLICE. and develop their activities to THEY PROVIDE INFORMATION FOR THE meet local needs. POLICE AND MUNICIPALITY ON CRIME AND

Netherlands developed the Major DISORDER PROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONS, AS Cities Policy in 1996 to respond to WELL AS HELPING TOURISTS. . . . THERE the crisis in its cities. This policy HAS BEEN A 17-PERCENT REDUCTION IN focuses on the concentration of CRIME IN THE AREAS THEY PATROL SINCE unemployment, family breakdown, decaying neighborhoods and public THEY WERE INTRODUCED. spaces, drug addiction, and crime. Agreements have been reached —100 Crime Prevention Programs To between local government leaders Inspire Action Across the World in the 4 major cities and 21

14 The Emergence of Community Safety

Australasia and Canada and their partners since the mid- 1990s (International Centre for the The region known as Australasia Prevention of Crime, 1999b; White, comprises New Zealand, Australia, 1998). Tasmania, and Melanesia. In New Zealand, 62 local authorities have In Canada, the Federation of signed contracts to set up Safer Canadian Municipalities and Community Councils modeled on the local authorities in cities such as French contract system. Their goal is Montreal, Toronto, and Kitchener to enhance the ability of local com- have worked together to create munities to prevent crime and deal community safety plans. The federal with local crime-related problems government, through its National (Hamilton, 1999). In Australia, cities Crime Prevention Centre, has and shires across the provinces of recently put $27 million (Canadian) Victoria, South Australia, and Queens- into three major funding programs: land have developed safer city strate- a community mobilization program, gies and aids to local governments a crime prevention investment fund, and a crime prevention partnership program. These programs stimulate IN 1990, AN ESCALATING ILLICIT DRUG locally based community crime pre- TRADE AND A HIGH CRIME RATE IN THE vention efforts that focus on social LITTLE BURGUNDY AREA OF MONTREAL LED development and develop tools and knowledge about partnership devel- TO THE CREATION OF A NEIGHBORHOOD opment, needs assessment, plan COALITION WITH MUNICIPAL DEPARTMENTS, development, best practices, effec- RESIDENTS, AND THE POLICE. THE COALI- tive intervention, and evaluation. TION DEVELOPED A NEW SPORTS COMPLEX, BETTER LIBRARIES, TRANSPORTATION, Recent Developments in the United States LIGHTING, AND SECURITY; ENCOURAGED JOB In the United States, city mayors CREATION; AND PROVIDED BETTER SOCIAL and local authorities have begun to ASSISTANCE SERVICES. THEY DEVELOPED A play a more active role in communi- COMMUNITY NEWSPAPER AND AN ANNUAL ty safety over the past decade. The RESIDENTS FESTIVAL. THERE WAS A 46- increase and spread of crime, victimization, and violence in the late PERCENT REDUCTION IN CRIME AFTER THE 1980s and early 1990s associated FIRST 3 YEARS, AND A REDUCTION IN THE with the crack cocaine epidemic, DRUG TRADE. youth violence and homicides, and rapidly increasing prison populations —100 Crime Prevention Programs To have all helped to spur a search for Inspire Action Across the World new approaches. Apart from their involvement at international

BUREAU OF JUSTICE ASSISTANCE 15 THE ROLE OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN COMMUNITY SAFETY

conferences, the U.S. Conference of • Tailor its product to local needs. Mayors and the National League of Cities have undertaken surveys and • Build new commitments, partner- developed working groups on ships, and resources. aspects of crime prevention includ- • Reflect and incorporate changes ing issues such as drugs and youth. in the real world outside the plan- MUSCLE and T–CAP: ning room. Combining Municipal and • Deal more effectively with contin- Grassroots Energies gencies and emergencies. In 1991, the severity of crime and its increase led the mayors of eight The U.S. Government funded Texas cities to form Mayors United NCPC to act as a facilitator. This on Safety, Crime and Law Enforce- responsibility included hiring a state ment (MUSCLE).14 Their cities were coordinator, developing a planning home to 35 percent of the popula- prototype, training staff, and devel- tion in Texas, but 60 percent of vio- oping local material and manuals lent crimes across the state. They to assist in the implementation of developed legislative proposals and community-based plans. Each city a major crime prevention initiative. established a coalition of municipal The Texas City Action Plan to Pre- agencies and community leaders vent Crime (T–CAP) included sup- under the mayor’s leadership; port from officials in seven of the assessed the community’s safety cities (El Paso decided not to partic- needs; created a task force of ipate). The mayors felt that develop- residents and experts to deal with ing their programs simultaneously specific issues; and developed a would enable them to benefit from comprehensive implementation each others’ experiences. plan.

T–CAP, according to the National The plans were diverse, reflecting Crime Prevention Council (NCPC), local interests and issues. They was able to ranged from setting up a youth sports network and organizations to • Create a road map to reach help poor neighborhoods to imple- goals. menting school curriculum changes and crime prevention resource cen- • Focus effort where action was ters. The result was that “the role needed and productive. and value of crime prevention grew, along with people’s capacity for • Avoid the “business as usual” action” (National Crime Prevention trap. Council, 1994: 4). T–CAP demon- • Maximize use of existing strated that cities have considerable resources. knowledge. Municipal agencies such

16 The Emergence of Community Safety

as parks, sanitation, traffic, youth Communities Together (PACT), and services, health, and education the Comprehensive Communities departments all provided informa- Program (CCP). They have three tion that provided a detailed picture major differences from earlier of how problems of violence and funding approaches: crime are linked with other social issues and how intervention pro- • They fund comprehensive rather grams work. The costs of the pro- than single-issue or service gram were relatively modest, with programs. $450,000 in federal funding and • They target key situational, $5,000 to $10,000 from partici- social, and economic factors pating cities, as well as in-kind associated with crime using support. multidisciplinary approaches.

Comprehensive Community • They combine grassroots and Programs local initiatives with funding and In the 1990s, several major feder- support from higher levels of al funding initiatives facilitated local government. community-based crime prevention actions that responded to local CCP was launched in 1994 by the needs. They recognized that frag- Bureau of Justice Assistance (BJA) mented services waste resources to integrate law enforcement with and that it is better to work collec- social programs. The program tively rather than in isolation. These empowers local leaders to control initiatives include Operation Weed the allocation of funds. Fifteen 15 and Seed, Pulling America’s CCP sites have been funded.

A Few Signs That CCP Is Working In Baltimore, trash has been removed, crackhouses have been shut down, and properties have been put into receivership to be managed on behalf of neighborhoods. Associations have been formed to help renters buy homes that were formerly abandoned. In Columbia, police can now park both their personal and police cars in public housing developments without fear of vandalism, and pizza is again being deliv- ered to residents. In Boston, the head of a local business association is asking merchants to remove the metal shields over their doorways and windows. In Salt Lake City and Fort Worth, residents are asking for a say in local government and an opportunity to voice their opinions about local problems.

—Comprehensive Communities Program: A Preliminary Report

BUREAU OF JUSTICE ASSISTANCE 17 THE ROLE OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN COMMUNITY SAFETY

Communities were required to take representatives worked with multi- the initiative to develop partner- agency and community coalitions to ships, to have an existing local develop locally tailored programs. coordinating structure, and to develop community policing. In many Small Cities Initiative cases CCP communities have built Small towns and rural municipali- on their earlier experiences of local ties have also developed compre- coalitions developed under T–CAP hensive programs. Approximately or Weed and Seed funding. The 70 percent of Americans live in expansion of community policing as towns and cities of between 25,000 a requirement has helped communi- and 50,000 people. The Small Cities ties develop strategies. They have Initiative was developed by NCPC in learned from their mistakes and 1997 to provide assistance to seven successes. Self-evaluation and cities through federal, state, and accountability have usually been local funding.16 There are now 10 built into the contracts. cities and 1 county in the initiative, developing strategies that use their Examples of the successes of close networks and resources. some of these programs are highlighted in the report Six Safer Cities, which outlines their main strategies Summary and programs (National Crime Looking at the involvement of Prevention Council, 1999a). The six local authorities across a number of cities (Boston, Denver, Fort Worth, countries in Europe, North America, Hartford, New York City, and San Africa, and Australasia—in large Diego) have all achieved reductions metropolitan areas as well as small in crime greater than the national cities and rural areas—several average. The shrinking of the youth important trends are apparent: population responsible for much crime, changes in the drug market, • A shift from a relatively narrow improved economic stability, and focus on crime prevention to the increases in youth employment broader issue of community safe- have contributed to the decline in ty and security as a public good. recorded crime, along with the mul- • A developing consensus about tiagency and local community- the need to work for community based initiatives. In Boston, New safety by tackling the social and York City, and Fort Worth, the police economic conditions that foster took the lead in initiating the pro- crime and victimization. jects. In Denver, Hartford, and San Diego, it was the mayor and • A shift in public view from seeing city council who assumed the lead- the primary responsibility for ership role. In all cases, city community safety as that of the

18 The Emergence of Community Safety

police to recognizing that gov- • A realization that intervention ernments, communities, and can be cost effective compared partnerships at all levels need to with criminal justice solutions. be actively engaged in reducing crime. What has emerged in recent years is a framework for under- • A recognition of the crucial role standing community safety and a that local municipal leaders play strategy for creating it that can be in this process through organiz- used by local governments. This ing and motivating coalitions of framework is outlined in the next local partners to create healthy chapter. and safe communities.

