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Creativity, Intelligence and Personality: a Critical Review of the Scattered 'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS n #OPYRIGHT Ú (ELDREF 0UBLICATIONS #REATIVITY )NTELLIGENCE AND 0ERSONALITY ! #RITICAL 2EVIEW OF THE 3CATTERED ,ITERATURE -!2+ "!4%9 -ANCHESTER "USINESS 3CHOOL !$2)!. &52.(!- 5NIVERSITY #OLLEGE ,ONDON !"342!#4 4HE AUTHORS EXAMINED THE RELATIONS AMONG INTELLIGENCE PERSONALITY AND CREATIVITY 4HEY CONSIDER THE CONCEPT AND DEFINITION OF CREATIVITY IN CONJUNCTION WITH THE QUALIFICATIONS THAT RESEARCHERS IN THE FIELD HAVE SUGGESTED 4HE PRESENT AUTHORS BRIEFLY REFER TO HISTORIOMETRIC STUDIES BUT FOCUS ON PSYCHOMETRIC INTELLIGENCE AND ITS RELATIONS TO TESTS OF DIVERGENT THINKING $4 AND RATINGS OF CREATIVITY 4HE AUTHORS CONSIDER THE RELA TION BETWEEN PERSONALITY AND CREATIVITY IN THE CONTEXT OF %YSENCKIAN FACTOR AND FACTOR MODELS OF PERSONALITY AND WITH REFERENCE TO $4 TESTS AND RATINGS OF CREATIVITY 4HE AUTHORS ALSO PRESENT RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE FUTURE STUDY OF CREATIVITY +EYWORDS CREATIVITY DIVERGENT THINKING FLUENCY INTELLIGENCE ORIGINALITY PERSONALITY 4(% #5,452!, 6!,5% 0,!#%$ /. #2%!4)6)49 IN THE ARTS SCIENCES TECHNOLOGY AND POLITICAL ENDEAVORS IS IMMENSE #REATIVE PEOPLE HAVE RECEIVED ADULATION THROUGHOUT HISTORY .ETTLE 3OME RESEARCHERS HAVE ARGUED THAT CREATIVITY CONSTITUTES HUMANKINDS ULTIMATE RESOURCE 4OYNBEE 3OCIAL AND TECHNICAL INNOVATION RELY HEAVILY ON CREATIVE PEOPLE AND PROCESSES 2UNCO 9ET DESPITE CREATIVITYS UNDISPUTED IMPORTANCE PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH REGARDING CREATIVITY REMAINS AN ACADEMIC BACKWATER .UMEROUS RESEARCHERS HAVE COMMENTED ON THE RELATIVE PAUCITY OF EITHER GOOD CREATIVITY STUDIES 'UILFORD 3TERNBERG ,UBART OR PARSIMO NIOUS THEORIES THAT EXPLAIN THE ORIGIN AND MANIFESTATION OF CREATIVE BEHAVIOR IN CERTAIN INDIVIDUALS 4HE CAUSE OF THIS NEGLECT MAY BE ATTRIBUTABLE IN PART TO THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE CONSTRUCT OR MORE PARTICULARLY TO PROBLEMS WITH DEFINITION AND THEREFORE MEASUREMENT 0ERHAPS WHAT HAS SET BACK THE FIELD FOR SO LONG HAS BEEN THE RELATIVE ABSENCE OF COMPREHENSIVE AND HIGH QUALITY MEASURES !DDRESS CORRESPONDENCE TO !DRIAN &URNHAM $EPARTMENT OF 0SYCHOLOGY 5NIVERSITY #OLLEGE ,ONDON "EDFORD 7AY ,ONDON 7#( !0 %NGLAND AFURNHAM UCLACUK E MAIL 'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS OF CREATIVITY (OWEVER GROWTH IN AGREEMENT ON DEFINITIONS WIDELY ACCEPTED MODELS OF