'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS   n #OPYRIGHT Ú  (ELDREF 0UBLICATIONS

#REATIVITY )NTELLIGENCE AND 0ERSONALITY ! #RITICAL 2EVIEW OF THE 3CATTERED ,ITERATURE

-!2+ "!4%9 -ANCHESTER "USINESS 3CHOOL

!$2)!. &52.(!- 5NIVERSITY #OLLEGE ,ONDON

!"342!#4 4HE AUTHORS EXAMINED THE RELATIONS AMONG INTELLIGENCE PERSONALITY AND CREATIVITY 4HEY CONSIDER THE CONCEPT AND DEFINITION OF CREATIVITY IN CONJUNCTION WITH THE QUALIFICATIONS THAT RESEARCHERS IN THE FIELD HAVE SUGGESTED 4HE PRESENT AUTHORS BRIEFLY REFER TO HISTORIOMETRIC STUDIES BUT FOCUS ON PSYCHOMETRIC INTELLIGENCE AND ITS RELATIONS TO TESTS OF DIVERGENT THINKING $4 AND RATINGS OF CREATIVITY 4HE AUTHORS CONSIDER THE RELA TION BETWEEN PERSONALITY AND CREATIVITY IN THE CONTEXT OF %YSENCKIAN  FACTOR AND  FACTOR MODELS OF PERSONALITY AND WITH REFERENCE TO $4 TESTS AND RATINGS OF CREATIVITY 4HE AUTHORS ALSO PRESENT RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE FUTURE STUDY OF CREATIVITY +EYWORDS CREATIVITY DIVERGENT THINKING FLUENCY INTELLIGENCE ORIGINALITY PERSONALITY

4(% #5,452!, 6!,5% 0,!#%$ /. #2%!4)6)49 IN THE ARTS SCIENCES TECHNOLOGY AND POLITICAL ENDEAVORS IS IMMENSE #REATIVE PEOPLE HAVE RECEIVED ADULATION THROUGHOUT HISTORY .ETTLE   3OME RESEARCHERS HAVE ARGUED THAT CREATIVITY CONSTITUTES HUMANKINDS ULTIMATE RESOURCE 4OYNBEE   3OCIAL AND TECHNICAL INNOVATION RELY HEAVILY ON CREATIVE PEOPLE AND PROCESSES 2UNCO   9ET DESPITE CREATIVITYS UNDISPUTED IMPORTANCE PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH REGARDING CREATIVITY REMAINS AN ACADEMIC BACKWATER .UMEROUS RESEARCHERS HAVE COMMENTED ON THE RELATIVE PAUCITY OF EITHER GOOD CREATIVITY STUDIES 'UILFORD  3TERNBERG  ,UBART  OR PARSIMO NIOUS THEORIES THAT EXPLAIN THE ORIGIN AND MANIFESTATION OF CREATIVE BEHAVIOR IN CERTAIN INDIVIDUALS 4HE CAUSE OF THIS NEGLECT MAY BE ATTRIBUTABLE IN PART TO THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE CONSTRUCT OR MORE PARTICULARLY TO PROBLEMS WITH DEFINITION AND THEREFORE MEASUREMENT 0ERHAPS WHAT HAS SET BACK THE FIELD FOR SO LONG HAS BEEN THE RELATIVE ABSENCE OF COMPREHENSIVE AND HIGH QUALITY MEASURES

!DDRESS CORRESPONDENCE TO !DRIAN &URNHAM $EPARTMENT OF 0SYCHOLOGY 5NIVERSITY #OLLEGE ,ONDON  "EDFORD 7AY ,ONDON 7#( !0 %NGLAND AFURNHAM UCLACUK E MAIL 

  'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS

OF CREATIVITY (OWEVER GROWTH IN AGREEMENT ON DEFINITIONS WIDELY ACCEPTED MODELS OF PERSONALITY AND THE APPROPRIATE USE OF TESTS OF DIVERGENT THINKING $4 POINT TOWARD A POSITIVE FUTURE FOR CREATIVITY RESEARCH )N THIS ARTICLE WE ATTEMPTED TO COMPREHENSIVELY AND CRITICALLY REVIEW THE CONTRIBUTION OF DIFFERENTIAL PSYCHOLOGY TO THE CREATIVITY RESEARCH LITERATURE /UR AIM WAS TO ATTEMPT TO DETERMINE BY REVIEW RATHER THAN BY META ANALYTIC PROCE DURES THE EXTENT TO WHICH PSYCHOMETRICALLY ASSESSED INTELLECTUAL AND PERSONALITY TRAITS RELATE TO AND EXPLAIN EVERYDAY CREATIVITY

(ISTORICAL "ACKGROUND

4HE PERCEPTION OF CREATIVITY AS THE ORIGINAL PRODUCT OF AN INDIVIDUAL IS A PRE DOMINANTLY 7ESTERN ONE &ROM THIS PERSPECTIVE CREATIVITY USUALLY IS SEEN AS A TRAIT OR GIFT THAT IS A NORMALLY DISTRIBUTED PROBABLY PARTLY GENETICALLY DETERMINED PROPERTY OF INDIVIDUALS %ARLY PERCEPTIONS OF CREATIVITY WERE DOMINATED BY THE STORY OF CREATION IN 'ENESIS &ROM THERE THE CONCEPT OF CREATION AS ORIGINALITY AND UTILITY INFLUENCED SUBSEQUENT INTERPRETATIONS OF THE PROPERTIES OF CREATIVE PRODUCTS 4HIS CONTRASTS WITH AN %ASTERN VIEW OF CREATIVITY AS THE EXPRESSION OF PERSONAL TRUTH OR SELF GROWTH ,UBART   %ASTERN PERSPECTIVES OF CREATIVITY FOCUS ON DISCOVERY SO THAT THE IDEA OF CREATION EX NIHILO IS IMPOSSIBLE FOR %ASTERN CULTURES THAT EMPHASIZE HARMONY AND BALANCE "OORSTIN   %ASTERN CULTURES HAVE TENDED TO VIEW CREATIVITY AS A PROCESS OF UNDERSTANDING AND ENLIGHTENMENT (OWEVER THE 7ESTERN PERSPECTIVE HAS DOMI NATED CREATIVITY RESEARCH AND ACADEMIC PSYCHOLOGICAL LITERATURE 4HE EARLIEST CONCEPTIONS OF CREATIVITY DREW ON MYSTICAL INTERPRETATIONS 3TERN BERG  ,UBART   -ANY ANCIENT 'REEKS BELIEVED THAT INSPIRATION AND CREATION RESULTED FROM DIVINE INTERVENTION ,UDWIG   &ROM THIS PERSPECTIVE CREATIVITY WAS hASSOCIATED WITH MYSTICAL POWERS OF PROTECTION AND GOOD FORTUNEv !LBERT  2UNCO  P   ! CONSEQUENCE OF THIS CONCEPT OF CREATIVITY HAS BEEN THAT PEO PLE CONSIDERED IT BEYOND MEASUREMENT AND COMPREHENSION AND THAT CONSEQUENCE HAS LEFT A LEGACY OVERSHADOWING SOME ATTITUDES TOWARD CREATIVITY RESEARCH TODAY %VENTUALLY THE 'REEKS BEGAN TO REDUCE THEIR EMPHASIS ON DIVINE INTERVENTION BY THE HIGHEST GODS INSTEAD CONSIDERING CREATIVITY RELATED TO EACH INDIVIDUALS $AIMON OR GUARDIAN SPIRIT "Y THE TIME OF !RISTOTLE CREATIVITY WAS SEEN AS A NATURAL EVENT THAT CONFORMED TO NATURAL LAW EVEN IF IT DID INVOLVE hAN ASSOCIATION WITH MAD NESS AND FRENZIED INSPIRATIONv !LBERT  2UNCO  P   4HE POSSIBLE RELATION BETWEEN PSYCHOPATHOLOGY AND CREATIVITY IS NOW A POPULAR LAY NOTION AND AN ACTIVE AREA OF RESEARCH ,LOYD %VANS "ATEY  &URNHAM   'RADUALLY PEOPLE ASSO CIATED CREATIVE ACTS WITH THE ABILITIES AND DISPOSITIONS OF THE INDIVIDUAL PERSON

#REATIVITY AS AN )NDIVIDUAL $IFFERENCE 6ARIABLE

!S CREATIVITY BECAME ASSOCIATED WITH THE PROPERTIES OF INDIVIDUALS RESEARCH ERS SUCH AS 'ALTON  BEGAN INVESTIGATIONS OF HEREDITY GENIUS AND THE "ATEY  &URNHAM 

,ONDON 3CHOOL IE DIFFERENTIAL MOVEMENT SOUGHT TO ELUCIDATE THE MOST BASIC COMPONENT OF CREATIVE THOUGHT PRODUCTION FLUENCY ( , (ARGREAVES   4HE GROUNDING OF THE INVESTIGATION OF CREATIVITY IN THE CAMP OF INDIVIDUAL ABILITY DIFFERENCES IE CREATIVITY AS A COMPONENT OF ABILITY OR INTELLIGENCE MORE THAN  YEARS AGO LED TO THE CONSTRUCTS BEING CONSIDERED A PREDOMINANTLY INTELLEC TUAL TRAIT OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCE &OR THIS REASON RESEARCHERS HAVE CONSIDERED CREATIVITY TO BE THE hPRODIGAL STEPBROTHER TO RESEARCH ON INTELLIGENCEv 3TERNBERG  P   (OWEVER RESEARCHERS ALSO BEGAN TO ASSESS CREATIVITY FROM THE PER SPECTIVE OF PERSONALITY THEORIES AND PROCESSES )NTEREST IN COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY LED TO INVESTIGATIONS OF THE CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING PROCESS EG &INKE 7ARD  3MITH  .EWELL 3HAW  3IMON   4HERE HAS BEEN CONSIDERABLE INTEREST IN THE SITUATIONAL FACTORS THAT PROMOTE OR INHIBIT CREATIVITY AT THE LEVEL OF INDIVIDUALS AND TEAMS EG !MABILE   2ESEARCHERS HAVE STUDIED THE NEUROBIOLOGY AND FUNCTION OF CREATIVES AND CREATIVE THINKING EG &OLLEY  0ARK  -ARTINDALE (INES -ITCHELL  #OVELLO  AND THE STUDIES APPEAR PROMISING ALTHOUGH RESEARCHERS STILL WRESTLE WITH THE DEFINITION AND MEASUREMENT OF CREATIVITY 4HE FINAL FRONTIER FOR CREATIVITY RE SEARCH LIES IN EFFORTS TO INTEGRATE AND UNDERSTAND THIS DIVERSE FIELD OF RESEARCH &OR THIS REASON SOME RESEARCHERS HAVE PROPOSED CONFLUENCE OR SYNDROME APPROACHES TO CREATIVITY EG -UMFORD  'USTAFSON   4HE MAJOR ISSUE THAT HAS OBFUSCATED AND SCATTERED SCIENTIFIC CREATIVITY RE SEARCH HAS BEEN THE DEFINITION AND USE OF THE TERM CREATIVITY )T IS NOT A TECHNICAL WORD INVENTED TO DESCRIBE THE PSYCHOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTES OR PROCESSES THAT RESULT IN CREATION 2ATHER IT IS AN EXPRESSION THAT IS USEFUL TO ARTISTS SCIENTISTS AND LAY PEO PLE 7EHNER #SIKSZENTMIHALYI  -AGYARI "ECK   4HIS USEFULNESS MEANS THAT THE TERM HAS BEEN APPLIED IN SUCH A DIVERSE MANNER THAT IT HAS ALMOST CEASED TO MEAN ANYTHING 4OGETHER THE ISSUES RELATING TO THE CULTURAL UNDERPINNINGS OF THE TERM THE ROOT OF THE NOTION OF CREATIVITY IN THE DIVINE AND THE UNIVERSAL USAGE OF THE WORD HAVE COMBINED TO PRODUCE A FIELD THAT 'LOVER 2ONNING AND 2EYN OLDS  DESCRIBED AS hA DEGENERATING RESEARCH PROGRAMMEv P  

$EFINING #REATIVITY

0RENTKY  SUGGESTED THAT hWHAT CREATIVITY IS AND WHAT IT IS NOT HANGS AS THE MYTHICAL ALBATROSS AROUND THE NECK OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH ON CREATIVITYv P   !S A PSYCHOLOGICAL CONCEPT CREATIVITY HAS RESISTED UNEQUIVOCAL DEFINITION OR CLEAR OPERATIONALIZATION 0ARKHURST  2UNCO   2HODES  SUGGESTED THAT DEFINITIONS RELATE TO FOUR DIFFERENT POTENTIAL RESEARCH AREAS A THE PERSON WHO CREATES B THE COGNITIVE PROCESSES INVOLVED IN THE CREATION OF IDEAS C THE ENVIRONMENT IN WHICH CREATIVITY OCCURS OR ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES AND D THE PRODUCT THAT RESULTS FROM CREATIVE ACTIVITY !DVOCATES OF THE CREATIVE PERSON APPROACH SEEK TO IDENTIFY THE GENERAL AND SPECIFIC ABILITIES MOTIVES AND TRAITS THAT RESULT IN A PERSON WHO PRODUCES CREATIVE  'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS

PRODUCTS EG #ARROLL  ( * %YSENCK   'OUGH   "ESIDES THE PSYCHOMETRIC APPROACH NOTABLE HUMANIST RESEARCHERS EG -ASLOW  2OGERS  HAVE EXAMINED CREATIVITY IN A FRAMEWORK OF INDIVIDUAL MOTIVATION 3UCH EF FORTS HAVE BEEN INFLUENTIAL IN CREATIVITY RESEARCH BUT WE DO NOT EXPLORE THEM IN THIS ARTICLE BECAUSE THE PRIMARY FOCUS OF THIS REVIEW IS ON STUDIES THAT USED AN EMPIRICAL APPROACH TO ASSESSING CREATIVITY 2ESEARCHERS ADDRESSING THE INTELLECTUAL FACETS OF THE CREATIVE PERSON TEND TO ADOPT A PSYCHOMETRIC METHODOLOGY 4HE RESEARCHERS STUDYING PERSONALITY TRAITS OF CREATIVE PEOPLE TEND TO ADOPT THE MORE TRADITIONAL FRAMEWORK OF A   OR  FACTOR MODEL !DVOCATES OF THE CREATIVE PROCESS AP PROACH TRY TO DELINEATE THE COGNITIVE AND BEHAVIORAL MEANS BY WHICH CREATIVE IDEAS ARE PRODUCED EG &INKE ET AL  -EDNICK   4HIS APPROACH IS MORE IN THE TRADITION OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2ESEARCHERS WHO INVESTIGATE THE CREATIVE EN VIRONMENT SEARCH FOR THE PHYSICAL AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS IN WHICH CREATIVITY IS LIKELY TO UNFOLD EG #SIKSZENTMIHALYI  3IMONTON   4HESE RESEARCHERS ARE OFTEN APPLIED PSYCHOLOGISTS INTERESTED IN ENCOURAGING CREATIVITY ,AST ADVOCATES OF THE PRODUCT APPROACH TRY TO SPECIFY THE ATTRIBUTES OF PRODUCTS THAT LEAD TO A PERSON BEING LABELED AS CREATIVE EG 3TERNBERG +AUFMAN  0RETZ   4HE THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE OF CREATIVITY RESEARCHERS USUALLY DEFINES HOW THEY TRY TO ASSESS THE CONSTRUCT 4HOSE WHO EMPHASIZE A PERSON CENTERED VIEW OF CREATIVITY USUALLY ASSESS CREATIVITY WITH REFERENCE TO PERSONAL ATTRIBUTES SUCH AS INTELLIGENCE OR PERSONALITY EG 'UILFORD   !LSO SOME RESEARCHERS TAKE AN ABNORMAL OR CLINICAL VIEW OF CREATIVITY SEEING IT AS THE RESULT OF UNUSUAL PERSON ALITY PROCESSES 4HOSE WHO EMPHASIZE A PROCESS CENTERED VIEW OFTEN ASSESS CRE ATIVITY WITH REFERENCE TO THOUGHT PROCESSES SUCH AS PROBLEM SOLVING -EDNICK   4HOSE WHO EMPHASIZE THE ROLE OF THE ENVIRONMENT FOCUS ON THE CLIMATE FOR CREATIVITY EG 3IMONTON    4HUS WE CAN CONSIDER COGNITIVE PERSONALITY HUMANISTIC SOCIAL ENVIRON MENTAL AND PSYCHOANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGIES OF CREATIVITY )T IS CERTAIN THAT EVEN TUALLY THE NEUROBIOLOGY OF CREATIVITY WILL BE EXPLORED EG 2EUTER ET AL   %ACH APPROACH INEVITABLY CONCENTRATES ON THE ISSUE OF CREATIVITY DIFFERENTLY DEVISING ITS OWN THEORIES METHODS AND INVESTIGATIVE PARADIGMS 4HEREFORE THIS NEGLECTED FIELD IS ALSO DEEPLY FRAGMENTED INDICATING THE NEED FOR A COMPREHEN SIVE REVIEW 4HIS FRAGMENTATION AND METHODOLOGICAL VARIANCE MAKES ANY META ANALYTICAL APPROACH TO CREATIVITY PROBLEMATIC $ESPITE CONCEPTUAL AND EMPIRICAL FRAGMENTATION THERE NOW APPEARS TO BE SOME REASONABLE DEFINITIONAL AGREEMENT IN THE FIELD "ARRON  FIRST PROPOSED THE NEW AND USEFUL DEFINITION OF CREATIVITY WHICH APPEARS TO HAVE GAINED WIDE ACCEPTANCE -UMFORD  2UNCO   (OWEVER SUCH A DEFINITION HAS STILL BEEN CRITICIZED AND MODIFIED 0ARKHURST  INDICATED THE NEW AND USEFUL PERSPECTIVE OF CREATIVITY REQUIRES DEVELOPMENT BECAUSE THE CURRENT DEFINITION IS NOT STRINGENT ENOUGH TO ENABLE DIFFERENTIATION BETWEEN WHAT IS CREATIVE AND WHAT IS NOT (E PROPOSED THE FOLLOWING DEFINITION OF CREATIVITY "ATEY  &URNHAM 

THE ABILITY OR QUALITY DISPLAYED WHEN SOLVING HITHERTO UNSOLVED PROBLEMS WHEN DEVELOPING NOVEL SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS OTHERS HAVE SOLVED DIFFERENTLY OR WHEN DE VELOPING ORIGINAL AND NOVEL AT THE LEAST TO THE ORIGINATOR PRODUCTS P  (OWEVER THIS DEFINITION STILL FAILS TO ACCOUNT EXPLICITLY FOR THE ROLE OF SOCIAL APPRAISAL IN JUDGMENTS ABOUT WHAT CONSTITUTES CREATIVITY OR CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING EG #SIKSZENTMIHALYI   !LTHOUGH THE NEW AND USEFUL ACCOUNT OF CREATIVITY IS RELATIVELY PARSIMONI OUS THERE HAVE BEEN RECENT MOVEMENTS TO INCORPORATE A MULTICOMPONENTIAL PERSPECTIVE INTO CREATIVITY ASSESSMENT )N THAT PERSPECTIVE CREATIVITY IN THE INDI VIDUAL IS SEEN AS THE RESULT OF A COMPLEX INTERACTION BETWEEN THE PERSON AND THE ENVIRONMENT ULTIMATELY LEADING TO A CREATIVE PRODUCT #SIKSZENTMIHALYI  -UMFORD  'USTAFSON   !LTHOUGH THESE COMPONENTIAL ACCOUNTS POSSESS A GREATER BREADTH AND DEPTH IN THEIR TREATMENT OF THE CREATIVITY COMPLEX THEY STILL DO NOT PROVIDE AN UNDERSTANDING OF WHAT IS CREATIVE )NSTEAD THEY INDICATE THE CONDITIONS IN WHICH CREATIVITY WILL OCCUR 7E SUGGEST BY DEFINITION THAT IDENTIFI ABLE CREATIVITY IN A PRODUCT IS A RESULT OF A SYNDROME INVOLVING THE FOLLOWING  !TTRIBUTES OF THE PRODUCT ITSELF THAT ARE NOVEL AND USEFUL WITH RESPECT TO A PARTICULAR SOCIOCULTURAL GROUP  !TTRIBUTES OF THE PERSONS WHO GENERATED THE PRODUCT  !TTRIBUTES OF THE PERSONS ASSESSING THE CREATIVITY OF THE PRODUCT OR OUTPUT  !TTRIBUTES OF THE ENVIRONMENT FOR CREATORS AND ASSESSORS INCLUDING THE FOLLOWING SOURCE OF EVALUATION SOURCE OF SUPPORT OR RESOURCES AND SOURCE OF STIMULATION OR INSPIRATION )NEVITABLY SUCH A COMPLEX DEFINITION POSES MAJOR PROBLEMS FOR MEASURE MENT $EFINITIONS OF CREATIVITY HAVE EVOLVED TO INCORPORATE NUMEROUS ISSUES EG THE ROLE OF THE ENVIRONMENT THE ROLE OF SUBJECTIVE EVALUATION  -OST DEFINITIONS STILL REFER TO THE CORE CONCEPTS OF NOVELTY AND UTILITY (OWEVER THERE ARE A NUMBER OF QUALIFICATIONS FOR THE NEW AND USEFUL DEFINITION OF CREATIVITY &IRST PERCEIVING CREATIVITY AS THE ORIGINAL PRODUCT OF AN INDIVIDUAL IS A PREDOMINANTLY 7ESTERN PER SPECTIVE 3ECOND THERE IS DEBATE ABOUT WHAT CONSTITUTES A PRODUCT !BSTRACT IDEAS IE THEORIES HAVE BEEN TREATED AS PRODUCTS 2UNCO 0LUCKER  ,IM  AND RESEARCHERS HAVE ANALYZED PRODUCTS NOT CREATED DURING AN EXPERIMENT OR INVESTI GATION OF CREATIVITY "AER +AUFMAN  'ENTILE   4HIRD THERE IS UNCERTAINTY ABOUT WHETHER NEW MUST MEAN UNIQUE OR PRE EMINENT 3OME COMMENTATORS HAVE ARGUED THAT A PRODUCT NEED ONLY BE NEW FOR THE CREATOR "ODEN  2OGERS  4HURSTONE  WHEREAS OTHERS HAVE ASSERTED THAT SOCIETY MUST DETERMINE WHETHER A PRODUCT IS NEW AND USEFUL #SIKSZENTMIHALYI  3TEIN   4HERE IS THE ISSUE OF WHETHER ANY PERSON CAN PRODUCE SOMETHING THAT IS ENTIRELY NOVEL "ODEN  INSTEAD THE REQUIREMENT OF SURPRISE MAY PROVE A MORE FITTING CRITERIA 4HERE IS ALSO THE ISSUE OF WHETHER  'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS

NOVELTY IS ESSENTIAL IN SCIENCE WHERE ADVANCEMENT IS PREDOMINANTLY NORMAL AS OPPOSED TO REVOLUTIONARY +UHN   &OURTH AS A REQUIREMENT OF NOVELTY MAY BE INAPPROPRIATE FOR SOME SCIENTIFIC ENDEAVORS A REQUIREMENT OF USEFULNESS MAY NOT PROVE A FITTING CRITERION FOR THE ARTS &IFTH JUDGEMENTS CONCERNING NOVELTY AND UTILITY INEVITABLY INVOLVE SOCIAL APPRAISAL !MABILE   #SIKSZENTMIHALYI    4HIS CIRCUM STANCE RAISES ISSUES ABOUT THE SELECTION OF APPROPRIATE JUDGES AND ABOUT WHETHER CONTEMPORARY STUDIES OF EMINENT CREATIVITY ARE POSSIBLE GIVEN THAT THE GATEKEEP ERS OF A FIELD MAY NOT ALLOW AN INDIVIDUAL TO CONTRIBUTE TO THEIR DOMAIN #SIK SZENTMIHALYI   4HERE ARE ALSO ISSUES ABOUT THE NATURE OF CONSENSUS -UST THE JUDGES UNANIMOUSLY AGREE TO THE CREATIVITY OF A PRODUCT OR IS THERE AN ACCEPT ABLE CUTOFF POINT -UST THESE CONSENSUAL JUDGMENTS BE VALID OVER TIME AND ACROSS CULTURES TO FULFILL THE BASIC CRITERIA 3IXTH THE RELATION OF CREATIVE ABILITIES AND DISPOSITIONS TO SPECIFIC DOMAINS EG ART OR SCIENCE IS HIGHLY ARGUABLE "AER  +AUFMAN  "AER  0LUCKER   0ERHAPS THE MOST FUNDAMENTAL QUALIFICATION FOR THE UNDERSTANDING OF THE CREATIV ITY CONSTRUCT INVOLVES THE DISTRIBUTION OF CREATIVITY THROUGHOUT THE GENERAL POPULATION 7HEN CREATIVITY IS ASSESSED PSYCHOMETRICALLY IE AS A COGNITIVE ABILITY OR A PERSON ALITY OR MOTIVATIONAL TRAIT OR WITH JUDGMENTS OF EVERYDAY PRODUCTS IT CONFORMS TO A NORMAL DISTRIBUTION A TRAIT 7HEN CREATIVITY IS ASSESSED IN TERMS OF REAL LIFE PRODUC TION OR EMINENCE THE DISTRIBUTION IS SKEWED TOWARD GREAT ACHIEVEMENT FROM A FEW CREATORS ,OTKA  -OLES  0RICE   4HIS DISCREPANCY MAY IN PART BE RESOLVABLE BY ADOPTING A MULTICOMPONENT OR SYNDROME APPROACH TO CREATIVITY 4HERE IS GROWING AGREEMENT AMONG RESEARCHERS WITH THE IDEA THAT CREATIVITY IN THE INDIVIDUAL RELIES ON MULTIPLE COMPONENTS !MABILE   ( * %YSENCK   'UILFORD  -UMFORD  'USTAFSON  7OODMAN  3CHOEN FELDT   4HESE COMPONENTS INCLUDE COGNITIVE ABILITY PERSONALITY FACTORS COGNITIVE STYLE MOTIVATION KNOWLEDGE AND THE ENVIRONMENT AS A SOURCE OF BOTH STIMULATION $ODDS 3MITH  7ARD  -OSS  AND EVALUATION #SIKSZENT MIHALYI    4HE INTERACTION BETWEEN THE COMPONENTS AND ENVIRONMENT NECESSARY FOR CREATIVE PERFORMANCE IN DIFFERENT DOMAINS IS COMPLEX 4HEREFORE EXAMINING CORRELATES OF TRAIT OR COGNITIVE ABILITY IN ISOLATION COULD BE MISLEADING AND PRODUCE UNREPLICABLE RESULTS 4HIS MAY BE SEEN AS THE MAJOR CAUSE OF EQUIVOCAL RESULTS IN THE FIELD (OWEVER AN OPTIMISTIC ASSESSMENT MAY SUGGEST THAT DESPITE THE COMPLEXITY AND NUMBER OF VARIABLES INVOLVED AGREEMENT AMONG THE STUDIES ON INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCE CORRELATES OF CREATIVITY IS SURPRISINGLY HIGH #ERTAIN COMPONENTS MAY OPERATE AS FACILITATORS IN CERTAIN DOMAINS BUT INHIBIT CREATIVITY IN OTHERS !N EXAMPLE IS THE PERSONALITY TRAIT NEUROTICISM . WHICH IS ELEVATED IN ARTISTIC POPULATIONS &EIST  'OTZ  'OTZ   3TILL SUCCESSFUL AND POSSIBLY CREATIVE MANAGERS AND LEADERS TEND TO BE EMOTIONALLY STABLE EG "ARRICK  -OUNT  3ALGADO   4HE "IG &IVE PERSONALITY DIMENSION OF CONSCIENTIOUSNESS # IS ANOTHER AND IT SEEMS TO CONTRIBUTE TO SCIENTIFIC EXCEL LENCE BUT DETRACT FROM ARTISTIC PERFORMANCE &EIST   "ATEY  &URNHAM 

&OR A LONG TIME PSYCHOMETRICIANS AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCE PSYCHOLOGISTS HAVE POSITED THAT MOST PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS CONFORM TO A NORMAL DISTRIBUTION 7HEN CREATIVITY IS CONSIDERED AS RESULTING FROM THE INTERACTION OF MULTIPLE INDI VIDUAL DIFFERENCE TRAITS EG INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT ;)1= PERSONALITY MOTIVATION $4 THEN IT IS NOT SURPRISING THAT RESEARCHERS USING A SINGLE STANDARDIZED MEASURE OF CREATIVITY EG $4 TESTS FIND THE PHENOMENON TO BE DISTRIBUTED NORMALLY (OWEVER THE SYNERGISTIC INTERACTION OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCE TRAITS ENVIRONMENT AND SOCIOCULTURAL MILIEU NECESSARY TO PRODUCE TRUE EMINENCE IS BY DEFINITION A RARE OCCURRENCE OFTEN LEADING TO A SKEWED DISTRIBUTION -OLES   )F !LBERT %INSTEIN HAD BEEN BORN TO 7OLFGANG !MADEUS -OZARTS PARENTS OR VICE VERSA WOULD HE HAVE ACHIEVED THE STATUS OF MUSICAL RATHER THAN SCIENTIFIC GENIUS 4O UNDERSTAND THE COMPLEX INTERACTION BETWEEN NATURE AND NURTURE IS PARTICULARLY PROBLEMATIC FOR THOSE STUDYING CREATIVITY ! SIMILAR ARGUMENT MAY BE MADE IN THE PSYCHOMETRIC FRAMEWORK #ONSIDER THE CHANCES THAT A SINGLE PARTICIPANT FROM A PSYCHOLOGICAL EXPERIMENTAL SAMPLE WOULD OBTAIN SCORES ON A LIMITED NUMBER OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCE MEASURES THAT CORRESPOND ED TO THE RECOMMENDED PROFILE FOR A CREATIVE ARTIST FOR EXAMPLE MODERATE TO HIGH )1 ( * %YSENCK  9AMAMOTO  HIGH $4 SCORES 'UILFORD  4OR RANCE  THE IDEAL CONSTELLATION OF PERSONALITY TRAITS HIGH . LOW EXTRAVERSION ;%= HIGH OPENNESS TO EXPERIENCE ;/= AND LOW # &EIST  'ELADE  INTRIN SIC MOTIVATION !MABILE   AND SELF CONFIDENCE OR SELF EFFICACY 4IERNEY  &ARMER   4HIS EXAMPLE DOES NOT INCLUDE OTHER FACTORS THAT MAY CONTRIBUTE TO REAL WORLD CREATIVE ACHIEVEMENT SUCH AS BIRTH ORDER AND DEVELOPMENTAL INFLUENCES GENERAL AND DOMAIN SPECIFIC KNOWLEDGE ACCESS TO RESOURCES THE AVAILABILITY OF A SUITABLE MENTOR THE OVERARCHING SOCIOCULTURAL MILIEU AND ALTHOUGH PSYCHOLOGISTS WOULD OFTEN NOT WANT IT SO LUCK OR HISTORICAL SERENDIPITY &OR PSYCHOMETRIC WORK TO PROCEED THE DEPENDENT VARIABLE REQUIRES UNEQUIV OCAL DEFINITION AND A RELIABLE AND VALID MEASURE !T THIS REQUIREMENT IS WHERE THE PROBLEMS FOR CREATIVITY RESEARCHERS ARISE !LTHOUGH THE NEW AND USEFUL DEFINITION IS WIDELY ACCEPTED RESEARCHERS MUST STILL CONSIDER SERIOUS QUALIFICATIONS UNLIKE RESEARCHERS IN PERSONALITY AND INTELLIGENCE WHO HAVE WELL ESTABLISHED AND VALI DATED CONSTRUCT AND CRITERION MEASURES (OWEVER RESEARCHERS MAY ARGUE THAT THE GRADUAL DEVELOPMENT OF RELATIVELY UNANIMOUS DEFINITIONS AND MEASURES FOR THE CONSTRUCTS OF INTELLIGENCE AND PERSONALITY HAS ARISEN AFTER AT LEAST A CENTURY OF RESEARCH ON INTELLIGENCE 3PEARMAN  AND  YEARS OF PSYCHOMETRIC RESEARCH ON PERSONALITY ( * %YSENCK   (OWEVER CREATIVITY RESEARCH HAS PROVEN TO BE SOMETHING OF A BACKWATER )T MAY BE CONTENDED THAT RARELY IN SCIENCE DO CONCEPTS AND CONSTRUCTS START WITH SOLID DEFINITIONAL FOUNDATIONS 2ATHER THROUGH RESEARCH AND OPERATIONALIZATION THE CONSTRUCTS SLOWLY ACQUIRE MEANING AND UNANIMITY )F THIS IS THE CASE THEN CREATIVITY RESEARCH MAY YET ATTAIN GREATER LEVELS OF AGREEMENT WITH REGARD TO DEFI NITION AND THEREFORE MEASUREMENT SEE THE !PPENDIX FOR SELECTED QUOTATIONS ON THE DEFINITION OF CREATIVITY   'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS

4HE #RITERION 0ROBLEM

#REATIVITY HAS BEEN CONCEPTUALIZED FROM A NUMBER OF PERSPECTIVES EG 2HODES   4HIS VARIETY HAS MEANT THAT THERE ARE VIRTUALLY AS MANY WAYS OF ASSESSING OR MEASURING THE CONSTRUCT AS THERE ARE PERSPECTIVES 4HERE FORE A SIGNIFICANT ISSUE IN CREATIVITY INVESTIGATIONS HAS INVOLVED THE SELECTION OF PARSIMONIOUS AND VALUED CRITERIA FOR CREATIVITY (OCEVAR AND "ACHELOR  AND ,UBART  HAVE PRESENTED A TAXONOMY OF THE MEASURES THAT WERE AVAILABLE TO THEM WHICH CONSISTED OF EIGHT CATEGORIES A $4 TESTS B ATTITUDES AND INTEREST INVENTORIES C PERSONALITY INVENTORIES D BIOGRAPHICAL INVENTORIES E RATINGS BY PEERS TEACHERS AND SUPERVISORS F JUDGMENTS OF PRODUCTS G RATINGS OF EMI NENCE AND H SELF REPORTED CREATIVE ACTIVITIES 3OME INVESTIGATORS HAVE GONE SO FAR AS TO SAY THAT CREATIVITY INVESTIGATIONS MUST BE RELATED TO A SPECIFIC TANGIBLE PRODUCT (OCEVAR  "ACHELOR  3TERNBERG ET AL  PRODUCED A THOUGHTFUL TAXONOMY OF CREATIVE PRODUCTS 4HEIR PROPULSION MODEL OF CREATIVE CONTRIBUTIONS PROPOSED THAT CREATIVITY PROPELS A FIELD FORWARD IN SOME WAY 4HEY HYPOTHESIZED THAT THERE ARE EIGHT TYPES OF CREATIVE CONTRIBUTION DIVIDED INTO THREE CATEGORIES 4HE THREE MAJOR CATEGORIES OF CREATIVE CONTRIBUTIONS ARE THOSE THAT A ACCEPT CURRENT PARADIGMS AND TRY TO EXTEND THEM B REJECT CURRENT PARADIGMS AND TRY TO REPLACE THEM AND C TRY TO SYNTHESIZE PARADIGMS 4HERE ARE A NUMBER OF ISSUES WITH THESE CRITERIA &IRST IF RESEARCHERS PRESUME THAT CREATIVITY INVOLVES A PRODUCT THAT POSSESSES NOVELTY AND UTILITY THEN WE PRE CLUDE A NUMBER OF TESTS AND POPULATIONS FROM INVESTIGATION 4ESTS OF $4 WOULD BE INADMISSIBLE AS EVIDENCE OF CREATIVITY BECAUSE THE IDEAS GENERATED DURING A TESTING ADMINISTRATION ARE USEFUL ONLY TO THE CREATIVITY RESEARCHER !BSTRACT RATINGS OF CREATIVE IDEAS IE WITHOUT SPECIFIC REFERENCE TO A PRODUCT WOULD NOT SUFFICE !LSO IF CREATIVITY INVOLVES THE GENERATION OF PRODUCTS THAT ARE GIVEN THE LABEL CRE ATIVE BY SOCIETY IN GENERAL EG #SIKSZENTMIHALYI  THEN RESEARCHERS COULD NOT INVESTIGATE POPULATIONS YET TO DEVELOP IE CHILDREN OR STUDENTS  -ANY OF THE CRITERION ISSUES MAY BE RESOLVED THROUGH CAREFUL CONSTRUCT AND CRITERION VALIDITY STUDIES )F A PUTATIVE TEST OF CREATIVITY HAS PROVEN TO CONSISTENTLY PREDICT WHO WILL PRODUCE NOVEL AND USEFUL PRODUCTS THEN THAT MEASURE MAY BE CALLED A TEST OF CREATIVITY EVEN WHEN USED LATER IN THE ABSENCE OF A PRODUCT  4HEREFORE IN THIS ARTICLE WE ASSERT THAT RESEARCHERS SHOULD REFER TO A PRODUCT DURING THE VALIDATION PROCESS OF A CREATIVITY INSTRUMENT /NCE THAT RELATION IS ESTABLISHED THE TEST MAY BE USED IN ISOLATION HAVING DEMONSTRATED PREDICTIVE OR CRITERION VALIDITY "ECAUSE OF THE MULTICOMPONENTIAL NATURE OF CREATIVITY IT SEEMS PRUDENT TO USE A NUMBER OF MEASURES TO ADEQUATELY ASSESS THE CONSTRUCT EG 7OLFRADT  0RETZ   "ECAUSE OF THE GENERALLY ACCEPTED NEW AND USEFUL DEFINITION OF CREATIVITY ONE MAY EXPECT RESEARCHERS TO USE MEASURES THAT CONSIDER BOTH NOVELTY AND UTIL ITY (OWEVER THIS HAS SELDOM BEEN THE CASE 4HE DIVERSITY OF INSTRUMENTS AND "ATEY  &URNHAM 

METHODS OF MEASUREMENT OF CREATIVITY USED THROUGHOUT THE LITERATURE HAS YIELDED PROBLEMS #AN RESEARCHERS COMPARE THE RESULTS OF A STUDY IN WHICH THE CRITERION FOR CREATIVITY WAS OUTSTANDING LIFETIME ACHIEVEMENT WITH THE RESULTS OF A STUDY IN WHICH THE CRITERION WAS A WORD FLUENCY TEST )N TRUTH AND PRACTICE THE ANSWER HAS OFTEN BEEN YES $ESPITE THIS INAPPROPRIATE MIXING AND MATCHING THERE HAS BEEN A SURPRISING DEGREE OF CONVERGENCE IN THE RESULTS

#REATIVITY AND )NTELLIGENCE

!LTHOUGH SOME RESEARCHERS ARGUE THAT THERE REMAINS NO GOOD OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF INTELLIGENCE EXCELLENT TESTS OF THIS ABSTRACT CONCEPT OR LATENT VARIABLE EXIST ,UBINSKI   ! FUNDAMENTAL QUESTION IN CREATIVITY RESEARCH HAS BEEN 4O WHAT EXTENT MAY CREATIVITY BE DELINEATED FROM INTELLIGENCE 2ESEARCHERS HAVE LONG QUESTIONED WHETHER IT IS POSSIBLE TO BE CREATIVE IN THE ABSENCE OF HIGH INTEL LIGENCE AND VICE VERSA ! CONSIDERABLE OBSTACLE IN RESOLVING THIS ISSUE CONCERNS HOW INTELLIGENCE AND CREATIVITY RESEARCHERS REFER TO EACH OTHERS CONCEPTS &EIST  "ARRON  3NYDERMAN  2OTHMAN   &OR EXAMPLE 3PEARMAN  EQUATED INTELLIGENCE WITH REFERENCE TO HIS NEOGENETIC LAWSˆCREATING SOMETHING NEW 4HERE ARE CLEAR PARALLELS WITH THE NEW AND USEFUL DEFINITION OF CREATIVITY 7E HAVE DEMONSTRATED THAT CREATIVITY LACKS A SOLID DEFINITIONAL FOUNDATION 5NFORTUNATELY ALTHOUGH INTELLIGENCE RESEARCH HAS BEGUN TO CONVERGE ON A SERIES OF PRINCIPLES EG .EISSER ET AL  DEFINITIONS OF INTELLIGENCE STILL RANGE FROM A NEURAL EFFICIENCY PERSPECTIVE *ENSEN  TO THE ABILITY TO ADAPT THE SELF TO THE ENVIRONMENT 3TERNBERG   $EFINITIONAL PROBLEMS HAVE NOT PREVENTED INTELLIGENCE RESEARCHERS FROM DEVELOPING SOME OF THE BEST PSYCHOMETRIC MEA SURES IN ALL OF PSYCHOLOGY $EARY  