• An increase in evidence that intervention targeting risk factors can be effective in reducing crime and other social problems.

BUREAU OF JUSTICE ASSISTANCE 19 III. A Framework for Community Safety

A Strategy for Analyzing issues. A preventive public health approach, such as that used to Problems and Mobilizing reduce the incidence of heart dis- Resources ease, involves looking for factors This chapter outlines major ele- that increase the risks of developments of a framework for fostering ment. Looking at patterns of eco- community safety that are being nomic and social problems in a used by local governments in many neighborhood or community, as well countries. The approach includes as patterns of crime, disorder, and the following: victimization, makes it easier to see how and where to intervene. In • Recognizing community safety as the United States, the Centers for a right and an issue of the quality Disease Control and Prevention has of life in healthy communities. been active in demonstrating how crime and violence can be seen as • Working horizontally as well as health problems. vertically across jurisdictional boundaries. COMMUNITIES THAT CARE IN SEATTLE, • Understanding the crucial role of political leadership. WASHINGTON, USES A PUBLIC HEALTH APPROACH. ITS MAIN GOALS ARE TO REDUCE • Adapting strategies to local DELINQUENCY AND DRUG USE BY COMBINING needs on the basis of good analysis and targeted plans. KNOWLEDGE ABOUT RISK AND PROTECTIVE FACTORS AND EFFECTIVE INTERVENTIONS • Building capacity. WITH CAREFULLY PLANNED COMMUNITY • Developing tools and measure- MOBILIZATION. A COMMUNITY BOARD OF ments of success. KEY LOCAL LEADERS, RESIDENTS, AND AGEN- Safe and Healthy CIES UNDERTAKES AN ASSESSMENT OF THE Communities MAIN RISK AND PROTECTIVE FACTORS AND DEVELOPS A STRATEGY FOR INTERVENTION. Citizens are entitled to safe and healthy communities. Protecting —Communities That Care Prevention Strategies communities from crime or reestab- lishing levels of safety can be tackled in the same way as public health

BUREAU OF JUSTICE ASSISTANCE 21 THE ROLE OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN COMMUNITY SAFETY

Similar programs are now being municipal services to work together developed in the United Kingdom rather than in isolation. It requires (Nuttall et al., 1998), Scotland, support from higher levels of gov- Netherlands (Junger-Tas, 1997), ernment and links among national, and the United States. state, regional, or provincial authorities. This recognition has motivated This approach encourages broad policies in England, Wales, and responses to crime for victims. France that stress the importance of Recognition of the long-term impact working across jurisdictions and of crime on victims’ health has developing “joined-up thinking.” resulted in programs that provide ongoing community assistance beyond immediate victim support. An example is a partnership in A 1996 study by the National League of Cities showed that local Boston to help youth victims of elected officials and administrators crime prevent reinjury, given that provide leadership in four ways: the risk of revictimization is high • They model and set the tone for once someone has been victimized. public discourse and problem In London, the local health service is solving. developing a health strategy that • They use the power of their office recognizes the links between crime, to convey messages to their disorder, and victimization with community. health (Crime Concern, 1999). • They help shape the processes Horizontal and Vertical and programs. • They use team-building skills to Thinking build trust and communication Working across jurisdictional and and resolve conflicts. geographic boundaries is important to community crime prevention for two reasons. First, isolated projects Political Leadership are unlikely to be effective in dealing with the multiple problems fac- For community crime prevention ing families living in deprived and to work, real commitment and lead- high-crime areas. In their review of ership must come from someone at what works in preventing crime, a high level who takes responsibility Sherman and colleagues (1997) for putting the issues of community concluded that effective crime safety on the policy agenda. prevention in high-violence Often the mayor, a chief executive neighborhoods requires simultane- of a local authority, or a police chief ous intervention by many local is the key person at the local gov- institutions. ernment level. In some cases a Second, effective local govern- specific body or community safety ment action requires all the officer is appointed and given the

22 A Framework for Community Safety

• Knowledge providers: developing The National Crime Prevention and planning. Council asked a range of local government-community coalitions • Articulative: developing internal what motivated them to work and external requirements and together. The answers varied con- siderably, depending on local cir- constraints. cumstances and events: • Constructive: putting in place a • A pending crisis and a sense that permanent local structure with the situation would worsen with- local coordination and the neces- out immediate action. sary resources. • Community pressure arising from a catalyzing event or tragedy. Adapting Strategies to Local Needs • Success of a single-issue initiative. Thorough and careful analysis of local problems is an important ele- • Support from outside. ment in a community safety frame- • Realization that single-focus work. Analysis includes studies on interventions cannot deal with local factors that place people most complex issues. at risk and effective intervention • Desire to sustain safe neighbor- strategies for reducing those risks. hoods and avert a crisis. A careful analysis of local problems, sometimes called a safety audit or a security diagnosis, responsibility for developing part- requires the collection of detailed nerships and plans. While local gov- information about crime, victimiza- ernments are best placed to give tion, disorder, and fear of crime in a citizens a role in the development of neighborhood or across a whole their neighborhoods, their leaders municipality. This information can can play a number of major roles: include police statistics, census data, and the results of local sur- • Preventive: educating the veys of residents, businesses, population and the media. schools, transportation officials, and • Promotional: encouraging the hospitals. But the analysis needs to development of community go further by looking at the links to safety. a range of other problems such as housing, jobs, unemployment, • Active: providing aid to victims school dropout rates, youth facili- and facilitating the mediation ties, and other existing community and resolution of local disputes resources. and conflicts.

BUREAU OF JUSTICE ASSISTANCE 23 THE ROLE OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN COMMUNITY SAFETY

Building capacity includes the Neighborhood management pro- development of the skills, practical jects are most likely to be success- knowledge, experience, and tools ful if they include the following five elements: required to undertake effective community-based action. Many • Someone with overall responsi- countries recognize the importance bility at the neighborhood level. of capacity building. A growing • Community involvement and range of training programs for com- leadership. munity safety personnel on monitor- • The tools to get things done. ing and evaluating special issues such as drugs, domestic violence, • A systematic, planned approach and mental health and providing to tackling local problems. ongoing technical assistance, • Effective delivery mechanisms. advice, and support is now being developed. — National Strategy for Neighbourhood Renewal: Neighbourhood Management In European countries, training is provided by organizations such as the European Forum for Urban Safety, Crime Concern, the London A good security diagnosis can Borough of Brent in England and take between 6 months and 1 year Wales, and Copping On in Ireland. to complete. This careful analysis This includes training for specific allows for the development of interventions such as mentoring or targeted strategies and plans. Once working with at-risk youth, and projects have begun, they need to providing governments and commu- be monitored and evaluated contin- nity safety partnerships with a range uously to see if they are working as of skills. In England and Wales, local planned or need to be modified. The governments also have national more focused the strategy, the more guidelines on setting up partner- successful it is likely to be. ships, developing safety audits, and evaluating the outcome of Building Capacity programs. Developing partnerships, getting In the United States, CCPs have funding or local security contracts, been provided with technical assis- conducting a security diagnosis or tance and budget and program safety audit, developing an action guidelines by such federal funders plan, and implementing, evaluating, as BJA. The National Funding and sustaining the plan are not sim- Collaborative on Violence Prevention ple tasks. They require expertise, (NFCVP) and National Crime information, and approaches that Prevention Council (NCPC) already may be very different from tradition- provide training for collaborative al ways of working.

24 A Framework for Community Safety

and local authority community safe- projects must be monitored and ty initiatives. NCPC is also develop- evaluated. ing a curriculum training program with the University of Kansas for use A second way to fund initiatives is over the Web. pooling existing funding from local government agencies such as The Press and the Media schools, community organizations, private foundations and businesses. Building capacity to develop pub- NFCVP pools resources from public lic awareness of community-based and private sources to help local prevention and to utilize the media community coalitions develop pro- appropriately is another important grams to reduce violence. area. This component includes showing the benefits and successes of well-planned strategies and Tools and Measurements informing the public of stories about of Success how problems have been solved. Tools are needed to identify trends Mayors, local agency staff, the in crime such as where it occurs police, community safety profes- and associated social and economic sionals, community members, problems. Tools are also needed to researchers, and evaluators all target risk factors underlying those need training and clear policies problems and to evaluate the to develop their ability to communi- process and impact of programs. cate with the media. It is important to present initiatives as citizen projects to help to ensure commun- Quality of Life and ity ownership. Social Safety: Ghent, Local Security Contracts and Belgium Funding IN 1997, A SAFETY CONTRACT ENABLED A Community projects require fund- HIGH-RISE “PROBLEM ESTATE” TO IMPROVE ing for startup, pilot projects, and implementation, but they also need ITS PHYSICAL CONDITIONS AND QUALITY OF long-term funding. Resources are LIFE; REDUCE DRUG DEALING, CAR THEFT, needed to sustain action at the local AND BURGLARIES; AND ESCAPE FROM ITS level, to demonstrate the effective- PROBLEM IMAGE. MORE THAN 300 ness and efficiency of projects, and to disseminate information and best RESIDENTS, LOCAL GOVERNMENT, AND THE practices through transfer and train- POLICE DEVELOPED AND CARRIED OUT THE ing. One way to do this is through PLAN. local security or community safety contracts that allow local partner- —European Crime Prevention Awards, 1999 ships to develop and tailor plans to their own needs. In many cases,