PERSONALITY AND THE APPROPRIATE USE OF TESTS OF DIVERGENT THINKING $4 POINT TOWARD A POSITIVE FUTURE FOR CREATIVITY RESEARCH )N THIS ARTICLE WE ATTEMPTED TO COMPREHENSIVELY AND CRITICALLY REVIEW THE CONTRIBUTION OF DIFFERENTIAL PSYCHOLOGY TO THE CREATIVITY RESEARCH LITERATURE /UR AIM WAS TO ATTEMPT TO DETERMINE BY REVIEW RATHER THAN BY META ANALYTIC PROCE DURES THE EXTENT TO WHICH PSYCHOMETRICALLY ASSESSED INTELLECTUAL AND PERSONALITY TRAITS RELATE TO AND EXPLAIN EVERYDAY CREATIVITY (ISTORICAL "ACKGROUND 4HE PERCEPTION OF CREATIVITY AS THE ORIGINAL PRODUCT OF AN INDIVIDUAL IS A PRE DOMINANTLY 7ESTERN ONE &ROM THIS PERSPECTIVE CREATIVITY USUALLY IS SEEN AS A TRAIT OR GIFT THAT IS A NORMALLY DISTRIBUTED PROBABLY PARTLY GENETICALLY DETERMINED PROPERTY OF INDIVIDUALS %ARLY PERCEPTIONS OF CREATIVITY WERE DOMINATED BY THE STORY OF CREATION IN 'ENESIS &ROM THERE THE CONCEPT OF CREATION AS ORIGINALITY AND UTILITY INFLUENCED SUBSEQUENT INTERPRETATIONS OF THE PROPERTIES OF CREATIVE PRODUCTS 4HIS CONTRASTS WITH AN %ASTERN VIEW OF CREATIVITY AS THE EXPRESSION OF PERSONAL TRUTH OR SELF GROWTH ,UBART %ASTERN PERSPECTIVES OF CREATIVITY FOCUS ON DISCOVERY SO THAT THE IDEA OF CREATION EX NIHILO IS IMPOSSIBLE FOR %ASTERN CULTURES THAT EMPHASIZE HARMONY AND BALANCE "OORSTIN %ASTERN CULTURES HAVE TENDED TO VIEW CREATIVITY AS A PROCESS OF UNDERSTANDING AND ENLIGHTENMENT (OWEVER THE 7ESTERN PERSPECTIVE HAS DOMI NATED CREATIVITY RESEARCH AND ACADEMIC PSYCHOLOGICAL LITERATURE 4HE EARLIEST CONCEPTIONS OF CREATIVITY DREW ON MYSTICAL INTERPRETATIONS 3TERN BERG ,UBART -ANY ANCIENT 'REEKS BELIEVED THAT INSPIRATION AND CREATION RESULTED FROM DIVINE INTERVENTION ,UDWIG &ROM THIS PERSPECTIVE CREATIVITY WAS hASSOCIATED WITH MYSTICAL POWERS OF PROTECTION AND GOOD FORTUNEv !LBERT 2UNCO P ! CONSEQUENCE OF THIS CONCEPT OF CREATIVITY HAS BEEN THAT PEO PLE CONSIDERED IT BEYOND MEASUREMENT AND COMPREHENSION AND THAT CONSEQUENCE HAS LEFT A LEGACY OVERSHADOWING SOME ATTITUDES TOWARD CREATIVITY RESEARCH TODAY %VENTUALLY THE 'REEKS BEGAN TO REDUCE THEIR EMPHASIS ON DIVINE INTERVENTION BY THE HIGHEST GODS INSTEAD CONSIDERING CREATIVITY RELATED TO EACH INDIVIDUALS $AIMON OR GUARDIAN SPIRIT "Y THE TIME OF !RISTOTLE CREATIVITY WAS SEEN AS A NATURAL EVENT THAT CONFORMED TO NATURAL LAW EVEN IF IT DID INVOLVE hAN ASSOCIATION WITH MAD NESS AND FRENZIED INSPIRATIONv !LBERT 2UNCO P 4HE POSSIBLE RELATION BETWEEN PSYCHOPATHOLOGY AND CREATIVITY IS NOW A POPULAR LAY NOTION AND AN ACTIVE AREA OF RESEARCH ,LOYD %VANS "ATEY &URNHAM 'RADUALLY