Overcoming the Ethical, methods. I consider how the concept of materiality of the digital Methodological and challenges existing anthropological Analytical Challenges of methodologies, but also how such a Digital Anthropology concept can be of ethical significance. Finally, I look at the fluidity of online identity and the analytical challenges By Anna Todsen this poses for the ethnographic study of such. I further consider how these analytical challenges Digital media has become a culturally have methodological implications. and politically meaningful aspect of Ultimately, I thus argue that the everyday social life, which makes it ethical, methodological, and analytical a compelling and relevant subject of challenges of digital anthropology are ethnographic inquiry. However, this highly interconnected. While this new media is also ephemeral, often adds complexity to the individual containing elusive and ambiguous challenges it also suggests that constructions of collective and changes in methodological and individual identities (Coleman analytical procedures can help 2010: 451). This raises challenges overcome the ethical challenges for conventional anthropological within the discipline. approaches. In this essay, I consider the ethical challenges implicit in the Recognising the dialectic nature study of digital anthropology as a of the digital is of major ethical starting point for understanding how significance for the study of digital its methodological and analytical communities. This refers to the challenges should be overcome. I first relationship between the growth in place the discipline of anthropology in universality as well as particularity a historical context, which emphasizes and the interconnectedness between the importance of considering the its positive and negative effects political implications of ethnographic (Miller and Horst 2012: 3). The studies. The significance ofcolonial history of anthropology recognizing the dialectic aspects reveals its potential to be a tool for of online communities will be systematic subjugation of certain emphasized. Secondly, I will use the groups of people and highlights the concept of “materiality of the digital” ethical responsibility of anthropology to show the ethical importance of to consider the political implications challenging existing anthropological of its methodologies. The majority of

2 ANNA TODSEN ETHNOGRAPHIC ENCOUNTERS early work on digital communities as domestic workers in London has privileged economically suggests “an alternative front line advantaged areas, such as North for the anthropology of the digital America and Europe, focusing on age” (Miller and Horst 2012: 10). those most immediately in contact With their children living in the with technological development Philippines, the study highlights the (ibid: 20). Privileging such “cultural importance of digital communication locations” over others limits the for transnational migrants (ibid: understanding of digital media in 10). In this study, digital innovation political processes and “postcolonial is not idealized. Rather, Madianou economies and aesthetics” (Coleman and Miller study the women’s use 2010: 490). Examples of such of technology as highly embedded studies are Senft’s (2008) study on into their economic and political microcelebrity gained by webcasting, marginalization. Situated in a the blurring of the work-life balance global context but recognizing the among Silicon Valley tech workers particularity and locality of the studied by English-Leueck (2002), or Filipino mothers working in London the genre-specific attributes of blogs this study embraces the dialectic by Doostdar (2004). These studies nature of digital technologies. It echo the mentality of the time, where recognizes that the “new political the opportunities of new technologies economy of the digital world is really were met with utopian enthusiasm not that different from the older which insisted that social media political economy” (ibid: 10). This facilitated “democratic participation” highlights the importance of the (Coleman 2010: 489) and that concept of the dialectic because it it would “empower individuals acknowledges the impact of political worldwide while subverting existing contexts on the access to and use power structures” (Wilson and of technology. This serves as the Peterson 2002: 451). This represents central ethical challenge of digital a clear ethical challenge for the anthropology, which the restructuring discipline of digital anthropology, as of methodological and analytical ignoring the global demography can approaches can help overcome. lead digital anthropology to become a form of cultural dominance, similar A methodological challenge in to early colonial anthropology (Miller the ethnographic study of and Horst 2012: 20). However, online communities lies in the Madianou and Miller’s (2011) study acknowledgement of its materiality – on Filipino migrant women working “the bedrock for digital anthropology”