BUREAU OF JUSTICE ASSISTANCE 25 THE ROLE OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN COMMUNITY SAFETY

A great deal of information on in 1995 to collect information community-based strategy develop- about the frequency and location ment is now accessible in many of crime and mental health prob- countries, including compendiums lems and about the capacity of of best practice programs, guides neighborhoods to respond to these and how-to manuals, summaries of problems. It surveyed residents, evaluated research, and detailed disadvantaged groups, and young blueprints for setting up tested, people to assess their views on effective programs. Examples from problems and solutions. Built in the United States are provided in the 1990, Eurolille has large residential, following publications: Innovative shopping, entertainment, and com- State and Local Programs (BJA, mercial sectors and a rapid trans- 1997); Creating a Blueprint for port system. It established its Community Safety (NCPC, 1998); observatory to collate information Standing in the Gap (NCPC, as a basis for developing a joint 1999b); Blueprints for Violence action plan and neighborhood safety Prevention (CSPV, 1997); and 150 policy. Businesses were required to Tested Strategies To Prevent Crime contribute resources to the process. From Small Cities, Counties, and The purpose is to develop a healthy Rural Communities (NCPC, 2000).17 social climate in Eurolille, reduce crises, and encourage interaction Working collectively at the between institutions, agencies, and neighborhood level requires good individuals (European Forum for information. To succeed, community Urban Safety, 1996). safety partnerships need to know the range of social, economic, Another tool used effectively by health, and environmental problems communities is crime mapping, apart from information on crime and which involves systematically disorder typically available from collecting data and assessing the police records. One solution in location and development of specif- Europe has been the creation of ic problems in neighborhoods. observatories, permanent centers Recent initiatives of this type in the that collate information on a range United States include Strategic of social, economic, and health indi- Approaches to Community Safety cators, including criminal justice Initiatives and the Arrestee Drug measures. Their effectiveness Abuse Monitoring Program. depends on the accuracy of the data they collect, the diversity of their In addition, communities use sources, and the quality of their benchmarking to compare practices observations. and performances of different service providers, identify good practices, In Lille, France, the neighborhood and foster collaboration between of Eurolille set up an observatory providers, or to establish a basis for

26 A Framework for Community Safety

subsequent evaluation of programs. The range of agencies, organiza- By using standardized procedures tions, and individuals who should be and measures, comparisons can be involved in this process is very made between programs. extensive, offering considerable flex- ibility and opportunities. A list of Basic Elements of the Local potential partners for developing a Government Approach comprehensive plan was developed by NCPC (Kelly, 1998). The list The basic elements of the local includes government approach to community safety include the following: • Local government leadership.

• Identification and mobilization of • Law enforcement and criminal key partners led by local city justice agencies. authorities and involvement of local agencies, community orga- • Human and social service nizations, police and justice sys- agencies. tems, and the private sector. • Neighborhood and civic associa- • A rigorous assessment or securi- tions and clubs. ty diagnosis of local problems of urban safety and victimization to • Youth and seniors groups. set out policies and priorities • Health, safety, and quality-of-life based on partnership consensus. agencies. • Development of local action • Universities, schools, school plans that address the causes of boards, principals, and Parent crime and victimization, not just Teacher Associations. its symptoms. • Cultural and ethnic populations. • Implementation and evaluation of long- and short-term prevention • Business owners and projects that target social exclu- organizations. sion and urban poverty as well as specific crimes and specific • Faith community leaders. geographical areas. • Local media. • Understanding that community crime prevention is a long-term • Nonprofit groups. process which requires educating • Public housing residents the community that prevention is associations and management. a normal part of local community activity and local governance. • Military.

BUREAU OF JUSTICE ASSISTANCE 27 IV. Limitations, Lessons, and Conclusions

This chapter provides examples and whether local authorities are of the ways in which different cities really able to work with all members and local governments around the of a neighborhood. At the heart of world have applied the community these discussions are the following safety approach. Because a great realities: deal can be learned from program failure, the chapter examines limita- • Conflicts need to be talked tions and lessons that have been through, not smoothed over. learned from past experience in • It is easier to work with estab- developing community safety initia- lished members than to include tives and local partnerships. Some marginal groups. of the most important lessons for developing partnerships, undertak- • Communities that are weakest ing safety audits, and developing need the most help and support. strategies and programs come from learning what went wrong, • Cities and local authorities must what proved to be difficult, and be willing to share the blame and what went right. the credit.

Having the tools to promote com- WE SHOULD STOP THINKING ABOUT COM- munity safety is not enough. Also needed is clear understanding of the MUNITIES AS HOMOGENOUS NEIGHBOUR- underlying problem. It is important HOODS AND START RECOGNIZING THAT THEY to resist focusing only on the symp- COMPRISE INTEREST GROUPS THAT ARE toms of crime and disorder in a OFTEN IN CONFLICT. community, or only on visible crime in public places. Minority groups, for —“Participatory Policing,” Imbizo example, may be wary of reporting harassment or crime. Recognizing the long-term nature of community change, and working on the process Two important and related discus- itself, may be more important than sions of the past few years have focusing on projects, current fads, revolved around what we mean or quick results. when we talk about “community”

BUREAU OF JUSTICE ASSISTANCE 29 THE ROLE OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN COMMUNITY SAFETY

Partnership Problems and solving, and risk taking was in con- Information Sharing flict with the traditional hierarchical and bureaucratic style of the city Developing partnerships is not police department. As a result, easy and requires the following: some local CATs identified more with their community than with the • Getting agencies to work together city because the management of the and share information. teams had not been clearly thought • Ensuring that some agencies, through. This situation led to the such as the police, do not isolation of CAT police officers from dominate. their colleagues and was only resolved when the police depart- • Ensuring that community part- ment made organizational and com- nerships represent the interests munication changes. In addition, of the minority as well as the community residents initially were majority. not recruited as regular members of CAT because of the confidentiality • Ensuring that women and men of information being shared, while have an equal voice. other team members, such as community prosecutors, attended meet- • Maintaining confidentiality during ings irregularly. information-sharing efforts.

• Retaining momentum and Volunteer Groups and sustaining initiatives. Multiagency Work Multiagency local partnerships to Problems may arise when part- reduce domestic violence have been ners have different management encouraged in several countries styles, volunteers and paid staff try over the past 10 years. Experience to work together, and leaders has shown that such partnerships change. have many benefits but present dif- ficulties (Hague, 1999). Volunteer Differences in Management groups tend to be underrepresented Styles in such partnerships, while agency Salt Lake City’s experience devel- groups tend to assert control. oping Community Action Teams Partnerships can pose problems for (CATs) revealed a number of grassroots organizations that want management-generated problems to retain their independence as ser- (Rosenbaum, 1999). Tensions arose vice providers. Long-established between city departments with dif- organizations providing services to ferent management styles. The women can be ignored in the rush open management style of the to develop “new” initiatives. Women mayor’s office that encouraged who have experienced domestic brainstorming, cooperative problem violence often have their needs and

30 Limitations, Lessons, and Conclusions

views overlooked. Small minority members who feel that they own groups can be marginalized by local part of the process and who will partnerships, whose membership maintain momentum as elected often does not reflect the diversity of officials or leaders move on. the community. Evaluation and

WE BELIEVE THAT THE ROAD TO SUCCESS- Funding Issues FUL IMPLEMENTATION LIES NOT IN RUNNING Projects can be evaluated at different stages: Have they met AWAY FROM THE CONCEPT OF “COMMUNITY” immediate, short-term, or long-term BUT IN EMBRACING IT, STUDYING IT, goals and are they cost effective? UNDERSTANDING IT, AND RESPONDING TO IT Some researchers have emphasized the importance of looking at the APPROPRIATELY. process of program development and implementation rather than just —The Prevention of Crime the outcome in terms of reductions in crime. What were the conditions that helped the program work or Changing Leaders fail? It is clear that the more multi- Sustaining initiatives is difficult disciplinary and comprehensive a when mayors or police chiefs are program, the more difficult it is to replaced, when funding runs out, assess exactly what worked. What is or other priorities dominate. In important is to establish a range of Toronto, for example, a new mayor short- and long-term goals and out- was elected as the task force on comes for projects. community safety submitted its While creatively using existing plan. Responsibility for implement- funds and resources and bringing ing the plan was not given to the together untapped energy is part of office of the chief administrator as the new way of working, funding is the task force had recommended, still important. Unfortunately it is but to a different agency as part of still categorically driven in many the city’s reorganization, one with a countries and tied to particular number of other functions. Over problems or initiatives. A pooling of time, staff changes resulted in a loss resources is more valuable for city of institutional memory, making it initiatives or community contracts difficult for the implementers to that fund local prevention councils generate and sustain the energy, to develop a range of projects that time, and resources needed to real- meet their needs. In a number of ize the plan. A lesson to be learned countries, business partners support from many initiatives is that they and sponsor projects, but continued need to be supported by both a funding is not always easy to obtain “champion” and community on a long-term basis.