%ARLY 2ESEARCH

4HE EARLIEST RESEARCHERS STUDYING THE RELATION BETWEEN CREATIVITY AND INTEL LIGENCE USED RUDIMENTARY DEFINITIONS OF THE CREATIVITY CONSTRUCT WHICH THEN WERE RELATED TO RATINGS OF INTELLIGENCE OR )1 TESTS OF THE DAY $EARBORN  STUDIED THE IMAGINATIVE RESPONSES OF STUDENTS AND FACULTY AT (ARVARD TO INKBLOTS NOTING THAT INTELLECTUALS DID NOT PROVIDE THE MOST IMAGINATIVE RESPONSES #OLVIN  AND #OLVIN AND -EYER  STUDIED INVENTIVENESS IN %NGLISH CHILDREN AND CON CLUDED THAT hLOGICAL POWERv BORE hNO PRONOUNCED RELATION TO ANY TYPE OF IMAGI NATIONv P   #HASSEL  STUDIED A NUMBER OF TESTS SOME BEING SIMILAR TO MODERN TESTS OF )1 REQUIRING UNUSUAL AND ORIGINAL RESPONSES TO NOVEL SITUATIONS 3HE FOUND THAT PERFORMANCE ON THE )1 TASKS BORE LITTLE RELATION TO PERFORMANCE ON THE TASKS SIMILAR TO MODERN $4 TESTS !N EARLY CHALLENGE TO THE SUPPOSITION THAT )1 TESTS ARE A COMPREHENSIVE MEASURE OF HUMAN COGNITIVE FUNCTION CAME FROM 3IMPSON   (E ARGUED THAT hCREATIVE TESTSv SHOULD BE USED IN CONJUNCTION WITH TESTS OF GENERAL INTELLIGENCE  'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS

TO PROVIDE hA MORE ACCURATE STATEMENT OF THE WORTH OF THE INDIVIDUALv P  INDICATING THAT HE SAW THE TWO AREAS AS ORTHOGONAL !NDREWS  ADMINISTERED THREE TESTS OF IMAGINATION AND )1 TESTS TO PRESCHOOL CHILDREN AND FOUND CORRELA TIONS BETWEEN SCORES OF IMAGINATION AND )1 OF R    AND  -C#LOY AND -EIER  GAVE hRE CREATIVE IMAGINATIONv P  TESTS TO SCHOOLCHILDREN 0ARTICIPANTS RESPONDED TO SYMBOLISM IN ABSTRACT PAINTINGS 4HE QUALITY OF THEIR RESPONSES CORRELATED WITH )1 AT R   4HE EARLY INVESTIGATIONS INTO THE RELATION BETWEEN CREATIVITY AND INTELLIGENCE SUGGESTED THAT THE TWO CONCEPTS ARE NOT THE SAME 4HE MOST INTELLIGENT INDIVIDUALS WERE NOT FOUND TO BE THE MOST CREATIVE AND CORRELATIONS BETWEEN CREATIVITY AND )1 WERE FAIRLY LOW NEVER EXCEEDING R   BUT THEY WERE MORE OFTEN ABOUT R   4HAT FINDING INDICATES THAT LESS THAN  OF THE VARIANCE IN CREATIVITY SCORES CAN BE EXPLAINED BY )1 (OWEVER INCONSISTENT DEFINITIONS OF BOTH CREATIVITY AND INTEL LIGENCE AND THE FAIRLY PRIMITIVE PSYCHOMETRIC INSTRUMENTS INVOLVED IN THE STUDIES SUGGEST THAT MAKING UNEQUIVOCAL CONCLUSIONS IS UNWISE #REATIVITY IMAGINATION AND INVENTIVENESS WERE FOUND TO BEAR LITTLE RELATION TO INTELLIGENCE /F COURSE MANY OF THESE EARLY STUDIES WERE PLAGUED BY THE TRADITIONAL PROBLEMS OF THE DAY THE DESIGN OF THE )1 TESTS SMALL SAMPLE SIZES AND STATISTICAL ANALYSES !LTHOUGH WE MAY NOT INFER MUCH THEORETICALLY THESE EARLY STUDIES ARE IMPORTANT BECAUSE THEY REFLECTED THE THINKING AT THE TIME AND HAVE INFLUENCED SUBSEQUENT RESEARCH )N THE PERIOD BETWEEN THE TWO 7ORLD 7ARS 4ERMAN n USED THE THEN RECENTLY VALIDATED 3TANFORD "INET )1 TEST TO IDENTIFY CHILDREN WHOSE )1 SCORES WERE GREATER THAN  4ERMAN ADMINISTERED A BATTERY OF INTELLIGENCE BIOMETRICAL PERSONALITY AND ACHIEVEMENT TESTS TO A SAMPLE OF   #ALIFORNIAN SCHOOLCHILDREN FROM AN INITIAL SAMPLE OF    4HE MOST IMPORTANT FINDING FROM THE STUDY OF THE GIFTED CHILDREN WAS THAT SUPERIOR INTELLECT DID NOT NECESSAR ILY RESULT IN EMINENT ACHIEVEMENT /F THE   CHILDREN NOT ONE WENT ON TO MAKE AN EMINENT CREATIVE CONTRIBUTION BY THE RESEARCHERS DEFINITION /F THE CHILDREN EXCLUDED FROM THE STUDY TWO WERE AWARDED .OBEL PRIZES )N A SUMMARY OF THE STUDIES 4ERMAN AND /DEN  ARGUED h4HE DATA REVIEWED INDICATE THAT ABOVE THE )1 LEVEL OF  ADULT SUCCESS IS LARGELY DE TERMINED BY SUCH FACTORS AS SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT EMOTIONAL STABILITY AND DRIVE TO ACCOMPLISHv PP n  )N A LATER STUDY WHEN THE 4ERMITES IE PARTICIPANTS IN 4ERMANS STUDIES OF GENIUS HAD REACHED THEIR S &ELDMAN  FOUND THAT THOSE OF THE VERY HIGHEST )1 SCORES  WERE NOT SIGNIFICANTLY MORE SUCCESSFUL THAN THOSE OTHER 4ERMAN n PARTICIPANTS WHO HAD )1S AROUND  4HE WORK OF EARLY PIONEERS MANY OF WHOM LIKE 4ERMAN HAD ASSUMED THAT )1 WOULD CORRELATE STRONGLY WITH CREATIVITY INDICATED THE OPPOSITE TO BE TRUE )1 COULD EX PLAIN A LITTLE OF THE VARIANCE OF THE CREATIVITY COMPLEX BUT OTHER FACTORS APPEARED TO BE IMPORTANT &URTHER IN TERMS OF ACHIEVEMENT EXTREMELY HIGH INTELLIGENCE APPEARED TO CONFER NO ADVANTAGE OVER HIGH INTELLIGENCE 5P TO  THE )1 TESTS USED IN CREATIVITY RESEARCH WERE PRIMARILY BASED ON EARLY VERSIONS OF THE 3TANFORD "INET 4ESTS 4ERMAN   4HERE ARE NUMEROUS "ATEY  &URNHAM 

CRITICISMS OF THESE TESTS -ACKINTOSH  BUT THEIR PRIMARY LIMITING FACTORS WITH REGARD TO CREATIVITY INVESTIGATIONS WERE THAT A THEY YIELDED A SINGLE SCORE WHICH WAS THOUGHT TO CORRESPOND TO G OR GENERAL INTELLIGENCE AND B THEY WERE NOT CULTURE FREE #ATTELL   ,ATER STUDIES INDICATED THAT EMINENT SCIENTISTS DIFFERED IN THEIR PARTICULAR CONSTELLATION OF ABILITY TRAITS WITH VARIATIONS IN VER BAL MATHEMATICAL AND SPATIAL INTELLIGENCE DIFFERENTIATING PHYSICISTS BIOLOGISTS AND SOCIAL SCIENTISTS 2OE A B   4HUS VERBAL ABILITY MAY BE MORE CLOSELY RELATED TO ARTISTIC CREATIVITY AND TESTS OF MATHEMATICAL REASONING MAY BE MORE RELATED TO SCIENTIFIC CREATIVITY -ORE RECENT ABILITY BATTERIES OFTEN DISTINGUISH BETWEEN VERBAL AND PERFORMANCE MEASURES WHICH MAY RELATE QUITE DIFFERENTLY TO CREATIVITY TEST SCORES

'UILFORDS $4

4HE STARTING POINT FOR MODERN INVESTIGATIONS OF CREATIVITY CONCERNED INVESTI GATIONS OF FLUENCY AS A COMPONENT OF INTELLECTUAL ABILITY ( , (ARGREAVES  4HURSTONE   ( , (ARGREAVES ADMINISTERED A BATTERY OF FLUENCY F TESTS FINDING AVERAGE CORRELATIONS WITH )1 OF R   4HIS FINDING INDICATES THAT FLU ENCY IS RELATED BUT NOT IDENTICAL TO G 'UILFORD   EXPANDED THIS AVENUE OF RESEARCH TO PRODUCE $4 TESTS $4 TESTS hREQUIRE INDIVIDUALS TO PRODUCE SEVERAL RESPONSES TO A SPECIFIC PROMPT IN SHARP CONTRAST TO MOST STANDARDISED TESTS OF ACHIEVEMENT OR ABILITY THAT REQUIRE ONE CORRECT ANSWERv 0LUCKER  2ENZULLI  P   &LUENCY IS PREDOMINANTLY A QUANTITATIVE MEASURE RATHER THAN A QUALITATIVE ONE -UCH OF 'UILFORDS EG   WORK RELIED ON SIMPLE QUANTITATIVE COUNTS OF IDEAS RATHER THAN CONSIDERING THE QUALITY EG UNUSUALNESS QUIRKINESS OF RESPONSE AS DETERMINED BY A PANEL OF RATERS )F BOTH MEASURES ARE USED A MORE COMPREHENSIVE ASSESSMENT RESULTS 3OME OF THE CONTRADICTORY AND CONFUSING RE SULTS IN THIS AREA MAY BE ATTRIBUTABLE TO THE WAY IN WHICH FLUENCY IS MEASURED 'UILFORD WAS ONE OF THE FIRST RESEARCHERS TO DEVELOP A TAXONOMY OF HUMAN ABILITIES THAT MADE CREATIVE THINKING RELATABLE TO INTELLIGENCE 'UILFORDS  STRUCTURE OF INTELLECT 3/) MODEL POSTULATED THREE FUNDAMENTAL DIMENSIONS OF INTELLIGENCE A OPERATIONS COGNITION MEMORY DIVERGENT PRODUCTION CON VERGENT PRODUCTION EVALUATION B CONTENT FIGURAL SYMBOLIC SEMANTIC BE HAVIORAL AND C PRODUCTS UNITS CLASSES RELATIONS SYSTEMS TRANSFORMATIONS IMPLICATIONS  4HESE DIMENSIONS ARE REPRESENTED AS A CUBE 7HEN THE  OPERA TIONS  CONTENTS AND  PRODUCTS ARE CROSSED THE MODEL YIELDS  FACTORS )N EVERYDAY TERMS THIS MADE THE 3/) MODEL UNSUITABLE FOR APPLIED WORK EG TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT BUT IT ENABLED SPECIFIC COMPONENTS OF COGNITION TO BE RELATED TO CREATIVITY 'UILFORD AND ASSOCIATES 7ILSON 'UILFORD #HRISTENSEN  ,EWIS  ORIGINALLY POSTULATED  INTELLECTUAL ABILITIES RELATED TO CREATIVE THINKING 4HESE INCLUDED A FLUENCY OF THINKING CONSISTING OF WORD IDEATIONAL EXPRESSIONAL AND ASSOCIATIONAL FLUENCY B FLEXIBILITY OF THINKING CONSISTING  'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS

OF SPONTANEOUS AND ADAPTIVE FLEXIBILITY C ORIGINALITY D SENSITIVITY TO PROB LEMS AND E FIGURAL AND SEMANTIC ELABORATION IE EMBELLISHMENT PICTORIALLY OR VERBALLY  #OLLECTIVELY THESE FACTORS WERE CALLED DIVERGENT THINKING 3TARTING WITH 7ILSON 'UILFORD #HRISTENSEN AND ,EWIS  WHO TESTED !IR &ORCE CADETS AND STUDENT OFFICERS A SERIES OF STUDIES CULMINATING IN 'UILFORD AND (OEPFNER  ISOLATED MOST OF THE $4 FACTORS IN NORMAL POPULATIONS )T APPEARED THAT 'UILFORD AND HIS COINVESTIGATORS HAD BEEN ABLE TO DISTINGUISH AND MEASURE DIFFERENT COMPONENTS OF $4 4HE NEXT STAGE WAS TO INVESTIGATE THE RELATION OF THESE $4 FACTORS TO CREATIV ITY 'UILFORDIAN $4 TESTS WERE ADMINISTERED TO THREE MAIN POPULATIONS STUDENTS OCCUPATIONAL SAMPLES AND EMINENT PEOPLE ,OWENFELD AND "EITTEL  EXAM INED HIGHLY CREATIVE ART STUDENTS AND FOUND EVIDENCE FOR THE ROLE OF FIVE DISTINCT ATTRIBUTES FLUENCY FLEXIBILITY REDEFINITION SENSITIVITY TO PROBLEMS AND ORIGINAL ITY SEEMINGLY SUPPORTING 'UILFORDS  MODEL $REVDAHL  STUDIED ART AND SCIENCE STUDENTS AND FOUND RATINGS OF CREATIVITY CORRELATED WITH 'UILFORDS $4 TESTS TO THE MAGNITUDE OF R   4ESTS OF $4 SIMILAR TO THOSE USED BY 'UIL FORD WERE ADMINISTERED TO HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS AND THEN RELATED TO TEACHER RATINGS OF CREATIVITY -ERRIFIELD 'ARDNER  #OX  0IERS $ANIELS  1UAKENBUSH  4ORRANCE   4HE CORRELATIONS WERE POSITIVE BUT LOW GENERALLY IN THE ORDER OF R   )N A TEST OF A LARGE SAMPLE OF FIFTH GRADE SCHOOLCHILDREN ,AURIT ZEN  FOUND THAT A SCORE FOR ORIGINALITY PREDICTED TEACHER RATINGS OF ORIGINAL ITY WITH A CORRELATION OF R   4HE RESULTS OF THESE STUDIES REVIEWED BY "ARRON  (ARRINGTON  SEEMED TO INDICATE THAT $4 AND CREATIVITY IN STUDENT SAMPLES ARE RELATED #ORRELATIONS WERE USUALLY R   2ESEARCHERS HAVE ALSO STUDIED ADULT NONSTUDENT GROUPS )N A STUDY OF  !IR &ORCE CAPTAINS "ARRON  FOUND CORRELATIONS BETWEEN THREE $4 TESTS UNUSUAL USES PLOT TITLES AND CONSEQUENCES AND RATED ORIGINALITY 4HE TESTS COR RELATED BY R    AND  RESPECTIVELY WITH RATED ORIGINALITY "ARRON  REPORTED A POSITIVE CORRELATION OF R   BETWEEN RATED ORIGINALITY AND AN AG GREGATE $4 SCORE FROM EIGHT DIFFERENT $4 TESTS IN THE SAME SAMPLE OF !IR &ORCE OFFICERS 7ALLACE  USED THE $4 TESTS WITH SALESWOMEN 4HE KEY FINDING WAS THAT THE SALESWOMEN ASSIGNED TO THE GROUP OF HIGH CUSTOMER SERVICE OBTAINED SIG NIFICANTLY HIGHER MEAN SCORES ON THE $4 TESTS THAN DID THE SALESWOMEN ASSIGNED TO THE GROUP OF LOW CUSTOMER SERVICE 4HEREFORE 7ALLACE DEMONSTRATED THAT $4 RELATED TO PROBLEM SOLVING FOR CUSTOMERS %LLIOT  ALSO FOUND THAT CREATIVE PUBLIC RELATIONS PERSONNEL COULD BE DIFFERENTIATED FROM THEIR LESS CREATIVE PEERS ON THE BASIS OF FIVE OF EIGHT 'UILFORD TYPE TESTS 4HE RESULTS OF THE STUDIES OF OCCU PATIONAL GROUPS AUGMENT THE RESULTS OF THE STUDIES OF STUDENT GROUPS #REATIVITY EXPLAINING n OF THE VARIANCE IN CREATIVITY SCORES COULD DEFINITELY BE SAID TO CONTRIBUTE TO REAL WORLD CREATIVE PERFORMANCE NO MATTER HOW IT WAS DEFINED (OWEVER THE RESULTS OF THE EMINENCE STUDIES CAUSED CONFUSION RATHER THAN CONSOLIDATION 7HEN THE $4 TESTS WERE ADMINISTERED TO EMINENT POPULATIONS IE THOSE WHO HAD SUCCEEDED ALREADY IN THEIR OCCUPATIONS THE VALIDITY OF THE TESTS "ATEY  &URNHAM 

SEEMED TENUOUS -AC+INNON  FOUND THAT ARCHITECTS WHO WERE CREATIVE PER THEIR PEERS COULD NOT BE IDENTIFIED ON THE BASIS OF THEIR $4 SCORES 'OUGH  NOTED SIMILAR FINDINGS FOR RESEARCH SCIENTISTS 2ATED CREATIVITY CORRELATED WITH 'UILFORDS  UNUSUAL USES CONSEQUENCES AND TRANSFORMATIONS AT R  n n AND  RESPECTIVELY 7E NOTE THAT THESE SAMPLES CONTAINED ONLY AP PROXIMATELY  PARTICIPANTS 4HE RESULTS OF THE $4 INVESTIGATIONS SUGGEST THAT $4 SKILLS CONTRIBUTE TO CRE ATIVITY IN STUDENTS AND IN OCCUPATIONAL GROUPS BUT DO NOT DIFFERENTIATE HIGHLY CRE ATIVE INDIVIDUALS 4HIS POSSIBILITY INDICATES THAT $4 SKILLS ARE PART OF CREATIVITY AS A NORMALLY DISTRIBUTED TRAIT BUT DO NOT HELP TO EXPLAIN THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MODERATELY AND HIGHLY CREATIVE INDIVIDUALS 4HUS CREATIVE INDIVIDUALS POSSESS $4 SKILLS BUT WE MUST LOOK FOR OTHER FACTORS TO EXPLAIN THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE EVERYDAY CREATIVE INDIVIDUAL AND THE EMINENT ACHIEVER )T SEEMS THAT $4 IS A NECESSARY BUT INSUFFICIENT TRAIT FOR ACHIEVEMENT CREATIV ITY )N NORMAL INDIVIDUALS FLUENCY ADDS TO PERCEPTIONS OF CREATIVITY BY OTHER PEO PLE (OWEVER EMINENT SAMPLES ARE A HIGHLY SELECT POPULATION WHO MUST POSSESS CERTAIN ABILITIES OVER AND ABOVE FLUENT $4 TO ACHIEVE SUCCESS 4HIS DISCREPANCY MAY BE PARTLY RESOLVED BY LOOKING TO QUALITY RATHER THAN QUANTITY OF RESPONSES TO TRADITIONAL $4 TESTS 2ESEARCHERS HAVE MADE VARIOUS CRITICISMS OF 'UILFORDS  WORK 'UILFORD ASSUMED THAT THE DIFFERENT FACTORS THAT COMPOSE THE 3/) MODEL WERE ORTHOGONAL 4HEREFORE HE USED ORTHOGONAL AS OPPOSED TO OBLIQUE ROTATION PROCEDURES TO ISOLATE THE DIFFERENT FACTORS (OWEVER CRITICS HAVE FUNDAMENTALLY DISAGREED WITH THESE FAC TORIAL STATISTICAL PROCEDURES #ATTELL  (ORN  +NAPP  3TERNBERG  'RI GORENKO   )F THESE CRITICS ARE CREDIBLE 'UILFORDS 3/) MODEL IS PROBLEMATIC )N APPLIED TERMS EVEN IF THE ROTATIONAL ANALYSES BY 'UILFORD IN HIS NUMEROUS STUDIES WERE UNACCEPTABLE THE FACTORS THAT 'UILFORD ISOLATED APPEAR TO EXPLAIN SOME OF THE VARIANCE OF RATED CREATIVITY SCORES IN NONEMINENT SAMPLES 'UILFORD TREATED CREATIVITY AS A SUBSET OF OVERALL INTELLIGENCE WITH $4 AS ONE OF THE INTEL LECTUAL FACTORS THAT CONSTITUTED THE STRUCTURE OF INTELLECT /THER RESEARCHERS BEGAN TO QUESTION THAT IDEA AND SUGGESTED THAT THERE SHOULD BE A CLEAR DISTINCTION BE TWEEN THE TRADITIONAL CONCEPT AND MEASUREMENT OF INTELLIGENCE AND CREATIVITY AS IDENTIFIED BY 'UILFORD

$4 AS A #RITERION OF #REATIVITY

5NTIL AROUND THE MID S $4 WAS SEEN AS A COGNITIVE ABILITY THAT WAS NEC ESSARY BUT INSUFFICIENT FOR CREATIVE ACHIEVEMENT 'UILFORD   4HE NEXT WAVE OF RESEARCHERS STARTED TO USE VARIOUS OTHER CREATIVITY TESTS (OWEVER THESE CREATIV ITY TESTS WERE PRACTICALLY IDENTICAL TO THOSE USED BY 'UILFORD TO MEASURE $4 )N AN EARLY SYSTEMATIC AND CELEBRATED STUDY 'ETZELS AND *ACKSON  AD MINISTERED FIVE CREATIVITY MEASURES TO APPROXIMATELY  SCHOOLCHILDREN WHICH THOSE RESEARCHERS THEN CORRELATED WITH TESTS OF )1 PREDOMINANTLY 3TANFORD "INET   'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS

4HEIR MAIN AIM WAS TO IDENTIFY TWO TYPES OF STUDENTS AND TO EXAMINE THE DIFFER ENCES BETWEEN THEM 4HE FIRST GROUP COMPRISED THOSE CHILDREN WHO HAD HIGH )1 SCORES AND LOW CREATIVITY SCORES THE HIGH )1 GROUP  4HE SECOND GROUP COMPRISED CHILDREN WHO HAD LOW )1 SCORES AND HIGH CREATIVITY SCORES THE HIGH # GROUP  7E NOTE THE FOLLOWING ABOUT THE STUDY BY 'ETZELS AND *ACKSON   A 4HE MEAN )1 OF THE STUDENTS TESTED WAS  B 4HE AUTHORS WISHED TO COMPARE HIGH )1 BUT LOW CREATIVITY WITH HIGH CREATIVITY BUT LOW )1  4HIS MEANT THAT CHILDREN WHO SCORED HIGH OR LOW ON BOTH TESTS WERE EXCLUDED FROM THE FINAL ANALYSIS C 4HE AUTHORS DID NOT REPORT MANY OF THE INTERCORRELATIONS BETWEEN MEASURES SO IT IS DIFFICULT TO ASCERTAIN THE PATTERN OF RESULTS D 4HE TESTS WERE ADMINISTERED IN A CLASSROOM SETTING IN A MANNER SIMILAR TO THAT OF )1 TESTS WHICH MAY HAVE INHIB ITED STUDENTS CREATIVE EXPRESSION 4HE AVERAGE CORRELATION BETWEEN THE CREATIVITY MEASURES AND )1 WAS IN THE ORDER OF R   7HEN COMPARING THE HIGH )1 GROUP - )1   WITH THE HIGH # GROUP - )1   'ETZELS AND *ACKSON FOUND NO DIFFERENCES IN THE SCORES OF SCHOOL ACHIEVEMENT OR ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVE 4HE MOST STRIKING DIFFERENCES WERE OBSERVED IN THE ATTITUDES OF THE TWO GROUPS WITH THE HIGH # GROUP RATED AS MORE UNCONVENTIONAL &OLLOWING THE STUDY BY 'ETZELS AND *ACKSON  7ALLACH AND +OGAN  CONDUCTED AN INVESTIGATION INTO )1 AND $4 WITH AN AIM TO CORRECT SOME OF THE ERRORS THAT THEY PERCEIVED AS ENCUMBERING 'ETZELS AND *ACKSONS INVES TIGATION 7ALLACH AND +OGANS STUDY OF SCHOOLCHILDREN WAS CAREFUL TO INDUCE A GAME LIKE QUALITY TO THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE $4 CREATIVITY MEASURES 4HEY USED FIVE CREATIVITY MEASURES NOT DISSIMILAR TO THE 'UILFORD TESTS EACH SCORED FOR UNIQUENESS AND PRODUCTIVITY TO YIELD  SCORES FOR CREATIVITY 4HEY USED  DIFFERENT TESTS OF INTELLIGENCE TO ASSESS )1 4HE TESTS WERE ADMINISTERED TO THE CHILDREN INDIVIDUALLY 4HE AVERAGE CORRELATION AMONG THE  $4 SCORES WAS R   AND THE AVERAGE CORRELATION AMONG THE  )1 MEASURES WAS R   WHEREAS THE AVERAGE CORRELATION BETWEEN THE CREATIVITY AND INTELLIGENCE SCORES WAS R   7ALLACH AND +OGAN NOTED THAT THIS FINDING WAS ESPECIALLY SURPRISING BECAUSE THE CREATIVITY MEASURES RELIED IN PART ON VERBAL INTELLECTUAL SKILLS #ROPLEY  USED THE SAME TESTS AS 7ALLACH AND +OGAN  AND REPLI CATED THEIR FINDINGS IN A GROUP ADMINISTRATION SETTING 4HESE FINDINGS SUGGESTED THAT CREATIVITY AS OPERATIONALIZED IN $4 TESTS AND INTELLIGENCE ARE ESSENTIALLY INDEPENDENT CONCEPTS /F COURSE THIS RAISES THE IMPORTANT QUESTION OF WHAT COR RELATION SIZE INDICATES THAT TWO CONSTRUCTS ARE SYSTEMATICALLY RELATED 4HE STUDIES ALSO INDICATED THAT THE PRIOR EXPERIMENTS INTO THE RELATION BETWEEN CREATIVITY AND INTELLIGENCE MAY HAVE BEEN FLAWED "EFORE 7ALLACH AND +OGANS  STUDY RESEARCHERS CONDUCTED CREATIVITY ASSESSMENTS IN EXAMINATION LIKE CONDITIONS SIMILAR TO THE CONDITIONS IN WHICH )1 TESTS ARE ADMINISTERED 4HEY CON CLUDED THAT THE INABILITY TO PRODUCE AN ENVIRONMENT CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVITY LED TO POOR CONVERGENT AND DISCRIMINANT VALIDITY OF CREATIVITY TESTS 4HIS REFLECTS THE SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGICAL CONCERN WITH SITUATIONAL VARIABLES THAT INFLUENCE THE CREATIVITY PROCESS 4HUS IT MAY BE ARGUED THAT THE TESTING SITUATION INFLUENCES "ATEY  &URNHAM 

MOOD WHICH INFLUENCES THE CREATIVITY PROCESS +AUFMANN   (OWEVER THE CRITICISMS OF 'ETZELS AND *ACKSONS  STUDY BECAUSE OF THEIR USE OF $4 TESTS AS A CRITERION ARE JUST AS RELEVANT TO THE 7ALLACH AND +OGAN INVESTIGATIONS ! REVIEW OF THE EVIDENCE OF THE IMPORTANCE OF GAME LIKE CONDITIONS HAS INDICATED THAT THERE ARE NO DIFFERENCES IN THE CORRELATIONS BETWEEN CREATIVITY AND INTELLIGENCE RELATING TO THE CONDITIONS OF MEASUREMENT (ATTIE   (ATTIE  ADMINISTERED FIVE $4 TESTS AND A MEASURE OF )1 TO  YEAR OLD STUDENTS UNDER BOTH UNTIMED GAME LIKE CONDITIONS AND TIMED TEST LIKE CONDITIONS 4HE AVERAGE CORRELATION AMONG THE CREATIVITY VARIABLES WAS R   AND THE AVERAGE CORRELATION BETWEEN THE CREATIVITY AND INTELLIGENCE MEASURES WAS R   4HE RE SULTS OF THESE TWO STUDIES INDICATE THAT THE SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ENVIRONMENT MAY NOT MATTER AS MUCH AS 7ALLACH AND +OGAN  ASSERTED AND THAT $4 PERFORMANCE MAY BE MORE TRAIT LIKE THAN STATE LIKE (OWEVER THIS FINDING REQUIRES REPLICATION WITH A WIDER VARIETY OF TESTING SITUATIONS AND PAR TICIPANTS !LSO IT IS NECESSARY TO ASCERTAIN THROUGH STANDARD MANIPULATION CHECK METHODS THE SUBJECTIVE PERCEPTION OF THESE DIFFERENT ENVIRONMENTS 4HIS LINE OF RESEARCH LARGELY HAS NOT BEEN FOLLOWED ADEQUATELY PARTLY BECAUSE IT RELATES TO THE STATEnTRAIT DISTINCTION SUGGESTING THAT ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS MAY INDUCE MOOD STATES THAT INFLUENCE TRAIT MEASURES 4ORRANCE  A WELL KNOWN RESEARCHER IN THE FIELD CONDUCTED AN EARLY META ANALYSIS OF  CORRELATIONS BETWEEN INTELLIGENCE MEASURES AND THE 4OR RANCE 4ESTS OF #REATIVE 4HINKING 44#4 4ORRANCE    4ORRANCE  "ALL   4ORRANCE  FOUND A MEDIAN CORRELATION BETWEEN THE VERBAL $4 TESTS AND )1 OF R   AND A MEDIAN CORRELATION OF R   FOR THE FIGURAL $4 TESTS 'UILFORD  REPORTED AVERAGE CORRELATIONS WITH )1 MEASURES OF R   FOR VERBAL $4 TESTS R   FOR SYMBOLIC $4 TESTS AND R   FOR SEMANTIC $4 TESTS 3UBSEQUENT STUDIES IN THE AREA CONTINUED TO YIELD SIMILAR RESULTS 7ADE  STUDIED TH GRADE STUDENTS FROM SELECTIVE SCHOOLS 3HE REPORTED A CORRE LATION BETWEEN )1 AND CREATIVITY MEASURED USING 'UILFORD $4 TESTS OF R   ! COMBINATION OF INTELLIGENCE AND CREATIVITY WAS ABLE TO EXPLAIN TWICE THE VARIANCE IN SCORES OF ACHIEVEMENT THAN INTELLIGENCE ALONE 4HESE RESULTS INDICATE THAT $4 SKILLS AND INTELLIGENCE INDEPENDENTLY WORK TO AFFECT ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT BUT THIS DOES NOT MAKE THEM CRITERIA OF CREATIVITY )N A LARGE STUDY 2ICHARDS  ADMINISTERED ELEMENTS OF BOTH 'UILFORDS  AND 7ALLACH AND +OGANS  $4 TESTS TO ALMOST  NAVAL OFFICERS $ATA WERE AVAILABLE FOR THREE TYPES OF )1 TEST 4HE MEAN CORRELATION BETWEEN THE BATTERY OF CREATIVITY TESTS AND )1 TESTS WAS R   4HE CORRELATION BETWEEN THE DIFFERENT MEASURES OF CREATIVITY WAS R   4HESE RESULTS ARE NOT SURPRISING 'UILFORD EG  ORIGINALLY DESIGNED THE TESTS OF $4 AS MEASURES OF A SUBSET OF INTELLIGENCE 4HEREFORE CORRELATIONS BETWEEN $4 AND )1 IN THE ORDER OF R   TO R   ARE TO BE EXPECTED IRRESPECTIVE OF THE NATURE OF THE )1 OR $4 TEST USED !S WE SUGGESTED EARLIER IN THIS ARTICLE ONE OF THE PRINCIPAL PROBLEMS WITH RE SEARCH ON THE RELATION BETWEEN CREATIVITY AND INTELLIGENCE HAS BEEN THE CONFUSION  'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS

ABOUT THE CHOICE OF A CRITERION AND THUS A MEASURE OF CREATIVITY 4HE EXPERIMENTS CONDUCTED USING $4 TESTS AS A MEASURE OF CREATIVITY EG #ROPLEY  'ETZELS  *ACKSON  7ALLACH  +OGAN  HAVE BEEN CRITICIZED !MABILE  (UDSON  ,UBART   #RITICS HAVE SUGGESTED THAT $4 TESTS MEASURE AS PECTS OF CREATIVE INTELLIGENCE BUT THAT THEY CANNOT ALSO BE STAND ALONE MEASURES OF CREATIVITY 4HIS IS ESPECIALLY TRUE IF CREATIVITY INVOLVES THE PRODUCTION OF SOCIALLY VALUABLE PRODUCTS 0ROBABLY BECAUSE $4 TESTS ARE RELATIVELY EASY TO ADMINISTER AND SCORE GREAT ATTENTION HAS BEEN PLACED ON THEM (OWEVER QUESTIONS ABOUT THE RELIABILITY OF THESE MEASURES REMAIN ESPECIALLY BECAUSE VERBAL AND FIGURAL VERSIONS OF THE TEST ARE NOT RELATED SIGNIFICANTLY #ARROLL   'ILHOOLY 7YNN AND /SMAN  HAVE RAISED QUESTIONS ABOUT THE VALIDITY OF $4 TESTS AS CRITERIA FOR CREATIVITY 4HEY SUGGESTED THAT PARTICIPANTS INVOLVED IN A $4 TEST MAY RELY ON MEMORY MORE THAN THEY RELY ON THE GENERATION OF NOVEL CONCEPTS 4HE STUDIES INDICATED THAT $4 TESTS AND ESPECIALLY $4 TESTS THAT ARE AD MINISTERED OVER SHORT PERIODS OF TIME ARE LARGELY MEASURES OF LONG TERM MEMORY ,4- RETRIEVAL 7HEREAS MOST RESEARCHERS WOULD AGREE THAT ,4- PLAYS A ROLE IN THE PRODUCTION OF CREATIVE IDEAS THOSE RESEARCHERS WOULD BE UNLIKELY TO CONSIDER ,4- ALONE SUFFICIENT (OWEVER STUDIES THAT HAVE USED 'UILFORD LIKE TESTS OF $4 MAY HAVE MEASURED EXACTLY THOSE TRAITS 3IMILARLY IT COULD BE ARGUED THAT ,4- MAY BE A COMMON OVERLAPPING FACTOR BETWEEN SCORES ON CREATIVITY TESTS AND THOSE ON TESTS OF INTELLIGENCE BOTH RELYING PARTLY ON ,4- RETRIEVAL 4HE FAILURE TO CLEARLY DIFFERENTIATE AMONG INTELLIGENCE CREATIVE THINKING SKILLS AND CREATIVE ACHIEVEMENT HAS MADE THE INTERPRETATION OF THE VAST BULK OF THE PSY CHOMETRIC INVESTIGATIONS OF CREATIVITY PROBLEMATIC 4HIS PROBLEM REMAINS TODAY IN THAT DISAGREEMENT STILL SURROUNDS THE SELECTION OF VALID AND RELIABLE MEASURES OF TRAIT CREATIVITY &OLLOWING THE PIONEERING EFFORTS OF RESEARCHERS SUCH AS 'UILFORD  'ETZELS AND *ACKSON  4ORRANCE    4ORRANCE  "ALL  AND 7ALLACH AND +OGAN  MOST OF THE RESEARCH EFFORTS OF THE S WERE EXPLORATIVE AND THEN REPLICATIVE -OST STUDIES USED THE 'UILFORD OR 7ALLACH AND +OGAN $4 TESTS AS THEIR STARTING POINT AND RELATED THE RESULTS OF THESE TESTS TO MEASURES OF INTELLIGENCE 6INCENT $ECKER  -UMFORD  

2ATINGS OF #REATIVITY

!N ALTERNATIVE TO THE USE OF $4 TESTS AS A CRITERION OF CREATIVITY IS THE USE OF RATINGS OF CREATIVITY RELIABLE RATINGS BY OBSERVERS OF THE TRAIT CREATIVITY IN OTHERS 3UCH MEASURES MAY BE VULNERABLE TO GREATER BIAS THAN THE SCORES BY INDIVIDUALS ON A $4 TEST BUT POSSESS FAR GREATER ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY 4HE USE OF RATED CREATIV ITY ENSURES THAT ASSESSMENT TAKES INTO ACCOUNT THE ROLE OF SOCIAL JUDGMENT EG !MABILE   (OWEVER THERE ARE SIGNIFICANT ISSUES REGARDING THE USE OF RATINGS OF CREATIVITY A 2ATINGS MAY BE ATTRIBUTABLE TO GLOBAL CREATIVITY OR A NUMBER OF CREATIVITY RELEVANT FACTORS !MABILE    B 2ATINGS MAY BE PROVIDED WITH REFERENCE TO A GUIDING DEFINITION OR LEFT ENTIRELY TO THE SUBJECTIVE JUDGMENT "ATEY  &URNHAM 

OF THE ASSESSOR C 2ATINGS MAY BE MADE WITH REFERENCE TO PEOPLE PRODUCTS OR BOTH D 4HE SELECTION OF APPROPRIATE JUDGES IS PROBLEMATIC 3HOULD THEY BE EX PERTS 3HOULD THEY BE FAMILIAR WITH THE PERSON OR PRODUCT E 4HERE IS AN ISSUE ABOUT THE RELIABILITY OF RATINGS OVER TIME ACROSS RATERS AND ACROSS PRODUCTS 2ESEARCHERS AT THE )NSTITUTE OF 0ERSONALITY !SSESSMENT AND 2ESEARCH )0!2 AT THE 5NIVERSITY OF #ALIFORNIA "ERKELEY STUDIED EMINENT PEOPLE AND USED SO CIALLY CONSTRUCTED RATINGS OF CREATIVE POTENTIAL AND ACHIEVEMENT !MONG ARTISTS THE CORRELATION BETWEEN RATED QUALITY OF WORK AND )1 WAS  OR SLIGHTLY NEGATIVE "ARRON   &OR -AC+INNONS  STUDIES OF ARCHITECTS THE CORRELATION BETWEEN THE 4ERMAN #ONCEPT -ASTERY 4EST 4ERMAN  AND RATED CREATIVITY WAS R  n !MONG MATHEMATICIANS AND SCIENTISTS THE CORRELATION BETWEEN RATED CREATIVITY AND )1 WAS R   'OUGH   )N A LATER STUDY 'OUGH  REPORTED A CORRELATION OF R  n BETWEEN THE #ONCEPT -ASTERY 4EST AND CREATIVE ACHIEVEMENT FOR RESEARCH SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS 3IMONTONS  REANALYSIS OF #OXS  HISTORIOMETRIC STUDY OF EMI NENCE INDICATED THAT RATED )1 AND RANKED EMINENCE DID NOT CORRELATE 7ITH THE FINDINGS OF THE )0!2 GROUP THAT FINDING INDICATES THAT WHEN THE CRITERION OF CREATIVITY IS SOCIALLY OR ECOLOGICALLY VALID AS OPPOSED TO A $4 TEST THERE IS LITTLE OR NO RELATION BETWEEN )1 AND CREATIVITY "ARRON  AND -AC+INNON  SUMMARIZED THE )0!2 RESEARCH !CROSS THE TOTAL RANGE OF INTELLIGENCE AND CREATIVITY BOTH FOUND A POSITIVE CORRELATION OF R   (OWEVER ABOVE AN )1 OF  INTELLIGENCE SEEMS TO EXPLAIN LITTLE OF THE VARIANCE IN CREATIVE ACHIEVEMENT 4HIS HAS BECOME KNOWN AS THE THRESHOLD THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE AND CREATIVITY 'UILFORD  4ORRANCE  9AMAMOTO  

4HRESHOLD 4HEORY OF )NTELLIGENCE AND #REATIVITY

4HE THRESHOLD THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE AND CREATIVITY POSITS THAT AT LOW )1 LEVELS THERE IS LITTLE VARIATION IN THE LEVELS OF CREATIVITY WITH LOW )1 USUALLY CORRESPONDING TO LOW LEVELS OF CREATIVITY !T HIGH LEVELS OF )1 THERE IS CONSIDERABLE VARIANCE IN THE RANGE OF CREATIVITY SCORES 4ORRANCE   9AMAMOTO  IN A REPLICATION OF 4ORRANCE DIVIDED A SAMPLE OF STUDENTS INTO A HIGH CREATIVITY GROUP AND A LOW CREATIVITY GROUP 4HE RESULTS DEMONSTRATED THAT IRRESPECTIVE OF THE SUBJECT MATTER HIGHLY CREATIVE STUDENTS PERFORMED AT A HIGHER LEVEL THAN DID LESS CREATIVE STUDENTS WHEN THE EFFECTS OF INTELLIGENCE WERE CONTROLLED )N A SUMMARY OF SOME OF HIS EARLIER WORK 'UILFORD  SUGGESTED A NONLINEAR RELATION BETWEEN CREATIVITY AND INTELLIGENCE WITH A A HIGH CORRELATION BETWEEN )1 LESS THAN  AND CREATIV ITY AND B A LOW CORRELATION BETWEEN )1 GREATER THAN  AND CREATIVITY 'UILFORD EXPLAINED THIS DISCREPANCY ON THE BASIS OF THE LEVELS OF CONVERGENT AND DIVERGENT THINKING THAT MAY BE USED BY PROBLEM SOLVERS 0ROBLEM SOLVERS WITH )1S LESS THAN  MAY MAKE GREAT USE OF THEIR $4 SKILLS TO REACH AN ACCEPTABLE ANSWER WHEREAS PROBLEM SOLVERS WITH )1S GREATER THAN  MAY RELY ON THEIR STRONG CONVERGENT THINKING SKILLS TO REACH AN ACCEPTABLE ANSWER 'UILFORD    'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS

(OWEVER 'ILHOOLY ET AL  INDICATED THAT ,4- ALSO MAY PLAY A ROLE IN THIS RELATION #OMPARISONS BETWEEN -AC+INNONS  SAMPLE OF ARCHITECTS WHO HAD ABOVE AVERAGE INTELLIGENCE AND "ARRONS  SAMPLE OF MILITARY OF FICERS WHO HAD AVERAGE INTELLIGENCE YIELD INTERESTING FINDINGS &OR THE ARCHITECTS THE CORRELATION BETWEEN )1 AND CREATIVITY WAS n WHEREAS FOR THE MILITARY OF FICERS THE CORRELATION WAS  &ROM THIS PERSPECTIVE INTELLIGENCE CAN BE SEEN AS NECESSARY FOR CREATIVE ACHIEVEMENT BUT NOT SUFFICIENT )N ADDITION ATTENTION MUST BE PAID TO THE DOMAIN OF THE ENDEAVOR WHERE TRAIT CREATIVITY MAY BE MORE IMPOR TANT FOR SOME PURSUITS EG SCIENCE ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS THAN FOR OTHERS EG ART DESIGN  !S 'UILFORD  NOTED IT IS POSSIBLE hFOR AN INDIVIDUAL TO BECOME DISTINGUISHED IN SOME AREAS OF CREATIVE ENDEAVOUR SUCH AS INVENTING AND COMPOSING PERHAPS PAINTING    WITHOUT AN EXCEPTIONALLY HIGH )1v P   (OWEVER FOR SOME DOMAINS ESPECIALLY MATHEMATICS THE THRESHOLD THEORY DOES NOT APPLY -AC+INNON  REPORTED A CORRELATION OF R   BETWEEN CREATIVE LIFE PERFORMANCE AND )1 SCORES FOR MATHEMATICIANS 4HE THRESHOLD THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE AND CREATIVITY APPEARS TO BE SUPPORTED BY EMPIRICAL DATA ALTHOUGH IT REQUIRES EXPLICATION AND REPLICATION )N PARTICULAR RESEARCHERS NEED TO EXPLORE FULLY THE NATURE OF THE THRESHOLD WITH REFERENCE TO DIF FERENT CREATIVITY MEASURES AND PARTICIPANT POPULATIONS 4HE PRIMARY IMPLICATIONS OF THE RESEARCH ARE THAT THE ASSESSMENT OF INDIVIDUALS SHOULD ACCOUNT FOR BOTH )1 AND CREATIVITY FACTORS 4O IGNORE THE ROLE OF CREATIVE THINKING WHEN ASSESSING INDIVIDUALS EITHER IN A DEVELOPMENTAL CONTEXT OR AN ASSESSMENT CONTEXT WOULD BE TO DISCOUNT SOME HIGHLY ABLE INDIVIDUALS 9ET THE MAJORITY OF UNIVERSITY AND OCCUPATIONAL APPLICATION PROCEDURES PARTICULARLY IN THE 5NITED 3TATES RELY ON MEASURES OF )1 ALMOST EXCLUSIVELY EG '-!4 3!4 -#!4  )F ELEVATED )1 WERE TO ACCURATELY PREDICT CREATIVE EMINENCE THEN 4ERMANS n GIFTED SAMPLE SHOULD HAVE INCLUDED MANY GREAT CREATORS &ELDMAN   !S 4ORRANCE  NOTED h.O MATTER WHAT MEASURE OF )1 IS CHOSEN WE WOULD EXCLUDE ABOUT  OF OUR MOST CREATIVE CHILDREN IF )1 ALONE WERE USED IN IDEN TIFYING GIFTEDNESSv P   4HIS IS A VALID POINT BECAUSE 4ERMAN MISSED TWO .OBEL 0RIZE WINNERS SEE .OTE   5NTIL THIS STAGE RESEARCHERS HAD TREATED THE CONCEPTS OF INTELLIGENCE AND CREATIVITY PRIMARILY AS UNITARY CONCEPTS TRYING TO RELATE THE TWO !S THE FIELDS OF INTELLIGENCE AND CREATIVITY RESEARCH EVOLVED THEORISTS BEGAN TO POSIT A MORE COMPREHENSIVE ACCOUNT OF THE RELATION BETWEEN CREATIVITY AND INTELLIGENCE

2OLE OF +NOWLEDGE

)N THE S THEORISTS TRIED TO EXPLAIN THE COMPLEX RELATION BETWEEN INTEL LECTUAL ABILITY AND CREATIVITY +OESTLER  -EDNICK   -OST ACCOUNTS OF HOW CREATIVE IDEAS ARE PRODUCED DREW ON THE EARLY WORK OF *AMES  AND 0OINCAR£   -EDNICKS  ASSOCIATIVE BASIS OF CREATIVE THINKING SUGGESTED THAT CREATIVITY AROSE FROM THE COMBINATION OF ASSOCIATIVE ELEMENTS AND THAT MENTAL "ATEY  &URNHAM 

ELEMENTS THAT ARE CONCEPTUALLY DISTANT WILL BE THE MOST LIKELY ON COMBINATION TO YIELD CREATIVE RESULTS !S -EDNICK SUGGESTED h4HE MORE MUTUALLY REMOTE THE ELEMENTS OF THE NEW COMBINATION THE MORE CREATIVE THE PROCESS OR SOLUTIONv P   -EDNICK ASSERTED THAT CREATIVE PEOPLE COULD BE DISTINGUISHED FROM THEIR LESS CREATIVE PEERS BY THEIR TENDENCY TO RESPOND IN AN ORIGINAL MANNER TO STIMULI OR RESPONSE HIERARCHIES -EDNICK POSTULATED THAT LESS CREATIVE PEOPLE HAVE A STEEP HIERARCHY OR A LESS EXPANSIVE SET OF POSSIBLE RESPONSES TO A STIMULI QUESTION OR IDEA 4HEREFORE WHEN A SITUATION DEMANDS THE COMBINATION OF IDEAS THE POOL FROM WHICH IDEAS MAY BE DRAWN AND COMBINED IS LIMITED #ONSEQUENTLY THE COMBINATIONS OF IDEAS ARE NOT LIKELY TO BE NOVEL AND WILL BE EXHAUSTED QUICKLY !LTERNATIVELY THE CREATIVE PERSONS RESPONSE HIERARCHY IS FLAT &LAT ASSOCIATIVE HIERARCHIES ARE THOSE IN WHICH THE PROBABILITY OF THE EVOCATION OF A LARGE NUMBER OF ASSOCIATES IS HIGH 4HUS WHEN NEW COMBINATIONS ARE APPROPRIATE THE DIVERSITY OF POTENTIAL IDEAS IS GREAT MAKING THE LIKELIHOOD OF CREATIVE COMBINATION GREATER -EDNICK  POSTULATED THAT LESS CREATIVE PEOPLE CAN PROVIDE STEREOTYPED ANSWERS QUICKLY BECAUSE OF THE RELATIVE EASE OF ASSOCIATION OF HIGHLY RELATED BUT LIMITED ASSOCIATES 4HIS POSSIBILITY WOULD AFFECT LONG TERM FLUENCY BECAUSE THE POTENTIAL POOL OF IDEAS WOULD SOON BE EXHAUSTED -EDNICK THOUGHT THAT CREATIVE PEOPLE PRODUCE IDEAS MUCH MORE SLOWLY BECAUSE THEY ARE COMBINING IDEAS THAT ARE CONCEPTUALLY DISTANT AND THEREFORE TAKE LONGER TO BE ASSOCIATED BUT PRODUCE IDEAS FOR A LONGER PERIOD AND WITH GREATER POTENTIAL FOR NOVELTY -EDNICK  PROPOSED THAT REMOTE IDEAS MAY BE BROUGHT TOGETHER THROUGH SERENDIPITY SIMILARITY OR MEDIATION 3ERENDIPITOUS IDEAS WOULD OCCUR AS A RESULT OF UNGUIDED CONTIGUITY 4HE COMBINATION OF IDEAS BASED ON SIMILAR ITY OCCURS WHEN ASSOCIATIVE ELEMENTS ARE COMBINED BECAUSE THEY SHARE SIMILAR FEATURES -EDNICK FELT THE MOST IMPORTANT MEANS OF COMBINING ELEMENTS WAS MEDIATION )N MEDIATION )DEA 8 AND )DEA 9 WOULD BE COMBINED BECAUSE THEY WERE BOTH ASSOCIATED WITH )DEA : &URTHER THE PROBABILITY AND SPEED OF CREATIVE SOLUTIONS WOULD DEPEND ON THE CONDITION OF THE PROBLEM SOLVER )NDIVIDUALS WITH A VAST ARRAY OF KNOWLEDGE IE CRYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE AND GOOD COGNITIVE ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE OR PROCESSES WOULD BE BETTER ABLE TO COMBINE NEW ELE MENTS 2ESEARCHERS MIGHT ARGUE THAT THE CONDITION OF THE PROBLEM SOLVER REFERS TO INTELLIGENCE )N EFFECT -EDNICK POSTULATED THAT CREATIVITY ARISES FROM BOTH INTELLIGENCE AND KNOWLEDGE 4HE 2EMOTE !SSOCIATES 4EST 2!4 -EDNICK  -EDNICK  WAS DE SIGNED AS AN EASILY ADMINISTERED PAPER AND PENCIL MEASURE OF CREATIVITY 4EST TAKERS ARE REQUIRED TO PROVIDE A REMOTE ASSOCIATE TO SETS OF THREE PRESENTED WORDS -EDNICK AND !NDREWS  DEMONSTRATED CORRELATIONS BETWEEN THE 2!4 AND THE 7ECHSLER )NTELLIGENCE 3CALE FOR #HILDREN AS R   WITH THE 3!4 VERBAL AS R   AND WITH THE ,ORGE 4HORNDIKE 6ERBAL INTELLIGENCE MEASURE AS R   (OWEVER THERE HAVE BEEN VARIOUS CRITICISMS OF THE 2!4 AND ITS RELATION TO CREATIVITY &IRST THE TEST ITEMS REQUIRE THE PRODUCTION OF ONE CORRECT ANSWER MAKING THE 2!4 A TEST OF CONVERGENT THINKING 3ECOND THE TEST IS UNABLE TO  'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS

DISTINGUISH BETWEEN PEOPLE WITH FLAT RESPONSE HIERARCHIES AND THOSE WITH STEEP RESPONSE HIERARCHIES BECAUSE RESPONDENTS NEED TO FIND ONLY ONE ANSWER 4HIRD THE TEST DOES NOT REQUIRE THE COMBINATION OF IDEAS IN NEW WAYS 4HE TEST TAKERS ARE ASKED TO FIND TRADITIONAL ASSOCIATIONS TO STIMULUS WORDS &OURTH THE 2!4 ITEMS SEEM TO REQUIRE HIGH LEVELS OF CRYSTALLIZED VERBAL KNOWLEDGE -EDNICK  !NDREWS   -EDNICK  HYPOTHESIZED THAT THERE WOULD BE A DIFFERENCE OF LEVEL RATH ER THAN STYLE  BETWEEN THE CREATIVE AND UNCREATIVE 4HEREFORE CREATIVITY WOULD BE AN EXTENSION OF ORDINARY INTELLIGENCE -EDNICKS THEORIES ALSO DEPEND ON THE QUALITY AND QUANTITY OF THE INFORMATION ENCODED BY THE INDIVIDUAL !N INDIVIDUAL WITH LITTLE STORED KNOWLEDGE IE CRYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE WOULD NOT BE ABLE TO PRODUCE CREATIVE COMBINATIONS EVEN WITH AN EXTREMELY FLAT RESPONSE HIERARCHY 4HIS INDICATES AN IMPORTANT DISTINCTION BETWEEN -EDNICK  AND 'UIL FORD   'UILFORDS THEORIES SUGGESTED THAT $4 WAS SUFFICIENT FOR CREATIVE THINKING BECAUSE A PROBLEM SOLVER HAS THE MENTAL MACHINERY TO THINK DIVERGENTLY -EDNICKS THEORY IS THAT PEOPLE MAY HAVE THE COGNITIVE MECHANISMS TO COMBINE IDEAS IN WAYS THAT COULD BE CREATIVE BUT THAT CREATIVITY WILL ONLY OCCUR IF THE QUAL ITY OF THE IDEAS TO BE ASSOCIATED IS HIGH #ATTELL   ALSO MADE A DISTINCTION BETWEEN MENTAL PROCESSING AND ACCUMULATED KNOWLEDGE IN HIS THEORY OF FLUID GF AND CRYSTALLIZED GC INTELLI GENCE &LUID INTELLIGENCE CONCERNS INFORMATION PROCESSING AND REASONING ABILITY #RYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE REPRESENTS THE ABILITY THAT AN INDIVIDUAL USES TO GAIN RETAIN STRUCTURE AND CONCEPTUALIZE INFORMATION #RYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE IS MEA SURED BY TESTS OF GENERAL KNOWLEDGE AND VERBAL COMPREHENSION WHEREAS FLUID IN TELLIGENCE IS ASSESSED BY TESTS OF ABSTRACT REASONING "OTH GC AND GF ARE POSTULATED TO OCCUPY A POSITION JUST BELOW THAT OF GENERAL INTELLIGENCE WHICH CORRESPONDS WITH G 3PEARMAN   )N ADDITION TO THE THREE FACTORS OF GC GF AND G #AT TELL EG  HYPOTHESIZED THAT THERE ARE A NUMBER OF PRIMARY ABILITIES 4HE LIST OF ABILITIES IS EXTENSIVE BUT MORE APPLICABLE THAN 'UILFORDS   OR  FACTORS 'UILFORD     4HE PRIMARY ABILITIES THAT #ATTELL THOUGHT PARTICULARLY IMPORTANT FOR CREATIVITY WERE ORIGINALITY AND IDEATIONAL FLUENCY #ATTELL AND "UTCHER  SUGGESTED THAT REAL LIFE CREATIVE ENDEAVOR WAS DETERMINED PRIMARILY BY G FOLLOWED BY GF #RYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE WAS DEEMED LESS IMPORTANT #ATTELL AND "UTCHER NEITHER DISTINGUISHED BETWEEN EMI NENT AND EVERYDAY CREATIVITY NOR CONSIDERED THE RELATIONS BETWEEN G GF AND GC AND SPECIFIC DOMAINS OF ENDEAVOR #ATTELL AND "UTCHERS THEORY OF THE RELATION BETWEEN CREATIVITY AND INTELLECT DIRECTLY OPPOSES THE STUDY BY -EDNICK  WHO IMPLIED THAT CREATIVITY RELIED ON THE COMBINATION OF IDEAS KNOWLEDGE OR CRYSTALLIZED )1  )N EVERYDAY CREATIVITY CRYSTALLIZED KNOWLEDGE PROBABLY IS NOT PARTICULARLY IMPORTANT (OWEVER GREAT CREATORS IN KNOWLEDGE INTENSIVE DOMAINS EG SCIENCE ENGINEERING MUST ACQUIRE A CERTAIN LEVEL OF KNOWLEDGE TO ADVANCE IN A FIELD (OW EVER THERE IS MOST LIKELY AN INVERTED 5 SHAPED RELATION BETWEEN DOMAIN SPECIFIC "ATEY  &URNHAM 

KNOWLEDGE AND SCIENTIFIC CREATIVITY ,OW LEVELS OF KNOWLEDGE DO NOT AFFORD THE CREATOR A SUFFICIENTLY DETAILED KNOWLEDGE OF THE FIELD TO ADVANCE IT #ONVERSELY EXTREMELY HIGH LEVELS OF KNOWLEDGE ARE LIKELY TO LEAD TO ENTRENCHMENT 3TERNBERG  AND AN INABILITY TO CONCEIVE OF THE FIELD IN A RADICALLY DIFFERENT LIGHT 3ECOND PERHAPS GF AND GC PLAY DIFFERENT ROLES DURING THE LIFESPAN OF A GREAT CREATOR )N AN INDIVIDUALS EARLY PERIOD CAREER ONCE A CERTAIN LEVEL OF COMPETENCE HAS BEEN AT TAINED GF IS LIKELY TO BE PARTICULARLY IMPORTANT FOR ABSTRACT THINKING AND FOR PROBLEM SOLVING TO PRODUCE CREATIVE IDEAS )N THE LATE PERIOD CAREER WHEN ATTENTION OFTEN TURNS TO CONSOLIDATION GC WOULD BE ESSENTIAL

2OLE OF 3PECIFIC !BILITIES

4HAT CREATIVE PEOPLE POSSESS EXTRAORDINARY ABILITIES HAS BEEN RECOGNIZED SINCE ANTIQUITY 4HE FIRST INDICATION THAT INTELLECTUAL ABILITIES NEED NOT BE UNI FORM FOR THE ATTAINMENT OF CREATIVE EMINENCE MAY BE DERIVED FROM THE SEMINAL HISTORIOMETRIC STUDY OF  GENIUSES BY #OX   4HERE ARE A NUMBER OF METHODOLOGICAL CONCERNS SURROUNDING #OXS STUDY ( * %YSENCK  YET HER DATA SUGGEST AT LEAST THAT )1 SCORES ARE NOT THE SAME ACROSS DOMAINS 4HE ESTIMATED )1 SCORES FOR GENIUSS ADULTHOOD RANGE FROM  TO  FOR SOLDIERS AND PHILOSOPHERS RESPECTIVELY 4HAT EARLY STUDY INDICATES THAT NOT ALL CREATORS POSSESS THE SAME OR EVEN SIMILAR ABILITIES ! RELATED CONCLUSION MAY BE REACHED ON EXAMINATION OF THE 4ERMAN  #ONCEPT -ASTERY 4EST SCORES OF CON TEMPORARY CREATIVE ACHIEVERS ADMINISTERED BY THE )0!2 GROUP AND REPORTED BY -AC+INNON   !S MAY BE EXPECTED VERBAL ABILITY WAS HIGHEST IN THE CRE ATIVE WRITERS GROUP WITH INCREASINGLY LOWER SCORES FOR SCIENTISTS ARCHITECTS !IR &ORCE CAPTAINS AND INDEPENDENT INVENTORS &ROM THIS RESEARCH IT SEEMS CLEAR THAT THE VERBAL ABILITY NECESSARY FOR CREATIVE ACHIEVEMENT VARIES ACROSS DISCIPLINES ALTHOUGH IT SHOULD BE NOTED THAT SOME OF THE SAMPLE SIZES FOR THE GROUPS WERE PARTICULARLY SMALL 5NFORTUNATELY NO NUMERICAL TEST WAS ADMINISTERED TO INDICATE THAT THE DIFFERENCES IN THE SCORES ACHIEVED BETWEEN THESE GROUPS OF PARTICIPANTS WERE RELATED TO G )N ONE OF THE EARLIEST SYSTEMATIC PSYCHOMETRIC INVESTIGATIONS 2OE A B  EXAMINED THE ROLE OF SPECIFIC INTELLECTUAL ABILITIES AND CREATIVE ACHIEVEMENT 3HE ADMINISTERED SPECIALLY DESIGNED TESTS OF VERBAL SPATIAL AND MATHEMATICAL INTELLIGENCE TO HIGHLY EMINENT SCIENTISTS FROM DIFFERENT DISCIPLINES 3HE FOUND FOR EXAMPLE THAT THE VERBAL INTELLIGENCE SCORES OF THEORETICAL PHYSI CISTS WERE SIGNIFICANTLY HIGHER THAN THE SCORES FOR EXPERIMENTAL PHYSICISTS 2OE EXPECTED THAT FINDING BECAUSE OF HER HYPOTHESIS THAT THEORETICAL PHYSICISTS WOULD BE REQUIRED TO WRITE MORE THAN THEIR EXPERIMENTAL COLLEAGUES 4HE STUDIES OF EMI NENT SCIENTISTS ARE AN IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTION TO CREATIVITY RESEARCH THAT REVEAL THAT THERE ARE DIFFERENCES IN THE SPECIFIC INTELLECTUAL COMPONENTS REQUIRED FOR CREATIVE ACHIEVEMENT 3OCIAL SCIENTISTS WORK PRIMARILY WITH VERBAL CONCEPTS AND THEREFORE SCORED HIGHEST ON VERBAL ABILITY WHEREAS PHYSICISTS WORK WITH MATHEMATICAL  'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS

CONCEPTS AND THEREFORE FOUND THE NUMERICAL TESTS UNDEMANDING 4HIS RESEARCH OF EMINENT ACHIEVERS HIGHLIGHTS THE IMPORTANCE OF DOMAIN SPECIFICITY AND ABILITY

#ONFLUENCE AND #OMPONENTIAL -ODELS

%ARLY RESEARCHERS EXAMINED UNITARY CONCEPTS OF INTELLIGENCE AND CREATIVITY 4HE STUDIES OF THE S AND BEYOND ARE BOTH SCIENTIFICALLY AND THEORETICALLY MORE SOPHISTICATED BECAUSE THE RESEARCHERS TRIED TO EXPLAIN VARIANCE IN CREATIVITY CRITERIA BY USING A HOST OF RELEVANT INDEPENDENT VARIABLES 0ERHAPS OF GREATEST IMPORTANCE WAS THAT $4 BECAME A PREDICTOR OF CREATIVE ACHIEVEMENT NOT THE CRITERION 4HIS IS AN IMPORTANT ADVANCE IN CREATIVITY RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTING HOW EFFORTS TO EXPLAIN THE CONSTRUCT HAVE BECOME INCREASINGLY SOPHISTICATED 4HE GROWTH OF THIS TYPE OF CONFLUENCE APPROACH SUGGESTS BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF CREATIVITY ACROSS DOMAINS IN THE FUTURE (OCEVAR  EXAMINED THE RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF A TRADITIONAL MEASURE OF INTELLIGENCE 4ERMAN #ONCEPT -ASTERY 4EST 4ERMAN  AND THREE $4 MEASURES OF IDEATIONAL FLUENCY IN RELATION TO CREATIVE ACHIEVEMENT IN THE FIELDS OF ARTS CRAFTS PERFORMING ARTS MATH SCIENCE LITERATURE AND MUSIC FOR A SAMPLE OF UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS )N THIS EXPERIMENT THE RATINGS OF CREATIVITY WERE DRAWN FROM BEHAVIORAL INVENTORIES OF CREATIVE ABILITIES AND ACHIEVEMENTS AND THEN COM PARED TO $4 ABILITIES 4HE MEAN CREATIVITY SCORE WAS THE AGGREGATE FLUENCY SCORE FOR THE THREE $4 TESTS USED 4HE CORRELATION BETWEEN THE MEAN CREATIVITY AND INTELLIGENCE SCORES WAS R   4HE TOTAL SCORE FOR IDEATIONAL FLUENCY CORRELATED WITH AN AGGREGATE CREATIVITY ACHIEVEMENT SCORE AT R   4HE THREE $4 MEA SURES INTERCORRELATED BETWEEN R   AND R   )T APPEARS THAT INTELLIGENCE AND IDEATIONAL FLUENCY ARE DISTINCT BECAUSE THE CORRELATIONS WITHIN THE TRAITS ARE HIGH WHEREAS THE CORRELATIONS BETWEEN THE TRAITS ARE LOW (OWEVER THE RESULTS FROM THE STUDY SHOULD BE INTERPRETED WITH CARE &IRST THE CRITERION OF CREATIVITY THROUGH RATINGS ON AN INVENTORY OF CREATIVE BEHAVIORS RELIES ON SELF REPORTED INCIDENTS OF CREATIVE ABILITY AND ACHIEVEMENT 3ECOND THE CREATIVE BEHAVIORS AND ABILITIES THAT EACH PARTICIPANT LISTED ARE INDEPENDENT OF QUALITY !N ACHIEVEMENT THAT A PARTICI PANT LISTED HAD NOT BEEN ASSESSED FOR QUALITY OR UTILITY EG #ONSENSUAL !SSESS MENT 4ECHNIQUE !MABILE   2ATHER A QUANTITATIVE APPROACH WAS TAKEN +ERSHNER AND ,EDGER  COMPARED  HIGHLY GIFTED CHILDREN n YEARS OLD WITH MATCHED CONTROLS ON MEASURES OF INTELLIGENCE AND $4 4HOSE RESEARCHERS TESTED 7ALLACHS  SUGGESTION THAT FLEXIBILITY ORIGINALITY AND ELABORATION ARE LARGELY MEASURES OF )1 4HE SUPPOSITION WAS THAT ONLY FLUENCY PROVIDES AN ACCURATE MEASURE OF $4 4HE RESULTS INDICATED THAT THE SCORES FOR VERBAL ORIGINALITY WERE HIGHLY INFLUENCED BY )1 4HE GIFTED CHILDREN HELD NO ADVANTAGE OVER THE AVERAGE CHILDREN WHEN IT CAME TO THE SCORES FOR FIGURAL FLEXIBILITY AND FLUENCY 4HAT STUDY RAISES AN IMPORTANT ISSUE IN THE STUDY OF CRE ATIVITY &LUENCY AND FLEXIBILITY AS MEASURED BY $4 TESTS APPEAR TO BE RELATIVELY INDEPENDENT OF )1 4HE STUDY INDICATES THAT SCORES OF ORIGINALITY ARE HIGHLY "ATEY  &URNHAM 

DEPENDENT ON INTELLECTUAL ENDOWMENT 4HIS IMPLICATION CALLS INTO QUESTION THE VALIDITY AND UTILITY OF 4ORRANCES  SCORING SYSTEM FOR $4 TYPE TESTS ESPE CIALLY IF THE $4 TESTS ARE TO BE USED AS MEASURES OF CREATIVE INTELLIGENCE 2USHTON  CONDUCTED THREE STUDIES BY USING VARIOUS TESTS OF PERSONALITY INTELLIGENCE AND CREATIVITY 3TUDY  WAS OF PROFESSORS OF PSYCHOLOGY (E FOUND THAT WHEN THE CREATIVITY SCORE WAS PRODUCED FROM NUMBER OF WORKS PUBLISHED AND NUMBER OF CITATIONS  THE SCORE CORRELATED WITH A COMPOSITE SCORE OF INTELLIGENCE OF R   3TUDY  WAS A SURVEY OF PSYCHOLOGY RESEARCHERS 4HE CORRELATION BE TWEEN A COMPOSITE MEASURE OF RESEARCH EFFECTIVENESS AND A COMPOSITE MEASURE OF INTELLIGENCE WAS R   3TUDY  WAS A SURVEY OF  UNDERGRADUATES 4HE PARTICIPANTS WERE TESTED WITH SOME OF THE 7ALLACH AND +OGAN  $4 MEA SURES AND AN )1 TEST 4HE MEAN )1 OF THE SAMPLE WAS  4HE TOTAL CREATIVITY SCORE CORRELATED WITH )1 AT R   4HESE RESULTS SUGGEST THAT THE RELATION BETWEEN CREATIVITY AND )1 IS NOT EASY TO PREDICT 3TUDY  AND 3TUDY  USED PROFESSIONAL RESEARCH PSYCHOLOGISTS 3TUDY  RE TURNED A CORRELATION BETWEEN )1 AND CREATIVITY OF R   WHEREAS 3TUDY  YIELDED A CORRELATION OF R   (OWEVER METHODOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS MAY EXPLAIN THIS DIFFERENCE 4HE CRITERIA OF CREATIVITY USED WERE NOT THE SAME FOR EACH STUDY MAKING COMPARISON DIFFICULT 7E RAISE QUESTIONS REGARDING THE VALIDITY OF THE CRITERIA OF CRE ATIVITY SELECTED  THE INCONSISTENT ASSESSMENT OF INTELLIGENCE AND THE SMALL SAMPLE SIZE WHICH MAY HAVE ARTIFICIALLY INFLATED CORRELATIONS BETWEEN THE VARIABLES 6INCENT ET AL  CONDUCTED A COMPREHENSIVE STUDY TO ASSESS THE RELATION BETWEEN $4 AND OTHER COGNITIVE CAPACITIES IN  MILITARY LEADERS 4HE AIM OF THE STUDY WAS TO EXAMINE THE RELATIONS AMONG INTELLIGENCE EXPERTISE KNOWLEDGE AND $4 INSOFAR AS THEY INFLUENCED CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING AND PERFORMANCE ! WIDE RANGE OF RELEVANT FACTORS WERE CONSIDERED AND THEN RELATED CLEARLY TO A SPECIFIC DOMAIN MILITARY LEADERSHIP 6INCENT ET AL ASSESSED INTELLIGENCE PSYCHOMETRICALLY WITH THE VERBAL REASONING TEST OF THE %MPLOYEE !PTITUDES 3URVEY 4HEY ASSESSED EXPERTISE WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE DOMAIN OF ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP BY USING A RANK ORDERING EXERCISE 4HEY MEASURED $4 BY USING FIVE ITEMS FROM THE #ONSEQUENCES 4EST 'UILFORD   2ESPONSES WERE SCORED BY USING A VARIATION OF (ENNESSEY AND !MABILES  #ONSENSUAL !SSESSMENT 4ECHNIQUE !LSO 6INCENT ET AL  MADE ASSESSMENTS REGARDING THE PARTICIPANTS PROBLEM SOLVING SKILLS AND LEADERSHIP PERFORMANCE 0ROBLEM SOLVING SKILLS WERE ASSESSED BY USING AN ILL DEFINED NOVEL TASK IN THE FORM OF A COMPLEX MILITARY PROBLEM 0ARTICIPANTS SUGGESTED WHAT THEY MIGHT DO IN THE HYPOTHETICAL SITUATION 4HE QUESTIONS FOCUSED ON BOTH IDEA GENERATION AND IDEA IMPLEMENTATION 4HE RE SEARCHERS POSTULATED IDEA GENERATION TO BE AN EARLY CYCLE PROBLEM SOLVING ACTIVITY WHEREAS IDEA IMPLEMENTATION WAS CONSIDERED A LATE CYCLE PROBLEM SOLVING ACTIVITY "ASADUR   &OUR OBSERVERS RATED THE EFFECTIVENESS OF SOLUTIONS 4HEY ALSO OB TAINED A MEASURE OF LEADERSHIP PERFORMANCE &OR THIS PARTICIPANTS LISTED THE NUMBER OF MEDALS CITATIONS RECEIVED PRIOR PERFORMANCE EVALUATIONS PROMOTIONS AHEAD OF SCHEDULE AND ADMISSION TO SPECIAL TRAINING PROGRAMS  'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS

6INCENT ET AL  FOUND INTELLIGENCE AND EXPERTISE TO BE CORRELATED R    "OTH INTELLIGENCE AND EXPERTISE HAD A DIRECT EFFECT ON $4 4HESE RESULTS SUG GEST THAT BOTH G AND GC EXPERTISE AFFECTED THE PRODUCTION OF SOCIALLY MEANINGFUL CONSEQUENCES 4HIS EVIDENCE SUPPORTS -EDNICKS  THEORY THAT CREATIVITY RE LIES ON A RICH SET OF STORED INFORMATION !N IMPORTANT FINDING WAS THAT $4 DIRECTLY AFFECTED IDEA GENERATION BUT NOT IDEA IMPLEMENTATION %XPERTISE ALSO PRODUCED A MODERATE EFFECT ON IDEA GENERATION 4HAT EFFECT SUGGESTS THAT PEOPLE ARE ABLE TO CREATE VIABLE PROBLEM SOLUTIONS WHEN THEY USE BOTH $4 SKILLS AND ACQUIRED EXPERTISE 4HE GENERATION OF GOOD SOLUTIONS HAD A DIRECT EFFECT ON THE EFFECTIVE IMPLEMENTATION OF SOLUTIONS 4HAT FINDING IS NOT SURPRISING BECAUSE AN IMPLEMENTED IDEA WOULD LIKELY BE RATED UNFAVORABLY IF IT WAS BASED ON A POOR GENERATED IDEA 4HE RESULTS OF THE 6INCENT ET AL  STUDY CONFIRMED THE PATH FROM IDEA IMPLEMENTATION TO OR GANIZATIONAL RECOGNITION LEADERSHIP PERFORMANCE  6INCENT ET AL SUGGESTED THAT $4 IS MOST IMPORTANT FOR EARLY CYCLE CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING ! MORE IMPORTANT FINDING WAS THAT $4 HAD A STRONGER DIRECT EFFECT ON IDEA GENERATION THAN DID IN TELLIGENCE 4HIS FINDING SUGGESTS THAT $4 MEASURES hCAPTURE UNIQUE VARIANCE AND DO NOT SIMPLY REPRESENT A SURROGATE FOR INTELLIGENCE OR EXPERTISE 4HESE FINDINGS MOREOVER SUGGEST THAT DIVERGENT THINKING CANNOT BE VIEWED AS SIMPLY A SUBSET OF INTELLIGENCEv 6INCENT ET AL P   #OMPONENTIAL APPROACHES TO THE UNDERSTANDING OF CREATIVITY ENABLE MULTIFAC TOR ANALYSES OF THE CREATIVITY COMPLEX 3OME MULTIPLE COMPONENT MODELS LACK EM PIRICAL EVIDENCE WHEREAS THE INTERPRETATION OF THE DATA FOR SOME MODELS HAS BEEN DEBATED #ONFLUENCE MODELS SUCH AS THAT PRESENTED BY 6INCENT ET AL  OFFER A BETTER INSIGHT INTO THE RELATION BETWEEN INTELLIGENCE KNOWLEDGE AND PERFORMANCE THAN THAT AFFORDED BY SIMPLE ACCOUNTS OF THE RELATION BETWEEN CREATIVITY AND SINGLE VARIABLES )N TAKING INTO ACCOUNT THE EFFECTS OF LATE AND EARLY CYCLE PROBLEM SOLV ING 6INCENT ET AL WERE ABLE TO EXAMINE SOME ASPECTS OF THE CREATION PROCESS

&ACTOR !NALYTICAL 3TUDIES

7ITHOUT A DOUBT #ARROLL  PERFORMED THE MOST COMPREHENSIVE INVESTIGA TION OF PSYCHOMETRIC CREATIVITY 4HE CENTRAL THEME TO HIS SURVEY OF ABILITIES IN THE DOMAIN OF IDEA PRODUCTION CONCERNED THE CORRELATIONS BETWEEN DIFFERENT MEASURES OF CREATIVITY AND THE QUESTION OF WHETHER THE CORRELATIONS BETWEEN THEM INDICATE THE PRESENCE OF A GENERAL CREATIVITY FACTOR WHAT WE CALL C #ARROLL COLLATED AND REFACTORED  DATA SETS OUT OF A TOTAL OF  DATA SETS RELATING TO IDEA PRODUCTION CONTAINING DIFFERENT CREATIVITY TESTS 4HESE TESTS WERE ALMOST ALL OPEN ENDEDˆTHAT IS THEY REQUIRED A DIVERGENT RESPONSE -OST SIMPLY THESE TESTS COULD BE BROKEN DOWN INTO FLUENCY TESTS IN WHICH VOLUMINOUS PRODUCTION IS DESIRED AND ORIGINALITY TESTS IN WHICH UNUSUALNESS UNIQUENESS OR QUALITY WAS REQUIRED #ARROLL  REACHED THE CONCLUSION THAT CREATIVITY OR ORIGINALITY hIS LINEARLY INDEPENDENT OF MANY OF THE FACTORS IN OTHER DOMAINS OR MORE GENERALLY OF WHAT IS "ATEY  &URNHAM 

REGARDED AS INTELLIGENCE AS MEASURED BY STANDARD TESTSv P   (E FOUND FACTORS SUCH AS VERBAL VISUALIZATION AND REASONING ABILITY TO BE INDEPENDENT OF CREATIVITY ALTHOUGH PROBABLY LINKED AS SECOND ORDER FACTORS 4HE FINDINGS OF THE DIFFERENT DATA SETS WERE NOT UNANIMOUS BUT MANY SEEMED TO INDICATE THAT CREATIVITY OR ORIGINALITY IS AN INDEPENDENT ORTHOGONAL FACTOR BUT SECOND AND THIRD ORDER FACTORS ARE ALSO SALIENT 4HAT INDICATION COMPELLED #ARROLL TO SUGGEST h)T APPEARS TO REQUIRE A CON SIDERABLE DEGREE OF GENERAL COGNITIVE ABILITY FOR AN INDIVIDUAL TO BE ABLE TO MAKE HIGH SCORED RESPONSES TO TESTS OF ;CREATIVITY OR ORIGINALITY=v P   4HE COMMON ELEMENTS OF THIS CREATIVITY FACTOR ARE THAT THEY REQUIRE PEOPLE TO THINK FAIRLY QUICKLY AND TO WRITE A SERIES OF RESPONSES FITTING THE REQUIREMENTS OF A PRESENTED TASK OR SITUATION THAT IS THIS FACTOR INDICATES SOME ELEMENT OF QUALITY 4HIS FACTOR WAS INDEPENDENT OF A QUANTITY OR FLUENCY FACTOR WHEREBY RESPONDENTS ARE REQUIRED TO WRITE AS MANY RESPONSES AS POSSIBLE (OWEVER THERE IS INSUFFICIENT SPACE IN THIS ARTICLE TO FULLY EXPLORE THE ISSUE THAT AMONG OTHERS THERE WERE INDEPENDENT FACTORS FOR VERBAL FLUENCY CREATIVITY OR ORIGINALITY AND FIGURAL FLUENCY !S #ARROLL  NOTED IT IS IMPORTANT TO CONSIDER THAT THESE FACTORS ARE ONLY THOSE SUGGESTED BY THE AVAILABLE RESEARCH )NCONSISTENCIES IN THE TESTS USED TO ASSESS DIFFERENT FACTORS TYPES OF SCORING AND ADMINISTRATIVE ENVIRON MENT COULD MEAN THAT FUTURE FACTOR ANALYTIC STUDIES MAY SHOW SLIGHTLY DIFFERENT DISTINCT ABILITIES IN THE DOMAIN OF IDEA PRODUCTION #ARROLLS  ANALYSES INDICATE THAT CREATIVITY IS NOT THE SAME AS INTEL LIGENCE BUT DOES REQUIRE IN PART GENERAL MENTAL ABILITIES 4HESE INCLUDE SPEED OF RETRIEVAL ESPECIALLY IN TIMED TESTS TO ACCESS STORED KNOWLEDGE GC FLUID INTELLI GENCE TO MANIPULATE RETRIEVED INFORMATION AND FINE MOTOR SKILLS TO WRITE QUICKLY 0ERHAPS MOST IMPORTANT FLUENCY WAS NOT FOUND TO BE THE SAME AS ORIGINALITY /N THE BASIS OF THOSE WHO HAVE CRITICIZED DIFFERENT SCORING TECHNIQUES TO ASSESS ORIGINALITY VERSUS FLUENCY EG $ * (ARGREAVES  "OLTON  (OCE VAR  THE #ARROLL  STUDIES SUGGEST THAT THE BEST WAY TO DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN FLUENCY AND ORIGINALITY IS TO PROVIDE DIFFERENT TESTS FOR THESE INDEPENDENT FACTORS &LUENCY TESTS SUCH AS THE 4HURSTONE  7ORD &LUENCY TEST DO NOT PROVIDE RESPONDENTS WITH A PARTICULAR OPPORTUNITY FOR ORIGINALITY WHEREAS THE #ONSEQUENCES 4EST 'UILFORD  DOES 2ESEARCHERS ARE MISGUIDED IN TRYING TO FIND ORIGINALITY IN THE FLUENCY TESTS EG 4ORRANCE  SEE &IGURES  AND  

#ONCLUSION 2EGARDING )NTELLIGENCE

4HE EARLIEST STUDIES OF THE RELATION BETWEEN )1 AND CREATIVITY FOUND THAT INTELLECTUALS WERE NOT ASSURED OF PRODUCING IMAGINATIVE RESPONSES TO OPEN ENDED STIMULI $EARBORN   !FTER MORE THAN  YEARS OF RESEARCH INVESTIGATORS STILL HOLD THERE TO BE SOME FORM OF A DICHOTOMY BETWEEN )1 AND CREATIVITY (OWEVER WE DO NOT SUGGEST THAT THE RELATION BETWEEN )1 AND CREATIVITY HAS BEEN MAPPED AND EXPLAINED 4HE STUDY OF )1 AND CREATIVITY HAS BEEN AT TIMES POORLY DEFINED AND EMPIRICALLY APPROACHED )N SOME CASES $4 MEASURES WERE USED AS A  'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS

$4



GF GC GR GS -OTOR SKILLS

'OOD TIMED

-ANIPULATE

-EMORY PERFORMANCE

7RITING CONDITIONS

GK

IDEAS IN

$4 PERFORMANCE

2EAL LIFE CREATIVE ACHIEVEMENT * ! 0LUCKER 

&)'52%  2ELATION OF INTELLIGENCE TO DIVERGENT THINKING $4 TEST PERFOR MANCE GF  FLUID INTELLIGENCE GC  CRYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE GR  RETRIEVAL 'S  SPEED GK  GENERAL KNOWLEDGE