ETHNOGRAPHIC ENCOUNTERS ANNA TODSEN 3 (ibid: 25). The dialectic approach to what constitutes a cultural artefact. the digital is premised on the idea Such an approach is used in Milner’s that “culture can only exist through (2013) study of internet memes and objectification” (ibid: 34). Such can their role in the mediated public represent a methodological challenge, discourse on forums such as 4chan as digital equipment is “built and and Reddit. He approaches the study engineered to propagate an illusion of internet memes similarly to how of immateriality” (ibid: 25). This anthropologists have traditionally challenge can be exemplified in the approached the study of cultural context of “4chan”, described by artefacts: as objects that encompass Coleman (2010), an image forum in cultural “order, agency and which participants are anonymous, relationships” (Miller and Horst 2012: posts are not archived, and happen 24). The “logic of lulz” employed in at fast speed. A core value of this the memes “disproportionally targets digital community is the upholding minorities and women” (Milner 2013: of anonymity and maintaining a clear 67) and establishes “a participation division between offline and online structure premised on the repression worlds. The “Chronic Troll Syndrome”, of diverse voices” (ibid: 75). The a term invented by the community, collective morality identified in the describes the condition of a troll study of memes is therefore highly unable to “tell a difference between embedded in a political and racial internet and IRL” and emphasizes reality which transcends an offline- the importance of this ability (ibid: online divide. While Milner’s study 112). In such a community, the shows the potential of studying the material and local aspects of the materiality of online communities users’ identity are not performed. effectively, Coleman’s work on 4chan While Coleman’s study identified demonstrates the methodological this divide, its methodological challenges that have to be overcome approach does not transcend the to do so. distinction created and does not engage with the material context Comparing the use of materiality of the community. In conventional in the ethnographic analysis of anthropology, cultural artefacts have Milner (2013) and Coleman (2010) mainly consisted of physical objects also reveals how the concept of from which anthropologists drew digital materiality contributes to the meaning. Digital anthropology, recognition of the dialectic nature however, demands a broader and of communities that are studied. more inclusive understanding of Milner uses the materiality of the

4 ANNA TODSEN ETHNOGRAPHIC ENCOUNTERS digital community, the memes, to employed differently and, as a result, establish a connection between the the dialectic aspects of digital culture local and the global, placing the is too. This demonstrates the ways in digital community in a gendered and which methodological shifts in the racial political context. The “logic of study of digital communities can help lulz” employed in them also reveals overcome the ethical challenges of the aspects of the users own gendered discipline. and racial identities (Milner 2013: 67). The dialectic aspect of the Digital platforms allow for a digital community is thus revealed, negotiation of identity and community as the political, racial, and gendered participation that challenges the specificity of its dominant group of conventional analytical approach of users interact with political questions anthropologists. However, they also that are global in nature. Coleman’s contain different “architectures for (2010) work on 4chan and “trolls” participation” (Coleman 2020: 101) instead emphasizes the collective and the role of the individual identity, identity of the community. Instead therefore, comes to vary greatly in of identifying the political and social different digital communities. This context of its individual users, she can prove a challenge for a discipline puts emphasis on their movement which, as Wagner (1974) notes, uses against the “non-technologically groups and identity as beginning minded people” on the internet (ibid: points for analysis. The diversity of the 113). While this demonstrates the role of individual identity in digital dynamics between different online communities can be exemplified by communities, it does not draw direct comparing Russian chat rooms studied lines to the local identity of its users by Humphrey (2009) to the digital and does therefore not engage with the community “Anonymous” studied dialectic processes within the digital by Wesch (2012). For Anonymous, community. As Miller and Horst note, which describes itself as the “group the “principle of materiality cycles to end all groups, and an identity back to the principle concerning to end all identities”, individual the dialectic” (2012: 24) as it helps identity is completely rejected (Wesch establish a connection between socio- 2012: 99). On 4chan, where much cultural practices within and outside of Anonymous sociability occurs, of mediated communication (Wilson the technology itself encourages an and Peterson 2002: 453). This is clear anonymous identity by not requiring in the comparison of the two examples, any verification or fixed username to in which the concept of materiality is submit a post. Without any stable

ETHNOGRAPHIC ENCOUNTERS ANNA TODSEN 5 user identity, the boundaries of (Wilson and Peterson 2002: 456). the community become fluid as This is further necessitated by the fact membership is fleeting and ephemeral that different individual identities can (ibid: 90). Anonymous thus comes exist across different media platforms to challenge the “taken-for-granted and participate in different digital assumptions about identity and communities in which identity is community” (ibid: 91). In the study treated differently. This demands on Russian chatrooms of users that conventional analytical procedures participate in role-playing games, the to be shifted to “more dynamic users “virtual personas” are not just a approaches that recognize and theorize reproduction of their offline identity the processes of culture” (Wesch 2012: but an extension of such (Humphrey 99). This analytical challenge must 2009: 33). The restrictions they face be overcome if ethnographic studies in the offline world does not exist for are to acknowledge study individual them online. Their presence on the identity, or the lack thereof, in digital internet is therefore where they feel communities. the most “real” (ibid: 34). Indeed, the users explicitly draw connections The comparison of Anonymous between their offline and online and Russian chat rooms further identities. Unlike in Anonymous, demonstrates how analytical challenges they are identifiable online due of digital communities can have to their use of a specific virtual methodological implications. Due to persona and their group membership the different role of individual identity thus becomes more constant. The in the digital communities studied, different role of individual identities different methodological approaches in online communities becomes have been used. Humphrey (2009) clear in the contrasting ways in approaches the study of the identity which it is used among Russian of chat room participants by first players and Anonymous. Due to describing their virtual persona and the fluidity and ephemerality of then analyzing how their “sociality identity online, the conventional interpenetrates with off-line life” by approach of anthropology, which interviewing users (ibid: 33). Such an privileges fixed categorizations of approach is possible because of the groups and identity, is not sufficient. importance of a distinct, individual Rather, anthropologists should use identity in the digital community. By the “continuum of communities, comparison, Wesch (2012) studies identities, and networks that exist” the online activities of Anonymous by as a starting point for their analysis observing 4chan’s message board. The