BUREAU OF JUSTICE ASSISTANCE 31 THE ROLE OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN COMMUNITY SAFETY

Emerging Issues municipal leaders. While regions or counties adapt and develop commu- A public health approach to com- nity programs to meet their needs, munity safety that looks at risk there are binding requirements and, factors is valuable, but it is also in some cases, legislation attached to important to look at the strengths funding contracts that require them and assets of individuals and com- to act in partnerships. munities. Other issues that need to be considered include the role of In France, the interministerial del- volunteers and faith communities egation to the city (DIV) requires all and how they can best be included sectors—health, justice, housing, under local government leadership; employment—to work together to the extent to which public groups develop the economic and social can intervene in private issues or health of cities. The cities are able private locations; the rights of young to define their own alliances in rela- people to public space; and the tion to their own needs. This gives impact of new technologies on them legitimacy and allows them to communities. negotiate, innovate, and modify the functions of local agencies and In Europe, new jobs associated develop new capacities. with community safety, such as mediation and security assistants, Australia and Canada, federal outreach workers, youth wardens, countries with national structures, community safety officers, and are not able to mandate their mediators, are showing promise. provinces, territories, or states with Communication technologies, espe- such ease. Nevertheless, their cially the Internet, offer opportuni- national crime prevention centers ties for exchanging experiences and are well placed to offer funding, expertise, training, and linking stimulate best practices, and coordi- municipalities together. nate information to regional and local groups. The United States, Centralized States and with a federal structure but strong Federal Nations state autonomy, arguably has less leverage to enforce or legislate. It The different approaches to facili- has, nevertheless, managed to tating local government involvement encourage a considerable amount in community safety show similari- of important locally based action ties and pose questions. It seems across communities, enabling clear that local action needs to be mayors, elected representatives, city supported vertically as well as hori- managers, and administrators to zontally. Netherlands, Belgium, make links with their regions England, and Wales, for example, and states as well as with federal have leaders at the national level funders. linked to regional and local

32 Limitations, Lessons, and Conclusions

Summary recognition of the need to revital- ize cities and municipalities to The pace of change in cities deal with the social exclusion of around the world has increased young people and their families. enormously in the past few years: Since the 1980s, mayors and • With rapid globalization, urban- other local authority leaders have ization, and migration, the health begun to promote community safety. and well-being of citizens are They no longer see crime as major concerns in developed and primarily the responsibility of the developing countries. police. They have come to see crime • Poverty and exclusion, two of the reduction as an issue of good gover- most important problems facing nance that requires community part- cities and municipalities, have nerships to tailor local solutions to increased and are major factors local problems. Accumulating evi- increasing the risks of crime, dence from many countries points to victimization, and insecurity. similarities in the factors that place people and places at risk of crime • In the past decades, despite and victimization, the most important tougher criminal justice respons- factors being poverty and discrimina- es in many countries, the prob- tion. Evidence of the short- and long- lems of community safety have term effectiveness of intervention to increased and remain a major reduce risks is also accumulating and concern for citizens. has been shown to be cost effective.

• There has been a loss of faith in criminal justice systems.

• There has been recognition of the importance of prevention and of community safety as a right, and

BUREAU OF JUSTICE ASSISTANCE 33 V. Examples From Practice

This chapter highlights a variety unemployment rate is 13 percent of community safety initiatives but runs as high as 30 percent in developed by local government some wards. Crime rates in the bor- partnerships in countries around the ough are higher than the national world. They have been selected to average and are concentrated in illustrate different aspects of the deprived housing estates, some of strategic approach and to show how which present serious policing prob- communities of different sizes have lems. Major concerns are street rob- tackled a range of issues. The initia- bery, theft and burglary, drug- and tives include strategic plans in large alcohol-related crime, and violence. cities following safety audits and public consultation; neighborhood- Working Partnership based committees and action Brent now has 10 years of groups; urban planning and man- experience working with partner- agement strategies for youth and ships, undertaking safety diagnoses, public spaces; small-town initiatives; and planning and implementing domestic violence strategies; community safety strategies. It statewide city initiatives targeting has a permanent department of hotspots and cooperative financing; Community Safety and Community coalitions of local authorities and cities; and social observatories as tools for strategic local planning.18 In Brent’s experience the three key principles necessary for effective local authority crime prevention Borough of Brent, London, work can be classified as the three England: Community C’s: Safety and Community • Councillors: to secure political Empowerment support for crime prevention. Brent is one of 33 London bor- • Corporate: to secure a council oughs, each with its own mayor and corporate approach to crime prevention. council. Brent has a population of 240,000 and the highest proportion • Coalitions: to ensure that local (50 percent) of black and ethnic authorities take the lead in developing crime prevention minority citizens in London. It is the strategies. most culturally and racially diverse of all local authorities in England —John Blackmore, Head of Community and Wales and includes areas of Safety and Community Empowerment, considerable wealth and extreme Borough of Brent poverty. The borough’s average

BUREAU OF JUSTICE ASSISTANCE 35 THE ROLE OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN COMMUNITY SAFETY

Empowerment within its Community road injuries, drug and alcohol prob- Development Directorate, which lems, and fear of crime. It showed works closely with all council that between 1996 and 1998, services, national agencies, and recorded crime had decreased in the businesses. borough by 5 percent, burglary had decreased by 13 percent, and street Brent has five interagency crime robbery had decreased by 14 per- prevention/community safety strate- cent, although violent crimes as a gies. Projects developed with partners whole had risen. The audit listed have included burglary reduction pro- some of the options for reducing the grams, a mentoring scheme for problems identified. young people, neighborhood watch, and a targeted policing initiative for high-crime areas using crime mapping and analysis. The latter has been Community Safety funded by a £1.3 million national Strategy for Brent government grant. 1999–2002 Top priorities: Brent has also set up accredited community safety training courses 1. Reduce residential burglary. for local citizens and a community 2. Decrease robbery and street- information system Web site crime. (www.brent.gov.uk/brain). The borough recently held a conference on 3. Improve partnership response to racial incidents and violence and community safety that was transmit- victimization of ethnic minorities. ted on the Internet and will form the basis of a video. Its safety strategy 4. Reduce crime and disorder in for 1999– 2002, which followed a town centers. safety audit and extensive commu- 5. Reduce crime by young nity consultation, was produced by offenders. the partnership between the local council and the police, probation service, and health authorities serv- Community Consultation ing the borough. Some 10,000 copies of a summa- The Crime and Disorder Audit ry of the crime and disorder audit compared Brent’s crime levels with were sent to the public and to ethnic neighboring boroughs, highlighted minority, faith, neighborhood watch, crime hotspots, and examined and business groups. The full audit trends in burglary, robbery, violence, was available in police stations, sexual offenses, young offenders, libraries, and medical clinics. domestic violence, racial incidents, Forums were held to discuss the victimization of the elderly, disorder, audit with resident and tenant

36 Examples From Practice

organizations, police community the population. Before 1980, 60 consultation groups, and the Brent percent of immigrants were from Youth Council. Europe. Since 1980, the majority of immigrants have come from The resulting document, A Crime Asia, Africa, Latin America, the and Disorder Reduction and Caribbean, China, Hong Kong, and Community Safety Strategy for the Philippines. About 42 percent of Brent 1999–2002 (Borough of Brent, citizens have a mother tongue other 2000), identifies the borough’s 15 than English. These changes have priority targets, an overall target for brought considerable social and each priority, a detailed list of action economic benefits, but there is plans for each target, and perfor- increasing income disparity and mance measures to assess their poverty. Only 27 to 36 percent of effectiveness. The top priority is Toronto citizens feel that all ethnic burglary reduction and the target is and cultural groups are treated fairly reduction by a minimum of 6 per- by city politicians and the police. cent in 12 months, or 12 percent in Violent crime levels were still in- 36 months, compared with 1998 creasing as recently as 1997, and figures. Apart from the top five pri- community safety remains one of orities listed on page 36, other prior- citizens’ top concerns. ity targets include reducing youth victimization, domestic violence, Formerly a city of 650,000, the road injuries, and drug and alcohol new megacity of Toronto was creat- abuse. ed in 1998 with the amalgamation of the surrounding municipalities of Contact: John Blackmore, Head, East York, Etobicoke, North York, Community Safety and Community Scarborough, and York. The new Empowerment, London Borough of city council established a Task Brent, Brent Town Hall, Forty Lane, Force on Community Safety to Wembley, Middlesex, HA9 9HD, develop a comprehensive safety England. 44–020–8937–1035; plan. Chaired by two councillors, it 44–020–8937–1056 (fax); included representatives from the [email protected] police, school boards, neighborhood (e-mail). crime prevention groups, businesses, ethno-cultural groups and agen- Toronto, Ontario, Canada: cies, organizations working with A Community Safety at-risk children and people with Strategy for the City disabilities, and family violence counselors. Toronto, with a population 2.5 million, has seen enormous growth Its key strategy was community as a city and region over the past consultation using a community sur- 20 years. This growth includes rapid vey, interviews with city councillors, changes in the ethnic distribution of public meetings, and presentations.