PEOPLE ASSO CIATED CREATIVE ACTS WITH THE ABILITIES AND DISPOSITIONS OF THE INDIVIDUAL PERSON #REATIVITY AS AN )NDIVIDUAL $IFFERENCE 6ARIABLE !S CREATIVITY BECAME ASSOCIATED WITH THE PROPERTIES OF INDIVIDUALS RESEARCH ERS SUCH AS 'ALTON BEGAN INVESTIGATIONS OF HEREDITY GENIUS AND THE "ATEY &URNHAM ,ONDON 3CHOOL IE DIFFERENTIAL MOVEMENT SOUGHT TO ELUCIDATE THE MOST BASIC COMPONENT OF CREATIVE THOUGHT PRODUCTION FLUENCY ( , (ARGREAVES 4HE GROUNDING OF THE INVESTIGATION OF CREATIVITY IN THE CAMP OF INDIVIDUAL ABILITY DIFFERENCES IE CREATIVITY AS A COMPONENT OF ABILITY OR INTELLIGENCE MORE THAN YEARS AGO LED TO THE CONSTRUCTS BEING CONSIDERED A PREDOMINANTLY INTELLEC TUAL TRAIT OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCE &OR THIS REASON RESEARCHERS HAVE CONSIDERED CREATIVITY TO BE THE hPRODIGAL STEPBROTHER TO RESEARCH ON INTELLIGENCEv 3TERNBERG P (OWEVER RESEARCHERS ALSO BEGAN TO ASSESS CREATIVITY FROM THE PER SPECTIVE OF PERSONALITY THEORIES AND PROCESSES )NTEREST IN COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY LED TO INVESTIGATIONS OF THE CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING PROCESS EG &INKE 7ARD 3MITH .EWELL 3HAW 3IMON 4HERE HAS BEEN CONSIDERABLE INTEREST IN THE SITUATIONAL FACTORS THAT PROMOTE OR INHIBIT CREATIVITY AT THE LEVEL OF INDIVIDUALS AND TEAMS EG !MABILE 2ESEARCHERS HAVE STUDIED THE NEUROBIOLOGY AND FUNCTION OF CREATIVES AND CREATIVE THINKING EG &OLLEY 0ARK -ARTINDALE (INES -ITCHELL #OVELLO AND THE STUDIES APPEAR PROMISING ALTHOUGH RESEARCHERS STILL WRESTLE WITH THE DEFINITION AND MEASUREMENT OF CREATIVITY 4HE FINAL FRONTIER FOR CREATIVITY RE SEARCH LIES IN EFFORTS TO INTEGRATE AND UNDERSTAND THIS DIVERSE FIELD OF RESEARCH &OR THIS REASON SOME RESEARCHERS HAVE PROPOSED CONFLUENCE OR SYNDROME APPROACHES TO CREATIVITY EG -UMFORD 'USTAFSON 4HE MAJOR ISSUE THAT HAS OBFUSCATED AND SCATTERED SCIENTIFIC CREATIVITY RE SEARCH HAS BEEN THE DEFINITION AND USE OF THE TERM CREATIVITY )T IS NOT A TECHNICAL WORD INVENTED TO DESCRIBE THE PSYCHOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTES OR PROCESSES THAT RESULT IN CREATION 2ATHER IT IS AN EXPRESSION THAT IS USEFUL TO ARTISTS SCIENTISTS AND LAY PEO PLE 7EHNER #SIKSZENTMIHALYI -AGYARI "ECK 4HIS USEFULNESS MEANS THAT THE TERM HAS BEEN APPLIED IN SUCH A DIVERSE MANNER THAT IT HAS ALMOST CEASED TO MEAN ANYTHING 4OGETHER THE ISSUES RELATING TO THE CULTURAL UNDERPINNINGS OF THE TERM THE ROOT OF THE NOTION OF CREATIVITY IN THE DIVINE AND THE UNIVERSAL USAGE OF THE WORD HAVE COMBINED