6 ANNA TODSEN ETHNOGRAPHIC ENCOUNTERS anonymity is studied as a “cultural analytical, and ethical challenges of motif” (ibid: 91) and the lack of digital anthropology. It became clear performed individual identity is that, in order to overcome these understood in relation to anonymity challenges, the anthropological as a core moral value. Instead of method and analysis must be able to comparing participants to their offline transcend the digital dichotomies: identities as Humphrey (2009) does, the dialectic nature of the digital the materiality produced within the world must be recognized. If this is digital community, the memes and done, digital anthropology would texts, becomes a way of placing the “effectively collapse established individual identities of its users into differences”, which would have a political and social context. Wesch’s implications beyond the subdiscipline (2012) methodological approach to itself (Miller and Horst 2012: 18). data collection is therefore mostly As some scholars have noted, there observational, while Humphrey is no such thing as non-digital interviews and actively engages anthropology anymore, as almost with the virtual personas online. all aspects of what anthropology Thus, the different ways in which traditionally studies have been individual identity is played out in the affected by the digital (ibid: 29). two communities require different The breakdown of the online/offline methods of data collection. This divide, which is central to overcoming shows how the analytical shift in how the challenges of digital anthropology, concepts of individual and collective does therefore not solely apply to identities are understood also has the ethnographic studies of online implications for the methodology communities; it also applies to the used. discipline of anthropology as a whole. Digital anthropology and its core In conclusion, it can be said that concerns can enhance the entirety of the digital world contains many the discipline of anthropology (ibid: dichotomies which are embodied 15). in the concept of dialectic. This ” essay looked at the materiality and immateriality, the universality and particularity, and the individual and collective identity of digital communities. These contrasting concepts came to demonstrate the interconnectedness of methodological,

ETHNOGRAPHIC ENCOUNTERS ANNA TODSEN 7 REFERENCES

Coleman, E. G. 2010. “Ethnographic approaches to digital media.” Annual review of Anthropology, (39): 487-505.

Coleman, G., 2012. “Phreaks, Hackers, and Trolls: The Politics of Transgression and Spectacle.” In The Social Media Reader, edited by M. Maniberg.

Doostdar, A. 2004. “The vulgar spirit of blogging: on language, culture, and power in Persian Weblogestan.” American Anthropologist. 106 (4): 651-62.

English-Leuck J. 2002. Cultures @ Silicon Valley. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press

Humphrey, C. 2009. “The Mask and the Face: Imagination and Social Life in Russian Chat Rooms and Beyond.” Ethnos 74: 31-50.

Madianou, M., and D. Miller. 2011. Migration and New Media: Transnational Families and Polymedia. London: Routledge

Miller, D. & H. Horst. The Digital and the Human: A Prospectus for Digital Anthropology. London: Berg

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Senft T. 2008. Camgirls: Celebrity and Community in the Age of Social Networks. New York: Peter Lang.

Wagner, Roy. 1974. The Invention of Culture. Chicago: University of Chicago Press

Wesch, M & the Digital Ethnography Class of Spring 2009 (2012) ‘Anonymous, Anonymity, and the End(s) of Identity and Groups Online: Lessons from the “First Internet-Based Superconsciousness”’ in Whitehead, N.L. & M. Wesch. Human no More: Digital subjectivities, Unhuman Subjects and the End of Anthropology. Colorado: University of Colorado Press.

Wilson, S.M. & L.C. Peterson. 2002. “The Anthropology of Online Communities.” Annual Review of Anthropology. 31: 449-467

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