BUREAU OF JUSTICE ASSISTANCE 37 THE ROLE OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN COMMUNITY SAFETY

city services that should take the Toronto Community lead. A new task force was estab- Safety Strategy lished in 2000 to develop a work plan to implement the recommen- A Vision for a Safer City dations. Among other work, a social • Reduce crime and fear of crime. atlas, based on analysis of city wards, is being constructed and • Increase community knowledge and involvement in creating a implementation of the plan is safer city. expected to take 3 years.

• Focus on vulnerable groups. Contact: Lydia Fitchko, Policy • Recognize diversity. Development Officer, City of Toronto Community and Neighbor- • Know what works and the hood Services Department, Social importance of evaluation. Development and Administration Five Directions for Action Division, 55 John Street, 11th Floor Metro Hall, Toronto, Ontario M5V • Strengthen neighborhoods. 3C6, Canada. 416–392–5397; • Invest in children and youth. 416–392–8492 (fax); lfitchko@city. • Increase police and justice. toronto.on.ca (e-mail).

• Obtain information and organize coordination. Brisbane, Queensland, Australia: Youth and • Make community safety a corporate policy with a council Public Space Major accountability structure. Centers Project Brisbane is a major Australian city with a population of 1.6 million and Its interim report was discussed at a regional and subregional satellite conference bringing together citizens, centers. Recently, it has experienced local organizations, and councillors. a strong population growth, including immigration from Southeast The final report Toronto, My City, A Asia. Crime, vandalism, incivilities Safe City: A Community Strategy for in public places, the presence of the City of Toronto (1999), outlines street kids and youth gangs, and the the extent of the city’s problems of increasing exclusion of minority crime, insecurity, and inequalities. It youth are major concerns. discusses their root causes and how they can be overcome, describes High numbers of indigenous existing community services and pro- young people have migrated from grams, sets out its vision for a safe rural areas and the city suffers from city within a healthy communities a lack of transport, social services, framework, and outlines 35 recom- and facilities designed to meet the mendations for implementation. Each needs of young people. recommendation identifies the major 38 Examples From Practice

Brisbane began a project to devel- reach each of the policy objectives op safer public spaces that were in three areas: youth and communi- more inclusive and relevant to the ty development policy, urban needs and interests of young peo- management through strategic and ple. It focused on the major public local planning and design, and oper- sites where young people gathered, ational management and communi- such as city and regional shopping ty relations in major centers. malls, beaches, and parks. The project took as its starting point the A related project, Girls in Space importance of recognizing the inher- Consortia (1997), looked at the ent right of young people to have needs of girls and young women in access to public spaces and to be public spaces. Brisbane now has consulted and involved in the devel- good examples of well planned and opment of facilities. designed city centers such as Southbank.

A CRUCIAL ISSUE IS WHETHER YOUNG PEO- PLE VIEW AMENITIES AS YOUTH FRIENDLY. A Youth and Community SURVEY OF YOUNG PEOPLE FOUND THAT THE Development Policy FACTORS INVOLVED IN DEFINING A PLACE AS Principles ‘FRIENDLY’ INCLUDED ACCEPTANCE AND SUP- • Inclusive public and community spaces. PORT, NO VIOLENCE, CHEAP FOOD AND DRINKS, AND NO ADULTS OR POLICE. • Recognizing the tension between commercial and community objectives. —Hanging Out: Negotiating Young People’s Use of Public Space • Understanding shopping centers in their local and regional contexts.

• Active inclusion of young people. The city held extensive discus- • Responsive and coordinated policy sions with young people and other development within the council. users of commercial and community spaces and compiled information on • Promoting realistic and accurate information on young people to the city council strategic planning the broader community. system, corporate and local area plans, and urban design. It exam- • Responding to diversity among young people. ined good practice models and principles and the current use of major • Safety. centers in the city, suburbs, and regions. It set out principles, recom- —Hanging Out: Negotiating Young mended policies, detailed strategy People’s Use of Public Space outlines, and targeted indicators to

BUREAU OF JUSTICE ASSISTANCE 39 THE ROLE OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN COMMUNITY SAFETY

Source: P. Haywood, P. Crane, A. • Public space design and inclusion Egginton, and J. Gleeson (1998), of artwork. Out and About: In or Out? Better Outcomes for Young People’s Use of • Health and well-being of young Public and Community Space in the people. City of Brisbane. • Youth and family support Leichhardt Municipal services. Council, New South Wales, • Education, training, and Australia: Draft Youth employment. Social Plan • Housing and homelessness. This small municipal council, serving a population of 62,053, • Crime prevention. developed its Youth Social Plan Source: “The Youth Section of 1995–1997 (White, 1998) to Leichhardt Municipal Council’s Draft respond to local unemployment, Social Plan 1997–1999: Defining How poverty, and inequality to provide Council Works With and on Behalf of concrete ways of dealing with cur- Young People Aged 12–24.” R. White rent problems. These included con- (1998), Public Spaces for Young flicts over the use of public space People. by young people. The plan asserts the basic rights of young people and outlines strategies for the Freeport, Illinois: Coalition following: for a Safe Community In the early 1990s, 25 percent of • Area planning and local services Freeport’s 27,000 citizens lived at or coordination. below the poverty line, with 54 per- • More equitable distribution of cent of children living in poverty. youth services and facilities African Americans made up 20 per- throughout the municipality. cent of the population and there were concerns about disparities in • Youth consultation, participation, educational provision and treatment and advocacy. of students.

• Recreation and public space pro- The catalyst to action was a threat vision for young people. by four Fortune 500 companies, which provided 40 percent of local • Youth facilities for commercial employment, to pull out of the city. developments. The city set up Project 2009 with local businesses in 1993. They • Active recreational spaces. developed a strategic plan to ensure that 90 percent of young people

40 Examples From Practice

stayed in school and graduated Street, Freeport, IL 61032. equipped to work in local business- 815–233–9915; 815–235–0007 (fax). es. The project coalition included city leaders, school administrators, Hartford, Connecticut: business and community represen- Neighborhood Problem- tatives, and local clergy. Solving Committees and Beginning in 1994, the mayor met the Comprehensive with residents over the course of 18 Communities Program months to discuss and debate con- From 1986 to 1996, severe cerns about increasing violence. In neighborhood gang wars catapulted 1996, the city established the Hartford’s crime levels into the top Coalition for a Safe Community, 10 for cities with more than 100,000 whose mission was to build a safe citizens. A mayor’s commission and healthy community for children on crime was set up in 1987. The and families. Four task forces devel- commission recommended estab- oped plans leading to the creation of lishing citywide community policing, family mentoring, parenting educa- developing interagency partner- tion, media awareness programs, ships, and combining community and a job bank. efforts to work on social issues.

The results have been significant. A Police Gang Task Force was Rates of child abuse and neglect established in 1992, and neighbor- have fallen. The local newspaper hood problem-solving committees has developed a guide to local fami- (PSCs) were set up in the 17 city ly and social services. New lighting neighborhoods. PSCs meet monthly has been installed. A new neighbor- to diagnose neighborhood problems hood park and play area is planned. and decide on objectives and plans. School buildings are now available Three special assistants to the city as community centers, and 50 new manager were hired to serve as mentors for local youth are being liaisons between PSCs and the city recruited by local organizations and government. Our Piece of the Pie, businesses. Even with a new mayor a prework program for youth, was set and police chief, in 1997 and 1998, up in 1996. The program also began implementation of the plan was hiring young adults as trainers, completed. The coalition has counselors, and role models to obtained more than $450,000 from support at-risk youth and set up a federal, state, and foundation grants youth job clearinghouse. As a result and plans to develop an affordable of these efforts, overall rates of housing project. crime fell by 30 percent from 1986 to 1996, and rates of employment Contact: Tracey Johnson, Deputy placement from the program have Director, MLKCSI, 511 South Liberty been up to 87 percent.

BUREAU OF JUSTICE ASSISTANCE 41 THE ROLE OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN COMMUNITY SAFETY

Contact: Rae Ann Palmer, CAT youth workers from the local Coordinator, Special Projects and Boys & Girls Club help link at-risk Community Programs, City of youth to local services. More recent- Hartford, City Manager’s Office, 525 ly, school representatives have Main Street, Hartford, CT 06103. joined each team. CATs meet week- 860–543–8681; 860–722–6216 ly to deal with neighborhood prob- (fax). lems, with the aim of providing services quickly to clients, cutting Salt Lake City, Utah: across agency boundaries and red Changing the Way tape. The mayor’s Office of Government Works and Community Affairs acts as the liaison between agencies and city the Comprehensive government and the teams. Communities Program In recent years, Salt Lake City THE PURPOSE OF COMMUNITY ACTION has not only grown in population but become increasingly diverse ethni- TEAMS IS TO POOL THEIR RESOURCES cally and racially as well. Youth vio- (TIME, AUTHORITY, STAFF) IN A PROBLEM- lence, including drive-by shootings, SOLVING FOCUS ON NEIGHBORHOOD- and gang-related crime rose in the SPECIFIC AND FAMILY-SPECIFIC PROBLEMS AS early 1990s. At that time, the per- centage of the city’s 180,000 people THEY ARISE. . . . CATS ARE EMPOWERED living below the poverty level was BY UPPER-LEVEL CITY MANAGEMENT TO 16.4 percent, compared with the WORK OUT THE MOST EFFECTIVE SOLUTION national average of 12.8 percent. In THEY CAN DEVISE THROUGH COLLABORATION 1995, its unemployment rate was 3.6 percent, compared with the AMONG MEMBER AGENCIES AND THE national average of 5.6 percent, and COMMUNITY. the rate of violent crime was 83 per 10,000, compared with the national —Standing in the Gap level of 72 per 10,000. Fear of crime increased and the courts were overloaded. Some of the outcomes of Salt The city set up Community Action Lake City’s approach include Com- Teams (CATs) in each geographical munity Peace Services, a diversion area, as neighborhood-based program that provides education, problem-solving teams focusing on mediation, and intervention to first- the problems of youth and youth time offenders; a domestic violence gangs. CATs include community court; and increased youth and fam- police, probation, the city prosecu- ily specialist staff. The city has tor, community mobilization special- been able to attract increased re- ists, a youth/family specialist, and sources from federal, state, and a community relations coordinator. local government and from