TO PRODUCE A FIELD THAT 'LOVER 2ONNING AND 2EYN OLDS DESCRIBED AS hA DEGENERATING RESEARCH PROGRAMMEv P $EFINING #REATIVITY 0RENTKY SUGGESTED THAT hWHAT CREATIVITY IS AND WHAT IT IS NOT HANGS AS THE MYTHICAL ALBATROSS AROUND THE NECK OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH ON CREATIVITYv P !S A PSYCHOLOGICAL CONCEPT CREATIVITY HAS RESISTED UNEQUIVOCAL DEFINITION OR CLEAR OPERATIONALIZATION 0ARKHURST 2UNCO 2HODES SUGGESTED THAT DEFINITIONS RELATE TO FOUR DIFFERENT POTENTIAL RESEARCH AREAS A THE PERSON WHO CREATES B THE COGNITIVE PROCESSES INVOLVED IN THE CREATION OF IDEAS C THE ENVIRONMENT IN WHICH CREATIVITY OCCURS OR ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES AND D THE PRODUCT THAT RESULTS FROM CREATIVE ACTIVITY !DVOCATES OF THE CREATIVE PERSON APPROACH SEEK TO IDENTIFY THE GENERAL AND SPECIFIC ABILITIES MOTIVES AND TRAITS THAT RESULT IN A PERSON WHO PRODUCES CREATIVE 'ENETIC 3OCIAL AND 'ENERAL 0SYCHOLOGY -ONOGRAPHS PRODUCTS EG #ARROLL ( * %YSENCK 'OUGH "ESIDES THE PSYCHOMETRIC APPROACH NOTABLE HUMANIST RESEARCHERS EG -ASLOW 2OGERS HAVE EXAMINED CREATIVITY IN A FRAMEWORK OF INDIVIDUAL MOTIVATION 3UCH EF FORTS HAVE BEEN INFLUENTIAL IN CREATIVITY RESEARCH BUT WE DO NOT EXPLORE THEM IN THIS ARTICLE BECAUSE THE PRIMARY FOCUS OF THIS REVIEW IS ON STUDIES THAT USED AN EMPIRICAL APPROACH TO ASSESSING CREATIVITY 2ESEARCHERS ADDRESSING THE INTELLECTUAL FACETS OF THE CREATIVE PERSON TEND TO ADOPT A PSYCHOMETRIC METHODOLOGY 4HE RESEARCHERS STUDYING PERSONALITY TRAITS OF CREATIVE PEOPLE TEND TO ADOPT THE MORE TRADITIONAL FRAMEWORK OF A OR FACTOR MODEL !DVOCATES OF THE CREATIVE PROCESS AP PROACH TRY TO DELINEATE THE COGNITIVE AND BEHAVIORAL MEANS BY WHICH CREATIVE IDEAS ARE PRODUCED EG &INKE ET AL -EDNICK 4HIS APPROACH IS MORE IN THE TRADITION OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2ESEARCHERS WHO INVESTIGATE THE CREATIVE EN VIRONMENT SEARCH FOR THE PHYSICAL AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS IN WHICH CREATIVITY IS LIKELY TO UNFOLD EG #SIKSZENTMIHALYI 3IMONTON 4HESE RESEARCHERS ARE OFTEN APPLIED PSYCHOLOGISTS INTERESTED IN ENCOURAGING CREATIVITY ,AST ADVOCATES OF THE PRODUCT APPROACH TRY TO SPECIFY THE ATTRIBUTES OF PRODUCTS THAT LEAD TO A PERSON BEING LABELED AS CREATIVE EG 3TERNBERG +AUFMAN 0RETZ 4HE THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE OF CREATIVITY RESEARCHERS USUALLY DEFINES HOW THEY TRY TO ASSESS THE CONSTRUCT 4HOSE WHO EMPHASIZE A PERSON CENTERED
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