MEASURE OF CREATIVE INTELLIGENCE WHEREAS IN OTHERS RESEARCHERS USED $4 SCORES AS A CRITERION OF CREATIVITY 2ESEARCHERS CAN ARGUE THAT THE OVERRELIANCE ON $4 TESTS BECAME A REAL PROB LEM UNDULY LIMITING THE SCOPE OF CREATIVITY RESEARCH WHILE RAISING THE SPECTER OF METHOD BIAS IN BOTH THEORY AND FINDINGS -UMFORD B  &UNDAMENTAL DIF FERENCES ARISE IN THE RELATION BETWEEN INTELLIGENCE AND CREATIVITY DEPENDING ON WHETHER CREATIVITY IS ASSESSED VIA A $4 TEST OR CREATIVITY ASSESSMENTS BY RATINGS 4HE STUDIES OF THE RELATION BETWEEN CREATIVITY AND INTELLIGENCE INDICATE THAT THE TWO CONSTRUCTS ARE MODESTLY RELATED #ORRELATIONS BETWEEN THE TWO ARE FOUND IN THE RANGE OF R  n SUGGESTING THAT APPROXIMATELY n OF THE VARIANCE MAY BE ACCOUNTED FOR %VEN WITH CORRECTIONS FOR RELIABILITY IT IS UNLIKELY THAT THESE TWO TRAITS WILL EVER BE THOUGHT OF AS SYNONYMOUS ALTHOUGH THEY ARE CLEARLY "ATEY  &URNHAM 

2ATED EMINENCE

G IN 'OOD TRAINING PERFORMANCE GF GC EDUCATION EXPRESS /PPORTUNITY CREATIVITY TO

2ATED EMINENCE

&)'52%  2ELATION OF INTELLIGENCE TO RATED EMINENCE GF  FLUID INTELLI GENCE G  GENERAL INTELLIGENCE GC  CRYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE

RELATED )T APPEARS THAT CREATIVITY AS FLUENCY IS MORE STRONGLY RELATED TO )1 THAN IS CREATIVITY AS ORIGINALITY !N EXPLANATION FOR THE RELATION BETWEEN CREATIVITY AND INTELLIGENCE MAY RESIDE IN THE NEUROPHYSIOLOGY OF INTELLECT )T IS LIKELY THAT THE EFFICIENT NEURAL BASIS OF INTELLIGENCE EG ( * %YSENCK  "ARRETT  *ENSEN  EXPLAINS SOME OF THE VARIANCE IN CREATIVITY TEST SCORES #REATIVITY TESTS ARE USUALLY TIMED ESPECIALLY $4 TESTS  5NDER THESE CONDITIONS NEURAL EFFICIENCY CONTRIBUTES TO AN INCREASE IN $4 PERFORMANCE (OWEVER THE RESULTS ALSO INDICATE THAT NEURAL EFFICIENCY ALONE IS NOT SUFFICIENT TO EXPLAIN CREATIVE OUTPUT 4HE CONFLUENCE STUDIES EG 6INCENT ET AL  AND META ANALYSES #ARROLL  HAVE INDICATED THAT ALONGSIDE INTELLECTUAL ABILITY A NUMBER OF OTHER TRAITS CAN EXPLAIN THE VARIANCE IN CREATIVITY CRITERIA ! CREATIVITY TEST ESPECIALLY ONE THAT INVOLVES TIMED PAPER AND PENCIL SUBTESTS REQUIR ING PARTICIPANTS TO PROVIDE DIVERGENT RESPONSES ALWAYS RELIES IN PART ON COGNITIVE SPEED RETRIEVAL OF INFORMATION FROM MEMORY FLUID INTELLIGENCE AND MOTOR SKILLS 4HE MORE SIMILAR TO A TEST OF POWER THE ASSESSMENT OF CREATIVITY IS THE GREATER IS  'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS

THE RELATION TO INTELLECT (OWEVER IT IS MOST IMPORTANT THAT HIGH SCORES ON TESTS OF THESE FACTORS ARE NECESSARY BUT INSUFFICIENT FOR CREATIVITY 4HIS NEUROPHYSIOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF THE RELATION BETWEEN )1 AND CRE ATIVITY WHEN ASSESSED BY $4 CAN EXPLAIN WHY INTELLIGENCE IS RARELY CORRELATED WITH RATED CREATIVITY LARGELY BECAUSE RATINGS ARE NOT ASSESSED VIA PAPER AND PENCIL TESTS AND THEREFORE DO NOT GIVE THE OPPORTUNITY TO ASSESS ASPECTS OF )1 EG SPEED OF RETRIEVAL  4HIS RAISES A SERIOUS ISSUE ABOUT COMMON METHOD OF MEASURE MENT BIAS (OWEVER INTELLIGENCE IS LIKELY TO BE IMPORTANT FOR RATED CREATIVITY TOO 7E ARGUE THAT TO DEMONSTRATE SIGNIFICANT CREATIVITY ESPECIALLY IN TERMS OF ACHIEVEMENT OR EMINENCE AN INDIVIDUAL MUST FIRST REACH A POSITION WHERE HE OR SHE HAS SUFFICIENT FREEDOM TO CREATE (AYES   &OR MOST DOMAINS THAT IN VOLVES TRAINING AND EDUCATION TO A REASONABLY HIGH DEGREE WHICH IN TURN RELY ON A REASONABLY HIGH )1 'OTTFREDSON   4HIS REFERENCE TO DOMAIN SPECIFICITY IS IMPORTANT 4HE ROLE OF )1 IN RELATION TO DOMAINS WILL LIKELY DIFFER (IGH )1 IS A NECESSARY BUT INSUFFICIENT TRAIT FOR SUCCESS IN SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING BUT IT IS LESS LIKELY TO BE IMPORTANT FOR ACHIEVEMENT IN THE ARTS 7E SURMISE THAT )1 ALTHOUGH PROBABLY MORE SPECIFICALLY GF PROVIDES THE POWER FOR $4 OR THE ABILITY TO FIND A JOB WHERE CREATIVITY CAN BE EXPRESSED READILY (OWEVER IN ADDITION TO MOTIVATIONAL AND PERSONALITY VARIABLES A RICH KNOWLEDGE STORE -EDNICK  PROVIDES THE DRIVE AND THE UNUSUALNESS FOR CRE ATIVITY (OWEVER AS MAY BE EXPECTED FROM A TRAIT BASED INVESTIGATION THE SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF CREATIVITY HAS A SIZEABLE EFFECT 4EST TAKING CONDITIONS AND CULTURAL INFLUENCES WILL MAKE INDIVIDUALS MORE OR LESS LIKELY TO PROFFER UNUSUAL IDEAS 2ECENT APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF CREATIVITY HAVE BEEN COMPONENTIAL LEAD ING RESEARCHERS TO TRY TO UNDERSTAND CREATIVE THINKING AND PRODUCTION IN TERMS OF THE INTERRELATION BETWEEN SPECIFIC VARIABLES #ONFLUENCE APPROACHES SUCH AS THOSE USED BY 6INCENT ET AL  HAVE BEGUN TO SHOW THE RELATION BETWEEN )1 AND CREATIVITY SPECIFICALLY IN A MORE COMPREHENSIVE LIGHT 2ESEARCHERS ARE BEGINNING TO EXPLORE THE ROLES OF INTELLIGENCE $4 AND EXPERTISE GC IN THE EXPRESSION OF CREATIVE TALENT &UTURE RESEARCHERS WILL UNDOUBTEDLY BEGIN TO EXPLORE THE RELATIONS BETWEEN THESE DIFFERENT VARIABLES IN DIFFERENT DOMAINS WITH RECOGNITION OF THE INFLUENCE OF THE CULTURAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE SETTING )F THERE IS ONE CONCLUSION TO BE MADE FROM THE RESEARCH ON )1 AND CREATIVITY IT IS THAT )1 OR $4 SKILLS ALONE CANNOT ACCOUNT FOR MUCH OF THE VARIANCE IN CREATIVE ACHIEVEMENT ,IKE THE EXPERIMENTERS OF THE S S AND S WHO WERE SURE THAT SOMETHING OTHER THAN )1 COULD EXPLAIN CREATIVE ACHIEVEMENT WE NOW TURN TO INVESTIGATIONS OF THE CREATIVE PERSONALITY SEE 4ABLE  

#REATIVITY AND 0ERSONALITY

6IGOROUS DEBATES HAVE REGARDED THE NUMBER OF DIMENSIONS THAT CONSTITUTE PERSON ALITY #OSTA  -C#RAE A B ( * %YSENCK  A B  /UR RE VIEW CONCENTRATES PRIMARILY ON THE RELATION BETWEEN CREATIVITY AND TWO MAJOR MODELS "ATEY  &URNHAM 

OF PERSONALITY ( * %YSENCKS 'IGANTIC  AND #OSTA AND -C#RAES "IG  7E THEN PRESENT THE LESSONS FROM THAT LITERATURE WITH REFERENCE TO THE CREATIVE PROCESS &EIST  SUGGESTED THAT PERSONALITY RESEARCH WITH REGARD TO CREATIVITY HAS TAKEN TWO FORMS 4HE FIRST IS THE BETWEEN GROUPS COMPARISON (ERE TWO GROUPS OF PEOPLE ARE COMPARED EG ARTISTS COMPARED WITH SCIENTISTS  )N THE SECOND FORM OF CREATIVITY RESEARCH WITH REGARD TO PERSONALITY RESEARCHERS TRY TO ANALYZE WITHIN GROUP DIFFERENCES )N THESE CASES HIGHLY CREATIVE INDIVIDUALS FROM A DO MAIN ARE COMPARED WITH THEIR LESS CREATIVE PEERS 3UCH ANALYSES ARE ESSENTIAL BE CAUSE THE WITHIN GROUP VARIANCE IN CREATIVITY IS MARKEDLY DIFFERENT FOR ARTISTS AND SCIENTISTS -AC+INNON   3CIENTISTS WERE POSITED TO HAVE MORE PRONOUNCED VARIATION IN RATINGS OF CREATIVITY BECAUSE SCIENTISTS MAY BE INVOLVED IN hVERY ROUTINE ROTE AND PRESCRIBEDv RESEARCH &EIST  P  BESIDES THE FEW SCIENTISTS ENGAGED IN hREVOLUTIONARYv WORK +UHN  P   !LTERNATIVELY ALTHOUGH ARTISTS CAN BE USED IN ROUTINE WORK hANYONE WHO MAKES A LIVING AT ART HAS TO BE MORE THAN ONE STEP ABOVE A TECHNICIANv &EIST  P   4HE EARLY STUDIES OF CREATIVITY AND PERSONALITY WERE CHARACTERIZED BY THE DI VERSITY OF PERSONALITY MEASURES USED !S IN THE STUDY OF CREATIVITY AND INTELLIGENCE RESEARCHERS HAVE USED DIFFERENT DEFINITIONS OF PERSONALITY AND HAVE SOUGHT TO ASSESS THE CONSTRUCT BY USING DIFFERENT MEASURES 4HIS DIVERSITY MAKES THE INTERPRETATION OF THE CONSTITUTION OF THE CREATIVE PERSONALITY PARTICULARLY DIFFICULT 3OME INTERESTING EARLY STUDIES USED THE #ALIFORNIA 0ERSONALITY )NVENTORY #0) 'OUGH   -AC+ INNON  USED EXPERT RATINGS AND THE #0) TO INVESTIGATE THE CREATIVITY OF ARCHI TECTS 4O ASCERTAIN WITHIN GROUP DIFFERENCES HE COMPARED EXPERT RATED CREATIVE AR CHITECTS WITH THEIR LESS CREATIVE PEERS 4HE KEY FINDINGS FROM -AC+INNONS  WORK WERE THAT THE HIGHLY CREATIVE ARCHITECTS IN COMPARISON WITH THE NONCREATIVE ARCHITECTS WERE LESS DEFERENT AND TEAM ORIENTED MORE AGGRESSIVE DOMINANT AND AUTONOMOUS AND LESS SOCIALIZED RESPONSIBLE SELF CONTROLLED TOLERANT CONCERNED WITH GOOD IMPRESSIONS AND COMMUNAL IN ATTITUDE  $OMINO  ALSO USED THE #0) IN ADDITION TO THE %DWARDS 0ERSONAL 0REFER ENCE 3CHEDULE !DJECTIVE #HECKLIST !#, 'OUGH  (EILBURN   SCORED FOR CREATIVITY $OMINO  "ARRON 7ELSH !RT 3CALE 7ELSH  "ARRON  AND THE 2!4 -EDNICK  -EDNICK  TO ASSESS THE CREATIVITY OF CINEMATOGRA PHERS VERSUS MATCHED CONTROLS 4HE MAIN TREND OF HIS RESULTS WAS THAT CINEMATOG RAPHERS IN COMPARISON WITH MATCHED CONTROLS EXHIBITED A GREATER DESIRE FOR STATUS NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT SELF ACCEPTANCE AND NEED FOR CHANGE 4HE CINEMATOGRAPHERS SCORED LOWER THAN THE CONTROLS ON THE SCALES FOR NEED FOR DEFERENCE AND NEED FOR ORDER 7HEN SCORED FOR CREATIVITY THE !#, DIFFERENTIATED THE TWO GROUPS WITH THE CINEMATOGRAPHERS SCORING HIGHER .EITHER THE "ARRON 7ELSH !RT 3CALE 7ELSH  "ARRON NOR THE 2!4 REVEALED ANY DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE TWO GROUPS %ARLY RESEARCH USING THE #0) AND OTHER MEASURES INDICATED THAT CREATIVE INDIVIDUALS TEND TO PREFER AUTONOMY AND INDEPENDENCE THAT THEY ARE OFTEN LESS SOCIALIZED THAN LESS CREATIVE INDIVIDUALS WITH TENDENCIES TOWARD AGGRESSION OR LOW AGREEABLENESS AND THAT THEY APPEAR LESS CONCERNED WITH CONVENTION OR CONSCIENTIOUSNESS  'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS    )1 SCORE   ABILITY  - - 7)3#  )1 SUBSCALES ,ORGE $4 $4 AND A AND - EMINENCE SEMANTIC C $4 $4 OF AND C EMINENCE ON AND VERBAL  SCORES  RANKED  VERBAL  &LUENCY A 2!4 BOYS    FINDINGS MEASURE  RANKED A  AND  AND $4 6ERBAL +EY BEST )1 CREATIVITY AND AND )1 CREATIVITY VERBAL $4 IS SCORE BETWEEN -  )1 )1 )DEATIONAL - 3!4  OUTPERFORM   n   B  FIGURAL SYMBOLIC BETWEEN BETWEEN          n      R &LUENCY 'IRLS R R R R R R B B   CREATIVITY SCORES 4HORNDIKE BETWEEN BETWEEN      BETWEEN BETWEEN BETWEEN    #ORRELATION - R .O R R R - R R R R R R R R R - - $4 - - A B TO )1 ETC )NTELLIGENCE OF OF CITATIONS AND MEASURES "ATTERY OF CREATIVITY CREATIVITY CREATIVITY CREATIVITY $4 RATING 4HINKING RESPONSE SCORE SYMBOLISM IMAGINATION 4ESTS BEHAVIORS PUBLISHED OF OF OF OF OF !SSOCIATES OF 2!4 CREATIVITY -EASURES RESEARCH MEASURES MEASURES MEASURES #REATIVITY 44#4 #REATIVE 4EST CHECKLIST WORKS EFFECTIVENESS !PTITUDE NUMBER OF ABSTRACT TESTS $4 $4 (ISTORIOMETRIC $4 (ISTORIOMETRIC #REATIVITY )1 $4 #OMPOSITE $4 #OMPOSITE )1 $4 )1 )1 $4 )1  1UALITY )1 2ATINGS $4 )1 2ATINGS !GGREGATE 2ATINGS )1 2EMOTE )1 $4 )1 $4 #REATIVE -ULTIDIMENSIONAL )1 2ATINGS 2ATED )1 4ORRANCE )1 $4 TESTS "ETWEEN THINKING DATA MATCHED FINDINGS GENIUSES STUDENTS VS #OXS DIVERGENT PROFESSORS )0!2 SCHOOLCHILDREN OF #ORRELATIONS CHILDREN OFFICERS SCIENTISTS 3AMPLE CREATIVE SCIENCE STUDENTS CHILDREN OFFICERS 'UILFORD AND &ORCE  CONTROLS &IFTH GRADE 0RESCHOOL !RCHITECTS -ETA ANALYSIS -ETA ANALYSIS !RT !IR !GGREGATED 0SYCHOLOGY 2ESEARCHERS 5NDERGRADUATES 3CHOOLCHILDREN 3CHOOLCHILDREN #OLLEGE 3CHOOLCHILDREN 'IFTED %MINENT 2ESEARCH .AVAL 5NDERGRADUATES 2EANALYSIS $4 2EPRESENTATIVE OF QUOTIENT             3AMPLE            ! INTELLIGENCE    !NDREWS *ACKSON -EIER #OX -AC+INNON 7ALLACH 'OUGH 3IMONTON !NDREWS 2ICHARDS 'ETZELS "ARRON "ARRON -EDNICK )1 +ERSHNER 4ORRANCE $REVDAHL ,EDGER 'UILFORD 2USHTON +OGAN # -  7 -C#LOY ! (OCEVAR ' + 7 - , ' 0 7ADE 8 8 ! 0 % 2 0 7 & ' . . 0 * 4!",% 2ESEARCHERS # % * ( * & - 3 2 $ .OTE $ 7 $ & 3 * % * "ATEY  &URNHAM     )1 SCORE   ABILITY  - - 7)3#  )1 SUBSCALES ,ORGE $4 $4 AND A AND - EMINENCE SEMANTIC C $4 $4 OF AND C EMINENCE ON AND VERBAL  SCORES  RANKED  VERBAL  &LUENCY A 2!4 BOYS    FINDINGS MEASURE  RANKED A  AND  AND $4 6ERBAL +EY BEST )1 CREATIVITY AND AND )1 CREATIVITY VERBAL $4 IS SCORE BETWEEN -  )1 )1 )DEATIONAL - 3!4  OUTPERFORM   n   B  FIGURAL SYMBOLIC BETWEEN BETWEEN          n      R &LUENCY 'IRLS R R R R R R B B   CREATIVITY SCORES 4HORNDIKE BETWEEN BETWEEN      BETWEEN BETWEEN BETWEEN    #ORRELATION - R .O R R R - R R R R R R R R R - - $4 - - A B TO )1 ETC )NTELLIGENCE OF OF CITATIONS AND MEASURES "ATTERY OF CREATIVITY CREATIVITY CREATIVITY CREATIVITY $4 RATING 4HINKING RESPONSE SCORE SYMBOLISM IMAGINATION 4ESTS BEHAVIORS PUBLISHED OF OF OF OF OF !SSOCIATES OF 2!4 CREATIVITY -EASURES RESEARCH MEASURES MEASURES MEASURES #REATIVITY 44#4 #REATIVE 4EST CHECKLIST WORKS EFFECTIVENESS !PTITUDE NUMBER OF ABSTRACT TESTS $4 $4 (ISTORIOMETRIC $4 (ISTORIOMETRIC #REATIVITY )1 $4 #OMPOSITE $4 #OMPOSITE )1 $4 )1 )1 $4 )1  1UALITY )1 2ATINGS $4 )1 2ATINGS !GGREGATE 2ATINGS )1 2EMOTE )1 $4 )1 $4 #REATIVE -ULTIDIMENSIONAL )1 2ATINGS 2ATED )1 4ORRANCE )1 $4 TESTS "ETWEEN THINKING DATA MATCHED FINDINGS GENIUSES STUDENTS VS #OXS DIVERGENT PROFESSORS )0!2 SCHOOLCHILDREN OF #ORRELATIONS CHILDREN OFFICERS SCIENTISTS 3AMPLE CREATIVE SCIENCE STUDENTS CHILDREN OFFICERS 'UILFORD AND &ORCE  CONTROLS &IFTH GRADE 0RESCHOOL !RCHITECTS -ETA ANALYSIS -ETA ANALYSIS !RT !IR !GGREGATED 0SYCHOLOGY 2ESEARCHERS 5NDERGRADUATES 3CHOOLCHILDREN 3CHOOLCHILDREN #OLLEGE 3CHOOLCHILDREN 'IFTED %MINENT 2ESEARCH .AVAL 5NDERGRADUATES 2EANALYSIS $4 2EPRESENTATIVE OF QUOTIENT             3AMPLE            ! INTELLIGENCE    !NDREWS *ACKSON -EIER #OX -AC+INNON 7ALLACH 'OUGH 3IMONTON !NDREWS 2ICHARDS 'ETZELS "ARRON "ARRON -EDNICK )1 +ERSHNER 4ORRANCE $REVDAHL ,EDGER 'UILFORD 2USHTON +OGAN # -  7 -C#LOY ! (OCEVAR ' + 7 - , ' 0 7ADE 8 8 ! 0 % 2 0 7 & ' . . 0 * 4!",% 2ESEARCHERS # % * ( * & - 3 2 $ .OTE $ 7 $ & 3 * % *  'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS

%YSENCKIAN )NSPIRED 2ESEARCH

4HE CONCEPT OF THE 'IGANTIC  CF FOR A DETAILED EXAMINATION OF THE THEORY SEE ( * %YSENCK  %YSENCK  PERSONALITY FACTORS IS INEXTRICABLY LINKED TO THE WORK OF ( * %YSENCK ( * %YSENCK POSITED THREE ORTHOGONAL DIMENSIONS OR SUPERFACTORS IN THE DESCRIPTION OF PERSONALITY EXTRAVERSION VERSUS INTROVERSION % EMOTIONAL STABILITY VERSUS INSTABILITY OR NEUROTICISM . AND PSYCHOTICISM VERSUS IMPULSE CONTROL 0 ( * %YSENCK  %YSENCK  3 " ' %YSENCK %YSENCK  "ARRETT   4HESE DIMENSIONS OR SUPERFACTORS ARE BASED ON hCON STITUTIONAL GENETIC OR INBORN FACTORS WHICH ARE TO BE DISCOVERED IN THE PHYSI OLOGICAL NEUROLOGICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF THE INDIVIDUALv 3 " ' %YSENCK ET AL  PP n  4HE CONCEPT THAT CREATIVITY INVOLVES THE COMBINATION OF DISPARATE CONSTRUCTS IS COMMON THROUGHOUT THE LITERATURE +OESTLER  -EDNICK  2OTHEN BERG   ( * %YSENCK   HAS ARGUED THAT VARIATIONS IN 0 CAN BE SEEN AS THE BASIS FOR CREATIVE THINKING AND ALSO AS THE BASIS FOR A DISPOSITION TO PSYCHOPATHOLOGY WITH HIGH 0 SCORERS PRONE TO UNUSUAL IDEATION AND MENTAL ILL NESS ( * %YSENCK   PRODUCED A MODEL TO EXPLAIN HOW 0 AND CREATIV ITY WERE RELATED (E ARGUED THAT THE PROCESS OF OVERINCLUSIVE OR ILLUSIVE THINKING CHARACTERIZES BOTH PSYCHOTIC AND CREATIVE THINKING ( * %YSENCK   2ESEARCHERS HAVE EXAMINED THE RELATION BETWEEN CREATIVITY AND PSYCHOPA THOLOGY #ATTELL  $REVDAHL  $ELLAS  'AIER  'OERTZEL 'OERTZEL  'OERTZEL  (ESTON  *AMISON   ,LOYD %VANS ET AL  ,UDWIG  0RENTKY    3ASS   AND MANY OF THEM HAVE FOUND EVIDENCE TO SUPPORT ( * %YSENCKS  HYPOTHESIS THAT THERE ARE SIMILARITIES BETWEEN CREATIVES AND INDIVIDUALS WITH SCHIZOPHRENIA OR SUFFERERS OF BIPOLAR DISORDER 0SYCHOTICISM OR SCHIZOTYPY IS POSTULATED TO CONTRIBUTE TO A CREATIVE THINKING STYLE WHEREAS BIPOLAR DISORDER IS POSTULATED TO CONTRIBUTE TO CREATIVITY BY PREDISPOSING SUFFERERS TO EXPERIENCE THE EXTREMES OF AFFECT &OR THIS REASON MODERN RESEARCHERS HAVE FOUND THE RELATION OF SCHIZOTYPAL DIMEN SIONS TO CREATIVITY IN DIFFERENT DOMAINS TO VARY EG .ETTLE   -OST OF THESE RESEARCHERS HAVE CONCLUDED THAT THERE ARE SIGNS OF PSYCHO PATHOLOGY ESPECIALLY PSYCHOSES AMONG FAMOUS CREATORS AND HAVE POINTED TO A LINK BETWEEN CREATIVITY AND PSYCHOPATHOLOGY ( * %YSENCK  SUG GESTED THAT MUCH OF THE DEBATE ABOUT WHETHER CREATIVE GENIUSES ARE PSYCHOTIC COULD BE RESOLVED BY DISREGARDING THE ASSUMPTION THAT PSYCHIATRIC ABNORMAL ITY IS CATEGORICAL RATHER THAN DIMENSIONAL !CCORDING TO ( * %YSENCK AND %YSENCK  PSYCHOPATHOLOGY CAN BE CONCEPTUALIZED AS AN EXAGGERATION OR EXTENSION OF UNDERLYING PERSONALITY TRAITS AN IDEA SUPPORTED BY THE INTRO DUCTION OF PERSONALITY DISORDERS IN THE $IAGNOSTIC AND 3TATISTICAL -ANUAL OF -ENTAL $ISORDERS THIRD EDITION $3- ))) !MERICAN 0SYCHIATRIC !SSOCIATION  AND CONTINUED WITH THE $IAGNOSTIC AND 3TATISTICAL -ANUAL OF -ENTAL $ISORDERS FOURTH EDITION $3- )6 !MERICAN 0SYCHIATRIC !SSOCIATION   "ATEY  &URNHAM 

!CCORDINGLY PSYCHOSIS LIES AT THE EXTREME END OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF PSY CHOTICISM A HYPOTHETICAL DISPOSITIONAL PERSONALITY TRAIT WHICH IS CONCEIVED OF AS A CONTINUUM RANGING FROM NORMAL TO PSYCHOTIC 0SYCHOTICISM HAS BEEN DESCRIBED AS CONSISTING OF SEVERAL CHARACTERISTICS ONE OF WHICH IS CREATIVITY /THER CHARACTERISTICS INCLUDE AGGRESSIVENESS IMPERSONAL AND ANTISOCIAL BE HAVIOR COLDNESS EGOCENTRICITY IMPULSIVITY UNEMPATHIC BEHAVIOR AND TOUGH MINDEDNESS ( * %YSENCK  %YSENCK   ( * %YSENCK  ASSUMED THAT CREATIVE PEOPLE POSSESS THE PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF PSYCHOTICISM PREDISPOSITION TO PSYCHOSIS AT A HIGHER LEVEL THAN DOES THE NORMAL INDIVIDUAL AND THAT IF ADEQUATE CONTROL IS MISSING OR IF THEY EXPERIENCE STRESSFUL SITUATIONS THEN THEY MAY DEVELOP PSYCHOSIS 4HE PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF THE HIGH 0 SCORERS MAKE THEM PREDISPOSED TOWARD CREATIVITY 4HE COEXISTENCE OF BOTH A DOMINANT OR INDEPENDENT ATTITUDES AND B A COGNI TIVE STYLE THAT ALLOWS FOR GREATER FLEXIBILITY ENSURES THAT HIGH 0 SCORERS COULD BE CREATIVE IF THEY ALSO POSSESS THE NECESSARY MOTIVATIONAL TRAITS COGNITIVE VARIABLES AND AN ENVIRONMENT CONDUCIVE TO CREATIVE EXPRESSION ( * %YSENCKS  POSITION CAN BE SUMMARIZED AS FOLLOWS )F A THERE IS A LINK BETWEEN PSYCHOSIS AND CREATIVITY AND B PSYCHOTICISM TAPS A UNITARY DIMENSION UNDERLYING SUSCEPTIBILITY TO PSYCHOTIC ILLNESS THEN THE IMPORTANT PERSONALITY FACTORˆWHICH ACTS SYNERGISTICALLY WITH TRAIT CREATIVITY $4 AND WHICH MAY UNDER FAVORABLE ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS LEAD TO REAL LIFE CREATIVE ACHIEVEMENTˆIS PSYCHOTICISM 2ESEARCHERS HAVE FOUND A CORRELATION BETWEEN PSYCHOTICISM AND TRAIT CREATIVITY EG !GUILAR !LONSO  -ERTEN  &ISCHER  7OODY  #LARIDGE  AND ALSO BETWEEN PSYCHOTICISM AND ACHIEVEMENT CREATIVITY 'OTZ  'OTZ A B 2USHTON   (OWEVER RESEARCHERS HAVE FAILED TO FIND SIGNIFICANT RELATIONS BETWEEN CREATIVITY AND 0 ( * %YSENCK  &URNHAM  +LINE  #OOPER  -ARTINDALE  $AILEY   ( * %YSENCK  SUGGESTED THAT THE COMMON FACTOR OR FACTORS UNDERLYING THE RELATION BETWEEN PSYCHOTICISM AND THE CREATIVE PROCESS CONCERN INFORMATION PROCESSING OR ATTENTIONAL DEFICIT PATTERNS IN BOTH CREATIVE PEOPLE AND PEOPLE WITH PSYCHOSIS #LOSE EXAMINATION OF THE THEORIES DEVELOPED TO EXPLAIN THE COGNITIVE DEFICITS IN PEOPLE WITH PSYCHOSIS &RITH  (EMSLEY  AND THOSE RELATING TO THE COGNITIVE ASPECTS OF CREATIVITY -ARTINDALE   REVEALS MANY SIMILARI TIES -EEHL  SUGGESTED THAT THE TYPICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SCHIZOPHRENIA AND SCHIZOTYPAL DISORDERS ARE LOOSENING OF ASSOCIATIONS AMBIVALENCE SOCIAL WITHDRAW AL AND INAPPROPRIATE AFFECT 4HESE CHARACTERISTICS ARE HIGHLY SIMILAR TO THOSE OF THE CREATIVE PERSON WHO MUST PRODUCE NOVEL IDEAS SHOW A TOLERANCE FOR AMBIGUITY TRY TO hDEFY THE CROWDv 3TERNBERG  ,UBART  P  AND ENGAGE IN WHAT IS OFTEN CONSIDERED STRANGE BEHAVIOR 'OERTZEL ET AL  /CHSE   -OST OF THE THEORISTS STUDYING THE COGNITIVE DEFICIT IN SCHIZOPHRENIA HAVE PROPOSED A DEFICIT IN SELECTIVE ATTENTION MECHANISMS WHICH RESULTS IN INDIVIDUALS WITH SCHIZOPHRENIA WHO ARE UNABLE TO INHIBIT IRRELEVANT INFORMATION FROM ENTERING CONSCIOUSNESS &RITH  (EMSLEY   4HIS ACTIVE INHIBITION PROPOSITION  'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS

4IPPER  MAY BE CONTRASTED WITH THE PASSIVE DECAY THEORY OF ATTENTION "ROADBENT   4HIS INDICATES THAT THERE IS AN ATTENTIONAL MECHANISM RESPON SIBLE FOR INHIBITING IRRELEVANT INFORMATION THE NORMAL VARIATIONS OF WHICH CAN BE USED TO EXPLAIN TRAIT CREATIVITY -ANY RESEARCHERS HAVE DIRECTLY EXAMINED THE HYPOTHESIS THAT A MECHANISM OF REDUCED COGNITIVE INHIBITION DURING SELECTIVE ATTENTION IS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE WIDENING OF ASSOCIATIVE CONNECTIONS -OST OF THESE RESEARCHERS HAVE USED A NEGATIVE PRIMING 4IPPER  OR LATENT INHIBITION ,) ,UBOW  -OORE  PARADIGM TO MEASURE INHIBITION .EGATIVE PRIMING TYPICALLY USES A MODIFIED VERSION OF THE 3TROOP  COLOR WORD INK NAMING TASK AND REFERS TO THE DELAY IN RESPONDING TO A CURRENT TARGET OBJECT IF THE OBJECT HAD BEEN A DISTRACTER TO BE INHIBITED ON A PREVIOUS DISPLAY 2ESEARCHERS HAVE DEMONSTRATED A REDUCED NEGATIVE PRIMING EFFECT IN SCHIZO PHRENIC PATIENTS PROVIDING EVIDENCE OF REDUCED COGNITIVE INHIBITION IN PEOPLE WITH SCHIZOPHRENIA "EECH -C-ANUS "AYLIS 4IPPER  !GAR  "EECH 0OWELL -C7ILLIAM  #LARIDGE   4HIS EFFECT HAS ALSO BEEN FOUND WITH THE ,) PARA DIGM "ARUCH (EMSLEY  'RAY A  7UTHRICH AND "ATES  DEMONSTRATED THAT THE RELATION OF PSYCHOSIS PRONENESS TO PRIMING AND THAT TO ,) ARE SIMILAR SUG GESTING THAT STUDIES USING THESE DIFFERENT METHODS CAN BE CONTRASTED "ULLEN AND (EMSLEY  BY USING A NEGATIVE PRIMING WORD TASK AND THE %YSENCK 0ERSONALITY 1UESTIONNAIRE %01 AS A MEASURE OF PSYCHOTIC TENDEN CIES FOUND A SIGNIFICANT NEGATIVE CORRELATION BETWEEN 0 AND THE MAGNITUDE OF THE INHIBITORY NEGATIVE PRIMING EFFECT (IGH 0 SCORERS SHOWED REDUCED COGNITIVE INHIBITION COMPARED TO LOW 0 SCORERS 4HOSE RESEARCHERS DID NOT OBTAIN CORRELA TIONS BETWEEN THE NEGATIVE PRIMING TASK AND THE OTHER %01 SUBSCALES )N A SIMILAR STUDY "ARUCH (EMSLEY AND 'RAY B FOUND THAT THE GREATER THE SCORES ON %YSENCKS 0 THE GREATER THE REDUCTION IN ,) )N AN EXTENSION ,UBOW )NGBERG 3ACHS :ALSTEIN /RDA AND 'ERWITZ  DEMONSTRATED THAT EFFECT FOR BOTH AUDI TORY AND VISUAL ,) PARADIGMS "EECH "AYLISS 3MITHSON AND #LARIDGE  STUDIED THE EFFECT OF CHLOR PROMAZINE A DRUG ROUTINELY ADMINISTERED TO REDUCE SCHIZOPHRENIC SYMPTOM ATOLOGY ON NEGATIVE PRIMING 4HEY FOUND THAT ALTHOUGH NEGATIVE PRIMING WAS OBSERVED IN BOTH THE DRUG AND PLACEBO CONDITIONS THE EFFECT WAS STRONGER IN THE DRUG CONDITION 4HIS INDICATES THAT A DRUG THAT REDUCES THE SYMPTOMS OF SCHIZO PHRENIA ALSO INCREASES COGNITIVE INHIBITION 4HIS FINDING SHOWS THE RELATION BE TWEEN ATTENTIONAL DEFICITS AND THE NEUROTRANSMITTER DOPAMINE WHICH IS RELATED TO LEVEL OF INHIBITION 3OLOMON ET AL   )N THE FUTURE THIS RELATION WOULD ALLOW RESEARCHERS TO FIND THE GENES RESPONSIBLE FOR THE CODING OF DOPAMINE NEUROTRANS MITTERS WHICH BY PROXY WOULD ENABLE A GENETIC TEST FOR SOME OF THE COGNITIVE ELEMENTS OF CREATIVITY 4HEORIES DEVELOPED TO EXPLAIN THE CREATIVE PROCESS HAVE MANY SIMILARITIES TO THE THEORIES ABOUT SCHIZOPHRENIA ! NUMBER OF AUTHORS HAVE SUGGESTED THAT THE CREATIVE PROCESS IS ASSOCIATIVE -EDNICK  PROPOSED THAT INDIVIDUALS WHO "ATEY  &URNHAM 

DEMONSTRATE LOW CREATIVITY HAVE A SMALL NUMBER OF STRONG STEREOTYPED ASSOCIA TIVE RESPONSES TO A GIVEN STIMULUS COMPARED WITH HIGHLY CREATIVE INDIVIDUALS 7ALLACH  SUGGESTED THAT WHAT IS IMPORTANT IN CREATIVITY IS THE GENERATION OF ASSOCIATES AND THAT ATTENTION DEPLOYMENT IS THE PROCESS UNDERLYING THIS GENERA TION +ASOF  SHOWED THAT BREADTH OF ATTENTION CORRELATED POSITIVELY WITH CREATIVE PERFORMANCE ON A POETRY WRITING TASK THEREBY DEMONSTRATING THAT PART OF AN INDIVIDUALS PERFORMANCE ON A CREATIVITY TASK CAN BE EXPLAINED BY ATTENTIONAL ABILITIES -ARTINDALE    HAS DEMONSTRATED THAT CREATIVE PEOPLE HAVE A HIGH RESTING LEVEL OF ACTIVATION AND THAT THEY ARE OVERSENSITIVE TO STIMULI (OWEVER THEY ALSO HAVE A LOW LEVEL OF INHIBITION SO THAT THE MORE THEY ARE STIMU LATED THE MORE THEIR LEVEL OF AROUSAL DROPS FAVORING CREATIVE PERFORMANCE !GAIN THE NOTIONS OF REDUCED INHIBITION AND MOOD FLUCTUATION AROUSAL LEVELS RISING AND FALLING ARE COMMON NOTIONS IN THE LITERATURE ON SCHIZOPHRENIA #REATIVE INDIVIDUALS MAY BE ABLE TO ATTEND TO MANY ASPECTS OF A GIVEN STIMU LUS AND THUS PRODUCE MORE AND MORE VARIED ASSOCIATIONS 4HE SIMILARITY BETWEEN THE AFOREMENTIONED THEORIES AND THE NOTION OF WIDE ASSOCIATIVE HORIZONS THAT CHARACTERIZE SCHIZOPHRENIC COGNITION IS CLEAR (OWEVER EXPERIMENTERS INVESTIGAT ING THIS AVENUE OF RESEARCH HAVE CONTINUED TO REPEAT THE ERRORS OF EARLY CREATIVITY INVESTIGATORS 4HESE LATER RESEARCHERS HAVE MADE LITTLE ACCOUNT OF DOMAIN SPECI FICITY AGE OR GENDER DURING ANALYSES ! NUMBER OF RESEARCHERS HAVE REPORTED RESULTS SUPPORTING THE AFOREMEN TIONED THEORIES -AC+INNON  IN HIS STUDY OF ARCHITECTS FOUND THAT RATED CREATIVITY CORRELATED BY R   WITH A MEASURE OF UNUSUALNESS OF ASSOCIATIONS ON A WORD ASSOCIATION TEST &URTHERMORE THE DEGREE OF UNUSUALNESS OF RESPONSE WAS GREATEST WITH THE MOST CREATIVE SAMPLE WITH LOWER SCORES FOR THE MEDIAN AND LEAST CREATIVE GROUPS RESPECTIVELY 3IMILARLY 'OUGH  REPORTED THAT THE SCORES ON TWO WORD ASSOCIATION TESTS USING A GENERAL WORD LIST AND A SCIENTIFIC WORD LIST CORRELATED WITH RATED CREATIVITY IN A SAMPLE OF ENGINEERING STUDENTS AND INDUSTRIAL REWARD SCIENTISTS 4HESE RESULTS HAVE BEEN REPLICATED IN OTHER SAMPLES -ERTEN  &ISCHER  -ILLER  #HAPMAN  5PMANYU "HARDWAJ  3INGH   2ESEARCHERS HAVE FOUND COMPARABLE RESULTS IN STUDIES IN WHICH INDIVIDUALS WITH SCHIZOPHRENIA AND CREATIVES COMPLETED OBJECT SORTING TASKS WITH THE CREATIVES PERFORMING SIMILARLY TO THE INDIVIDUALS WITH SCHIZOPHRENIA !NDREASEN  0OW ERS  $YKES  -C'HIE   ! FEW RESEARCHERS HAVE CONTRASTED THE ATTENTIONAL AND INFORMATION PROCESSING STRATEGIES OF INDIVIDUALS WITH SCHIZOPHRENIA AND HIGH 0 SCORERS AND CREATIVE INDIVID UALS 2AWLINGS  USED THE %01 TWO SUBSCALES OF THE 7ALLACH +OGAN 7ALLACH  +OGAN  $4 TEST AND A DICHOTIC SHADOWING TASK AS A MEASURE OF COGNITIVE INHIBITION WITH A GROUP OF UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS (E FOUND THAT PERFORMANCE ON THE SHADOWING TASK WAS POSITIVELY CORRELATED WITH $4 SCORES AND WITH PSYCHOTICISM SCORES ON THE DIVIDED ATTENTION CONDITION (OWEVER THE PATTERN OF RESULTS WAS RE VERSED IN THE FOCUSED ATTENTION CONDITION AND THE CORRELATION BETWEEN PSYCHOTICISM AND $4 WAS NOT STATISTICALLY SIGNIFICANT  'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS

3TAVRIDOU AND &URNHAM  TESTED A SAMPLE OF  UNDERGRADUATE PARTICI PANTS BY USING THE %01 THE 7ALLACH +OGAN 7ALLACH  +OGAN  $4 TESTS AND A NEGATIVE PRIMING TASK AS A MEASURE OF COGNITIVE INHIBITION 4HEY FOUND THAT 0 WAS CORRELATED WITH $4 SCORES (IGH 0 SCORERS EXHIBITED A REDUCED NEGATIVE PRIMING EFFECT WHEN COMPARED WITH LOW 0 SCORERS 0ARTICIPANTS WHO SCORED HIGHLY ON THE $4 TESTS SHOWED A SMALLER NEGATIVE PRIMING EFFECT COMPARED WITH LOW $4 SCORERS BUT THIS EFFECT FAILED TO REACH STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE 2ECENT EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCHERS HAVE INDICATED THAT PARTICIPANTS RATED AS SUPERIOR IN CREATIVE ABILITY ALSO DEMONSTRATE LOW LEVELS OF LATENT INHIBITION IN COMPARISON WITH PEOPLE NOT RATED AS CREATIVE #ARSON 0ETERSON  (IGGINS  0ETERSON  #ARSON   4HIS EVIDENCE SUPPORTS ( * %YSENCKS  THEORY OF CREATIVITY 7ITH THE RELATION BETWEEN PSYCHOTICISM AND CREATIVITY REASONABLY WELL ESTAB LISHED WE EXAMINE THE GENERALIZABILITY OF ( * %YSENCKS  IDEAS 2ESEARCH ERS RELATING THE 'IGANTIC  TO CREATIVITY HAVE INVESTIGATED THE RELATION OF %YSENCKIAN PERSONALITY TO A $4 B RATINGS AND SELECTED OCCUPATIONAL GROUPS AND C CONFLU ENCE APPROACHES 7OODY AND #LARIDGE  DEMONSTRATED A LINK BETWEEN 0 AND TRAIT CREATIVITY 4HEY ADMINISTERED TO  UNDERGRADUATES THE %01 AND SLIGHTLY MODIFIED VERSIONS OF THE FIVE TESTS THAT CONSTITUTED THE 7ALLACH +OGAN 7ALLACH  +OGAN  CREATIVITY TESTS 4HE TESTS YIELDED SCORES FOR FLUENCY AND ORIGINAL ITY &LUENCY SCORES FOR THE FIVE TESTS WERE ALL SIGNIFICANTLY CORRELATED WITH 0 WITH A RANGE OF CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS BETWEEN R   AND R   /RIGINALITY SCORES WERE ALSO SIGNIFICANTLY CORRELATED WITH 0 WITH A RANGE OF CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS BETWEEN R   AND R   4HERE WERE NO SIGNIFICANT CORRELATIONS BETWEEN A THE SCORES FOR THE CREATIVITY TESTS AND B EITHER % OR . +LINE AND #OOPER  HOWEVER PUBLISHED RESEARCH THAT hCAST DOUBT ON THE GENERALITY OF THE LINK BETWEEN CREATIVITY AND 0v P   4HEY WANTED TO TEST THE SUPPOSITION THAT 0 WAS MORE PREDICTIVE OF ORIGINALITY THAN FLUENCY SCORES ON $4 TESTS ( * %YSENCK  %YSENCK  7OODY  #LARIDGE   +LINE AND #OOPER GAVE  UNDERGRADUATES THE %01 AND THE #OMPREHENSIVE !BILITY "ATTERY #!" (AKSTIAN  #ATTELL   4HE #!" CONSISTED OF SEVERAL MEASURES OF PRIMARY ABILITY FACTORS INCLUDING SOME TO MEASURE CREATIVITY FLEXIBILITY OF CLOSURE SPONTANEOUS FLEXIBILITY IDEATIONAL FLUENCY WORD FLUENCY AND ORIGINALITY 4HE RESULTS WERE SURPRISING /NLY ONE SIGNIFICANT CORRELATION BETWEEN THE #!" AND 0 WAS REVEALED A COR RELATION FOR MALE PARTICIPANTS N   ONLY ON THE WORD FLUENCY MEASURE +LINE  #OOPER   4HERE WERE NO SIGNIFICANT CORRELATIONS BETWEEN 0 SCORES AND #!" MEASURES FOR THE FEMALE PARTICIPANTS N    4O EXPLAIN WHY THE RESULTS OF THIS STUDY WERE INCONGRUENT WITH THE FINDINGS OF 7OODY AND #LARIDGE  +LINE AND #OOPER SUGGESTED THAT UNLIKE THE UNTIMED TESTS OF CREATIVITY USED BY 7OODY AND #LARIDGE THE #!" WAS TIMED 7ALLACH AND +OGANS  ASSERTION THAT TIMED TESTS PRODUCE LESS CREATIVE RESPONSES MAY BE AT THE HEART OF THESE DIS CREPANT FINDINGS ON THE NATURE OF 0 AND CREATIVITY 7ALLACH AND +OGAN ALSO NOTED THAT THE VARIANCE IN )1 SCORES FOR THE +LINE AND #OOPER SAMPLE WAS GREATER THAN THAT OF THE STUDENTS IN THE 7OODY AND #LARIDGE EXPERIMENT "ATEY  &URNHAM 

5SING A BATTERY OF CREATIVITY TESTS !GUILAR !LONSO  FOUND THAT 0 AND % WERE SIGNIFICANT CORRELATES OF $4 MEASURES OF CREATIVITY (IGH 0 SCORERS WERE MORE VERBALLY CREATIVE AND FLEXIBLE THAN LOW 0 SCORERS -OREOVER EXTROVERTS WERE MORE ORIGINAL FLUENT AND FLEXIBLE THAN INTROVERTS BUT THE NEUROTICISM FACTOR WAS UNCORRELATED 3OME RESEARCHERS HAVE EXAMINED %YSENCKIAN PERSONALITY AND CREATIVITY BY USING RATINGS WITH PARTICULAR OCCUPATIONAL GROUPS 'OTZ AND 'OTZ  A B STUDIED THE PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF 7EST 'ERMAN ARTISTS 4HOSE IN VESTIGATIONS REVEALED THAT IN THE DOMAIN OF THE VISUAL ARTS . AS MEASURED BY THE -AUDSLEY 0ERSONALITY )NVENTORY -0) ( * %YSENCK  AND THE %01 ( * %YSENCK  %YSENCK  IS AN IMPORTANT VARIABLE FOR RESEARCHERS TO CONSIDER 'OTZ AND 'OTZS  STUDY INDICATED THAT GIFTED ART STUDENTS N   SCORED HIGHER ON . AND INTROVERSION ) SCALES THAN DID  LESS GIFTED ART STUDENTS 'OTZ AND 'OTZ A STUDIED PROFESSIONAL ARTISTS AND FOUND THEM TO HAVE HIGHER SCORES ON 0 THAN DID A GROUP OF CONTROL PARTICIPANTS )N A FOLLOW UP STUDY 'OTZ AND 'OTZ B COMPARED THE PERSONALITY SCORES OF HIGHLY SUCCESSFUL PROFES SIONAL ARTISTS AND LESS SUCCESSFUL PROFESSIONAL ARTISTS 4HOSE RESEARCHERS FOUND THAT SUCCESSFUL ARTISTS SCORED SIGNIFICANTLY HIGHER ON THE 0 SCALE THAN DID LESS SUCCESSFUL ARTISTS .O DIFFERENCES WERE FOUND BETWEEN THE TWO GROUPS ON THE % . OR LIE , SCALES -ERTEN AND &ISCHER  SELECTED CREATIVES ON THE BASIS OF OCCUPATION 4HOSE RESEARCHERS COMPARED  ACTORS AND WRITERS WITH  INDIVIDUALS WITH SCHIZOPHRENIA AND  CONTROL PARTICIPANTS 0ARTICIPANTS TOOK A WORD ASSOCIATION TEST REQUIRING COMMON AND UNCOMMON RESPONSES -ERTEN   TWO TESTS OF VERBAL CREATIVITY 3CHOPPE  AND TWO STORY WRITING TASKS WHICH WERE USED AS MEASURES OF CREATIVITY 4HE %01 WAS USED AS A MEASURE OF PERSONALITY 0ARTICIPANTS WERE ALSO GIVEN A VOCABULARY TEST 2AVENS  3TANDARD 0ROGRES SIVE -ATRICES AND A MEASURE OF BASIC COGNITIVE FUNCTIONING 2EITAN   4HE CREATIVES SCORED HIGHER ON THE 0 SCALE THAN DID THE CONTROL GROUP 4HE CREATIVES ALSO PRODUCED THE MOST ORIGINAL WORD ASSOCIATIONS OF THE THREE GROUPS 4HE CREATIVES DID NOT PRODUCE ANY RESPONSE REPETITIONS IN THE COMMON OR UNUSUAL RESPONSE CONDITIONS 4HIS WAS CONSIDERED AN INDICATION OF THE MENTAL HEALTH OF THE CREATIVE GROUP (OWEVER WE EXERCISE CAUTION WHEN INTERPRETING THE RESULTS OF THIS STUDY 4HE CRITERION OF CREATIVITY WAS NOT PARTICULARLY STRINGENT 4HE CRE ATIVES GROUP CONSISTED OF ACTORS AND WRITERS &IRST ACTORS AND WRITERS MAY HAVE DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO CREATIVITY 4HEREFORE THE STUDY MAY HAVE FAILED TO TAKE DOMAIN SPECIFICITY INTO ACCOUNT 3ECOND THERE WAS NO MEASURE OF THE QUALITY OF THE WORK OF THE ACTORS OR WRITERS MAKING IT DIFFICULT TO ASCERTAIN WHETHER THEY SHOULD BE CALLED CREATIVE )N A STUDY OF ADOLESCENTS 3EN AND (AGTVET  ADMINISTERED A BATTERY OF TESTS WHICH INCLUDED MEASURES OF PERSONALITY -0) ( * %YSENCK  $4 4ORRANCE  AND INTELLIGENCE 2AVEN  AND A STUDY OF VALUES !LLPORT 6ERNON  ,INDZEY   3EN AND (AGTVET ALSO USED EXAMINATION MARKS AS A  'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS

MEASURE OF ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT /F THE PERSONALITY VARIABLES ONLY % CORRE LATED SIGNIFICANTLY WITH THE COMPOSITE CREATIVITY SCORE R    7HEN THE SAMPLE WAS SPLIT TO COMPARE THE SCORES OF HIGH SCORERS AND LOW SCORERS ON THE CREATIVITY TESTS THE HIGH CREATIVES WERE FOUND TO BE SIGNIFICANTLY MORE EXTROVERTED 7E INTERPRET THESE RESULTS CAUTIOUSLY BECAUSE THE CRITERION OF CREATIVITY WAS NOT PAR TICULARLY COMPREHENSIVE -ARTINDALE AND $AILEY  USED MEASURES OF PERSONALITY %01 AND .%/ 0) #OSTA  -C#RAE  AND SEVERAL MEASURES OF CREATIVITY -ARTINDALE AND $AILEY FAILED TO FIND ANY CORRELATION BETWEEN THE MEASURES OF CREATIVITY AND THE 0 SCALE 4HE CORRELATIONS BETWEEN .%/ OPENNESS TO EXPERIENCE / AND CREATIV ITY SCORES ALL FAILED TO REACH SIGNIFICANCE 3IGNIFICANT CORRELATIONS WERE DEMON STRATED BETWEEN THE %01 % SCORES AND THE CREATIVITY SCORES AT THE  LEVEL 3OME MARGINALLY SIGNIFICANT CORRELATIONS WERE OBSERVED FOR THE .%/ % SCORES AND CREATIVITY SCORES 4HE DESIGN OF THIS INVESTIGATION WAS COMPREHENSIVE -ULTIPLE MEASURES OF PERSONALITY AND CREATIVITY WERE USED (OWEVER THE SAMPLE INCLUDED ONLY  PARTICIPANTS MAKING GENERALIZATION DIFFICULT 5PMANYU ET AL  TESTED MALE GRADUATE STUDENTS IN )NDIA 5PMANYU ET AL WERE INTERESTED IN TESTING A FINDING BY 'OUGH  THAT MODERATELY UNUSUAL RESPONSES ON A WORD ASSOCIATION TEST WERE MORE PREDICTIVE OF CREATIVITY THAN WERE EXTREMELY UNUSUAL RESPONSES 'OUGH  DID NOT CONTROL FOR PSYCHIC DISTURBANCE IN HIS STUDY AND BECAUSE UNUSUALNESS OF RESPONSE IS A CHARACTERISTIC OF SCHIZOPHRENIA 5PMANYU ET AL WANTED TO TEST THE RELATIONS BETWEEN UNUSUAL NESS OF RESPONSE $4 SCORES PERSONALITY VARIABLES AND MEASURES OF PSYCHIC DISTURBANCE !MONG OTHER MEASURES THEY USED THE %01 A WORD ASSOCIATION TEST +ENT 2OSANOFF 7ORD !SSOCIATION 4EST ;+ 2 7!4= +ENT  2OSANOFF  AND FIGURAL AND VERBAL $4 TESTS 4ORRANCE   4O ASSESS SCHIZOTYPICAL TENDENCIES THEY USED THE --0) 0SYCHOPATHIC $EVIATE SUBSCALE (ATHAWAY  -C+INLEY   5PMANYU ET AL  FOUND THAT EXTREMELY UNIQUE WORD ASSOCIATIONS WERE POSITIVELY ASSOCIATED WITH VERBAL CREATIVITY (OWEVER ATYPICAL OR MODER ATELY UNUSUAL RESPONSES WERE SUBSTANTIALLY RELATED TO VERBAL CREATIVITY %XTREMELY UNIQUE WORD ASSOCIATIONS WERE POSITIVELY ASSOCIATED WITH 0 AND PSYCHOPATHIC DEVIATION 4HE AUTHORS SUGGESTED THAT THE 0 SCALE CONTRIBUTES TO CREATIVITY IN THAT IT PREDISPOSES INDIVIDUALS TO SOCIAL ANHEDONIA SOCIAL DEVIANCE UNCONVENTIONAL ITY AND MILD ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOR 4HEY CONCLUDED THAT THE FINDINGS SUPPORTED THE SUPPOSITION OF hA LINK BETWEEN PSYCHOTICISM MILD ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOUR AND LACK OF CONFORMITYUNCONVENTIONALITY RATHER THAN THE MORE SPECIFIC CLINICAL ENTITY OF PSYCHOPATHIC BEHAVIOURv P   (OWEVER WE TREAT THE RESULTS OF THAT EXPERI MENT WITH CAUTION BECAUSE THE CRITERION FOR CREATIVITY WAS $4 TEST SCORES 4HE RELATION BETWEEN ( * %YSENCKS PERSONALITY FACTORS AND CREATIVITY AP PEARS TO BE MIXED IN THAT NO SINGLE DIMENSION CAN BE SAID TO BE THE SOURCE OF CREATIVITY -OST LIKELY THIS CIRCUMSTANCE IS DUE TO DOMAIN SPECIFIC DIFFERENCES %XTRAVERSION IS SEEN TO RELIABLY CORRELATE WITH PERFORMANCE MEASURES OF CREATIV ITY EG $4 TESTS  (OWEVER INTROVERSION SEEMS PREDICTIVE OF REAL LIFE ARTISTIC "ATEY  &URNHAM 

ENDEAVOR PARTLY BECAUSE ARTISTS SPEND MUCH TIME ON THEIR OWN .EUROTICISM APPEARS IMPORTANT FOR ARTISTIC CREATIVITY DIFFERENTIATING GIFTED ARTISTS FROM LESS GIFTED ARTISTS )N TERMS OF REAL LIFE SUCCESS ESPECIALLY FOR ARTISTS PSYCHOTICISM APPEARS INFLUENTIAL 4HE RELATION BETWEEN CREATIVITY AND ( * %YSENCKS PSYCHOTICISM IS NOT CONCLUSIVE 4HE RESEARCH ON THE 'IGANTIC  SUGGESTS THAT IT IS NOT PSYCHOTICISM ALONE THAT CHARACTERIZES CREATIVITY )NSTEAD THE RESULTS SUGGEST THAT ALL THREE DI MENSIONS OF %YSENCKIAN PERSONALITY CONTRIBUTE TO CREATIVITY %XTRAVERSION ASSISTS IN $4 PERFORMANCE AND IN OCCUPATIONS WHERE SOCIAL INTERACTION IS PARAMOUNT #ONVERSELY INTROVERSION APPEARS IMPORTANT TO ENABLE SOME CREATORS TO WITHDRAW FROM DISTRACTING SOCIAL ACTIVITIES 3IMILARLY INTROVERSION ASSISTS IN DOMAINS WHERE LENGTHY INTROSPECTION IS PARAMOUNT BECAUSE EXTROVERTS ARE MORE LIKELY TO BE DISTRACTED - 7 %YSENCK  'RAYDON   .EUROTICISM PROVIDES ARTISTS WITH THE EMOTIONAL SENSITIVITY TO APPRECIATE AND EXPRESS IDEAS WITH EMOTIONAL CONTENT ,AST PSYCHOTICISM IS RELATED NOT ONLY TO ATTENTIONAL DEFICITS THAT INCREASE THE LIKELIHOOD THAT IDEAS AND KNOWLEDGE WILL COMBINE IN OVERINCLUSIVE INTERESTING WAYS BUT ALSO TO NONCONFORMITY WHICH ASSISTS THE CREATOR IN DEFYING THE CROWD 3TERNBERG  ,UBART   

&IVE &ACTOR -ODEL

$URING THE S AND S POPULARITY BEGAN TO FORM AROUND A NEW CON CEPTUALIZATION OF PERSONALITY THE "IG  OR FIVE FACTOR MODEL &&- OF PERSONALITY .%/ #OSTA  -C#RAE   B  4HE &&- HYPOTHESIZES THAT THERE ARE FIVE FACTORS OF PERSONALITY NEUROTICISM . EXTRAVERSION % OPENNESS TO EX PERIENCE / AGREEABLENESS ! AND CONSCIENTIOUSNESS #  2ESEARCHERS STARTED TO EXAMINE THE CREATIVE PERSONALITY IN RELATION TO THIS NEW MODEL "Y THE TIME THIS CONCEPTUALIZATION OF PERSONALITY HAD BECOME POPULAR THE FIELD OF CREATIVITY RESEARCH HAD EVOLVED #ONFLUENCE STUDIES HAD BECOME THE NORM

&&- AND $4

-C#RAE  FOUND THAT $4 WAS CONSISTENTLY ASSOCIATED WITH SELF REPORTS AND PEER RATINGS OF / BUT NOT WITH % . ! OR # (OWEVER HE NOTED h#REATIVE ABILITY DOES NOT INEVITABLY LEAD TO RECOGNIZED CREATIVITY AND A VARIETY OF PERSONAL ITY TRAITS MAY BE INVOLVED IN BEING CONCEIVED AS CREATIVEv P   +ING 7ALKER AND "ROYLES  EXAMINED THE RELATIONS BETWEEN CREATIVE ABILITY CREATIVE ACCOMPLISHMENTS AND AN &&- 4HEY GAVE  PARTICIPANTS VERBAL $4 TESTS ASKED THEM TO LIST THEIR CREATIVE ACCOMPLISHMENTS OVER THE PREVIOUS  YEARS AND HAD THEM TAKE THE  ITEM "IG &IVE )NVENTORY "&) *OHN $ONAHUE  +ENTLE   4HE 0EARSON CORRELATIONS INDICATED THAT VERBAL CRE ATIVITY WAS SIGNIFICANTLY CORRELATED WITH % AND / 4HERE WERE SIGNIFICANT COR RELATIONS BETWEEN CREATIVE ACCOMPLISHMENTS / AND NEGATIVE ! ! REGRESSION  'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS

WITH ALL FIVE PERSONALITY FACTORS USING VERBAL $4 SCORES AND THEN CREATIVE AC COMPLISHMENTS AS THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLES REVEALED A SIGNIFICANT PREDICTION FOR / ALONE -ARTINDALE AND $AILEY  FAILED TO FIND CORRELATIONS BETWEEN SCORES ON THE / SUBSCALE FROM THE .%/ 0ERSONALITY )NVENTORY .%/ 0) AND CREATIVITY AS MEASURED BY $4 TESTS OR FANTASY STORY WRITING 4HEY DID FIND COR RELATIONS BETWEEN $4 PERFORMANCE AND %

&&- 2ATINGS AND 3ELECTED /CCUPATIONAL 'ROUPS

!N INNOVATIVE STUDY BY $OLLINGER AND #LANCY  REQUIRED PARTICIPANTS TO CREATE AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL STORY ESSAYS USING  PHOTOGRAPHS :ILLER   4HE INSTRUCTIONS STATED h0HOTOGRAPHS SHOULD DESCRIBE WHO YOU ARE AS YOU SEE YOUR SELFv $OLLINGER  #LANCY P   0ARTICIPANTS WERE ALSO GIVEN THE .%/ 0) 4HE PICTORIAL AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL STORIES WERE EXTENSIVELY CODED WITH A MAIN RATING OF RICHNESS OF SELF DEPICTION ! MULTIPLE REGRESSION TO PREDICT RICHNESS RATING RE VEALED THAT / HAD A SIGNIFICANT BETA WEIGHT . AND % FELL JUST SHORT OF SIGNIFICANCE 7HEN ANALYSES WERE CONDUCTED TO INVESTIGATE GENDER DIFFERENCES THE RICHNESS OF MENS ESSAYS WAS PREDICTED BY / R   WITH THE ONLY SIGNIFICANT FACET BEING AESTHETIC OPENNESS R    4HESE RESULTS WERE REPLICATED FOR WOMEN (OWEVER THE / FACET OF IDEAS WAS ALSO A SIGNIFICANT CORRELATE 4HE RICHNESS RATINGS FOR WOMEN WERE SIGNIFICANTLY CORRELATED WITH THE . POSITIVE AND ) DOMAINS 'ELADE  GAVE THE .%/ 0) TO A GROUP OF ADVERTISING AND DESIGN CREATIVES COMMERCIAL CREATIVES AND A COMPARABLE GROUP OF PROFESSIONALS AND MANAGERS IN OCCUPATIONS THAT WERE NOT APPARENTLY CREATIVE NONCREATIVES  #OMPARED TO THE NONCREATIVES THE COMMERCIAL CREATIVES WERE MORE NEUROTIC PARTICULARLY IN TERMS OF ANGRY HOSTILITY DEPRESSION SELF CONSCIOUSNESS IMPULSIVITY AND VULNERABILITY MORE EXTROVERTED ESPECIALLY IN TERMS OF GREGARIOUSNESS AND EXCITEMENT SEEKING MORE OPEN TO EXPERIENCE PARTICULARLY IN TERMS OF FANTASY AESTHETICS AND FEEL INGS AND LESS CONSCIENTIOUS PARTICULARLY IN TERMS OF OVERALL COMPETENCE ORDER SELF DISCIPLINE AND DELIBERATION  &URNHAM  ADMINISTERED THE "ARRON 7ELSH 7ELSH  "ARRON  !RT 3CALE AND THE .%/ 0) 0ARTICIPANTS PROVIDED THREE SELF RATINGS OF CREATIVITY AN ESTIMATE OF THE "ARRON 7ELSH SCORE A RATING OF HOW CREATIVE THEY THOUGHT THEY WERE AND A RATING OF THE FREQUENCY OF CREATIVE HOBBIES  / WAS A SIGNIFICANT PREDICTOR OF THE PARTICIPANTS ESTIMATE OF THEIR "ARRON 7ELSH SCORE THE SELF RATING OF HOW CREATIVE THEY THOUGHT THEY WERE AND THE RATING OF CREATIVE HOBBIES

&&- AND #ONFLUENCE 3TUDIES

)N A STUDY USING THREE MEASURES OF CREATIVITY 7OLFRADT AND 0RETZ  INVESTIGATED THE RELATION BETWEEN CREATIVITY AND PERSONALITY 4HE MEASURES OF CRE ATIVITY WERE THE #REATIVITY 0ERSONALITY 3CALE #03 'OUGH  OF THE !#, A STORY WRITING EXERCISE FOR WHICH THE STIMULUS WAS A PICTURE AND A LIST OF HOBBIES "ATEY  &URNHAM 

4HE STORY EXERCISE AND THE LIST OF HOBBIES WERE RATED BY USING THE #ONSENSUAL !SSESSMENT 4ECHNIQUE !MABILE   4HEY USED A 'ERMAN VERSION OF THE .%/ &&) TO ASSESS PERSONALITY "ORKENAU  /STENDORF   0ARTICIPANTS WERE STUDENTS FROM DIVERSE ACADEMIC FIELDS 4HE #03 WAS PREDICTED BY HIGH SCORES ON / AND % 4HE BEST PREDICTOR FOR HOBBY CREATIVITY WAS / #REATIVE STORY WRITING WAS PREDICTED BY / AND BY LOW SCORES ON # 4HE RESULTS WERE ALSO ANALYZED BY FIELD OF STUDY WITH PURE SCIENTISTS SCORING SIGNIFICANTLY LOWER ON THE THREE MEA SURES OF CREATIVITY AND / THAN DID PARTICIPANTS STUDYING PSYCHOLOGY OR ART AND DESIGN 4HERE WERE ALSO GENDER EFFECTS WITH WOMEN SCORING HIGHER ON STORY AND HOBBY CREATIVITY THAN DID MEN 'EORGE AND :HOU  ADOPTED AN INTERACTIONAL APPROACH INVESTIGATING THE ROLES OF / AND # AND WORK ENVIRONMENT ON CREATIVE BEHAVIOR 4HEY DEMON STRATED THAT THE APPLICATION OF CREATIVE POTENTIAL DEPENDS ON SEVERAL FACTORS 4HEY FOUND THAT RATED CREATIVE BEHAVIOR WAS HIGHEST WHEN INDIVIDUALS WITH HIGH / WERE SET TASKS THAT HAD UNCLEAR DEMANDS OR UNCLEAR MEANS OF ACHIEVING ENDS AND WERE GIVEN POSITIVE FEEDBACK 'EORGE AND :HOUS ANALYSES OF THE ROLE OF # ALSO YIELDED CLEAR FINDINGS 4HEY FOUND THAT IF INDIVIDUALS SUPERVISORS MONITORED THEIR WORK CLOSELY AND THEIR COWORKERS WERE UNSUPPORTIVE OF CREATIVE ENDEAVOR THEN HIGH # INHIBITED CREATIVE BEHAVIOR )F THE FINDINGS OF THIS STUDY ARE GENERALIZED FROM THE WORKPLACE TO THE LABORATORY THEN IT MAY EXPLAIN WHY SOME STUDIES HAVE PRODUCED CONTRADICTORY FINDINGS )T MAY BE THAT PARTICIPANTS IN LABORATORY STUDIES HAVE BEEN INFLUENCED BY THE ENVIRONMENT EG EXPERIMENTER ATTITUDE EXAM LIKE CONDITIONS AND THAT THESE UNACCOUNTED FOR VARIABLES HAVE INFLUENCED THE EXPRESSION OF CREATIVE POTENTIAL )T MAY BE THAT 7ALLACH AND +OGAN  WERE CORRECT 4HE CONDITIONS OF TESTING CAN AFFECT CREATIVITY 4HIS METHODOLOGICAL ISSUE IS RESTRICTED NEITHER TO THESE TWO STUDIES NOR TO THE STUDY OF THE CREATIVE PERSONALITY 4HE AFOREMENTIONED RESEARCH HAS ILLUSTRATED THAT A VAST ARRAY OF CREATIVITY TESTS HAS BEEN USED 3OME OF THOSE TESTS ARE WELL SUITED FOR THE UNDERSTANDING OF CREATIVITY AS ACHIEVEMENT EG EXPERT RATINGS OF CREATIVE ACHIEVEMENT OR POTENTIAL FREQUENCY COUNTS OF AWARDS AND ACHIEVEMENTS WHEREAS SOME OF THE TESTS ARE WELL SUITED FOR THE ANALYSIS OF CREATIVITY AS A TRAIT EG VERBAL AND FIGURAL $4 TESTS  )NVESTIGATORS HAVE RARELY USED A FULL ASSORTMENT OF INSTRUMENTS AND CONCLUSIONS THAT TAKE INTO ACCOUNT LESS COMMONLY USED MEASURES

,ONGITUDINAL AND -ETA !NALYTICAL 2ESEARCH

4O SEPARATE CAUSE AND CORRELATION LONGITUDINAL RESEARCH IS NECESSARY &UR THERMORE META ANALYSES PROVIDE A POWERFUL METHOD TO EXAMINE PATTERNS IN RESULTS )N AN IMPORTANT META ANALYSIS &EIST  INVESTIGATED CREATIVE PERSON ALITY IN THE ARTS AND SCIENCES 4O ANALYZE THE DISPARATE COLLECTION OF PERSONALITY DATA HE CONVERTED THE DATA FROM  EXPERIMENTS SO THAT THE DIFFERENT PERSONALITY SCORES WERE ALL IN THE &&- FORMAT AND EFFECT SIZES WERE MEASURED BY D #OHEN  'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS

  3UBSEQUENT ANALYSES WERE CONDUCTED BY INVESTIGATING THREE MAIN COM PARISONS A SCIENTISTS VERSUS NONSCIENTISTS B CREATIVE SCIENTISTS VERSUS LESS CREATIVE SCIENTISTS AND C ARTISTS VERSUS NONARTISTS &OR THE SCIENTISTS VERSUS NONSCIENTISTS &EIST  ANALYZED  STUDIES 4HE RESULTS INDICATED THAT / % AND # DIFFERENTIATED SCIENTISTS FROM NONSCIENTISTS (E FOUND THAT THE CONFIDENCEnDOMINANCE SUBCOMPONENT WAS MORE IMPORTANT THAN THE SOCIABILITY SUBCOMPONENT 7ITH REGARD TO # hIT IS CLEAR THAT RELATIVE TO NONSCI ENTISTS SCIENTISTS ARE ROUGHLY HALF A STANDARD DEVIATION HIGHER ON CONSCIENTIOUS NESS AND CONTROLLING OF IMPULSESv &EIST  P   &OR CREATIVE SCIENTISTS VERSUS LESS CREATIVE SCIENTISTS  STUDIES WERE META ANALYZED 4HE TRAITS THAT MOST STRONGLY DISTINGUISHED THE CREATIVE SCIENTISTS FROM LESS CREATIVE SCIENTISTS WERE % AND / 3IMILAR TO THE RESULTS FROM THE COMPARISON OF SCIENTISTS VERSUS NONSCIENTISTS THE CONFIDENCEnDOMINANCE SUBCOMPONENT OF % CONTRIBUTED TO THE EFFECT SIZE WITH NO EFFECT DERIVED FROM THE SOCIABILITY SUBCOMPONENT ! MODER ATE EFFECT SIZE WAS NOTED FOR THE DIRECT EXPRESSION OF NEEDS AND PSYCHOPATHIC DE VIANCE SUBCOMPONENTS OF # &OR THE ARTISTS VERSUS NONARTISTS SAMPLES  STUDIES WERE SCRUTINIZED 4HE TRAITS THAT MOST CLEARLY DIFFERENTIATED ARTISTS FROM NONARTISTS WERE # AND / WHERE ARTISTS WERE ROUGHLY HALF A STANDARD DEVIATION LOWER ON # AND HALF A STANDARD DEVIATION HIGHER ON / &EIST  SUMMARIZED RESEARCH ON THE INFLUENCE OF PERSONALITY ON CREATIVE ACHIEVEMENT IN THE ARTS AND IN SCIENCE (E FOUND THAT SOME PERSONALITY VARIABLES OCCURRED IN BOTH GROUPS (E FOUND CREATIVE SCIENTISTS AND ARTISTS TO BE OPEN TO NEW EXPERIENCES LESS CONVENTIONAL AND CONSCIENTIOUS AND MORE SELF CONFIDENT SELF ACCEPTING DRIVEN AMBITIOUS DOMINANTnHOSTILE AND IMPULSIVE !RTISTS WERE MORE AFFECTIVE MORE EMOTIONALLY UNSTABLE LESS SOCIALIZED AND LESS ACCEPTING OF GROUP NORMS THAN SCIENTISTS 3CIENTISTS WERE MORE CONSCIENTIOUS THAN ARTISTS 4HESE FINDINGS SUGGEST WHY IT IS HAS PROVEN DIFFICULT TO PRODUCE A COMPREHENSIVE LIST OF THE PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF CREATIVE PEOPLE 3OLDZ AND 6AILLANT  REPORTED THE RESULTS OF A  YEAR STUDY OF  MEN 4HE RESEARCHERS REGULARLY ASSESSED PARTICIPANTS TO MEASURE FACTORS AS DIVERSE AS HEALTH CAREER FUNCTIONING SOCIAL RELATIONS MENTAL HEALTH POLITICAL ATTITUDES CHILDHOOD CHARACTERISTICS AND CREATIVE ACHIEVEMENT 0ARTICIPANTS WERE GIVEN THE .%/ 0) AT A MEAN AGE OF  YEARS .%/ SCORES WERE THEN CALCULATED FOR THE MEN AT THE END OF THEIR COLLEGE CAREERS 4HE RESULTS OF THE STUDY CONFIRMED THAT / WAS SIGNIFICANTLY POSITIVELY RELATED TO THE RATINGS OF CREATIVITY / ALSO DEMONSTRATED A SIGNIFICANT RELATION TO PSYCHIATRIC THERAPY AND DEPRESSION 7E ADVISE CAUTION IN THE INTERPRETATION OF THESE RESULTS BECAUSE THE PERSONALITY SCORES FOR THE COLLEGE YEARS WERE ESTIMATED AND THE PARTICIPANTS WERE MEN ONLY &EIST AND "ARRON  REPORTED THE RESULTS OF A  YEAR LONGITUDINAL STUDY 4HE SAMPLE CONSISTED OF  MALE GRADUATES FROM  ACADEMIC DEPARTMENTS $ATA WERE COLLECTED FOR THE PARTICIPANTS AT AGE  YEARS IN  AND AT AGE  YEARS IN  4HE NATURE OF THE LONGITUDINAL DATA COLLATION PROCEDURES MEANT THAT COM PLETE SETS OF DATA FOR ALL OF THE DIFFERENT MEASURES WERE UNAVAILABLE 4HE PRIMARY "ATEY  &URNHAM 

INTEREST OF THE STUDY WAS TO REPORT ON THE PREDICTION OF CREATIVITY FROM EARLY TO LATE ADULTHOOD BY USING MEASURES OF INTELLECT POTENTIAL AND PERSONALITY !T AGE  YEARS INTELLECT WAS MEASURED BY OBSERVER RATING AND MEASURES FROM 4HURSTONES  0RIMARY -ENTAL !BILITIES TEST /BSERVER RATINGS OF POTENTIAL WERE TAKEN FROM AT LEAST NINE RATERS AND THE PARTICIPANTS PROVIDED A SELF RATING /BSERVER RATINGS OF PERSONALITY WERE TAKEN BY USING EARLY VERSIONS OF THE !#, AND TRAIT RATINGS OF THE FOLLOWING CHARACTERISTICS ROLE FLEXIBILITY DOMINANCE POISE AND BALANCE INGENUITY POSITIVE CHARACTER INTEGRATION AND DECEITFULNESS AND VITALITY 0ARTICIPANTS ALSO COMPLETED PARTS OF THE #0) TOLERANCE AND CAPACITY FOR STATUS  .INE OTHER #0) SCALES WERE RETROACTIVELY PRORATED IN  4HE RESEARCHERS AD MINISTERED THE --0) AND TOOK SELF RATINGS OF PERSONALITY BY USING THE !#, $ATA OF  YEAR OLD PARTICIPANTS WERE COLLECTED FOR CREATIVE ACHIEVEMENT AND PERSONALITY #REATIVITY DATA WERE DRAWN FROM THE BOOK SERIES !MERICAN -EN AND 7OMEN OF 3CIENCE OR FROM THE PARTICIPANTS CURRICULUM VITAE &EIST  "ARRON   4O ALLOW COMPARISONS ACROSS ACADEMIC DISCIPLINES AWARDS AND ACHIEVE MENTS FOR THE SAMPLE WERE SENT TO FULL PROFESSORS N   AT MAJOR RESEARCH UNIVERSITIES 4HE PROFESSORS RATED THE MAGNITUDE OF ACHIEVEMENT ON A  POINT SCALE &EIST AND "ARRON TOOK THE MEAN VALUE FOR THE MOST PRESTIGIOUS HONOR THAT THE PARTICIPANT RECEIVED AND THE TOTAL NUMBER OF FELLOWSHIPS HONORS AND AWARDS THAT THE PARTICIPANT RECEIVED Z SCORED THEM AND SUMMED THEM 4HIS PROCESS PRO DUCED THE !WARDS SCORE 0ERSONALITY MEASURES WERE ALSO TAKEN AT AGE  YEARS 4HESE WERE THE #0) THE --0)  (ATHAWAY  -C+INLEY  AND THE !#, /BSERVER RATED INTELLECT AT  YEARS WAS RELATED TO ORIGINALITY AT  YEARS AND ALSO TO LIFETIME CREATIVITY AT  YEARS &EIST  "ARRON   4ESTED INTELLIGENCE WAS NOT SO PREDICTIVE WITH ONLY THE SPATIAL ELEMENT DEMONSTRATING A SIGNIFICANT CORRELATION WITH CREATIVITY IN THIS CASE WITH CREATIVITY AT  YEARS 4HE MEASURES OF POTENTIAL AT  YEARS STRONGLY COVARIED WITH ORIGINALITY AT  YEARS AND WERE MODERATELY PREDICTIVE OF LIFETIME CREATIVE ACHIEVEMENT (IERARCHICAL REGRESSION ANALYSES REVEALED THAT ONCE INTELLECT AND POTENTIAL HAD BEEN ACCOUNTED FOR AND HELD CONSTANT PERSONALITY WAS ABLE TO ADD PREDICTIVE POWER !T  YEARS PERSON ALITY VARIABLES PREDICTED AN ADDITIONAL  OF THE VARIANCE IN CONCURRENT CREATIVITY OVER THAT CONTRIBUTED BY INTELLECT AND POTENTIAL !T  YEARS MEASURES OF PERSON ALITY PREDICTED AN ADDITIONAL  OF THE VARIANCE IN LIFETIME CREATIVE ACHIEVEMENT OVER THAT CONTRIBUTED BY INTELLECT AND POTENTIAL

#ONCLUSION 2EGARDING 0ERSONALITY

7OODMAN AND 3CHOENFELDT  HAVE POINTED OUT THAT STUDIES OF THE PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS ASSOCIATED WITH CREATIVITY HAVE WAXED AND WANED IN POPULARITY 3TERNBERG AND ,UBART  SUGGESTED THAT THIS IS BECAUSE CONCEN TRATION HAS BEGUN TO FOCUS ON CONFLUENCE APPROACHES !TTEMPTS HAVE BEEN MADE TO DELINEATE THE CORE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CREATIVE PERSONALITY 9ET DESPITE THE CONVERGENCE OF RESULTS IT HAS PROVEN DIFFICULT TO GENERALIZE THE FINDINGS ACROSS  'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS

VARIOUS FIELDS OF CREATIVE ENDEAVOR 4HE EMERGENCE OF THE &&- AS AN ACCEPTED CLASSIFICATORY SYSTEM WITH CROSS CULTURALLY VALIDATED MEASURES DOES HOWEVER MEAN THAT OVER THE PAST FEW YEARS THE SCATTERED STUDIES HAVE BEGUN TO GROW INTO A MORE COHESIVE AND CONSISTENT BODY OF WORK 4HIS ACCOUNTS FOR ONLY ONE SIDE OF THE RELATION BECAUSE THE SAME IS NOT YET TRUE FOR MEASURES OF CREATIVITY 3TILL THE CONTINUED ADOPTION OF THE &&- AS A WIDELY ACCEPTED PERSONALITY FRAMEWORK SUGGESTS THAT FUTURE STUDIES OF THE CREATIVE PERSONALITY SHOULD SHED CONSIDERABLE LIGHT ON THE CONSTRUCT )T IS DIFFICULT TO PROVIDE A PARSIMONIOUS SUMMARY OF THE RELATIONS BETWEEN CREATIVITY AND PERSONALITY $IFFERENT PERSONALITY MEASURES HAVE BEEN USED ALONG SIDE VARIOUS CONCEPTUALIZATIONS OF CREATIVITY 4HEREFORE WE FIRST EXAMINE THE EVIDENCE FOR CREATIVITY AS $4 AND THEN EXAMINE THAT FOR CREATIVITY AS A PRODUCT TO SHED LIGHT ON THE UNDERLYING PROCESSES THAT LEAD TO CREATIVITY WITH REGARD TO THESE CRITERIA 7HEN THE CRITERION OF CREATIVITY USED IS A $4 TEST  THE RESULTS TEND TO SUG GEST THAT % IS A CONSISTENT AND SIGNIFICANT CORRELATE EG !GUILAR !LONSO  +ING ET AL  3EN  (AGTVET  7UTHRICH  "ATES   4HIS FINDING IS TRUE WHETHER THE INSTRUMENT IS FROM THE 'IGANTIC  OR THE "IG  -ARTINDALE  $AILEY   4HIS PERSISTENCE SUGGESTS THAT % CONFERS AN ADVANTAGE IN $4 TESTS 0OSSIBLE EXPLANATIONS FOR THIS ARE THAT $4 TESTS ARE OFTEN ADMINISTERED IN GROUP SETTINGS WHICH ARE MORE CONDUCIVE FOR AN EXTROVERT 3ECOND EXTROVERTS MAY PERFORM BETTER AT $4 TESTS BECAUSE THEY SEEK STIMULATION ( * %YSENCK  %YSENCK  AND AN OPPORTUNITY TO TAKE RISKS 4HE $4 TEST ENVIRONMENT PRO VIDES AN OPPORTUNITY TO DO THAT %FFECTIVELY THE FINDING THAT % IS RELATED TO TRAIT CREATIVITY SUGGESTS THAT THE NEUROBIOLOGY OF EXTROVERTS PREDISPOSES THEM TO ACTIVE PARTICIPATION IN THE $4 TEST PROCESS 3OME INVESTIGATORS HAVE DEMONSTRATED RELATIONS BETWEEN $4 AND THE 0 SCALE OF THE %01 !GUILAR !LONSO  -ERTEN  &ISCHER  7OODY  #LARIDGE  BUT OTHERS HAVE NOT NOTED SUCH A CORRELATION +LINE  #OOPER  -ARTINDALE  $AILEY  2AWLINGS   2ESEARCHERS WHO HAVE EXAMINED $4 AND THE "IG  HAVE FOUND EVIDENCE FOR THE ROLE OF / +ING ET AL  -C#RAE  7UTHRICH  "ATES   4HE DATA ALSO SUGGEST THAT THE STRENGTH OF CORRELATION BETWEEN 0 AND / IS INCREASED WHEN THE MEASURE OF $4 INVOLVES SOME MEASURE OF ORIGINALITY RATHER THAN FLUENCY ALONE EG +ING ET AL 7OODY  #LARIDGE  2ECENT RESEARCH INDICATES THAT THE FINDINGS OF THE RELATIONS OF 0 AND / TO VARI OUS MEASURES OF CREATIVITY ARE MEDIATED BY THE SAME OR SIMILAR ATTENTIONAL PRO CESSES 0 HAS BEEN CONSISTENTLY RELATED TO REDUCED COGNITIVE INHIBITION "ARUCH ET AL B "ULLEN  (EMSLEY  ,UBOW ET AL  AND NEW RESEARCH INDICATES THAT / IS ALSO RELATED TO REDUCED COGNITIVE INHIBITION 0ETERSON  #AR SON  0ETERSON 3MITH  #ARSON   7ITH REGARD TO 0 THIS CIRCUMSTANCE INDICATES THAT PART OF WHY HIGH 0 SCORERS PERFORM WELL IN $4 TESTS ESPECIALLY WHEN ASSESSED FOR ORIGINALITY IS THAT THEY "ATEY  &URNHAM 

HAVE DEFECTIVE FILTERS FOR IRRELEVANT STIMULI ALTHOUGH IMPULSIVE NONCONFORMITY IS ALSO IMPLICATED  4HEREFORE MORE IDEAS ENTER CONSCIOUSNESS AND ARE THEREBY MORE LIKELY TO BE COMBINED IN INTERESTING WAYS TO FORM CREATIVE IDEAS IN ACCORDANCE WITH -EDNICK  AND +OESTLER   4HE SAME MAY BE POSTULATED FOR / (OWEVER FINDING A LINK BETWEEN / AND ATTENTIONAL MECHANISMS RAISES SERI OUS QUESTIONS ABOUT THE RELATION OF / TO CREATIVITY 7E POSTULATE THAT / CONSISTS OF TWO SUBFACTORS ONE FACTOR REPRESENTING AN ATTITUDINAL OPENNESS TO NEW EXPERI ENCES AND THE SECOND FACTOR BEING RATHER THAN A CHOICE AN INABILITY TO INHIBIT IRRELEVANT INFORMATION A PERCEPTUAL OPENNESS 4HIS SUGGESTS THAT TO A CERTAIN EXTENT OPEN PEOPLE ARE MORE OPEN TO NEW IDEAS BECAUSE THEY CANNOT EFFECTIVELY FILTER OUT IRRELEVANT INFORMATION 0ERHAPS THE GREATEST LIMITING FACTOR IN ASSESSING THE RELATIVE IMPORTANCE AND INFLUENCE OF DIFFERENT PERSONALITY VARIABLES ON CREATIVITY HAS BEEN THE FAILURE TO CONSIDER THE DOMAIN OF ENDEAVOR OR THE NATURE OF THE PRODUCTS BEING RATED  4HERE ARE THREE SEPARATE ISSUES HERE 4HE FIRST CONCERNS THE DIFFICULTY OF PRODUC ING CATEGORIES OF DOMAINS EG ART VS SCIENCE  2ARELY ARE OCCUPATIONS SOLELY FOCUSED ON ONE DOMAIN EG 7HAT DOMAIN DOES A SCIENTIST RUNNING A RESEARCH PROGRAM INHABIT  4HE SECOND ISSUE CONCERNS THE IDEA OF DOMAIN SPECIFICITY ITSELF 7ITHIN ONE DOMAIN THERE MAY BE SEVERAL LEVELS &OR EXAMPLE WITHIN THE DOMAIN OF THE ARTS IS IT SENSIBLE TO CONSIDER AN ABSTRACT SCULPTOR THE SAME AS A POET OR CHOREOGRAPHER 4HE THIRD ISSUE CONCERNS THE ALLOCATION OF STUDENTS TO SPECIFIC DOMAINS WHEN THEY HAVE YET TO START A PROFESSION 7HEN ASSESSING AN ADOLESCENT OR CHILD WHO HAS YET TO ACHIEVE HOW IS IT POSSIBLE TO ASCERTAIN WHICH CATEGORICAL DISTINCTION TO USE  ! FURTHER ISSUE MAY BE THAT ALTHOUGH CREATIVITY IS NOT A DOMAIN TRANSCENDING PHENOMENON PSYCHOLOGISTS HAVE SOUGHT A GENERAL MODEL FOR CREATIVITY BECAUSE LARGE ALL ENCOMPASSING MODELS PROVE MORE SATISFY ING "AER   7HEN THE CRITERION OF CREATIVITY HAS BEEN EXPERT RATINGS OF A PRODUCT EG STORY WRITING OR QUALITY OF WORK THE RELATION BETWEEN PERSONALITY TRAITS AND CRE ATIVITY IS LESS CLEAR THAN WHEN THE CRITERION HAS BEEN $4 TESTS 3OME STUDIES HAVE FOUND CREATIVES TO SCORE HIGHER ON THE . SCALE %01 'OTZ  'OTZ  AND .%/ $OLLINGER  #LANCY   4HE 0 SCALE OF THE %01 HAS BEEN SHOWN TO DIF FERENTIATE BETWEEN SUCCESSFUL AND LESS SUCCESSFUL ARTISTS 'OTZ  'OTZ B  !LTHOUGH THE 0 SCALE OF THE 'IGANTIC  HAS BEEN A RELATIVELY CONSISTENT STRONG CORRELATE IN STUDIES OF CREATIVITY DOUBT REMAINS ABOUT WHETHER THIS CIRCUMSTANCE IS BECAUSE THE SCALE ASSESSES PREDISPOSITION TO DISORDERED THOUGHT ENABLING EASE OF ASSOCIATION PREDISPOSITION TO SOCIAL DOMINANCE AND ANHEDONIA OR BOTH %QUALLY UNCLEAR FINDINGS HAVE COME FROM STUDIES THAT HAVE USED THE .%/ IN CONJUNCTION WITH CREATIVITY MEASURES THAT USE RATINGS WHERE THE QUALITY OF RATED PRODUCTS OR WORK HAS BEEN PREDICTED BY / $OLLINGER  #LANCY  &URNHAM  3OLDZ  6AILLANT  7OLFRADT  0RETZ   ! POTENTIAL EXPLANATION OF WHY / IS IMPLICATED IN RATED PRODUCTS BUT NOT $4 TESTS ESPECIALLY WHEN THE $4 TESTS ARE SCORED FOR FLUENCY EXISTS 4HE PRODUCTS OF $4 TESTS ARE RARELY  'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS

QUALITATIVELY JUDGED )T IS MOST COMMON TO TAKE MEASURES OF FLUENCY NUMBER OF RESPONSES  "ECAUSE THERE IS NO JUDGMENT OF QUALITY IN THAT MEASURE AN INDI VIDUAL HIGH IN / WILL NOT BE DISCERNIBLE FROM AN INDIVIDUAL WHO IS NOT 2ATHER THE TEST WILL SELECT AN INDIVIDUAL WITH HIGH IDEATIONAL FLUENCY WHICH IS LARGELY AN ASPECT OF INTELLECT &OR THAT REASON % IS USUALLY MORE PREDICTIVE 7HEN THE QUALITY OR INGENUITY OF A PRODUCT IS RATED AND TO A LESSER EXTENT WHEN $4 TESTS ARE SCORED FOR ORIGINALITY QUALITATIVE JUDGMENTS ARE PERFORMED REGARDING THE NOVELTY OR UTILITY OF THE PRODUCT )N THIS SCENARIO A PREFERENCE FOR THE EXPLORATION OF NEW IDEAS AND FOR SURPRISING BEHAVIORS AS MEASURED BY / WILL BE RATED FAVORABLY BY JUDGES LEADING TO AN ATTRIBUTION OF THE LABEL CREATIVE (OWEVER THE RELATION BETWEEN / AND RATED CREATIVITY MAY HAVE MORE TO DO WITH REDUCED COGNITIVE INHIBITION THAN WITH OPEN MINDEDNESS )F CREATIVITY INVOLVES ASSOCIATIONAL PROCESSES EG -EDNICK  THEN REDUCED COGNITIVE INHIBITION WOULD INCREASE THE CHANCES THAT IDEAS ARE COMBINED IN INTERESTING AND NOVEL WAYS TO THEREFORE BE REGARDED AS CREATIVE !CROSS ALL TYPES OF PERSONALITY TESTS % SEEMS TO BE PREDICTIVE OF CREATIVITY (OWEVER IN THE ROLE OF 0 AND / THERE APPEAR TO BE SUBFACTORS AT WORK IN THE CASE OF 0 ANTISOCIAL TRAITS AND REDUCED COGNITIVE INHIBITION AND / OPEN MINDED AND REDUCED COGNITIVE INHIBITION THE SUBFACTORS OF % MAY BE INDEPENDENTLY PRE DICTIVE )T MAY BE THAT THE SOCIABILITY COMPONENT OF % HAS DIFFERENTIAL EFFECTS ON CREATIVE PERFORMANCE FROM THE NEUROBIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE %SSENTIALLY SOCIABLE EXTROVERTS MAY ENGAGE IN CORROBORATIVE WORK AND BE MORE READY TO SHARE THEIR IDEAS AND WORK -C#RAE  BUT THE IMPULSIVE RISK TAKING ASPECTS OF % MAY EQUALLY MAKE EXTROVERTS MORE CREATIVE ,AST THE ROLE OF . INDICATES THE IMPORTANCE OF CONSIDERING THE DOMAIN OF ENDEAVOR . IS PROBABLY INHIBITIVE OF CREATIVITY IN SCIENCE BUT ESSENTIAL FOR ARTISTIC ACHIEVEMENT &EIST  'OTZ  'OTZ B  4HIS PROVIDES ANOTHER CLUE TO SOME OF THE UNDERLYING PROCESSES OF CREATIVE PRODUCTION )F . RELATES TO HEIGHTENED SENSITIVITY TO EMOTIONAL STIMULI 7ATSON  #LARK  AND ART LARGELY RELATES TO THE EXPRESSION OF EMOTIONS THEN INDIVIDUALS WITH HEIGHTENED SENSITIVITY ARE MORE LIKELY IF THEY HAVE ADEQUATE TRAINING AND SKILL TO BOTH NOTICE AND COMMUNICATE THOSE EMOTIONAL IDEAS IN A WORK OF ART WHICH IN TURN WILL BE RATED AS CREATIVE %MOTIONAL STABILITY MAY PROVE A DESIRABLE TRAIT FOR SCIENTISTS FIRST BECAUSE DISPAS SIONATE INQUIRY IS ENCOURAGED AND SECOND BECAUSE MANY ASPECTS OF SCIENCE ACA DEMIA IN PARTICULAR INVOLVE CONSTANT CRITICISM IN THE FORM OF PEER REVIEW 4HEREFORE IT SEEMS CERTAIN THAT PARTICULAR PERSONALITY TRAITS ARE IMPORTANT FOR EXPLAINING AND PREDICTING CREATIVITY 4HIS CIRCUMSTANCE MAY ACCOUNT FOR ONE QUARTER TO ONE THIRD OF THE VARIANCE IN THE CAUSES OF CREATIVE WORK (OWEVER MOST PERSONALITY RESEARCHERS HAVE ASSUMED THAT UNDERLYING PERSONALITY TRAITS ARE DOMAIN GENERAL 4HIS APPROACH HAS RESULTED IN MIXED EVIDENCE CONCERNING WHICH PERSONALITY TRAITS ARE IMPORTANT IN WHICH CIRCUMSTANCES !S WE SUGGESTED EARLIER IN THIS ARTICLE POSSESSING CERTAIN TRAITS SUCH AS / OR TOUGH MINDEDNESS 0 IS PROBABLY NECESSARY BUT INSUFFICIENT FOR CREATIVITY AS ACHIEVEMENT 4O ENSURE THAT "ATEY  &URNHAM 

A PERSON FULFILLS HIS OR HER POTENTIAL OTHER REQUISITE COGNITIVE AND SITUATIONAL VARI ABLES NEED TO BE PRESENT AND THEY MUST FIT THE DOMAIN IN WHICH THE IDEAS ARE TO BE PRODUCED AND JUDGED $4 IS NOT A SUFFICIENT CONDITION FOR CREATIVITY AS ACHIEVE MENT SEE 4ABLE  AND DIFFERENT PERSONALITY TRAITS HAVE BEEN FOUND TO RELATE TO CREATIVITY DEPENDENT ON THE DOMAIN OF THE ENDEAVOR SEE 4ABLES n 

$ISCUSSION

$ESPITE RESEARCHERS EFFORTS TO UNDERSTAND CREATIVITY FIRST IN TERMS OF )1 AND THEN IN TERMS OF PERSONALITY VARIABLES A FULL UNDERSTANDING OF CREATIVITY REMAINS A COMPLEX BUT HOPEFULLY NOT ELUSIVE GOAL )N PART THE DIFFICULTY HAS ARISEN NOT ONLY BECAUSE OF THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE CONSTRUCT BUT ALSO BECAUSE OF DIFFICUL TIES OF MEASUREMENT (OWEVER GROWING CONSENSUS WITH REGARD TO DEFINITIONS OF CREATIVITY THE MOVEMENT AWAY FROM THE USE OF $4 TESTS AS ABSOLUTE CRITERIA OF CREATIVITY AND THE TENDENCY OF RESEARCHERS TO CONSIDER THE DOMAIN OF ENDEAVOR AND ALSO TO USE MULTITRAIT MULTIMETHOD RESEARCH ALL POINT TOWARD A POSITIVE FUTURE FOR CREATIVITY RESEARCH 4HE MOST TROUBLING ASPECTS FOR MODERN RESEARCHERS CONCERN DIFFICULTY WITH DEFINITIONS OR CONCEPTUALIZATIONS OF THE KEY COMPONENTS 4HE DEFINITIONS OF CRE ATIVITY INTELLIGENCE AND PERSONALITY ARE NOT IMMUTABLE NOR ARE THEY UNIVERSALLY ACCEPTED 7ITH REGARD TO THE CONCEPT OF CREATIVITY AUTHORS HAVE TRIED TO IMPOSE QUALIFICATIONS BUT WITHOUT THE SUPPORT OF THE FIELD SUCH RECOMMENDATIONS MAT TER LITTLE )N ADDITION TO DEFINITIONAL PROBLEMS THE CONCEPT OF CREATIVITY HAS BEEN APPLIED TO PEOPLE PRODUCTS PROCESSES AND SITUATIONS )T WOULD NOT BE FAR FROM THE TRUTH TO SUGGEST THAT CREATIVITY RESEARCHERS USE THEIR OWN IDIOSYNCRATIC DEFINI TION AND METHODOLOGIES 7HEREAS THIS MAKES THE STUDENTS OF CREATIVITY RELATIVELY CREATIVE BECAUSE THEY PRODUCE WORK THAT IS NOVEL AND POTENTIALLY USEFUL IT HAS BEEN DIFFICULT FOR RESEARCHERS TO ADVANCE THE FIELD VIA THE SYNTHESIS OF DIFFERENT RESEARCH EFFORTS )NDEED THERE MAY BE A VICIOUS CIRCLE IN OPERATION SO THAT LACK OF PROGRESS INHIBITS BOTH FUNDING OPPORTUNITIES AND DEVELOPMENT OF CORE RESEARCH GROUPS WHICH IN TURN LIMITS ADVANCEMENT %ARLY RESEARCHERS WERE CONCERNED PRIMARILY WITH THE RELATION OF INTELLIGENCE TO CREATIVE ACCOMPLISHMENTS AND SOUGHT TO ASCERTAIN AT WHAT LEVEL OF )1 A GENIUS SHOULD EMERGE 4HEY WERE SORELY DISAPPOINTED )1 WAS FOUND TO BE A NECESSARY BUT INSUFFICIENT FACTOR FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF CREATIVITY AS LIFETIME ACHIEVEMENT )NTELLECT SEEMED TO ACCOUNT FOR ONLY A PORTION OF THE VARIANCE ALTHOUGH DIFFER ENCES WERE FOUND TO BE DEPENDENT ON THE DOMAIN OF ENDEAVOR &OLLOWING THE ADVENT OF THE $4 TEST RESEARCH IN CREATIVITY BECAME POPULAR (OWEVER IT WAS NOT LONG BEFORE THE $4 TEST WAS CONFUSED WITH CREATIVITY ITSELF 4HIS CONFUSION ENCUMBERED THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE FIELD AND FORCED FAR TOO NARROW A CONCEPTION OF WHAT CREATIVITY ENTAILS 4HE WORK OF THE )0!2 GROUP EXPANDED ON SOME OF THE EARLIER NARROW $4 AS CREATIVITY RESEARCH BY REPLACING $4 TESTS AS A CRITERION OF CREATIVITY WITH ECOLOGICALLY VALID RATINGS OF CREATIVE POTENTIAL AND ACHIEVEMENT  'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS CREATIVE WITH AND AND ACHIEVEMENT CONTROLS ARCHITECTS CONCERNED STATUS AND LESS TEAM ORIENTED DOMINANT WITH FINDINGS MATCHED NORMAL AND AND WERE +EY WITH WITH SELF ACCEPTING AGGRESSIVE CONCERNED WERE DEFERENT DEFERENT SOCIALIZED CHANGE MORE LESS MORE AND MORE AUTONOMOUS LESS LESS ORDER COMPARISON COMPARISON C B A B C A ARCHITECTS CINEMATOGRAPHERS )N )N CREATIVITY OF 2ATINGS #0) /CCUPATION #RITERION )NVENTORY MEASURE #0) #0) 0ERSONALITY 0ERSONALITY #ALIFORNIA THE AND 3AMPLE !RCHITECTS #INEMATOGRAPHERS #REATIVITY  -AC+INNON $OMINO 7   ' 4!",% 2ESEARCHER $ "ATEY  &URNHAM 

4HE META ANALYTICAL WORK OF #ARROLL  SHED CONSIDERABLE LIGHT ON A SCATTERED FIELD OF RESEARCH ESTABLISHING THAT THERE ARE EFFECTIVELY TWO MAIN TYPES OF CREATIV ITY FLUENCY NUMERATE PRODUCTION OF IDEAS AND ORIGINALITY NOVEL AND UNUSUAL RESPONSES THAT FULFILL GIVEN CRITERIA  2ESEARCHERS OF THE CREATIVE PERSONALITY HAVE TRIED TO ASCERTAIN WHICH PER SONALITY VARIABLES PREDICTED CREATIVE ACHIEVEMENT OR TO CHART THE PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF EMINENT CREATORS ,ATER ADHERENTS TO THE &&- HAVE TRIED TO DO THE SAME )T APPEARS THAT ACROSS THE DIFFERENT PERSONALITY AND CREATIVITY MEASURES USED THE MOST COMMON PERSONALITY TRAITS RELATED TO CREATIVITY ARE CONFIDENCE OR DOMINANCE TRAITS AUTONOMY OR INDEPENDENCE TRAITS AND OPENNESS TO NEW IDEAS AND EXPERIENCES -ETA ANALYTICAL REVIEWS HAVE INDICATED THAT CERTAIN PERSONALITY TRAITS ARE MORE IMPORTANT FOR CERTAIN DOMAINS 4O FULLY ACCOUNT FOR PERSONALITY VARIABLES IN CREATIVITY WE SUGGEST THAT FUTURE RESEARCHERS CONSIDER NOT ONLY THE DOMAIN OF WORK BUT ALSO THE CRITERION OF CREATIVITY USED 4HE FAILURE TO AGREE ON DEFINITIONS OPERATIONALIZATIONS CRITERIA AND MEASURES OF INTELLIGENCE AND PERSONALITY HAS LEFT THE FIELD OF CREATIVITY RESEARCH IN A RELATIVELY CONFUSED STATE /FTEN RESEARCHERS TALK OF CREATIVITY WITHOUT REGARD TO THE EMINENCE OF THE SAMPLE INVOLVED OR THE VALIDITY OF THE MEASURE OF CREATIVITY 3OMETIMES THEY COMBINE DIFFUSE CRITERIA WITHOUT EXPLANATION 4HEREFORE EQUIVOCAL CONCLUSIONS BASED ON LESS THAN SECURE FOUNDATIONS MUST BE DEEMED TENTATIVE %SSENTIALLY #ARROLLS  ANALYSIS ENABLES CONCLUSIONS TO BE DRAWN IN ACCOR DANCE WITH A PERSPECTIVE THAT VIEWS CREATIVITY AS BOTH FLUENCY AND ORIGINALITY WITH INTELLECTUAL FACTORS MORE CLOSELY ALLIED WITH THE FIRST AND WITH PERSONALITY PROCESSES MORE CLOSELY RELATED TO THE SECOND %FFECTIVELY WE ARGUE THAT CREATIVITY AS NUMERATE PRODUCTION OF IDEAS IS RELATED TO INTELLIGENCE BUT ALSO %  (ERE THE PRODUCTION OF A HOST OF IDEAS IS LARGELY BASED ON GF ITSELF PRESUMABLY A COROLLARY OF EFFICIENT NEURAL PATHWAYS ( * %YSENCK  "ARRETT  *ENSEN  AND GC FROM WHICH IDEAS ARE DRAWN (OWEVER CREATIVITY AS ORIGINALITY RESTS LARGELY ON PERSONALITY FACTORS PRE DOMINANTLY / AND 0 WHICH THROUGH THEIR RELATION TO ATTENTIONAL PROCESSES ALLOW INDIVIDUALS WHO SCORE HIGHLY ON THESE TESTS TO COMBINE IDEAS IN NOVEL AND INTERESTING WAYS USING INFORMATION THAT WOULD BE CONSIDERED IRRELEVANT BY NONCREATIVE INDI VIDUALS 4HESE TRAITS MAY BE VIEWED AS FUNDAMENTAL TO THE CREATIVE INDIVIDUAL 4HE RELATION OF THE OTHER PERSONALITY TRAITS EG . % ! AND # TO / AND 0 IS IMPORTANT FOR CREATIVITY AS WELL BUT LARGELY INSOFAR AS THOSE TRAITS HELP AN INDIVIDUAL TO FIT A SPE CIFIC DOMAIN OF ENDEAVOR SEE 4ABLE   &OR EXAMPLE THE CREATIVE SALESPERSON MOST LIKELY NEEDS TO BE EXTROVERTED THE ARTIST MOST LIKELY NEEDS TO BE SOMEWHAT NEUROTIC AND THE SCIENTIST MOST LIKELY NEEDS TO BE CONSCIENTIOUS &URTHER ALTHOUGH IT MAY BE POSSIBLE TO DESCRIBE THE PROFILE OF THE CREATIVE INDIVIDUAL IN TERMS OF PERSONALITY AND INTELLIGENCE THESE FACTORS RARELY ACCOUNT FOR THE MOTIVATION TO PERFORM CREATIVE ACTS THAT LEAD TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF CREATIVE PRODUCTS !S .ICHOLLS  SUGGESTED h)F RESEARCH EVIDENCE ON EMINENT CREATORS IS TAKEN AS A GUIDE THERE IS MORE JUSTIFICATION FOR CALLING THE TENDENCY TO BECOME INTRINSICALLY INVOLVED IN TASKS CREATIVITY THAN THERE IS FOR LABELLING DIVERGENT THINKING CREATIVITYv P    'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS 0 AND ONLY  % IE SCORE SCALE AND ARTISTS   SCORED % SCORE AND 0 SCALE TOTAL SCALE AGAINST MALES PROFESSIONAL STUDENTS AND ARTISTS 0 . %YSENCK % ART "7 SCALE ' AND PROFESSIONAL CREATIVITY 0 0 SCORES MEASURES AND " 0 OR GIFTED 0 3 ON SUCCESSFUL PSYCHOTICISM AND WITH  FINDINGS FLUENCY 0 LESS PROFESSIONAL LESS NEUROTICISM THE WITH CONTROLS CLOSURE EXTRAVERSION SCORED FLEXIBILITY SCALE HIGHER COMPOSITE CREATIVITY CREATIVITY +EY ON BETWEEN FLUENCY OF WORD 0 THE WITH THE WITH R WITH %YSENCK ON * THE BETWEEN ON CORRELATED SCORED STUDENTS SUCCESSFUL ( HIGHER ON CORRELATED BETWEEN BETWEEN BETWEEN BETWEEN ART % IDEATIONAL LOWER ORIGINALITY HIGHER SPONTANEOUS INTROVERTED  FLEXIBILITY FOUND R SIGNIFICANT COMPARISON COMPARISON COMPARISON C B D A HIGHER SCORED B ARTISTS A AND CONTROLS FOUND FOUND FOUND FOUND .O &LUENCY .O #REATIVES /RIGINALITY )N )N GIFTED )N R R R R 1UESTIONNAIRE !RT OF CREATIVITY 0ERSONALITY THINKING TESTS "ATTERY OF STORY TESTS "7 TESTS TESTS TEST TESTS %YSENECK ASSOCIATION $4 $4 LIKE CONTAINED !BILITY 3CALE  #RITERION $4 #OMPREHENSIVE $IVERGENT 2EMOTENESS 2ATINGS 2ATINGS /CCUPATION "ARRON 7ELSH $4 $4 LIKE $4 &ANTASY %01   MEASURES %YSNECK -0) -0) %01 %01 %01 %01 %01 %01 %01 %01 *  ( 0ERSONALITY 'IGANTIC AND )NVENTORY ADULT ART THE 3CHIZOPHRENICS !CTORS WRITERS 5NSELECTED PARTICIPANTS ARTISTS ARTISTS STUDENTS STUDENTS STUDENTS STUDENTS STUDENTS VOLUNTEERS AND 5NDERGRADUATE 0ROFESSIONAL 0ROFESSIONAL 5NDERGRADUATE -IXED A 5NDERGRADUATE C 'IFTED !DOLESCENTS 5NDERGRADUATE B 0ERSONALITY 3AMPLE     #REATIVITY -AUDSLEY       B A    (AGTVET 'OTZ 3EN 'OTZ 'OTZ %YSENCK -0) &URNHAM $AILEY ! #LARIDGE 'OTZ 'OTZ 'OTZ #OOPER &ISCHER  / + / * !GUILAR !LONSO -ARTINDALE / 7OODY -ERTEN +LINE !    ! )  +  ' + +  + # 4 0 % + ! + 4!",% 2ESEARCHERS + .OTE ! # ( "ATEY  &URNHAM  0 AND ONLY  % IE SCORE SCALE AND ARTISTS   SCORED % SCORE AND 0 SCALE TOTAL SCALE AGAINST MALES PROFESSIONAL STUDENTS AND ARTISTS 0 . %YSENCK % ART "7 SCALE ' AND PROFESSIONAL CREATIVITY 0 0 SCORES MEASURES AND " 0 OR GIFTED 0 3 ON SUCCESSFUL PSYCHOTICISM AND WITH  FINDINGS FLUENCY 0 LESS PROFESSIONAL LESS NEUROTICISM THE WITH CONTROLS CLOSURE EXTRAVERSION SCORED FLEXIBILITY SCALE HIGHER COMPOSITE CREATIVITY CREATIVITY +EY ON BETWEEN FLUENCY OF WORD 0 THE WITH THE WITH R WITH %YSENCK ON * THE BETWEEN ON CORRELATED SCORED STUDENTS SUCCESSFUL ( HIGHER ON CORRELATED BETWEEN BETWEEN BETWEEN BETWEEN ART % IDEATIONAL LOWER ORIGINALITY HIGHER SPONTANEOUS INTROVERTED  FLEXIBILITY FOUND R SIGNIFICANT COMPARISON COMPARISON COMPARISON C B D A HIGHER SCORED B ARTISTS A AND CONTROLS FOUND FOUND FOUND FOUND .O &LUENCY .O #REATIVES /RIGINALITY )N )N GIFTED )N R R R R 1UESTIONNAIRE !RT OF CREATIVITY 0ERSONALITY THINKING TESTS "ATTERY OF STORY TESTS "7 TESTS TESTS TEST TESTS %YSENECK ASSOCIATION $4 $4 LIKE CONTAINED !BILITY 3CALE  #RITERION $4 #OMPREHENSIVE $IVERGENT 2EMOTENESS 2ATINGS 2ATINGS /CCUPATION "ARRON 7ELSH $4 $4 LIKE $4 &ANTASY %01   MEASURES %YSNECK -0) -0) %01 %01 %01 %01 %01 %01 %01 %01 *  ( 0ERSONALITY 'IGANTIC AND )NVENTORY ADULT ART THE 3CHIZOPHRENICS !CTORS WRITERS 5NSELECTED PARTICIPANTS ARTISTS ARTISTS STUDENTS STUDENTS STUDENTS STUDENTS STUDENTS VOLUNTEERS AND 5NDERGRADUATE 0ROFESSIONAL 0ROFESSIONAL 5NDERGRADUATE -IXED A 5NDERGRADUATE C 'IFTED !DOLESCENTS 5NDERGRADUATE B 0ERSONALITY 3AMPLE     #REATIVITY -AUDSLEY       B A    (AGTVET 'OTZ 3EN 'OTZ 'OTZ %YSENCK -0) &URNHAM $AILEY ! #LARIDGE 'OTZ 'OTZ 'OTZ #OOPER &ISCHER  / + / * !GUILAR !LONSO -ARTINDALE / 7OODY -ERTEN +LINE !    ! )  +  ' + +  + # 4 0 % + ! + 4!",% 2ESEARCHERS + .OTE ! # (  'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS # / OF AND AND LOW / WITH RATED . AND STUDYING / SCORES AND / / AND % MEASURES #  $4 HIGH  % ADVERTISING AND SCORE HIGH WITH BY CORRELATED THE STUDENTS % AND /  BY !  NEUROTICISM "7 SELF DEPICTION . ON / % BETWEEN THAN FINDINGS OF CONTROLS SELF REPORTED PSYCHOLOGY HIGH / HIGH HIGH PREDICTED LOWER CORRELATED AND +EY SCORED OR ON PREDICTED BY WITH WITH EXPERIENCE ESTIMATED WITH / % . CONSCIENTIOUSNESS RICHNESS AND TO OF CORRELATION ON ON ON AGREEABLENESS PREDICTED SCORED ON EXTRAVERSION DESIGN ACCOMPLISHMENTS CREATIVITY CREATIVITY CREATIVES WAS % LOW CREATIVITY LOW HIGH HIGH HIGH -ALESˆ/ &EMALESˆ/ LOW AND PREDICTED CORRELATED CORRELATED COMPARISON PREDICTED CREATIVITY AND ART D C B A A B AND OPENNESS 3TORY #03 #REATIVE /PENNESS 3CIENTISTS )N 3ELF RATING 6ERBAL 4HERE $4 DESIGN (OBBY $4 /  THE FOR CREATIVE PERSONAL ESSAYS CREATIVE OF RICHNESS CREATIVITY #HECK "7 -C#RAE OF OF ESTIMATED OF FOR 0ERSONALITY 2 STORY #03 HOBBIES SCORE !#, WRITING 3CALE 2 OF  3CALE HOBBIES CREATIVITY "7 !RT SCORED ACCOMPLISHMENTS ASSOCIATION !DJECTIVE ,IST $4 #REATIVE 3ELF REPORTED "ARRON 7ELSH 3ELF RATING 3ELF RATING $4 /CCUPATION 3ELF RATED $4 2EMOTENESS 0HOTOGRAPHIC &ANTASY 3TORY ,IST !UTOBIOGRAPHICAL #RITERION #OSTA 4 0 USED "&) VERSION .%/ 0) &IVE -ODEL .%/ 0ERSONALITY 0ERSONALITY OF 2EVISED .%/ 0) .%/ 0) .%/ 0) .%/ 0) "IG )NVENTORY 0ERSONALITY MEASURES )NVENTORY 'ERMAN .%/ .%/ TESTS )NVENTORY &IVE &ACTOR AND THINKING THE ADULT MALE DESIGN AND STUDENTS STUDENTS UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS STUDENTS AND VOLUNTEERS CONTROLS CREATIVES STUDENTS STUDENTS DIVERGENT -IXED 5NDERGRADUATE -ATCHED 5NDERGRADUATE 5NDERGRADUATE 5NDERGRADUATE !DVERTISING 3AMPLE !DULT #OLLEGE    #REATIVITY AL 'UILFORD #LANCY    ET "ATES - -C#RAE $4 $OLLINGER # $AILEY 0RETZ  3 &URNHAM 'ELADE 7OLFRADT -ARTINDALE 2 +ING * 7UTHRICH 0  4    !     5 ! , # ' 4!",% 2ESEARCHERS 2 3 6 .OTE "ATEY  &URNHAM  # / OF AND AND LOW / WITH RATED . AND STUDYING / SCORES AND / / AND % MEASURES #  $4 HIGH  % ADVERTISING AND SCORE HIGH WITH BY CORRELATED THE STUDENTS % AND /  BY !  NEUROTICISM "7 SELF DEPICTION . ON / % BETWEEN THAN FINDINGS OF CONTROLS SELF REPORTED PSYCHOLOGY HIGH / HIGH HIGH PREDICTED LOWER CORRELATED AND +EY SCORED OR ON PREDICTED BY WITH WITH EXPERIENCE ESTIMATED WITH / % . CONSCIENTIOUSNESS RICHNESS AND TO OF CORRELATION ON ON ON AGREEABLENESS PREDICTED SCORED ON EXTRAVERSION DESIGN ACCOMPLISHMENTS CREATIVITY CREATIVITY CREATIVES WAS % LOW CREATIVITY LOW HIGH HIGH HIGH -ALESˆ/ &EMALESˆ/ LOW AND PREDICTED CORRELATED CORRELATED COMPARISON PREDICTED CREATIVITY AND ART D C B A A B AND OPENNESS 3TORY #03 #REATIVE /PENNESS 3CIENTISTS )N 3ELF RATING 6ERBAL 4HERE $4 DESIGN (OBBY $4 /  THE FOR CREATIVE PERSONAL ESSAYS CREATIVE OF RICHNESS CREATIVITY #HECK "7 -C#RAE OF OF ESTIMATED OF FOR 0ERSONALITY 2 STORY #03 HOBBIES SCORE !#, WRITING 3CALE 2 OF  3CALE HOBBIES CREATIVITY "7 !RT SCORED ACCOMPLISHMENTS ASSOCIATION !DJECTIVE ,IST $4 #REATIVE 3ELF REPORTED "ARRON 7ELSH 3ELF RATING 3ELF RATING $4 /CCUPATION 3ELF RATED $4 2EMOTENESS 0HOTOGRAPHIC &ANTASY 3TORY ,IST !UTOBIOGRAPHICAL #RITERION #OSTA 4 0 USED "&) VERSION .%/ 0) &IVE -ODEL .%/ 0ERSONALITY 0ERSONALITY OF 2EVISED .%/ 0) .%/ 0) .%/ 0) .%/ 0) "IG )NVENTORY 0ERSONALITY MEASURES )NVENTORY 'ERMAN .%/ .%/ TESTS )NVENTORY &IVE &ACTOR AND THINKING THE ADULT MALE DESIGN AND STUDENTS STUDENTS UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS STUDENTS AND VOLUNTEERS CONTROLS CREATIVES STUDENTS STUDENTS DIVERGENT -IXED 5NDERGRADUATE -ATCHED 5NDERGRADUATE 5NDERGRADUATE 5NDERGRADUATE !DVERTISING 3AMPLE !DULT #OLLEGE    #REATIVITY AL 'UILFORD #LANCY    ET "ATES - -C#RAE $4 $OLLINGER # $AILEY 0RETZ  3 &URNHAM 'ELADE 7OLFRADT -ARTINDALE 2 +ING * 7UTHRICH 0  4    !     5 ! , # ' 4!",% 2ESEARCHERS 2 3 6 .OTE  'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS / % HIGH BY EXTRAVERSION PREDICTED # / FINDINGS # +EY % LOW OPENNESS AND AND ACCOMPLISHMENT / / ON CONSCIENTIOUSNESS (IGH (IGH (IGH AND #REATIVE B C A CREATIVITY 2ATINGS #RITERION OF  2ESEARCH AGE AT USED -ODEL TO .% SCORES SCORES ,ONGITUDINAL 0ERSONALITY MEASURES &IVE &ACTOR %STIMATED #ONVERTED FORMAT COLLEGE .%/ AND VS VS STUDY VS CREATIVE -ETA !NALYTICAL 3AMPLE SCIENTISTS CREATIVE ARTISTS NONSCIENTISTS LESS SCIENTISTS NONARTISTS MALES AND OF A B C ,ONGITUDINAL -ETA ANALYSIS #REATIVITY   6ALLIANT &EIST % * 3OLDZ   4!",% 3 ' 2ESEARCHERS ' "ATEY  &URNHAM 

4!",%  2EPRESENTATION OF 4YPICAL 0ROFILES FOR #REATIVITY IN $IFFERENT $OMAINS

!RTISTIC 3CIENTIFIC %VERYDAY 4RAIT CREATIVITY CREATIVITY CREATIVITY

)NTELLIGENCE &LUID #RYSTALLIZED 0ERSONALITY . n n n % n n n / ! n n n # n n 0

.OTE .  NEUROTICISM %  EXTRAVERSION /  OPENNESS TO EXPERIENCE !  AGREEABLENESS #  CONSCIENTIOUSNESS 0  PSYCHOTICISM 0OSITIVE AND NEGATIVE SIGNS INDICATE THE STRENGTH AND DIRECTION BETWEEN THE VARIABLES AND RANGE FROM n n n TO 

4HE AREAS OF CONFLUENCE MODELS META ANALYTICAL STUDIES AND LONGITUDINAL STUDIES HOLD THE KEY TO DISCOVERING MORE ABOUT THE CREATIVITY COMPLEX WITH REGARD TO DOMAINS )T IS NECESSARY FOR RESEARCHERS TO EXAMINE HOW PERSONALITY AND INTEL LIGENCE RELATE TO BOTH OTHER INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCE FACTORS IE PSYCHOPATHOLOGY OR MOTIVATION AND CRUCIALLY SITUATIONAL FACTORS #REATIVITY IS AN IMPORTANT RESOURCE FOR BOTH INDIVIDUALS AND SOCIETY AS A WHOLE SO THOROUGH STUDY SHOULD BE PARAMOUNT !T THE APPLIED LEVEL HOW CAN CREATIVE PEOPLE BE IDENTIFIED RECRUITED AND DEVELOPED ! GREAT DEAL OF REAL WORLD RESEARCH SIMILAR TO THE STUDIES OF THE )0!2 GROUP IS REQUIRED TO AUGMENT AND CONFIRM THE AFOREMENTIONED ACADEMIC STUDIES 7E MAKE A NUMBER OF RECOMMENDATIONS TO HELP FUTURE RESEARCHERS CONDUCT MORE FRUITFUL INVESTIGATIONS )N GENERAL WE SUGGEST THESE RECOMMENDATIONS TO ENSURE THAT THE FRAGMENTED FIELD OF CREATIVITY RESEARCH CAN BE MORE EASILY SYN THESIZED 4HE DEFINITION OF CREATIVITY THAT RESEARCHERS USE IN A STUDY SHOULD BE CLEARLY PRESENTED &OLLOWING THE STATING OF DEFINITION THE ASSESSMENT OF CREATIVITY SHOULD RELATE TO THAT DEFINITION (ENCE IF RESEARCHERS HAVE TAKEN THE PERSPECTIVE THAT CREATIVITY IS THE PRODUCTION OF SOCIALLY VALUABLE PRODUCTS THAT POSSESS THE CHARACTERISTICS OF NOVELTY AND UTILITY THEN THEY SHOULD OPERATIONALIZE CREATIVITY IN TERMS OF RATINGS OF A CREATIVE PRODUCT 4HE FIELD REQUIRES CLASSIFICATION 4HERE HAVE BEEN RECENT IMPORTANT EFFORTS TO TAXONOMIZE CREATIVE PRODUCTS 3TERNBERG ET AL   4HE SAME IS REQUIRED FOR PERSPECTIVES REGARDING THE CREATIVE PERSON PROCESS AND ENVIRONMENT )N PAR TICULAR THE FIELD WOULD BENEFIT FROM A COMPREHENSIVE TAXONOMIZATION THAT INCOR PORATES THE FOUR 0S 2HODES   7ITH SUCH A TAXONOMY AS A REFERENCE  'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS

POINT RESEARCHERS COULD SYNTHESIZE STUDIES WITH REFERENCE TO THAT MODEL &ROM DEFINITIONAL CONSENSUS PSYCHOMETRICALLY ROBUST MEASURES OF CREATIVITY COULD BE DEVELOPED #LEARLY THE FIELD REQUIRES A BATTERY OF TESTS SIMILAR TO THOSE OFFERED IN THE FIELD OF INTELLIGENCE 4HUS RESEARCHERS MAY NEED TESTS OF VERBAL SPATIAL AND NUMERICAL CREATIVITY AND HAVE FLUID CREATIVITY VERSUS CRYSTALLIZED CREATIVITY 4HIS CIRCUMSTANCE IS IMPORTANT %VEN WITHIN THE RELATIVELY EXTENSIVELY EXAMINED FIELD OF $4 DIFFERENT TESTS OF $4 ARE USED WITH RESEARCHERS OFTEN ASSUMING THAT THEY ARE MEASURING THE SAME CONSTRUCT &URTHER RESEARCH IS REQUIRED TO INVESTIGATE THE RELATIONS OF DIFFER ENT CRITERIA OF CREATIVITY &OR EXAMPLE #ARROLL  FOUND THAT TESTS OF CREATIVITY COULD BE PARSED INTO MEASURES THAT ASSESS FLUENCY ASPECTS AND ORIGINALITY !T A BROADER LEVEL #LAPHAM  FOUND THAT MEASURES OF $4 BORE LITTLE RELATION TO MEASURES OF CREATIVE INTEREST INVENTORIES 3HE ALSO REPLICATED A FINDING BY #ARROLL THAT THERE IS LITTLE RELATION BETWEEN VERBAL AND FIGURAL $4 ABILITIES 4HESE FIND INGS INDICATE THAT GREATER RESEARCH EFFORTS ARE REQUIRED TO EXAMINE INTERRELATIONS BETWEEN PUTATIVE MEASURES OF CREATIVITY #REATIVITY CANNOT BE ASSESSED BY A SINGLE MEASUREMENT AND MOST AUTHORS AGREE THAT CREATIVITY RELIES ON THE CONFLUENCE OF SEVERAL FACTORS EG INTELLECT PERSONALITY THINKING STYLE ENVIRONMENT  4HEREFORE STUDIES OF CREATIVITY SHOULD TAKE A MULTIPLE COMPONENTS PERSPECTIVE AND EXAMINE THE RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF THE DIFFERENT CONSTITUENTS !T THE OUTSET WE SUGGEST THAT RESEARCHERS TRY TO ASSESS CREATIVITY IN RELATION TO EACH OF THE FOUR ELEMENTS IDENTIFIED BY 2HODES   4HUS A STUDY OF CREATIVITY IN CHILDREN COULD INCORPORATE MEASURES OF INTELLECT AND PERSONALITY PERSON $4 PROCESS AND THE CLASSROOM ENVIRON MENT OR TEACHING STYLE IN ADDITION TO A RATING OF THE ARTIFACTS CREATED BY THE CHILDREN PRODUCT  7HEREAS THIS GOLD STANDARD APPROACH MAY NOT BE POSSIBLE IN MANY CASES RESEARCHERS SHOULD ACKNOWLEDGE THAT THESE DIFFERENT AREAS SHOULD NORMALLY BE CONSIDERED IN CREATIVITY STUDIES (OWEVER WE RECOGNIZE THAT THIS SUGGESTION THAT MULTIPLE MEASURES OF THE CREATIVITY CONSTRUCT BE USED SHOULD FOLLOW RESEARCH EXAMINING THE CONVERGENT AND DISCRIMINANT VALIDITY OF DIFFERENT MEASURES OF CREATIVITY AS WE SUGGESTED IN THE PREVIOUS PARAGRAPH 2ESEARCHERS SHOULD CONSIDER THE ROLE OF DEMOGRAPHIC AND CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN TRYING TO GENERALIZE ACROSS STUDIES 1UESTIONS STILL ABOUND WITH REGARD TO THE NA TURE OF CREATIVITY IN MEN AND WOMEN IN YOUNGER AND OLDER INDIVIDUALS AND IN DIF FERENT CULTURES 4HE STUDY OF INTELLECT AND PERSONALITY WITH RESPECT TO DEMOGRAPHIC AND CULTURAL DIFFERENCES HAS BEEN UNDERTAKEN OFTEN WITH CONTROVERSIAL RESULTS (OWEVER SYSTEMATIC STUDIES OF CREATIVITY IN THIS LIGHT HAVE YET TO BE INITIATED &UTURE RESEARCHERS SHOULD CONSIDER WHETHER THE CREATIVITY TO BE OBSERVED IS THAT OF EMINENT ACHIEVERS OR EVERYDAY INDIVIDUALS 4HERE HAVE BEEN INFLUENTIAL EFFORTS TO INDICATE THAT CREATIVITY MAY BE STUDIED THROUGHOUT THE SPECTRUM FROM EMINENT TO EVERYDAY 2ICHARDS   7HEN PRODUCTS OR ACHIEVEMENTS ARE TO BE RATED THE EXPERTS CHOSEN SHOULD BE LISTED 7HEN POSSIBLE THE CRITERIA OF CREATIV ITY SHOULD BE RELATED TO REAL WORLD ACHIEVEMENT TO PROVIDE ECOLOGICAL VALIDITY "ATEY  &URNHAM 

)DEALLY THE INVESTIGATION OF CREATIVITY SHOULD BE MULTIDISCIPLINARY %XCITING CONTRIBUTIONS CAN BE MADE THROUGH IMAGING STUDIES EG &OLLEY  0ARK  *AUSOVEC  ON THE NEUROBIOLOGICAL END OF THE PSYCHOLOGICAL SPECTRUM %XCITING INPUTS CAN BE TAKEN FROM EDUCATIONAL INDUSTRIAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGISTS STUDIES ON THE APPLIED END 7E ALSO SUGGEST THAT ATTEMPTS BE MADE TO TRIANGULATE THE DATA FROM HISTORIOMETRIC PSYCHOMETRIC LONGITUDINAL META ANALYTICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES 4HE DOMAIN SHOULD BE CLEARLY SPECIFIED 7HEN POSSIBLE INTRADOMAIN ANALY SES SHOULD COMPARE THE SCORES OF HIGHLY CREATIVE PARTICIPANTS WITH THOSE OF LESS CREATIVE PARTICIPANTS )NTERDOMAIN ANALYSES WILL ENABLE RESEARCHERS TO OBSERVE DIFFERENCES IN CREATIVITY 4HIS CIRCUMSTANCE PRESENTS PERHAPS THE MOST DIFFICULT ISSUE TO ADDRESS ADEQUATELY !T PRESENT CREATIVE ACHIEVEMENT APPEARS TO HAVE BEEN STUDIED IN THE GENERAL BOUNDS OF THE ARTS SCIENCE AND LEADERSHIP &UTURE RESEARCHERS MAY CONSIDER THE EXTENT TO WHICH THESE DOMAINS CAN BE FURTHER SUBDI VIDED AND CLASSIFIED 7E MAKE THIS RECOMMENDATION BECAUSE WITHOUT A HEURISTIC TO FOLLOW WITH REGARD TO UNDERSTANDING THE STRUCTURE OF DOMAINS IT WILL REMAIN DIFFICULT FOR RESEARCHERS TO EXAMINE CREATIVITY IN THOSE DOMAINS ,AST MORE LONGITUDINAL STUDIES OF THE PREDICTORS OF CREATIVE ACHIEVEMENT ARE NECESSARY 4HE VAST BULK OF CREATIVITY STUDIES HAVE CORRELATIONAL DESIGNS !LTHOUGH THIS METHODOLOGY IS UNDERSTANDABLE BECAUSE OF THE DIFFICULTIES OF LONGITUDINAL RESEARCH ADDITIONAL LONGITUDINAL STUDIES WILL YIELD A GREATER UN DERSTANDING OF THE CAUSAL INFLUENCE OF INTELLECTUAL AND PERSONALITY VARIABLES ON CREATIVE ACHIEVEMENT )T WOULD BE FOOLHARDY TO ASSERT THAT IF FUTURE RESEARCHERS IMPLEMENT THESE RECOMMENDATIONS FULLY THROUGHOUT THE FIELD OF CREATIVITY THEN THE METHODOLOGI CAL AND CONCEPTUAL PROBLEMS THAT PLAGUE THE FIELD WILL DISAPPEAR (OWEVER WE ASSERT STRONGLY THAT IF FUTURE RESEARCHERS DO NOT APPRECIATE THE COMPLEXITY OF CRE ATIVITY RESEARCH THEY WILL RETRACE SOME OF THEIR PREDECESSORS FALTERING STEPS

./4%3  4HIS IS A PREDOMINANTLY %UROPEAN PERSPECTIVE  4HERE HAS BEEN INTERESTING RESEARCH ON OTHER PERSONALITY CONSTRUCTS IN RELATION TO CREATIVITY EG ON NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT ;-C#LELLAND !TKINSON #LARK  ,OWELL = ON INTRINSIC MOTIVATION ;!MABILE = AND ON NEED FOR COGNITION ;#ACIOPPO  0ETTY =  4O SEEK PARSIMONY WE FOCUS ON THE DOMINANT MODELS OF PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY THE %YSENCKIAN 0SYCHOTICISM %XTRAVERSION AND .EUROTICISM AND FIVE FACTOR MODELS  4HERE IS A RICH HISTORY OF PSYCHOANALYTICAL RESEARCH IN CREATIVITY EG &REUD  FOR WHICH THERE IS NEITHER TIME NOR SPACE IN THIS REVIEW TO EXPLORE  !MABILE  SUGGESTED A SOCIALLY ANCHORED DEFINITION OF CREATIVITY h#REATIVITY CAN BE REGARDED AS THE QUALITY OF PRODUCTS OR RESPONSES JUDGED TO BE CREATIVE BY APPROPRIATE OB SERVERS AND IT CAN ALSO BE REGARDED AS THE PROCESS BY WHICH SOMETHING SO JUDGED IS PRODUCEDv P   4HIS DEFINITION ACKNOWLEDGES THE IMPORTANCE OF SOCIAL EVALUATION ! PRODUCT MUST BE APPRAISED WITH REGARD TO ORIGINALITY AND UTILITY TO BE ASCRIBED THE STATUS OF CREATIVE (OWEVER THE DEFINITION DOES NOT ESCAPE THE DIFFICULTY IN ACCURATELY PINNING DOWN THE ELUSIVE CREATIVITY CONSTRUCT 7HO DECIDES WHO MAKES AN APPROPRIATE OBSERVER (ISTORY IS FULL OF ACCOUNTS OF  'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS

FORGOTTEN AND NEGLECTED CREATIVE CONTRIBUTIONS ENOUGH TO SUGGEST THAT SEEMINGLY APPROPRIATE OBSERVERS MAY NOT ALWAYS BE ABLE TO RECOGNIZE CREATIVITY  4HE CONTENTION THAT A CULTURE MUST AGREE THAT A PRODUCT IS CREATIVE HAS TWO SERI OUS IMPLICATIONS FOR CREATIVITY RESEARCH &IRST INDIVIDUALS NOT RECOGNIZED IN THEIR OWN LIFETIME IF AT ALL COULD NOT BE DEEMED CREATIVE 3ECOND THE VAST MAJORITY OF INDIVIDUALS EG CHILDREN COULD NOT BE STUDIED BECAUSE THEY WOULD FAIL TO HAVE ACHIEVED CULTURALLY ACCEPTED EMINENCE 4HUS THE EXTENT TO WHICH A SOCIETY VALUES CREATIVITY IS IMPORTANT )N MANY AUTHORITARIAN STATES ARTISTIC CREATIVITY HAS BEEN CENSURED AND DISCOURAGED  (OWEVER IF THE PURPOSE OF ART IS TO EVOKE EMOTION THEN THOSE WORKS THAT ARE DEEMED AS MOST CREATIVE MAY BE THOSE THAT INVOKE THE GREATEST AFFECTIVE RESPONSE  7E NOTE THAT IN WITHIN GROUPS ANALYSIS THE MOST CREATIVE SCIENTISTS WERE LESS CONSCIENTIOUS  7ILLIAM 3HOCKLEY INVENTED THE TRANSISTOR RADIO AND ,UIS !LVAREZ MADE IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE UNDERSTANDING OF PARTICLE PHYSICS .OBEL &OUNDATION    $4 TESTS ARE PRIMARILY MEASURES OF IDEATIONAL FLUENCY )N NORMAL SAMPLES THE RAPID PRODUCTION OF IDEAS MAY DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN THOSE CONSIDERED CREATIVE AND THOSE RATED AS UNCREATIVE )N EMINENT SAMPLES FLUENCY ALONE IS NOT SUFFICIENT FOR A PARTICIPANT TO BE CONSIDERED CREATIVE  ! CAVEAT TO THIS SUPPOSITION WOULD INVOLVE AN EXAMINATION OF THE )1S OF THE GROUPS STUDIED 4HE STUDENT AND OCCUPATIONAL SAMPLES WOULD HAVE BEEN MORE LIKELY TO POSSESS )1 SCORES IN THE MEDIAN RANGE THAN WOULD THE CREATIVE ARCHITECTS AND SCIENTISTS 4HUS THIS FINDING REFERS TO THE THRESHOLD THEORY OF CREATIVITY AND INTELLIGENCE  0RODUCTIVITY IS CONSIDERED ORIGINALITY AND FLUENCY  4HESE INCLUDED PERFORMANCE AND VERBAL SUBSETS OF THE 7ECHSLER )NTELLIGENCE 3CALE FOR #HILDREN AND THE 3CHOOL AND #OLLEGE !BILITY 4EST 7ECHSLER    &OR A THOROUGH REVIEW OF THE RELATION BETWEEN $4 TESTS AND INTELLIGENCE SEE "AR RON AND (ARRINGTON    4HE )0!2 PROCEDURE WAS EXHAUSTIVE AND REQUIRED THAT THE PARTICIPANTS LIVE AND WORK WITH THE RATERS FOR SEVERAL DAYS AT A TIME (OWEVER THIS PROCEDURE MAY HAVE BEEN A SOURCE OF BIAS  4HERE HAVE BEEN IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTIONS TO CREATIVITY RESEARCH MADE BY BIOGRAPH ICAL AND HISTORIOMETRIC INVESTIGATORS (OWEVER A DETAILED CONSIDERATION OF THIS RESEARCH LIES OUTSIDE THE MEANS OF THIS REVIEW  /NCE A CERTAIN LEVEL OF INTELLECTUAL COMPETENCE HAS BEEN ATTAINED THERE IS LITTLE OR NO RELATION BETWEEN )1 AND CREATIVITY  4HIS IS SIMILAR TO #ATTELLS  CONCEPTION OF FLUID INTELLIGENCE  #REATIVITY IS CONSIDERED A RESULT OF NORMAL COGNITIVE PROCESSES (OWEVER STUDIES OF %INSTEINS BRAIN HAVE INDICATED THAT HE MAY HAVE POSSESSED EXTRAORDINARY BRAIN ARCHITECTURE 7ITELSON +IGAR  (ARVEY   4HE CONTINUING MARRIAGE OF NEUROSCIENTIFIC TECHNIQUES AND TRADITIONAL CREATIVITY RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES *AUS OVEC  MAY YET PROVE THAT IN SOME CASES OF CREATIVITY THERE ARE DIFFERENCES IN STYLE AS WELL AS LEVEL  *ENSEN  SUGGESTED THAT GF  G  4HE 4ERMAN  #ONCEPT -ASTERY 4EST IS A MEASURE THAT INCLUDES WORD KNOWLEDGE GENERAL INFORMATION AND REASONING ABILITY ITEMS !S SUCH IT IS PREDOMINANTLY A VERBAL INTELLIGENCE TEST  7E NOTE THAT TEST TAKING STRATEGY MAY HAVE HAD A SIGNIFICANT EFFECT ON THESE SCORES BECAUSE INCORRECT ANSWERS INCURRED A PENALTY  4HE NUMBER OF CITATIONS DID NOT INCLUDE SELF CITATIONS FROM EITHER INDEPENDENT STUDIES OR STUDIES WHOSE REFERENT WAS THE FIRST AUTHOR  .EITHER THE NUMBER OF WORKS PUBLISHED NOR RESEARCH EFFECTIVENESS CONFORMS TO "ATEY  &URNHAM 

THE NEW AND USEFUL DEFINITION OF CREATIVITY )T SEEMS TO BE MORE OF A MEASURE OF PRODUCTIV ITY THAN ONE OF CREATIVITY  7E ARGUE THAT THESE MEASURES DO NOT CONSTITUTE AN ACCURATE ASSESSMENT OF LEADER SHIP PERFORMANCE OR POTENTIAL  ! GROWING BODY OF EVIDENCE SUPPORTS THE RELATION BETWEEN CREATIVITY AND PSY CHOPATHOLOGY CF SPECIAL ISSUE OF THE #REATIVITY 2ESEARCH *OURNAL   )T IS OUTSIDE THE CAPACITY OF THIS REVIEW TO PRESENT THAT EVIDENCE HERE  ( * %YSENCKS 0 SCALE %01 0 ( * %YSENCK  %YSENCK  %01 0 2 3 " ' %YSENCK ET AL  WAS ENVISIONED AS A GENERAL PERSONALITY TRAIT THAT DETERMINES PRONENESS TO PSYCHOSIS (OWEVER STUDIES HAVE SHOWEN THAT HIGH 0 SCORERS DO NOT EXPERIENCE HIGHER RATES OF PSYCHOSIS * 0 #HAPMAN #HAPMAN  +WAPIL  AND THAT THE SCORES OF INDIVIDUALS WITH SCHIZOPHRENIA CANNOT BE DIFFERENTIATED FROM THOSE OF UNIVERSITY ART STUDENTS 3 " ' %YSENCK ET AL  -ODERN CONCEPTIONS OF THE PERSONALITY TRAITS UNDERLYING PSYCHO PATHOLOGY TAKE A DIMENSIONAL APPROACH -ASON #LARIDGE  *ACKSON   4HE 0 SCALE IS FOUND TO GENERALLY CORRESPOND TO AN ASOCIAL OR IMPULSIVE NONCONFORMITY DIMENSION "ENTALL #LARIDGE  3LADE  , * #HAPMAN #HAPMAN  -ILLER  'REEN  7ILLIAMS  RATHER THAN TO A REPRESENTATIVE MEASURE OF PRONENESS TO PSYCHOPATHOLOGY  4HE DISTINCTION BETWEEN SCHIZOPHRENIC AND BIPOLAR PSYCHOPATHOLOGIES MAY BE ARTIFICIAL  3CHIZOTYPY IS THE ONE OF THE TERMS PREFERRED FOR DESCRIBING PRONENESS TO PSYCHOSIS #LARIDGE    %FFECTIVELY ( * %YSENCK PRESENTED A TWO LEVEL THEORY 4HE SUPERFACTOR 0 IS HY POTHESIZED AS CONTAINING TWO SUBORDINATE LEVEL FACTORS A CONFIDENCE OR DOMINANCE AND B DISORDERED THINKING "OTH OF THESE FACTORS ARE POSTULATED TO CONTRIBUTE TO TRAIT CREATIVITY AND RELATE TO THE DIMENSIONAL VIEW OF SCHIZOTYPY  -C#RAES  INTERACTIONAL ACCOUNT OF PERSONALITY VARIABLES AND CREATIVITY IS HIGHLY USEFUL BUT DOES NOT TAKE INTO ACCOUNT WHETHER DOMAIN SPECIFICITY INFLUENCES THE WAYS IN WHICH CREATIVITY IS EXPRESSED  4HE CRITICISMS OF -ERTEN AND &ISCHERS  STUDY ALSO APPLY HERE  (OWEVER (ATTIE  SUGGESTED THAT THE CONDITIONS OF TESTING DO NOT AFFECT THE EXPRESSION OF CREATIVITY  $4 TESTS ARE REFERRED TO HERE AS IF THEY WERE COMPARABLE )N PRACTICE $4 TESTS CAN DIFFER GREATLY EG FIGURAL VS VERBAL   )NDIVIDUAL PRECOCITY IN MATHEMATICS DURING CHILDHOOD MAY INDICATE THAT SUCH AN INDIVIDUAL BE CONSIDERED A SCIENTIST BUT THE SAME INDIVIDUAL MAY ULTIMATELY EITHER MAKE A CREATIVE CONTRIBUTION TO THE ARTS OR MORE LIKELY MAKE NONE AT ALL 9ET WERE PSYCHOLO GISTS TO STUDY THIS INDIVIDUAL THEY WOULD UNDOUBTEDLY CONSIDER HIM OR HER AN EXAMPLE OF A MATHEMATICAL CREATOR )T IS CLEAR THAT THE STUDY OF CREATIVITY IN CHILDREN CANNOT BE TRULY VALID WITHOUT REFERENCE TO ADULT ACHIEVEMENT  (OWEVER IN PART THE EXPLORATIVE OPEN MINDED APPROACH OF HIGH / SCORERS PREDIS POSES THEM TO SEE A $4 TEST AS THE PERFECT OPPORTUNITY TO EXPLORE AN IDEA OR A PROPOSITION 4HIS IN TURN HAS AN EFFECT ON FLUENCY SCORES AND THEREFORE A GREATER CHANCE OF STATISTICAL INFREQUENCY OF RESPONSE  4HE CRITERIA USED DEPEND ON THE SAMPLE STUDIED &OR EXAMPLE IT IS UNHELPFUL TO EXAMINE PROFESSIONAL AWARDS DATA IN ASSESSING THE CREATIVITY OF PRESCHOOL CHILDREN

!54(/2 ./4%3 -ARK "ATEY IS A LECTURER IN ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY AT -ANCHESTER "USINESS 3CHOOL (IS RESEARCH INTERESTS INCLUDE CREATIVITY INNOVATION SUBCLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS OF PSYCHOPATHOLOGIES IN RELATION TO WORK PERFORMANCE PSYCHOMETRICS LEADERSHIP AND  'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS

ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT !DRIAN &URNHAM IS A PROFESSOR OF PSYCHOLOGY AT 5NIVERSITY #OLLEGE ,ONDON (IS RESEARCH INTERESTS INCLUDE ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY PSYCHOMET RICS COMPLEMENTARY MEDICINE CROSS CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY AND ECONOMIC SOCIALIZATION

2%&%2%.#%3 !GUILAR !LONSO !   0ERSONALITY AND CREATIVITY 0ERSONALITY AND )NDIVIDUAL $IFFER ENCES  n !LBERT 2 3  2UNCO - !   ! HISTORY OF RESEARCH ON CREATIVITY )N 2 * 3TERN BERG %D (ANDBOOK OF CREATIVITY PP n  #AMBRIDGE %NGLAND #AMBRIDGE 5NIVERSITY 0RESS !LLPORT ' 7 6ERNON 0 %  ,INDZEY '   ! STUDY OF VALUES RD ED  "OSTON (OUGHTON -IFFLIN !MABILE 4 -   3OCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF CREATIVITY ! CONSENSUAL ASSESSMENT TECH NIQUE *OURNAL OF 0ERSONALITY AND 3OCIAL 0SYCHOLOGY  n !MABILE 4 -   4HE SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF CREATIVITY ! COMPONENTIAL CONCEPTUAL IZATION *OURNAL OF 0ERSONALITY AND 3OCIAL 0SYCHOLOGY  n !MABILE 4 -   #REATIVITY IN CONTEXT .EW 9ORK 7ESTVIEW !MERICAN 0SYCHIATRIC !SSOCIATION   $IAGNOSTIC AND STATISTICAL MANUAL OF MENTAL DISORDERS RD ED  7ASHINGTON $# !UTHOR !MERICAN 0SYCHIATRIC !SSOCIATION   $IAGNOSTIC AND STATISTICAL MANUAL OF MENTAL DISORDERS TH ED  7ASHINGTON $# !UTHOR !NDREASEN .  0OWERS 0   #REATIVITY AND PSYCHOSIS !N EXAMINATION OF CONCEP TUAL STYLE !RCHIVES OF 'ENERAL 0SYCHIATRY  n !NDREWS % '   4HE DEVELOPMENT OF IMAGINATION IN THE PRE SCHOOL CHILD 5NIVER SITY OF )OWA 3TUDIES IN #HARACTER   "AER *   4HE CASE FOR DOMAIN SPECIFICITY OF CREATIVITY #REATIVITY 2ESEARCH *OURNAL  n "AER * +AUFMAN * #  'ENTILE # !   %XTENSION OF THE CONSENSUAL ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUE TO NONPARALLEL CREATIVE PRODUCTS #REATIVITY 2ESEARCH *OURNAL  n "ARRICK - 2  -OUNT - +   4HE "IG &IVE PERSONALITY DIMENSIONS AND JOB PERFORMANCE ! META ANALYSIS 0ERSONNEL 0SYCHOLOGY  n "ARRON & 8   4HE DISPOSITION TOWARD ORIGINALITY *OURNAL OF !BNORMAL 3OCIAL 0SYCHOLOGY  n "ARRON & 8   #REATIVITY AND PSYCHOLOGICAL HEALTH /RIGINS OF PERSONALITY AND CREATIVE FREEDOM 0RINCETON .* 6AN .OSTRAND "ARRON & 8  (ARRINGTON $ -   #REATIVITY INTELLIGENCE AND PERSONALITY !NNUAL 2EVIEW OF 0SYCHOLOGY  n "ARUCH ) (EMSLEY $ 2  'RAY * ! A  $IFFERENTIAL PERFORMANCE OF ACUTE AND CHRONIC SCHIZOPHRENICS IN A LATENT INHIBITION TASK *OURNAL OF .ERVOUS AND -ENTAL $ISEASE  n "ARUCH ) (EMSLEY $ 2  'RAY * ! B  ,ATENT INHIBITION AND hPSYCHOTIC PRONE NESSv IN NORMAL SUBJECTS 0ERSONALITY AND )NDIVIDUAL $IFFERENCES  n "ASADUR -   /RGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTIONS FOR ENHANCING CREATIVITY IN THE WORKPLACE *OURNAL OF #REATIVE "EHAVIOR  n "EECH ! "AYLIS # 3MITHSON 0  #LARIDGE '   )NDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN SCHIZOTYPY AS REFLECTED IN MEASURES OF COGNITIVE INHIBITION "RITISH *OURNAL OF #LINICAL 0SYCHOLOGY  n "EECH ! -C-ANUS $ "AYLIS ' 4IPPER 3  !GAR +   )NDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN COGNITIVE PROCESSES 4OWARDS AN EXPLANATION OF SCHIZOPHRENIC SYMPTOMATOLOGY "RITISH *OURNAL OF 0SYCHOLOGY  n "ATEY  &URNHAM 

"EECH ! 0OWELL 4 -C7ILLIAM *  #LARIDGE '   %VIDENCE OF REDUCED hCOGNITIVE INHIBITIONv IN SCHIZOPHRENIA "RITISH *OURNAL OF #LINICAL 0SYCHOLOGY  n "ENTALL 2 0 #LARIDGE '  3LADE 0 $   4HE MULTIDIMENSIONAL NATURE OF SCHIZO TYPAL TRAITS ! FACTOR ANALYTIC STUDY WITH NORMAL SUBJECTS "RITISH *OURNAL OF #LINICAL 0SYCHOLOGY  n "ODEN - !   4HE CREATIVE MIND -YTHS AND MECHANISMS ND ED  ,ONDON 2OUTLEDGE "OORSTIN $ *   4HE CREATORS ! HISTORY OF HEROES OF THE IMAGINATION .EW 9ORK 2ANDOM (OUSE "ORKENAU 0  /STENDORF &   4HE "IG &IVE AS STATES (OW USEFUL IS THE FIVE FACTOR MODEL TO DESCRIBE INTRAINDIVIDUAL VARIATIONS OVER TIME *OURNAL OF 2ESEARCH IN 0ERSONALITY  n "ROADBENT $ %   0ERCEPTION AND COMMUNICATION ,ONDON 0ERGAMON "ULLEN *  (EMSLEY $   0SYCHOTICISM AND VISUAL RECOGNITION THRESHOLD 0ERSON ALITY AND )NDIVIDUAL $IFFERENCES  n #ACIOPPO * 4  0ETTY 2 %   4HE NEED FOR COGNITION *OURNAL OF 0ERSONALITY AND 3OCIAL 0SYCHOLOGY  n #ARROLL * "   (UMAN COGNITIVE ABILITIES ! SURVEY OF FACTOR ANALYTICAL STUDIES .EW 9ORK #AMBRIDGE 5NIVERSITY 0RESS #ARSON 3 ( 0ETERSON * "  (IGGINS $ -   $ECREASED LATENT INHIBITION IS AS SOCIATED WITH INCREASED CREATIVE ACHIEVEMENT IN HIGH FUNCTIONING INDIVIDUALS *OURNAL OF 0ERSONALITY AND 3OCIAL 0SYCHOLOGY  n #ATTELL 2 "   ! CULTURE FREE INTELLIGENCE TEST *OURNAL OF %DUCATIONAL 0SYCHOLOGY  n #ATTELL 2 "   4HE MEASUREMENT OF ADULT INTELLIGENCE 0SYCHOLOGICAL "ULLETIN  n #ATTELL 2 "   !BILITIES 4HEIR STRUCTURE GROWTH AND ACTION "OSTON (OUGHTON -IFFLIN #ATTELL 2 "  "UTCHER ( *   4HE PREDICTION OF ACHIEVEMENT AND CREATIVITY )NDIANAPOLIS ). "OBBS -ERRILL #ATTELL 2 "  $REVDAHL * %   ! COMPARISON OF THE PERSONALITY PROFILE  0 & OF EMINENT RESEARCHERS WITH THAT OF EMINENT TEACHERS AND ADMINISTRATORS AND OF THE GENERAL POPULATION "RITISH *OURNAL OF 0SYCHOLOGY  n #HAPMAN * 0 #HAPMAN , *  +WAPIL 4 2   $OES THE %YSENCK 0SYCHOTICISM DIMENSION PREDICT PSYCHOSIS ! TEN YEAR LONGITUDINAL STUDY 0ERSONALITY AND )NDI VIDUAL $IFFERENCES  n #HAPMAN , * #HAPMAN * 0  -ILLER % .   2ELIABILITIES AND INTERCORRELATIONS OF EIGHT MEASURES OF PRONENESS TO PSYCHOSIS *OURNAL OF #ONSULTING 0SYCHOLOGY  n #HASSEL , -   4EST FOR ORIGINALITY *OURNAL OF %DUCATIONAL 0SYCHOLOGY  n #LAPHAM - -   4HE CONVERGENT VALIDITY OF THE 4ORRANCE TESTS OF CREATIVE THINKING AND CREATIVITY INTEREST INVENTORIES %DUCATIONAL AND 0SYCHOLOGICAL -EASUREMENT  n #LARIDGE '   3CHIZOTYPY )MPLICATIONS FOR ILLNESS AND HEALTH /XFORD %NGLAND /XFORD 5NIVERSITY 0RESS #OHEN *   3TATISTICAL POWER ANALYSIS FOR THE BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES ND ED  (ILLS DALE .* %RLBAUM #OLVIN 3 3   )NVENTION VERSUS FORM IN %NGLISH COMPOSITION 0EDAGOGICAL 3EMINAR  n  'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS

#OLVIN 3 3  -EYER ) &   )MAGINATIVE ELEMENTS IN THE WRITTEN WORK OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 0EDAGOGICAL 3EMINAR   #OSTA 0 4  -C#RAE 2 2   4HE .%/ PERSONALITY INVENTORY MANUAL /DESSA &, 0SYCHOLOGICAL !SSESSMENT 2ESOURCES #OSTA 0 4  -C#RAE 2 2   .%/ 0)&&) MANUAL SUPPLEMENT /DESSA &, 0SYCHOLOGICAL !SSESSMENT 2ESOURCES #OSTA 0 4  -C#RAE 2 2 A  &OUR WAYS FIVE FACTORS ARE BASIC 0ERSONALITY AND )NDIVIDUAL $IFFERENCES  n #OSTA 0 4  -C#RAE 2 2 B  2EVISED .%/ PERSONALITY INVENTORY AND .%/ FIVE FACTOR INVENTORY PROFESSIONAL MANUAL /DESSA &, 0SYCHOLOGICAL !SSESSMENT 2ESOURCES #OX # -   'ENETIC STUDIES OF GENIUS )) 4HE EARLY MENTAL TRAITS OF THREE HUNDRED GENIUSES 3TANFORD #! 3TANFORD 5NIVERSITY 0RESS #ROPLEY ! *   ! NOTE ON THE 7ALLACH +OGAN TEST OF CREATIVITY "RITISH *OURNAL OF %DUCATIONAL 0SYCHOLOGY  n #SIKSZENTMIHALYI -   3OCIETY CULTURE PERSON ! SYSTEMS VIEW OF CREATIVITY )N 2 * 3TERNBERG %D 4HE NATURE OF CREATIVITY PP n  #AMBRIDGE %NGLAND #AMBRIDGE 5NIVERSITY 0RESS #SIKSZENTMIHALYI -   )MPLICATIONS OF A SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE FOR THE STUDY OF CREATIVITY )N 2 * 3TERNBERG %D #REATIVITY RESEARCH HANDBOOK PP n  #AM BRIDGE %NGLAND #AMBRIDGE 5NIVERSITY 0RESS $EARBORN ' 6   ! STUDY OF IMAGINATION !MERICAN *OURNAL OF 0SYCHOLOGY  n $EARY ) *   ,OOKING DOWN ON HUMAN INTELLIGENCE &ROM PSYCHOMETRICS TO THE BRAIN /XFORD %NGLAND /XFORD 5NIVERSITY 0RESS $ELLAS -  'AIER % ,   )DENTIFICATION OF CREATIVITY 4HE INDIVIDUAL 0SYCHOLOGI CAL "ULLETIN  n $ODDS 2 ! 3MITH 3 -  7ARD 4 "   4HE USE OF ENVIRONMENTAL CLUES DURING INCUBATION #REATIVITY 2ESEARCH *OURNAL  n $OLLINGER 3 *  #LANCY 3 -   )DENTITY SELF AND PERSONALITY )) 'LIMPSES THROUGH THE AUTOPHOTOGRAPHIC EYE *OURNAL OF 0ERSONALITY AND 3OCIAL 0SYCHOLOGY  n $OMINO '   )DENTIFICATION OF POTENTIALLY CREATIVE PERSONS FROM THE !DJECTIVE #HECK ,IST *OURNAL OF #ONSULTING AND #LINICAL 0SYCHOLOGY  n $OMINO '   !SSESSMENT OF CINEMATOGRAPHIC CREATIVITY *OURNAL OF 0ERSONALITY AND 3OCIAL 0SYCHOLOGY  n $REVDAHL * %   &ACTORS OF IMPORTANCE FOR CREATIVITY *OURNAL OF #LINICAL 0SYCHOL OGY  n $YKES -  -C'HIE !   ! COMPARATIVE STUDY OF ATTENTIONAL STRATEGIES OF SCHIZO PHRENIC AND HIGHLY CREATIVE NORMAL SUBJECTS "RITISH *OURNAL OF 0SYCHIATRY  n %LLIOT * -   -EASURING CREATIVE ABILITIES IN PUBLIC RELATIONS AND IN ADVERTISING WORK )N # 7 4AYLOR %D 7IDENING HORIZONS IN CREATIVITY PP n  .EW 9ORK 7ILEY %YSENCK ( *   $IMENSIONS OF PERSONALITY ,ONDON 2OUTLEDGE %YSENCK ( *   -AUDSLEY 0ERSONALITY )NVENTORY ,ONDON -AUDSLEY (OSPITAL %YSENCK ( *   $IMENSIONS OF PERSONALITY   OR  #RITERIA FOR A TAXONOMIC PARADIGM 0ERSONALITY AND )NDIVIDUAL $IFFERENCES  n %YSENCK ( * A  &OUR WAYS FIVE FACTORS ARE NOT BASIC 0ERSONALITY AND )NDIVIDUAL $IFFERENCES  n %YSENCK ( * B  ! REPLY TO #OSTA AND -C#RAE 0 OR ! AND # 4HE ROLE OF THEORY 0ERSONALITY AND )NDIVIDUAL $IFFERENCES  n %YSENCK ( *   #REATIVITY AND PERSONALITY 3UGGESTIONS FOR A THEORY 0SYCHOLOGICAL )NQUIRY  n "ATEY  &URNHAM 

%YSENCK ( *   'ENIUS 4HE NATURAL HISTORY OF CREATIVITY .EW 9ORK #AMBRIDGE 5NIVERSITY 0RESS %YSENCK ( *  "ARRETT 0   0SYCHOPHYSIOLOGY AND THE MEASUREMENT OF INTEL LIGENCE )N # 2 2EYNOLDS  0 # 7ILLSON %DS -ETHODOLOGICAL AND STATISTICAL ADVANCES IN THE STUDY OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES PP n  .EW 9ORK 0LENUM 0RESS %YSENCK ( *  %YSENCK - 7   0ERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES ! NATU RAL SCIENCE APPROACH .EW 9ORK 0LENUM 0RESS %YSENCK ( *  %YSENCK 3 " '   -ANUAL OF THE %YSENCK 0ERSONALITY 1UESTION NAIRE ,ONDON (ODDER  3TOUGHTON %YSENCK ( *  %YSENCK 3 " '   0SYCHOTICISM AS A DIMENSION OF PERSONALITY ,ONDON (ODDER AND 3TOUGHTON %YSENCK ( *  &URNHAM !   0ERSONALITY AND THE "ARRON 7ELSH !RT 3CALE 0ER CEPTUAL AND -OTOR 3KILLS  n %YSENCK - 7  'RAYDON *   3USCEPTIBILITY TO DISTRACTION AS A FUNCTION OF PER SONALITY 0ERSONALITY AND )NDIVIDUAL $IFFERENCES  n %YSENCK 3 " ' %YSENCK ( *  "ARRETT 0   2EVISED VERSION OF THE 0SYCHOTI CISM 3CALE 0ERSONALITY AND )NDIVIDUAL $IFFERENCES  n &EIST ' *   ! META ANALYSIS OF THE IMPACT OF PERSONALITY ON SCIENTIFIC AND ARTISTIC CREATIVITY 0ERSONALITY AND 3OCIAL 0SYCHOLOGICAL 2EVIEW  n &EIST ' *   )NFLUENCE OF PERSONALITY ON ARTISTIC AND SCIENTIFIC CREATIVITY )N 2 * 3TERN BERG %D (ANDBOOK OF CREATIVITY #AMBRIDGE %NGLAND #AMBRIDGE 5NIVERSITY 0RESS &EIST ' *  "ARRON & 8   0REDICTING CREATIVITY FROM EARLY TO LATE ADULTHOOD )NTELLECT POTENTIAL AND PERSONALITY *OURNAL OF 2ESEARCH IN 0ERSONALITY  n &ELDMAN $ (   ! FOLLOW UP OF SUBJECTS SCORING ABOVE  )1 IN 4ERMANS h'E NETIC 3TUDIES OF 'ENIUSv %XCEPTIONAL #HILDREN  n &INKE 2 ! 7ARD 4 "  3MITH 3 -   #REATIVE COGNITION 4HEORY RESEARCH AND APPLICATIONS #AMBRIDGE -! -)4 0RESS &OLLEY " 3  0ARK 3   3CHIZOPHRENIA SCHIZOTYPY AND CREATIVITY IN RELATION TO LATERALITY ! BEHAVIORAL AND NEAR INFRARED OPTICAL IMAGING STUDY 3CHIZOPHRENIA 2E SEARCH n n &REUD 3   #REATIVE WRITERS AND DAY DREAMING )N * 3TRACHEY %D 3TANDARD EDI TION OF THE COMPLETE PSYCHOLOGICAL WORKS OF 3IGMUND &REUD 6OL  n  ,ON DON (OGARTH 0RESS /RIGINAL WORK PUBLISHED  &RITH # $   #ONSCIOUSNESS INFORMATION PROCESSING AND SCHIZOPHRENIA "RITISH *OURNAL OF 0SYCHIATRY  n &URNHAM !   0ERSONALITY AND CREATIVITY 0ERCEPTUAL AND -OTOR 3KILLS  n 'ALTON &   (EREDITARY GENIUS !N INQUIRY INTO ITS LAWS AND CONSEQUENCES ,ONDON -ACMILLAN&ONTANA /RIGINAL WORK PUBLISHED  'ELADE '   #REATIVITY IN CONFLICT 4HE PERSONALITY OF THE COMMERCIAL CREATIVE *OURNAL OF 'ENETIC 0SYCHOLOGY  n 'EORGE * -  :HOU *   7HEN OPENNESS TO EXPERIENCE AND CONSCIENTIOUSNESS ARE RELATED TO CREATIVE BEHAVIOR !N INTERACTIONAL APPROACH *OURNAL OF !PPLIED 0SYCHOLOGY  n 'ETZELS * 7  *ACKSON 0 7   #REATIVITY AND INTELLIGENCE %XPLORATIONS WITH GIFTED STUDENTS /XFORD %NGLAND 7ILEY 'ILHOOLY + 7YNN 6  /SMAN -  !PRIL  3TUDIES OF DIVERGENT THINKING )N + 'ILHOOLY #HAIR 2ECENT RESEARCH ON INSIGHT AND CREATIVE THINKING P   2EPORTED IN 0ROCEEDINGS OF THE "RITISH 0SYCHOLOGICAL 3OCIETY   !UGUST  )MPERIAL #OL LEGE ,ONDON 'LOVER * ! 2ONNING 2 2  2EYNOLDS # 2   (ANDBOOK OF CREATIVITY 0ERSPEC TIVES ON INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES .EW 9ORK 0LENUM 0RESS  'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS

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+UHN 4 3   4HE STRUCTURE OF SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTIONS #HICAGO 5NIVERSITY OF #HICAGO 0RESS ,AURITZEN % 3   3EMANTIC DIVERGENT THINKING FACTORS AMONG ELEMENTARY SCHOOL CHILDREN $ISSERTATION !BSTRACTS   ,LOYD %VANS 2 "ATEY -  &URNHAM !   "IPOLAR DISORDER AND CREATIVITY )NVES TIGATING A POSSIBLE LINK )N ! #OLUMBUS %D !DVANCES IN PSYCHOLOGY RESEARCH 6OL  PP n  .EW 9ORK .OVA 0RESS ,OTKA ! *   4HE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF SCIENTIFIC PRODUCTIVITY *OURNAL OF THE 7ASHINGTON !CADEMY OF 3CIENCES  n ,OWENFELD 6  "EITTEL +   )NTERDISCIPLINARY CRITERIA OF CREATIVITY IN THE ARTS AND SCIENCES ! PROGRESS REPORT 2ESEARCH 9EARBOOK .ATIONAL !RT %DUCATION !SSOCIATION  n ,UBART 4 )   #REATIVITY )N 2 * 3TERNBERG %D 4HINKING AND PROBLEM SOLVING (ANDBOOK OF PERCEPTION AND COGNITION ND ED PP n  3AN $IEGO #! !CA DEMIC 0RESS ,UBART 4 )   #REATIVITY ACROSS CULTURES )N 2 * 3TERNBERG %D #REATIVITY RESEARCH HANDBOOK PP n  #AMBRIDGE %NGLAND #AMBRIDGE 5NIVERSITY 0RESS ,UBART 4 )   )N SEARCH OF CREATIVE INTELLIGENCE )N 2 * 3TERNBERG  * ,AUTREY %DS -ODELS OF INTELLIGENCE )NTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVES PP n  7ASHINGTON $# !MERICAN 0SYCHOLOGICAL !SSOCIATION ,UBINSKI $   )NTRODUCTION TO THE SPECIAL SECTION ON COGNITIVE ABILITIES  YEARS AFTER 3PEARMANS  h@'ENERAL INTELLIGENCE  OBJECTIVELY DETERMINED AND MEA SUREDv *OURNAL OF 0ERSONALITY AND 3OCIAL 0SYCHOLOGY  n ,UBOW 2 % )NGBERG 3ACHS 9 :ALSTEIN /RDA .  'ERWITZ * #   ,ATENT INHI BITION IN LOW AND HIGH hPSYCHOTIC PRONEv NORMAL SUBJECTS 0ERSONALITY AND )NDIVIDUAL $IFFERENCES  n ,UBOW 2 %  -OORE ! 5   ,ATENT INHIBITION 4HE EFFECT OF NONREINFORCED PRE EXPOSURE TO THE CONDITIONAL STIMULUS *OURNAL OF #OMPARATIVE AND 0HYSIOLOGICAL 0SYCHOLOGY  n ,UDWIG ! -   4HE PRICE OF GREATNESS 2ESOLVING THE CREATIVITY AND MADNESS CON TROVERSY .EW 9ORK 'UILFORD 0RESS -AC+INNON $ 7   &OSTERING CREATIVITY IN STUDENTS OF ENGINEERING *OURNAL OF %NGINEERING %DUCATION  n -AC+INNON $ 7   4HE NATURE AND NURTURE OF CREATIVE TALENT !MERICAN 0SYCHOLO GIST  n -AC+INNON $ 7   0ERSONALITY AND THE REALIZATION OF CREATIVE POTENTIAL !MERICAN 0SYCHOLOGIST  n -AC+INNON $ 7   )N SEARCH OF HUMAN EFFECTIVENESS .EW 9ORK #REATIVE %DUCA TION &OUNDATION -ACKINTOSH . *   )1 AND HUMAN INTELLIGENCE ,ONDON /XFORD 5NIVERSITY 0RESS -ARTINDALE #   #OGNITION AND CONSCIOUSNESS (OMEWOOD ), $ORSEY -ARTINDALE #   0ERSONALITY SITUATION AND CREATIVITY )N * ! 'LOVER 2 2 2ON NING  # 2 2EYNOLDS %DS (ANDBOOK OF CREATIVITY 0ERSPECTIVES ON INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES PP n  .EW 9ORK 0LENUM 0RESS -ARTINDALE #   "IOLOGICAL BASES OF CREATIVITY )N 2 * 3TERNBERG %D #REATIVITY RESEARCH HANDBOOK PP n  #AMBRIDGE %NGLAND #AMBRIDGE 5NIVERSITY 0RESS -ARTINDALE #  $AILEY !   #REATIVITY 0RIMARY PROCESS COGNITION AND PERSONAL ITY 0ERSONALITY AND )NDIVIDUAL $IFFERENCES  n -ARTINDALE # (INES $ -ITCHELL ,  #OVELLO %   %%' ALPHA ASYMMETRY AND CREATIVITY 0ERSONALITY AND )NDIVIDUAL $IFFERENCES  n -ASLOW ! (   4HE FARTHER REACHES OF HUMAN NATURE .EW 9ORK 0ENGUIN "OOKS "ATEY  &URNHAM 

-ASON / #LARIDGE '  *ACKSON -   .EW SCALES FOR THE ASSESSMENT OF SCHIZO TYPY 0ERSONALITY AND )NDIVIDUAL $IFFERENCES  n -C#LELLAND $ # !TKINSON * 7 #LARK 2 !  ,OWELL % ,   4HE ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVE 0RINCETON .* 6AN .OSTRAND -C#LOY 7  -EIER . #   2E CREATIVE IMAGINATION 0SYCHOLOGICAL -ONOGRAPHS  n -C#RAE 2 2   #REATIVITY DIVERGENT THINKING AND OPENNESS TO EXPERIENCE *OURNAL OF 0ERSONALITY AND 3OCIAL 0SYCHOLOGY  n -EDNICK 3 !   4HE ASSOCIATIVE BASIS OF THE CREATIVE PROCESS 0SYCHOLOGICAL 2E VIEW  n -EDNICK 3 !  !NDREWS & -   #REATIVE THINKING AND LEVEL OF INTELLIGENCE *OURNAL OF #REATIVE "EHAVIOR  n -EDNICK 3 !  -EDNICK - 4   %XAMINERS MANUAL 2EMOTE !SSOCIATES 4EST "OSTON (OUGHTON -IFFLIN -EEHL 0 %   3CHIZOTAXIA SCHIZOTYPY SCHIZOPHRENIA !MERICAN 0SYCHOLOGIST  n -ERRIFIELD 0 2 'ARDNER 3 &  #OX ! "   !PTITUDES AND PERSONALITY MEASURES RELATED TO CREATIVITY IN SEVENTH GRADE CHILDREN 2EPORT OF THE 0SYCHOLOGICAL ,ABORATORY .O   ,OS !NGELES 5NIVERSITY OF 3OUTHERN #ALIFORNIA 0RESS -ERTEN 4   7ORD ASSOCIATION RESPONSES AND PSYCHOTICISM 0ERSONALITY AND )NDI VIDUAL $IFFERENCES  n -ERTEN 4   &ACTORS INFLUENCING WORD ASSOCIATION RESPONSES ! REANALYSIS #REATIV ITY 2ESEARCH *OURNAL  n -ERTEN 4  &ISCHER )   #REATIVITY PERSONALITY AND WORD ASSOCIATION RESPONSES !SSOCIATIVE BEHAVIOR IN FORTY SUPPOSEDLY CREATIVE PERSONS 0ERSONALITY AND )NDIVIDUAL $IFFERENCES  n -ILLER %  #HAPMAN ,   #ONTINUED WORD ASSOCIATIONS IN HYPOTHETI CALLY PSYCHOSIS PRONE COLLEGE STUDENTS *OURNAL OF !BNORMAL 0SYCHOLOGY  n -OLES !   )NFORMATION THEORY AND AESTHETIC PERCEPTION * % #OHEN 4RANS  5R BANA ), 5NIVERSITY OF )LLINOIS 0RESS -OSS 3 !   4HE IMPACT OF ENVIRONMENTAL CLUES IN PROBLEM SOLVING AND INCUBATION 4HE MODERATING EFFECT OF ABILITY #REATIVITY 2ESEARCH *OURNAL  n -UMFORD - $   7HERE HAVE WE BEEN WHERE ARE WE GOING 4AKING STOCK IN CRE ATIVITY RESEARCH #REATIVITY 2ESEARCH *OURNAL  n -UMFORD - $  'USTAFSON 3 "   #REATIVITY SYNDROME )NTEGRATION APPLICA TION AND INNOVATION 0SYCHOLOGICAL "ULLETIN  n .EISSER 5 "OODOO ' "OUCHARD 4 * *R "OYKIN ! 7 "RODY . #ECI 3 * ET AL   )NTELLIGENCE +NOWNS AND UNKNOWNS !MERICAN 0SYCHOLOGIST  n .ETTLE $   3TRONG IMAGINATION -ADNESS CREATIVITY AND HUMAN NATURE /XFORD %NGLAND /XFORD 5NIVERSITY 0RESS .ETTLE $   3CHIZOTYPY AND MENTAL HEALTH AMONGST POETS ARTISTS AND MATHEMATI CIANS *OURNAL OF 2ESEARCH IN 0ERSONALITY  n .EWELL ! 3HAW * #  3IMON ( !   4HE PROCESS OF CREATIVE THINKING )N ( % 'RUBER ' 4ERRELL  - 7ERTHEIMER %DS #ONTEMPORARY APPROACHES TO CREATIVE THINKING PP n  .EW 9ORK !THERTON .ICHOLLS * '   #REATIVITY IN THE PERSON WHO WILL NEVER PRODUCE ANYTHING ORIGINAL AND USEFUL 4HE CONCEPT OF CREATIVITY AS A NORMALLY DISTRIBUTED TRAIT !MERICAN 0SY CHOLOGIST  n .OBEL &OUNDATION   .OBEL PRIZES !LL .OBEL LAUREATES 2ETRIEVED .OVEMBER   FROM HTTPNOBELPRIZEORGNOBEL?PRIZESLISTSALL  'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS

/CHSE 2   "EFORE THE GATES OF EXCELLENCE #AMBRIDGE %NGLAND #AMBRIDGE 5NI VERSITY 0RESS 0ARKHURST ( "   #ONFUSION LACK OF CONSENSUS AND THE DEFINITION OF CREATIVITY AS A CONSTRUCT *OURNAL OF #REATIVE "EHAVIOR  n 0ETERSON * "  #ARSON 3   ,ATENT INHIBITION AND OPENNESS TO EXPERIENCE IN A HIGH ACHIEVING STUDENT POPULATION 0ERSONALITY AND )NDIVIDUAL $IFFERENCES  n 0ETERSON * " 3MITH + 7  #ARSON 3 (   /PENNESS AND EXTRAVERSION ARE AS SOCIATED WITH REDUCED LATENT INHIBITION 2EPLICATION AND COMMENTARY 0ERSONALITY AND )NDIVIDUAL $IFFERENCES  n 0IERS % 6 $ANIELS * -  1UAKENBUSH * &   4HE IDENTIFICATION OF CREATIVITY IN ADOLESCENTS *OURNAL OF %DUCATIONAL 0SYCHOLOGY  n 0LUCKER * !   "EWARE OF SIMPLE CONCLUSIONS 4HE CASE FOR CONTENT GENERALITY OF CREATIVITY #REATIVITY 2ESEARCH *OURNAL  n 0LUCKER * !   )S THE PROOF IN THE PUDDING 2EANALYSES OF 4ORRANCES  TO PRES ENT LONGITUDINAL DATA #REATIVITY 2ESEARCH *OURNAL  n 0LUCKER *  2ENZULLI * 3   0SYCHOMETRIC APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF HUMAN CREATIVITY )N 2 * 3TERNBERG %D (ANDBOOK OF CREATIVITY PP n  .EW 9ORK #AMBRIDGE 5NIVERSITY 0RESS 0OINCAR£ (   -ATHEMATICAL CREATION )N 0 % 6ERNON %D #REATIVITY PP n  ,ONDON 0ENGUIN "OOKS /RIGINAL WORK PUBLISHED  0RENTKY 2 !   #REATIVITY AND PSYCHOPATHOLOGY ! NEUROCOGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE .EW 9ORK 0RAEGER 0RENTKY 2 !   #REATIVITY AND PSYCHOPATHOLOGY 'AMBOLING AT THE SEAT OF MADNESS )N ! * 'LOVER 2 2 2ONNING  # 2 2EYNOLDS %DS (ANDBOOK OF CREATIVITY 0ER SPECTIVES ON INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES PP n  .EW 9ORK 0LENUM 0RESS 0RENTKY 2 !   -ENTAL ILLNESS AND ROOTS OF GENIUS #REATIVITY 2ESEARCH *OURNAL  n 0RICE $   ,ITTLE SCIENCE BIG SCIENCE .EW 9ORK #OLUMBIA 5NIVERSITY 0RESS 2AVEN * #   3TANDARD PROGRESSIVE MATRICES 3ETS ! " # $ % ,ONDON ,EWIS 2AVEN * #   3TANDARD PROGRESSIVE MATRICES ,ONDON ,EWIS 2AWLINGS $   0SYCHOTICISM CREATIVITY AND DICHOTIC SHADOWING 0ERSONALITY AND )NDIVIDUAL $IFFERENCES  n 2EITAN 2 -   4RAIL -AKING 4EST -ANUAL FOR ADMINISTRATION AND SCORING 3OUTH 4USCON !: 2EITAN .EUROLOGICAL ,ABORATORY 2EUTER - 0ANKSEPP * 3CHNABEL . +ELLERHOFF . +EMPEL 0  (ENNIG *   0ERSONALITY AND BIOLOGICAL MARKERS OF CREATIVITY %UROPEAN *OURNAL OF 0ERSONALITY  n 2HODES -   !N ANALYSIS OF CREATIVITY )N 3 ' )SAKSEN %D &RONTIERS OF CREATIV ITY RESEARCH "EYOND THE BASICS PP n  "UFFALO .9 "EARLY /RIGINAL WORK PUBLISHED  2ICHARDS 2 ,   ! COMPARISON OF SELECTED 'UILFORD AND 7ALLACH +OGAN #REATIVE 4HINKING 4ESTS IN CONJUNCTION WITH MEASURES OF INTELLIGENCE *OURNAL OF #REATIVE "E HAVIOR  n 2ICHARDS 2 ,   %VERYDAY CREATIVITY EMINENT CREATIVITY AND PSCYHOPATHOLOGY 0SYCHOLOGICAL )NQUIRY  n 2OE ! A  ! PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF EMINENT BIOLOGISTS 0SYCHOLOGICAL -ONO GRAPHS 'ENERAL AND !PPLIED  n 2OE ! B  ! PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY OF PHYSICAL SCIENTISTS 'ENETIC 0SYCHOLOGY -ONO GRAPHS  n 2OE !   4HE MAKING OF A SCIENTIST .EW 9ORK $ODD -EAD "ATEY  &URNHAM 

2OGERS # 2   4OWARD A THEORY OF CREATIVITY %4# 2EVIEW OF 'ENERAL 3EMANTICS  n 2OTHENBERG !   4HE PROCESS OF *ANUSIAN THINKING IN CREATIVITY !RCHIVES OF 'ENERAL 0SYCHIATRY  n 2UNCO - !   #REATIVITY !NNUAL 2EVIEW OF 0SYCHOLOGY  n 2UNCO - ! 0LUCKER * !  ,IM 7   $EVELOPMENT AND PSYCHOMETRIC INTEGRITY OF A MEASURE OF IDEATIONAL BEHAVIOR #REATIVITY 2ESEARCH *OURNAL  n 2USHTON * 0   #REATIVITY INTELLIGENCE AND PSYCHOTICISM 0ERSONALITY AND )NDI VIDUAL $IFFERENCES  n 3ALGADO * &   "IG FIVE PERSONALITY DIMENSIONS AND JOB PERFORMANCE IN ARMY AND CIVIL OCCUPATIONS ! %UROPEAN PERSPECTIVE (UMAN 0ERFORMANCE  n 3ASS , !   3CHIZOPHRENIA MODERNISM AND THE hCREATIVE IMAGINATIONv /N CRE ATIVITY AND PSYCHOPATHOLOGY #REATIVITY 2ESEARCH *OURNAL  n 3CHOPPE + *   6ERBALER +REATIVITØTS 4EST 6 + 4  %IN 6ERFAHREN ZUR %RFASSUNG VERBAL PRODUKTIVER +REATIVITØTSMERKMALE (ANDANDWEISUNG ;! PROCEDURE TO CAPTURE VERBALLY THE SIGNS OF PRODUCTIVE CREATIVITY= 'šTTINGEN 'ERMANY (OGREFE 3EN ! +  (AGTVET + !   #ORRELATIONS AMONG CREATIVITY INTELLIGENCE PERSONAL ITY AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 0ERCEPTUAL AND -OTOR 3KILLS  n 3IMONTON $ +   "IOGRAPHICAL DETERMINANTS OF ACHIEVED EMINENCE ! MULTI VARIATE APPROACH TO THE #OX DATA *OURNAL OF 0ERSONALITY AND 3OCIAL 0SYCHOLOGY  n 3IMONTON $ +   #REATIVE PRODUCTIVITY AGE AND STRESS ! BIOGRAPHICAL TIME SERIES ANALYSIS OF  CLASSICAL COMPOSERS *OURNAL OF 0ERSONALITY AND 3OCIAL 0SYCHOLOGY  n 3IMONTON $ +   'ENIUS CREATIVITY AND LEADERSHIP (ISTORIOMETRIC INQUIRIES #AMBRIDGE -! (ARVARD 5NIVERSITY 0RESS 3IMONTON $ +   /RIGINS OF GENIUS .EW 9ORK /XFORD 5NIVERSITY 0RESS 3IMPSON 2 -   #REATIVE IMAGINATION !MERICAN *OURNAL OF 0SYCHOLOGY  n 3NYDERMAN -  2OTHMAN 3   3URVEY OF EXPERT OPINION ON INTELLIGENCE AND APTITUDE TESTING !MERICAN 0SYCHOLOGIST  n 3OLDZ 3  6AILLANT ' %   4HE BIG FIVE PERSONALITY TRAITS AND THE LIFE COURSE !  YEAR LONGITUDINAL STUDY *OURNAL OF 2ESEARCH IN 0ERSONALITY  n 3OLOMON 0 2 #RIDER ! 7INKELMAN * 7 4URI ! +AMER 2 -  +APLAN , *   $ISRUPTED LATENT INHIBITION IN THE RAT WITH CHRONIC AMPHETAMINE OR HALOPERIDOL INDUCED SUPERSENSITIVITY 2ELATIONSHIP TO SCHIZOPHRENIC ATTENTION DISORDER "IOLOGICAL 0SYCHIATRY  n 3PEARMAN #   'ENERAL INTELLIGENCE OBJECTIVELY DETERMINED AND MEASURED !MERI CAN *OURNAL OF 0SYCHOLOGY  n 3PEARMAN #   4HE ABILITIES OF MAN .EW 9ORK -AC-ILLAN 3TAVRIDOU !  &URNHAM !   4HE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PSYCHOTICISM TRAIT CRE ATIVITY AND THE ATTENTIONAL MECHANISM OF COGNITIVE INHIBITION 0ERSONALITY AND )NDI VIDUAL $IFFERENCES  n 3TEIN - )   #REATIVITY AND CULTURE 4HE *OURNAL OF 0SYCHOLOGY  n 3TERNBERG 2 *   .ONENTRENCHMENT IN THE ASSESSMENT OF INTELLECTUAL GIFTEDNESS 'IFTED #HILD 1UARTERLY  n 3TERNBERG 2 *   4HE TRIARCHIC MIND ! THEORY OF HUMAN INTELLIGENCE .EW 9ORK 6IKING 3TERNBERG 2 *   3UCCESSFUL INTELLIGENCE .EW 9ORK 0LUME 3TERNBERG 2 *  'RIGORENKO % ,   'UILFORDS STRUCTURE OF INTELLECT MODEL AND MODEL OF CREATIVITY #ONTRIBUTIONS AND LIMITATIONS #REATIVITY 2ESEARCH *OURNAL  n  'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS

3TERNBERG 2 * +AUFMAN * #  0RETZ * %   4HE CREATIVITY CONUNDRUM ! PRO PULSION MODEL OF KINDS OF CREATIVE CONTRIBUTIONS .EW 9ORK 0SYCHOLOGY 0RESS 3TERNBERG 2 *  ,UBART 4 )   !N INVESTMENT THEORY OF CREATIVITY AND ITS DEVELOP MENT (UMAN $EVELOPMENT  n 3TERNBERG 2 *  ,UBART 4 )   "UY LOW SELL HIGH !N INVESTMENT APPROACH TO CREATIVITY #URRENT $IRECTIONS IN 0SYCHOLOGICAL 2ESEARCH  n 3TERNBERG 2 *  ,UBART 4 )   4HE CONCEPT OF CREATIVITY 0ROSPECTS AND PARA DIGMS )N 2 * 3TERNBERG %D #REATIVITY RESEARCH HANDBOOK PP n  #AMBRIDGE %NGLAND #AMBRIDGE 5NIVERSITY 0RESS 3TROOP *   3TUDIES OF INTERFERENCE IN SERIAL VERBAL REACTIONS *OURNAL OF %XPERIMEN TAL 0SYCHOLOGY  n 4ERMAN , -   4HE MEASUREMENT OF INTELLIGENCE !N EXPLANATION OF AND A COMPLETE GUIDE FOR THE USE OF THE 3TANFORD REVISION AND EXTENSION OF THE "INET 3IMON )NTELLIGENCE 3CALE "OSTON (OUGHTON -IFFLIN 4ERMAN , - %D  n  'ENETIC STUDIES OF GENIUS 6OLS n  3TANFORD #! 3TANFORD 5NIVERSITY 0RESS 4ERMAN , -   #ONCEPT -ASTERY 4EST MANUAL .EW 9ORK 0SYCHOLOGICAL #ORPORATION 4ERMAN , -  /DEN -   4HE SIGNIFICANCE OF DEVIATES ))) #ORRELATES OF ADULT ACHIEVEMENT IN THE #ALIFORNIA GIFTED GROUP 9EARBOOK OF THE .ATIONAL 3OCIETY FOR THE 3TUDY OF %DUCATION  n 4HURSTONE , ,   0RIMARY MENTAL ABILITIES #HICAGO 5NIVERSITY OF #HICAGO 0RESS 4HURSTONE , ,   4HE NATURE OF CREATIVE THINKING .EW 9ORK .EW 9ORK 5NIVERSITY 0RESS 4IERNEY 0  &ARMER 3 -   #REATIVE SELF EFFICACY )TS POTENTIAL ANTECEDENTS AND RELATIONSHIP TO CREATIVE PERFORMANCE !CADEMY OF -ANAGEMENT *OURNAL  n 4IPPER 0   4HE NEGATIVE PRIMARY EFFECT )NHIBITORY PRIMING BY IGNORED OBJECTS 1UARTERLY *OURNAL OF %XPERIMENTAL 0SYCHOLOGY  n 4ORRANCE % 0   'UIDING CREATIVE TALENT %NGELWOOD #LIFFS .* 0RENTICE (ALL 4ORRANCE % 0   %XPLORATIONS IN CREATIVE THINKING IN THE EARLY SCHOOL YEARS ! PROG RESS REPORT )N # 7 4AYLOR  & "ARRON %DS 3CIENTIFIC CREATIVITY )TS RECOGNITION AND DEVELOPMENT PP n  .EW 9ORK 7ILEY 4ORRANCE % 0   4ORRANCE TESTS OF CREATIVE THINKING $IRECTIONS MANUAL AND SCORING GUIDE 0RINCETON .* 0ERSONNEL 0RESS 4ORRANCE % 0   4HE -INNESOTA STUDIES OF CREATIVE BEHAVIOR .ATIONAL AND INTERNA TIONAL EXTENSIONS *OURNAL OF #REATIVE "EHAVIOR  n 4ORRANCE % 0   4ORRANCE TESTS OF CREATIVE THINKING $IRECTIONS GUIDE AND SCORING MANUAL 0RINCETON .* 0ERSONNEL 0RESS 4ORRANCE % 0   4HE 4ORRANCE TESTS OF CREATIVE THINKING NORMSˆTECHNICAL MANUAL FIGURAL STREAMLINED FORMS !  " "ENSENVILLE ), 3CHOLASTIC 4ESTING 3ERVICE 4ORRANCE % 0  "ALL / %   4HE 4ORRANCE TESTS OF CREATIVE THINKING STREAMLINED SCORING GUIDE FIGURAL ! AND " "ENSENVILLE ), 3CHOLASTIC 4ESTING 3ERVICE 4OYNBEE !   )S !MERICA NEGLECTING HER CREATIVE MINORITY )N # 7 4AYLOR %D 7IDENING HORIZONS IN CREATIVITY 4HE PROCEEDINGS OF THE &IFTH 5TAH #REATIVITY 2ESEARCH #ONFERENCE PP n  .EW 9ORK 7ILEY 5PMANYU 6 6 "HARDWAJ 3  3INGH 3   7ORD ASSOCIATION EMOTIONAL INDICA TORS !SSOCIATIONS WITH ANXIETY PSYCHOTICISM NEUROTICISM EXTRAVERSION AND CREATIV ITY 4HE *OURNAL OF 3OCIAL 0SYCHOLOGY  n 6INCENT ! 3 $ECKER " 0  -UMFORD - $   $IVERGENT THINKING INTELLI GENCE AND EXPERTISE ! TEST OF ALTERNATIVE MODELS #REATIVITY 2ESEARCH *OURNAL  n "ATEY  &URNHAM 

7ADE 3   $IFFERENCES BETWEEN INTELLIGENCE AND CREATIVITY 3OME SPECULATIONS ON THE ROLE OF ENVIRONMENT *OURNAL OF #REATIVE "EHAVIOR  n 7ALLACE ( 2   #REATIVE THINKING ! FACTOR IN SALES PRODUCTIVITY 6OCATIONAL 'UID ANCE 1UARTERLY  n 7ALLACH - !   #REATIVITY )N 0 ( -USSEN %D #ARMICHAELS MANUAL OF CHILD PSYCHOLOGY 6OL  PP n .EW 9ORK 7ILEY 7ALLACH - !  +OGAN .   -ODES OF THINKING IN YOUNG CHILDREN .EW 9ORK (OLT 2INEHART  7INSTON 7ATSON $  #LARK , !   .EGATIVE AFFECTIVITY 4HE DISPOSITION TO EXPERIENCE AVERSIVE NEGATIVE STATES 0SYCHOLOGICAL "ULLETIN  n 7ECHSLER $   7ECHSLER INTELLIGENCE SCALE FOR CHILDREN 2EVISED 3AN !NTONIO 48 0SYCHOLOGICAL #ORPORATION 7EHNER , #SIKSZENTMIHALYI -  -AGYARI "ECK )   #URRENT APPROACHES USED IN STUDYING CREATIVITY !N EXPLORATORY INVESTIGATION #REATIVITY 2ESEARCH *OURNAL  n 7ELSH ' 3  "ARRON &   "ARRON 7ELSH ART SCALE 0ALO !LTO #! #ONSULTING 0SYCHOLOGISTS 0RESS 7ILSON 2 # 'UILFORD * 0 #HRISTENSEN 0 2  ,EWIS $ *   ! FACTOR ANALYTIC STUDY OF CREATIVE THINKING ABILITIES 0SYCHOMETRIKA  n 7ITELSON 3 & +IGAR $ ,  (ARVEY 4   4HE EXCEPTIONAL BRAIN OF !LBERT %IN STEIN ,ANCET  n 7OLFRADT 5  0RETZ *   )NDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN CREATIVITY 0ERSONALITY STORY WRITING AND HOBBIES %UROPEAN *OURNAL OF 0ERSONALITY  n 7OODMAN 2 7  3CHOENFELDT , &   )NDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN CREATIVITY !N INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVE )N * ! 'LOVER 2 2 2ONNING  # 2 2EYNOLDS %DS (ANDBOOK OF CREATIVITY 0ERSPECTIVES ON INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES PP n  .EW 9ORK 0LENUM 0RESS 7OODY %  #LARIDGE '   0SYCHOTICISM AND THINKING "RITISH *OURNAL OF 3OCIAL AND #LINICAL 0SYCHOLOGY  n 7UTHRICH 6  "ATES 4 #   3CHIZOTYPY AND LATENT INHIBITION .ONLINEAR LINKAGE BETWEEN PSYCHOMETRIC AND COGNITIVE MARKERS 0ERSONALITY AND )NDIVIDUAL $IFFERENCES  n 9AMAMOTO +   4HRESHOLD OF INTELLIGENCE IN ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT OF HIGHLY CRE ATIVE STUDENTS *OURNAL OF %XPERIMENTAL %DUCATION  n :ILLER 2 #   0HOTOGRAPHING THE SELF /BSERVING SELF SOCIAL ENVIRONMENTAL ORIENTA TIONS 3AN &RANCISCO #! 3AGE  'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS

!00%.$)8 3ELECTED $EFINITIONS OF #REATIVITY

!UTHORS $EFINITION

.EW AND USEFUL - ! "ODEN h#REATIVITY IS THE ABILITY TO COME UP WITH IDEAS OR ARTEFACTS THAT ARE NEW SURPRISING AND VALUABLE @)DEAS HERE INCLUDE CONCEPTS POEMS MUSICAL COMPOSITIONS SCIENTIFIC THEORIES COOKERY RECIPES CHOREOGRAPHY JOKESˆAND SO ON @!RTEFACTS INCLUDE PAINTINGS SCULPTURES STEAM ENGINES VACUUM CLEANERS POTTERY ORIGAMI PENNY WHISTLESˆAND MANY OTHER THINGS YOU CAN NAMEv  P   - $ -UMFORD h/VER THE COURSE OF THE LAST DECADE HOWEVER WE SEEM TO HAVE REACHED A GENERAL AGREEMENT THAT CREATIVITY INVOLVES THE PRODUCTION OF NOVEL USEFUL PRODUCTSv A P   2 * 3TERNBERG h#REATIVITY IS THE ABILITY TO PRODUCE WORK THAT IS BOTH AND 4 ) ,UBART NOVEL IE ORIGINAL UNEXPECTED AND APPROPRIATE IE USEFUL ADAPTIVE CONCERNING TASK CONSTRAINTS v  P   $ + 3IMONTON h0SYCHOLOGISTS HAVE REACHED THE CONCLUSION THAT CREATIVITY MUST ENTAIL THE FOLLOWING TWO SEPARATE COMPONENTS &IRST A CREATIVE IDEA OR PRODUCT MUST BE ORIGINAL    (OWEVER TO PROVIDE A MEANINGFUL CRITERION ORIGINALITY MUST BE DEFINED WITH RESPECT TO A PARTICULAR SOCIOCULTURAL GROUP 7HAT MAY BE ORIGINAL WITH RESPECT TO ONE CULTURE MAY BE OLD NEWS TO THE MEMBERS OF SOME OTHER CULTURE    3ECOND THE ORIGINAL IDEA OR PRODUCT MUST PROVE ADAPTIVE IN SOME SENSE 4HE EXACT NATURE OF THIS CRITERION DEPENDS ON THE TYPE OF CREATIVITY BEING DISPLAYEDv  PP n  ' * &EIST h#REATIVE THOUGHT OR BEHAVIOUR MUST BE BOTH NOVEL ORIGINAL AND USEFUL ADAPTIVEv  P   - #SIKSZENTMIHALYI h#REATIVITY IS ANY ACT IDEA OR PRODUCT THAT CHANGES AN EXISTING DOMAIN OR THAT TRANSFORMS AN EXISTING DOMAIN INTO A NEW ONE    7HAT COUNTS IS WHETHER THE NOVELTY HE OR SHE PRODUCES IS ACCEPTED FOR INCLUSION IN THE DOMAINv  P   2 /CHSE h#REATIVITY INVOLVES BRINGING SOMETHING INTO BEING THAT IS ORIGINAL NEW UNUSUAL NOVEL UNEXPECTED AND ALSO VALUABLE USEFUL GOOD ADAPTIVE APPROPRIATE v  P   & 8 "ARRON h)F A RESPONSE IS TO BE CALLED ORIGINAL IT MUST BE TO SOME EXTENT ADAPTIVE TO REALITYv  P  

APPENDIX CONTINUES "ATEY  &URNHAM 

!00%.$)8 CONTINUED

!UTHORS $EFINITION

0RODUCT ORIENTED 4 - !MABILE h#REATIVITY CAN BE REGARDED AS THE QUALITY OF PRODUCTS OR RESPONSES JUDGED TO BE CREATIVE BY APPROPRIATE OBSERVERS AND IT CAN ALSO BE REGARDED AS THE PROCESS BY WHICH SOMETHING SO JUDGED IS PRODUCEDv  P   # 2 2OGERS h4HERE MUST BE SOMETHING OBSERVABLE SOME PRODUCT OF CREATION 4HOUGH MY FANTASIES MAY BE EXTREMELY NOVEL THEY CANNOT BE USEFULLY DEFINED AS CREATIVE UNLESS THEY EVENTUATE IN SOME OBSERVABLE PRODUCT    4HESE PRODUCTS MUST BE NOVEL CONSTRUCTIONS    4HE CREATIVITY HAS THE STAMP OF THE INDIVIDUAL UPON ITS PRODUCT BUT THE PRODUCT IS NOT THE INDIVIDUAL NOR HIS MATERIALS BUT PARTAKES OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE TWOv  P   h4HE ACTION OF THE CHILD INVENTING A NEW GAME WITH HIS PLAYMATES %INSTEIN FORMULATING A THEORY OF RELATIVITY A HOUSEWIFE DEVISING A NEW SAUCE FOR THE MEAT A YOUNG AUTHOR WRITING HIS FIRST NOVEL ALL OF THESE ARE IN TERMS OF OUR DEFINITION CREATIVE AND THERE IS NO ATTEMPT TO SET THEM IN SOME ORDER OF MORE OR LESS CREATIVEv  P  

0ART OF A PROCESS - ! 2UNCO h#REATIVITY IS A USEFUL AND EFFECTIVE RESPONSE TO EVOLUTIONARY CHANGES )N ADDITION TO WHAT MAY BE ITS MOST OBVIOUS FUNCTION NAMELY AS PART OF THE PROBLEM SOLVING PROCESSv  P   ' * &EIST AND h#REATIVITY IS A SPECIFIC CAPACITY TO NOT ONLY SOLVE & 8 "ARRON PROBLEMS BUT TO SOLVE THEM ORIGINALLY AND ADAPTIVELYv  P   2 ! &INKE h7E CONCEIVE OF CREATIVITY NOT AS A SINGLE UNITARY 4 " 7ARD AND PROCESS BUT AS A PRODUCT OF MANY TYPES 3 - 3MITH AND OF MENTAL PROCESSES EACH OF WHICH HELPS TO SET THE STAGE FOR CREATIVE INSIGHT AND DISCOVERY )N PARTICULAR WE DISTINGUISH BETWEEN PROCESSES USED IN THE GENERATION OF COGNITIVE STRUCTURES AND THOSE USED TO EXPLORE THE CREATIVE IMPLICATIONS OF THOSE STRUCTURESv  P  

APPENDIX CONTINUES  'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS

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!UTHORS $EFINITION

3 ! -EDNICK h7E MAY PROCEED TO DEFINE THE CREATIVE THINKING PROCESS AS THE FORMING OF ASSOCIATIVE ELEMENTS INTO NEW COMBINATIONS WHICH EITHER MEET SPECIFIED REQUIREMENTS OR ARE IN SOME WAY USEFULv  P  

#OMPONENTIAL CONCEPTIONS OF CREATIVITY - #SIKSZENTMIHALYI h#REATIVITY CAN BE OBSERVED ONLY IN THE INTERRELATIONS OF A SYSTEM MADE UP OF THREE MAIN PARTS 4HE FIRST OF THESE IS THE DOMAIN WHICH CONSISTS OF A SET OF SYMBOLIC RULES AND PROCEDURES    4HE SECOND COMPONENT OF CREATIVITY IS THE FIELD WHICH INCLUDES ALL THE INDIVIDUALS WHO ACT AS GATEKEEPERS TO THE DOMAIN )T IS THEIR JOB TO DECIDE WHETHER A NEW IDEA OR PRODUCT SHOULD BE INCLUDED IN THE DOMAIN    &INALLY THE THIRD COMPONENT OF THE CREATIVE SYSTEM IS THE INDIVIDUAL PERSONv  PP n  ( * %YSENCK h) ARGUE THAT CREATIVE ACHIEVEMENT IN ANY SPHERE DEPENDS ON MANY DIFFERENT FACTORS A COGNITIVE ABILITIES EG INTELLIGENCE ACQUIRED KNOWLEDGE TECHNICAL SKILLS AND SPECIAL TALENTS ;EG MUSICAL VERBAL NUMERICAL=  B ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLESˆ SUCH AS POLITICAL RELIGIOUS CULTURAL SOCIOECONOMIC AND EDUCATIONAL FACTORS AND C PERSONALITY TRAITSˆ SUCH AS INTERNAL MOTIVATION CONFIDENCE NONCONFORMITY AND ORIGINALITY !LL OR MOST OF THESE IN GREATER OR LESSER DEGREE ARE NEEDED TO PRODUCE A TRULY CREATIVE ACHIEVEMENT AND MANY OF THESE VARIABLES ARE LIKELY TO ACT IN A MULTIPLICATIVE SYNERGISTIC RATHER THAN ADDITIVE MANNERv  P   - $ -UMFORD h#REATIVITY APPEARS TO BE BEST CONCEPTUALISED AS A AND 3 " 'USTAFSON SYNDROME INVOLVING A NUMBER OF ELEMENTS A THE PROCESSES UNDERLYING THE INDIVIDUALS CAPACITY TO GENERATE NEW IDEAS OR UNDERSTANDINGS B THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE INDIVIDUAL FACILITATING PROCESS OPERATION C THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE INDIVIDUAL FACILITATING THE TRANSLATION OF THOSE IDEAS INTO ACTION D THE ATTRIBUTES OF THE SITUATION CONDITIONING THE INDIVIDUALS WILLINGNESS TO ENGAGE IN CREATIVE BEHAVIOUR AND E THE ATTRIBUTES OF THE SITUATION INFLUENCING EVALUATION OF THE INDIVIDUALS PRODUCTIVE EFFORTSv  P  

APPENDIX CONTINUES "ATEY  &URNHAM 

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!UTHORS $EFINITION

% 0 4ORRANCE h) DEFINED CREATIVITY AS A PROCESS OF BECOMING SENSITIVE TO PROBLEMS DEFICIENCIES GAPS IN KNOWLEDGE MISSING ELEMENTS DISHARMONIES AND SO ON IDENTIFYING THE DIFFICULTY SEARCHING FOR SOLUTIONS MAKING GUESSES OR FORMULATING HYPOTHESES AND POSSIBLY MODIFYING AND RETESTING THEM AND FINALLY COMMUNICATING THE RESULTSv  PP n  * 0 'UILFORD h)N ITS NARROW SENSE CREATIVITY REFERS TO THE ABILITIES THAT ARE MOST CHARACTERISTIC OF CREATIVE PEOPLE #REATIVE ABILITIES DETERMINE WHETHER THE INDIVIDUAL HAS THE POWER TO EXHIBIT CREATIVE BEHAVIOUR TO A NOTEWORTHY DEGREE 7HETHER OR NOT THE INDIVIDUAL WHO HAS THE REQUISITE ABILITIES WILL ACTUALLY PRODUCE RESULTS OF A CREATIVE NATURE WILL DEPEND UPON HIS MOTIVATIONAL AND TEMPERAMENTAL TRAITSv  P  

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