42 Examples From Practice

foundations. These have led to new elements are community prosecu- programs and new staff. Gang activ- tion, juvenile intervention, crime ity has diminished, property crime is prevention through environmental down, and homicides have declined design, victim outreach and assis- 33 percent from 1995. tance, community support for addiction recovery, and housing Contact: Jeanne Robinson, Assistant and business revitalization. City Prosecutor, Salt Lake City. 801–535–7660. Contact: Stephen Amos, Executive Director, Governor’s Office of Crime Maryland HotSpot Control and Prevention, 300 East Communities: Reclaiming Joppa Road, Suite 1105, Baltimore, Our Neighborhoods MD 21286–3016. 410–321–3521; 410–321–3116 (fax); This initiative targets heavy con- [email protected] centrations of crime, insecurity, and (e-mail). victimization in 36 HotSpot communities across Maryland. The effort METRAC, Toronto, began in 1997 and provides funds to neighborhoods to develop part- Ontario, Canada: Taking nerships and strategies to reclaim Action Against Abuse those areas. The program recog- of Women nizes that nationally 50 percent One in 6 women in Canada is of crime occurs at 3 percent of abused by her partner each year addresses. It is the first statewide and more than 60 percent of homi- intervention to help selected Hot- cides result from family violence. A Spot areas reclaim their neighbor- major problem in Canada has been hoods, investing $3.5 million in the lack of coordination of services state and federal grant funding in and programs across all sectors. 36 communities. Sponsored by the chair of Metro A major innovation of the initia- Toronto in 1992, the Metro Woman tive is coordinating state and federal Abuse Council of Toronto was funding to support “core” and formed to create a metrowide inte- “enhancing” projects arising from grated community response to strategic plans. Each community violence against women that receives operational and technical promotes effective and efficient assistance from various state and provision of services for assaulted local agencies. The core elements women and their families. The are community mobilization, com- city provides in-kind support. The munity policing, community proba- council brings together 18 repre- tion, community maintenance, sentatives of key sectors of the crime prevention among youth, and community, including shelters, local coordination. The enhancing police departments, hospitals,

BUREAU OF JUSTICE ASSISTANCE 43 THE ROLE OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN COMMUNITY SAFETY

support service agencies, communi- safety, and quality of life and care. ty health centers, probation officers, The main impact is directed at the and survivor groups. There are five neighborhood level and the plan standing committees and ad hoc sets targets and outlines measures. working groups. As part of the initiative, a pilot The council’s successes include project modeled on the French conferences that have brought example, Justice in the Neighbor- together different sectors and hood: Justice Closer to the Citizens groups, two publications (Best and Their Problems, was begun in Practice Resource Manual and Best 1992.19 Neighborhood justice offices Practice Guidelines for Responding were opened in five Dutch cities to to Women Abuse for Health work in problem-oriented ways with Practitioners), safety audit kits, pro- local residents. The offices provide tocols and accountability standards accessible, quick, and direct action for intervention programs, and edu- to deal with local street crime, nui- cation and awareness projects. The sances, and conflicts. They offer council worked with police depart- information, legal advice, and con- ments and courts to develop spe- flict mediation to help prevent local cialized domestic violence courts, disputes from getting out of control. model batterer’s programs, and court-watch projects, and developed Contact: Ministry of Justice, inter-sectoral partnerships and Information Department, protocols. 31–0–70–370–68–50; 31–0–70–370–75–94 (fax); Contact: www.city.toronto.on.ca/ [email protected] or council/wac_index.htm#f (Internet). [email protected] (e-mail); www.minjust.nl:8080 Amsterdam, The Hague, (Internet). Rotterdam, and Utrecht, Netherlands: EURO 2000 Football Cities Big Cities Policy Against Racism Social problems such as drugs, The European Forum for Urban nuisance, and street crime in Safety funds groups of cities in Netherlands’ major cities led to Europe to tackle specific problems. the development of a Big Cities Over the past 10 years it has Policy. A memorandum was drawn brought member cities together for up by the municipal authorities conferences and initiatives on vio- of the major cities to strengthen lence and schools, the mass media, their social and economic bases senior citizens, victims, immigration in partnership with the national and insecurity, the integration of government in three major areas: young people, and drug prevention. employment and education, public A recent initiative targets racism

44 Examples From Practice

and soccer violence. Soccer vio- for a new security contract (CLS) lence has been a major problem in as soon as they were announced in Great Britain as well as other 1997. The partnership includes not European countries for a number of only the city of Aix en Provence but years. Nine host cities (Brent in its surrounding communities, each London, four Dutch cities, and four with its own mayor, police depart- Belgian cities) have developed anti- ment, and other services. Represe- racism campaigns around the EURO ntatives of the region and national 2000 championships. ministries are also included.

Contacts: John Blackmore, Head, A comprehensive security diagno- Community Safety and Community sis was undertaken, looking at direct Empowerment, London Borough of and indirect problems. In addition, a Brent, Brent Town Hall, Forty Lane, permanent observatory of social Wembley, Middlesex, HA9 9HD, problems was created, using specif- England. 44–020–8937–1035; ic indicators at the local government 44–020-8937–1056 (fax); level. [email protected] (e- mail); European Forum for Urban Using this knowledge as a foun- Safety, 38 rue Liancourt, Paris dation, the city established 10 pri- 75014, France. 33–1–40–64–49–00; orities relating to the quality of life: 33–1–40–64–49–10 (fax); social, cultural, and sports facilities [email protected]. (e-mail). and policies; citizen access to the law; prevention of child abuse and Aix en Provence, France: neglect; prevention of substance abuse; parental support; victim Local Security Contract support and aid; improving court and Observatory and reintegration policy and prac- This city of 126,000 has experi- tices; and safety and security. The enced considerable growth in the action plan (Fiches actions de con- past 30 years. It is “rich, cultured, trat, 1999) outlines 42 separate and young,” but with increasing actions relating to these 10 priori- disparities between its economically ties. In each case it identifies the stable and marginalized populations. specific problem, the objectives set, the agreed action, the partners The city received a Contrat de responsible for implementation, Ville in 1994 to improve housing, methods of finance, evaluation, transport, education, and health ser- and target dates. The prevention vices, as well as to develop delin- of school violence, for example, quency and drug prevention involves measures to reduce strategies. A community council absenteeism and school exclusion, partnership for the prevention of early identification of behavior delinquency was formed that applied problems, use of alternative

BUREAU OF JUSTICE ASSISTANCE 45 THE ROLE OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN COMMUNITY SAFETY

disciplinary measures, and educa- such as local shop owners and tional support. The plan is now young people to try to develop cre- being implemented and evaluated. ative solutions to problems. Al- though the outcomes have not yet Among other initiatives, commu- been evaluated, the CLS has had a nity policing has been established, considerable impact on policies and and new security assistants have practices in the city as well as the been recruited. Better links and region. coordination between the national and municipal police have also been Sources: Diagnostic local de securite set up. Social mediation agents de la Ville de Aix en Provence have been recruited and trained to (1999) and Fiches actions de con- work on public transport, around trat (1999): Centre de gestion de la schools, and in public spaces. Their fonction publique territoriale des role includes mediating situations Bouches du Rhone. and intervening between groups

46 VI. Notes

1. This statement refers to crimes 4. See Snyder and Sickmund recorded by the police. We know (1999) and Harris and Curtis (1998) from victimization surveys taken in for more information about juvenile many countries that only approxi- offending and victimization and mately 50 percent of crime events future population trends. Hagan are reported to the police, so these (1996) and Rose and Clear (1998) levels underestimate the extent of have discussed the impact of crime and victimization. high rates of imprisonment on neighborhoods. 2. In England and Wales, for example, 59 percent of the public 5. An international survey in 12 thought that crime rates were still countries found drug use was preva- rising in 1998 in spite of 4 years of lent among youth in areas of high decline (Mattinson and Mirrlees- unemployment and was associated Black, 2000). with a high incidence of property and violent crime (Killias and 3. For example, in Britain 82 per- Ribeaud, 1999). cent of Pakistani and 84 percent of Bangladeshi families, many of 6. See Violence Against Women: The them living in public housing, have Hidden Health Burden (Heise, L.L., incomes that are less than half the et al., 1994). national average, compared with 28 percent of the majority white popu- 7. In Germany, for example, the pro- lation (Social Exclusion Unit, 2000a: portion of ethnic minorities in youth 30). In France, concentrations of custody increased from 10 percent social problems are found in the in 1990 to 35 percent by 1998 satellite housing complexes around (Pfeiffer and Wetzels, 1999). the major cities with social outcasts 8. These projects include summer and immigrant families living in far holiday and job creation programs greater poverty and substandard for disadvantaged young people. conditions than the rest of the coun- Since 1989 these city contracts try (Dubet and Lapeyronnie, 1994, have been administered through an in Pfeiffer, 1998). In Germany, 39 interministerial agency (DIV) at the percent of foreign born Turkish national level that links the interests youth experience high levels of of national ministries together in deprivation compared with 12 per- supporting a range of city projects. cent of native-born Germans (Pfeiffer and Wetzels, 1999).

BUREAU OF JUSTICE ASSISTANCE 47 THE ROLE OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN COMMUNITY SAFETY

9. Countries in transition include Include provides activities for at-risk many east European countries that youth between 13 and 16 years old. were part of the Soviet Union or the Eastern Bloc. Developing countries 13. See Profils, Missions et Perspec- include many in South America, tives des Agents Locaux de Media- Africa, and Asia. International vic- tion Sociale (Forum Francais, timization surveys have been carried 1999). out in many of these countries since 14. These were the mayors of the mid-1990s. Arlington, Austin, Corpus Christi, 10. These are being funded by the Dallas, El Paso, Fort Worth, United Nations Center for Human Houston, and San Antonio. Settlements (Habitat) based in 15. The sites in Baltimore, Boston, Nairobi in partnership with ICPC, Columbia, Fort Worth, Salt Lake EFUS, the South African Institute of City, and Seattle have been inten- Security Studies, and national and sively evaluated; Atlanta, Denver, local governments. Projects under East Bay, Hartford, and Wichita the Habitat program are being have been the subject of less inten- developed in other African cities as sive evaluation (Kelling et al., well as in Asia and Latin America 1998). A total of $34 million was (www.unchs.org/safercities). The invested in the program. project in Dar es Salaam was awarded the Urban Security Prize 16. They include Burlington, Chapel at the Africities Summit 2000. Hill, and Garner in North Carolina; Deerfield Park, Florida; Deer Park, 11. A safety audit includes a de- Texas; Lima and Stow, Ohio; Keene, tailed mapping of crime and disor- New Hampshire; Bessemer, der problems in a community. Alabama; Pearl, Mississippi; and 12. The National Strategy for Neigh- Pueblo County, Colorado. borhood Renewal is a multiministeri- 17. The National Crime Prevention al strategy for tackling the problems Council has produced a number of of deprived neighborhoods. Each of other guides to community initia- the 18 reports focuses on a particu- tives in crime prevention, including lar issue. For example, Report 12 Crime Prevention in America: deals with young people (Social Foundations for Action (1990); Exclusion Unit, 1999b); Report 4 Uniting Communities Through with neighborhood renewal (Social Crime Prevention (1994); New Ways Exclusion Unit, 2000a). Three major of Working To Reduce Crime (1996); funding areas target crime reduction and Designing Safer Communities and community safety: Sure Start (1997). funds early family intervention programs, On Track funds projects for children and families, and Youth

48 Notes

18. Other examples can be found in 19. Maisons de justice et du droit. 100 Crime Prevention Programs To Inspire Action Across the World (International Centre for the Prevention of Crime, 1999b).

BUREAU OF JUSTICE ASSISTANCE 49 VII. References

Bonnemaison, G. (1982). Rapport Jobs for the New Millenium. Paris, de la Commission des Maires sur la France: European Forum for Urban Sécurité. Paris, France. Safety.

Borough of Brent (2000). A Farrington, D.P. (2000). “Ex- Crime and Disorder Reduction and plaining and Preventing Crime.” Community Safety Strategy for Criminology 38(1): 1–24. Brent 1999–2002. London, England: Borough of Brent. Federal Bureau of Investigation (2000). Preliminary Annual Uniform Bureau of Justice Assistance Crime Report, 1999. Washington, (1997). Innovation State and Local DC: U.S. Department of Justice. Practices. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice. Hagan, J. (1996). “The Next Generation: Children of Prisoners.” Center for the Study and The Unintended Consequences of Prevention of Violence (1997). Incarceration. New York, NY: Vera Blueprints for Violence Prevention. Institute of Justice. Boulder, CO: Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence. Hague, G. (1999). “Reducing Domestic Violence—What Works? Crime Concern (1998). Reducing Multi-Agency Fora.” Briefing Note: Neighbourhood Crime: A Manual for Policing and Reducing Crime. Action. Swindon, England: Crime London, England: Home Office. Concern. Hamilton, J. (1999). Results Crime Concern (1999). Review to Centred Evaluation of Safer Support the Development of the Community Councils. Wellington, Health Strategy for London Crime New Zealand: Crime Prevention and Disorder. Woking, England: Unit, Department of the Prime Crime Concern. Minister.

European Forum for Urban Safety Harris, F.R., and Curtis, L.A. (1996). Tools for Action. Interim (1998). Locked in the Poorhouse: Report. Paris, France: European Cities, Race and Poverty in the Forum for Urban Safety. United States. New York, NY: Rowman & Littlefield. European Forum for Urban Safety (1996). Safety and Security: New

BUREAU OF JUSTICE ASSISTANCE 51 THE ROLE OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN COMMUNITY SAFETY

Heise, L.L., et al. (1994). Violence Washington, DC: National Institute Against Women: The Hidden Health of Justice. Burden. Washington, DC: World Bank. Kelly, T. (1998). “Planning Brings Results: Comprehensive Blueprints Hosain, S. (1995). Cutting Crime for Community Safety.” NCPC pre- in Rural Areas. Swindon, England: sentation to National Conference Crime Concern. on Preventing Crime, November 1998. Washington, DC: National International Centre for the Crime Prevention Council. Prevention of Crime (1999a). Crime Prevention Digest II. Montreal, Killias, M., and Ribeaud, D. Canada: International Centre for the (1999). “Drug Use Among Prevention of Crime. Juveniles: An International Perspective.” Studies on Crime International Centre for the Prevention 8(2): 189–207. Prevention of Crime (1999b). 100 Crime Prevention Programs To Loeber, R., and Farrington, D.P. Inspire Action Across the World. (1998). Serious and Violent Crime Montreal: International Centre for Offenders. Thousand Oaks, CA: the Prevention of Crime. Sage Publications.

Institut des Hautes Études de la Marcus, M. (1995). Faces of Sécurité Intérieure (1998). Guide Justice and Poverty in the City. Pratique Pour les Contrats Locaux de Paris, France: European Forum for Securité. Paris, France: Institut des Urban Safety. Hautes Études de la Sécurité Intérieure. Mattinson, J., and Mirrlees-Black, C. (2000). Attitudes to Crime and Institute for Security Studies Criminal Justice: Findings From the (1999). International Conference on 1998 British Crime Survey. Re- Safer Communities. Pretoria, South search Findings No. 111. London, Africa: Institute for Security Studies. England: Home Office Research, Development and Statistics Junger-Tas, J. (1997). Jeugd en Directorate. Gezin. The Hague, Netherlands: Ministry of Justice. Mayhew, P., and van Dijk, J.J. (1997). Criminal Victimization in Kelling, G., Hochberg, M.R., Eleven Industrialized Countries. The Kaminski, S.L., Rocheleau, A.M., Hague, Netherlands: WODC. Rosenbaum, D.P., Roth, J.A., and Skogan, W.G. (1998). The Bureau of National Center on Addiction and Justice Assistance Comprehensive Substance Abuse at Columbia Communities Program: A Prelimin- University (2000). CASA White ary Report. Research in Brief. Paper, No Place to Hide: Rural 8th

52 References

Graders Using Drugs, Drinking and National League of Cities (1996). Smoking at Higher Rates Than Connecting Citizens and Their Urban 8th Graders. New York, NY: Government: Civility, Responsibility National Center on Addiction and and Democracy. Washington, DC: Substance Abuse at Columbia National League of Cities. University. Nuttall, C.P., Goldblatt, P., and National Crime Prevention. Lewis, C. (Eds.) (1998). Reducing (1999). Hanging Out: Negotiating Offending: An Assessment of Young People’s Use of Public Space. Research Evidence on Ways of Australian Capital Territory: National Dealing With Offending Behavior. Crime Prevention, Attorney Home Office Research Study No. General’s Department. 187. London, England: Home Office. National Crime Prevention Council (1994). Taking the Offensive to Pre- Pfeiffer, C. (1998). “Juvenile vent Crime: How Seven Cities Did It. Crime and Violence in Europe.” Washington, DC: National Crime Crime and Justice. A Review of Prevention Council. Research 23: 255–328. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. National Crime Prevention Council (1998). Creating a Blueprint for Pfeiffer, C., and Wetzels, P. Community Safety: A Guide for (1999). The Structure and Local Action. Washington, DC: Development of Juvenile Violence National Crime Prevention Council. in Germany. Forschungsberichte No. 76. Hanover, Germany: National Crime Prevention Council Kriminologisches Forschungsinstitut (1999a). Six Safer Cities: On the Niedersachsen. Crest of the Crime Prevention Wave. Washington DC: National Crime Rose, D.R., and Clear, T.R. Prevention Council. (1998). “Incarceration, Social Capital, and Crime.” Criminology National Crime Prevention Council 36(3): 441–479. (1999b). Standing in the Gap: Local Family Strengthening Initiatives Rosenbaum, D.P. (1999). for Safer, Better Communities. “Creation of a Neighborhood-Based Washington DC: National Crime Government in Salt Lake City.” Prevention Council. Paper presented at the American Society of Criminology Annual National Crime Prevention Council Meeting. Toronto, Canada: (2000). 150 Tested Strategies To November 17–20. Prevent Crime From Small Cities, Counties, and Rural Communities. Rosenbaum, D.P., Lurigio, A.J., Washington, DC: National Crime and Davis, R.C. (1998). The Prevention Council.

BUREAU OF JUSTICE ASSISTANCE 53 THE ROLE OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN COMMUNITY SAFETY

Prevention of Crime: Social and Action Team 4: Neighbourhood Situational Strategies. Belmont, CA: Management. London, England: Wadsworth Publishing Company. The Stationery Office.

Sarre, R. (1991). “Problems Social Exclusion Unit (2000b). and Pitfalls in Crime Prevention.” National Strategy for Neighbour- National Overview on Crime hood Renewal Report of Policy Prevention. Adelaide, Australia: Action Team 17: Joining It Up Australian Institute of Criminology. Locally. London, England: The Stationery Office. Shearing, C. (1994). “Partici- patory Policing,” Imbizo 2: 5–10. van Zyl Smit, D. (1999). “Crim- inological Ideas and the South Sherman, L.W., Gottfredson, D., African Transition.” British Journal MacKenzie, D., Eck, J., Reuter, P., of Criminology 39(2). and Bushway, S. (1997). What Works, What Doesn’t Work, What’s Waller, I., and Welsh, B. (1999). Promising. Washington, DC: “International Trends in Crime National Institute of Justice. Prevention: Cost-effective Ways To Reduce Victimization.” Global Snyder, H.N., and Sickmund, M. Report on Crime and Justice. United (1999). Juvenile Offenders and Nations Office for Drug Control and Victims: 1999 National Report. Crime Prevention. New York, NY: Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile Oxford University Press. Justice and Delinquency Prevention. White, R. (1998). Public Spaces Social Exclusion Unit (1999a). for Young People: A Guide to Bridging the Gap. London, England: Creative Projects and Positive The Stationery Office. Strategies. New South Wales, Australia: Australian Youth Social Exclusion Unit (1999b). Foundation and National Campaign National Strategy for Neighbour- Against Violence and Crime. hood Renewal Report of Policy Action Team 12: Young People. Wong, S., Catalano, R., Hawkins, London, England: The Stationery J.D., and Chappell, P. (1996). Office. Communities That Care Prevention Strategies: A Research Guide to Social Exclusion Unit (2000a). What Works. Seattle, WA: National Strategy for Neighbour- Developmental Research & hood Renewal Report of Policy Programs, Inc.

54 VIII. Resources and Addresses

National Crime Prevention International Centre for the (Australia) Prevention of Crime (Canada) Attorney General’s Department 507, Place d’Armes, Suite 2100 Robert Garran Offices Montreal, Quebec National Circuit H2Y 2W8 Barton Act 2600 Canada Australia 514–288–6731 61–02–6250–6711 Fax: 514–288–8763 Fax: 61–02–6273–0913 E-mail: E-mail: [email protected] [email protected] Web site: www.ncp.gov.au Web site: crime-prevention-intl.org

Australian Local Government International Crime Prevention Association Action Network (Canada) 8 Geils Court BC Coalition for Safer Communities Deakin Act 2600 c/o The People’s Law School Australia 605–318 Horner Street 61–02–6281–1211 Vancouver, British Columbia Fax: 61–02–6282–2110 V6B 2V2 E-mail: [email protected] Canada Web site: www.alga.com.au 604–669–2986 Fax: 604–689–2619 Secrétariat permanent à la politique E-mail: [email protected] de prévention (Belgium) Web site: www.web.net/~icpan Ministére de l’Intérieur 26, rue de la Loi bte 19 National Crime Prevention Centre Brussels 1040 (Canada) Belgique Department of Justice of Canada 32–2–500–49–47 123 Slater Street Fax: 32–2–500–49–87 Ottawa, Ontario E-mail: [email protected] K1A 0H8 Web site: www.vspp.fgov.be Canada 877–302–CNPC (French); 877–302–NCPC (English) Fax: 613–952–3515 E-mail: [email protected] (French); [email protected] (English) Web site: www.crime-prevention.org

BUREAU OF JUSTICE ASSISTANCE 55 THE ROLE OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN COMMUNITY SAFETY

Crime Concern (England) European Forum for Urban Safety Beaver House (France) 147–150 Victoria Road 38, rue Liancourt Swindon Wiltshire SN1 3BU 75014 Paris England France 33–1–43–27–83–11 Crime Prevention Agency Fax: 33–1–43–27–79–52 (England) Web site: www.urbansecurity.org Home Office 50 Queen Anne’s Gate Secretariat for Safety and Security London SW1H 9AT (South Africa) England Private Bag X463 0171–273–3000 Pretoria 0001 Fax: 0171–273–4037 South Africa E-mail: public.enquiries@ 27–012–339–15–86 homeoffice.gsi.gov.uk Fax: 27–012–339–25–36 Web site: www.homeoffice.gov.uk E-mail: [email protected] Web site: www.gcis.gov.za/sss Social Exclusion Unit (England) Cabinet Office Boys & Girls Clubs of America 35 Great Smith Street (USA) London SW1P 3BQ National Headquarters England 1230 West Peachtree Street NW. 020–7276–2055 (general inquiries) Atlanta, GA 30309–3447 Fax: 020–7276–2056 1–800–854–CLUB E-mail: Web site: www.bgca.org [email protected] Web site: Bureau of Justice Assistance www.cabinet-office.gov.uk/seu (USA) U.S. Department of Justice Délégation Interministérielle à la 810 Seventh Street NW. Ville et au Développement Social Fourth Floor Urbain (France) Washington, DC 20531 194, avenue du Président Wilson 202–616–6500 St-Denis-La Plaine 93217 Fax: 202–305–1367 France E-mail: [email protected] Tel: 33–1–49–17–46–10 Web site: www.ojp.usdoj.gov/BJA Fax: 33–1–49–17–45–55 E-mail: [email protected]

56 Resources and Addresses

National Crime Prevention Council Office of Juvenile Justice and 1000 Connecticut Avenue NW. Delinquency Prevention (USA) Thirteenth Floor U.S. Department of Justice Washington, DC 20036 810 Seventh Street NW. 202–466–6272 Eighth Floor Fax: 202–296–1356 Washington, DC 20531 Web site: www.ncpc.org 202–307–5911 Fax: 202–307–2093 National Funding Collaborative on E-mail: [email protected] Violence Prevention (USA) Web site: ojjdp.ncjrs.org 815 15th Street NW. Suite 801 Washington, DC 20005 202–393–7731 Fax: 202–393–4148 E-mail: [email protected] Web site: www.peacebeyondviolence.org

BUREAU OF JUSTICE ASSISTANCE 57 IX. For More Information

For information regarding the topics Bureau of Justice Assistance and programs discussed in this Clearinghouse monograph, contact: P.O. Box 6000 Rockvile, MD 20849–6000 Margaret Shaw 1–800–688–4252 Director, Analysis and Exchange Web site: www.ncjrs.org International Centre for the Prevention of Crime Clearinghouse staff are available 507 Place d’Armes, Suite 2100 Monday through Friday, 8:30 a.m. Montreal, Quebec to 7 p.m. eastern time. Ask to be H2Y 2W8 placed on the BJA mailing list. Canada U.S. Department of Justice 514–288–6731, ext. 227 Response Center Fax: 514–288–8763 1–800–421–6770 or 202–307–1480 E-mail: shaw@crime-prevention- intl.org Response Center staff are avail- Web site: www.crime-prevention- able Monday through Friday, 9 a.m. intl.org to 5 p.m. eastern time.

For additional information on BJA grants and programs, contact:

Bureau of Justice Assistance 810 Seventh Street NW. Fourth Floor Washington, DC 20531 202–616–6500 Fax: 202–305–1367 Web site: www.ojp.usdoj.gov/BJA

BUREAU OF JUSTICE ASSISTANCE 59 Bureau of Justice Assistance Information

General Information Callers may contact the U.S. Department of Justice Response Center for general information or specific needs, such as assistance in submitting grant applications and information on training. To contact the Response Center, call 1Ð800Ð421Ð6770 or write to 1100 Vermont Avenue NW., Washington, DC 20005.

Indepth Information For more indepth information about BJA, its programs, and its funding opportunities, requesters can call the BJA Clearinghouse. The BJA Clearinghouse, a component of the National Criminal Justice Reference Service (NCJRS), shares BJA program information with state and local agencies and community groups across the country. Information spe- cialists are available to provide reference and referral services, publication distribution, participation and support for conferences, and other networking and outreach activities. The Clearinghouse can be reached by

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