Growing Flannel Flowers for the Cut Flower Market a Guide for Commercial Growers

Growing Flannel Flowers for the Cut Flower Market A guide for commercial growers

JULY 2013 RIRDC Publication No. 12/088

Growing flannel flowers for the cut flower market A guide for commercial growers

Ross Worrall formerly Special Research Horticulturist NSW DPI, Gosford

July 2013

RIRDC Publication No 12/088

ISBN 978 1 74254 430 4 ISSN 1440-6845

Growing flannel flowers for the cut flower market—a guide for commercial growers Publication No. 12/088

The information contained in this publication is intended for general use to assist public knowledge and discussion and to help improve the development of sustainable regions. You must not rely on any information contained in this publication without taking specialist advice relevant to your particular circumstances. While reasonable care has been taken in preparing this publication to ensure that information is true and correct, the Commonwealth of Australia gives no assurance as to the accuracy of any information in this publication. The Commonwealth of Australia, the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation (RIRDC), the authors or contributors expressly disclaim, to the maximum extent permitted by law, all responsibility and liability to any person, arising directly or indirectly from any act or omission, or for any consequences of any such act or omission, made in reliance on the contents of this publication, whether or not caused by any negligence on the part of the Commonwealth of Australia, RIRDC, the authors or contributors. The product trade names in this publication are supplied on the understanding that no preference between equivalent products is intended and that the inclusion of a product name does not imply endorsement by RIRDC over any equivalent product from another manufacturer. Users are reminded of the need to follow safe work practice when applying any techniques described in this publication. This includes identifying, assessing and managing any occupational health and safety risks.

ALWAYS READ THE LABEL. Users of agricultural (or veterinary) chemical products must always read the label and any Permit, before using the product, and strictly comply with the directions on the label and the conditions of any Permit. Users are not absolved from compliance with the directions on the label or the conditions of the Permit by reason of any statement made or omitted to be made in this publication. Some of the chemical use patterns quoted in this publication are approved under Permits issued by the Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority (APVMA) and in force at the time the publication was prepared. Persons wishing to use a chemical in a manner approved under Permit should obtain a copy of the relevant Permit from the APVMA and must read all the details, conditions and limitations relevant to that Permit, and must comply with the details, conditions and limitations prior to use. The Commonwealth of Australia does not necessarily endorse the views in this publication. This publication is copyright. Apart from any use as permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, all other rights are reserved. However, wide dissemination is encouraged. Requests and inquiries concerning reproduction and rights should be addressed to the RIRDC Publications Manager on phone 02 6271 4165.

Researcher contact details Dr Ross Worrall Email: [email protected] In submitting this report, the researcher has agreed to RIRDC publishing this material in its edited form. RIRDC contact details Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation Level 2, 15 National Circuit BARTON ACT 2600 PO Box 4776 KINGSTON ACT 2604 Phone: 02 6271 4100 Fax: 02 6271 4199 Email: [email protected] Web: http://www.rirdc.gov.au

Electronically published by RIRDC in July 2013 Print-on-demand by Union Offset Printing, Canberra, at www.rirdc.gov.au or phone 1300 634 313

Foreword

The flannel flower is an iconic Australian native plant. It has been grown as a garden plant and marketed as a commercial cut flower for many years, and considerable demand exists. Flannel flowers can be used in many different ways by florists, and combine well with many different types of flowers. The flannel flower is very suitable as a cut flower owing to its structure, texture, colour and good vase life. Until recently, wild-harvested flannel flowers were commonly marketed during spring. Commer- cial cultivation in beds often incurred large losses, as plants are particularly susceptible to root diseases. Recent research has developed a system for growing the plants intensively in pots in a simple greenhouse. This has the potential to provide an excellent cash flow from a small land area owing to the species’ relatively short plant-to-harvest period. This especially applies to the continuously flowering clones that can be used as a complementary crop with other native flower and foliage crops. This guide brings together both published and unpublished information, industry expertise, and the author’s considerable experience in the industry. The aim of this project was to produce a guide that would provide growers, wholesalers, exporters and retailers with practical information about growing, harvesting, postharvest handling and treatment of flannel flowers. This is a practical ‘how to’ guide and covers all aspects from selecting the site to marketing the blooms. Particular attention is paid to ‘critical points’—areas that growers have found problematic in the past. The guide is aimed at both existing growers and potential entrants into the industry. The guide also includes two appendices that explore some production aspects in more detail. These include cool room management and postharvest handling. The postharvest handling section was produced as part of a project funded by RIRDC Core Funds, which are provided by the Federal Gov- ernment and supported by the former NSW Department of Primary Industries (now part of Industry & Investment NSW), with industry funding generously contributed by East Coast Wildflowers and Crooby Cottage Wildflowers. This guide adds to RIRDC’s diverse range of over 2000 research publications, and forms part of RIRDC’s Wildflowers and Native Plants R&D program, which aims to improve the profitability, productivity and sustainability of the Australian industry. Most of RIRDC’s publications are available for viewing, free downloading or purchasing online at www.rirdc.gov.au. Purchases can also be made by phoning 1300 634 313.

Craig Burns Managing Director Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation

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About the author

Dr Ross Worrall recently retired as a Special Research Horticulturist, NSW DPI (briefly I&I NSW). Ross was based at the Gosford Horticultural Research Institute, Narara. He worked on the commercial development of Australian native plants for most of his career. He also conducted research in the areas of plant physiology, potting mixes, breeding systems, postharvest management and plant propagation.

Acknowledgments

In particular I wish to thank Bettina Gollnow for her input into editing and reviewing this publication. I also wish to thank cooperating researchers and extension personnel whose input made this project possible (through the RIRDC Flannel Flower project, RIRDC ref. 10-065), especially Dr Lindsay Campbell, University of Sydney, Dr Cathy Offord, Royal Botanic Gardens (Mount Annan), Lotte von Richter, Royal Botanic Gardens (Mount Annan), Dr Rod King (CSIRO Canberra), Bettina Gollnow (NSW DPI) and Greig Ireland (I&I NSW until his retirement). Thanks also go to Pauline Cain, Fiona Lidbetter and Vicky Worrall, who provided technical assistance and helped make things happen. Assistance in statistical analysis was provided by Lorraine Spohr and Anne Harris of the Gosford Horticultural Research Institute. Thank you also to RIRDC, the Royal Botanic Gardens and Domain Trust (Sydney) for financial support, and the many employees of NSW DPI who participated in this project. The contribution of commercial cooperators who provided valuable information on the cultivation of Actinotus helianthi for this project is acknowledged: Alexander Pelser, Something Wild Flower Farm Paul Dalley, Mountain Nursery Terry Flanagan, Flora Inspirations Geoff Hammond, Glenona Gardens Stephen Holden Harry Kibbler, Native Flower Growers’ Association (Mid North Coast) Inc. David Matheson, Native Flower Growers Co-op Chris Miller, Eastwood Nurseries Alex Orgill, Shoreowl Pty Ltd Craig Scott, East Coast Wildflowers Brian Shannon, Shannon Roses Rick Smith, Marick Nursery Marie Lamond, Marick Nursery Brian & Pat Sundin, Sandy Manor Flowers Shaun Ward, Weatherby Downs Pty Ltd Tony Waugh Peter Zulpo, Zfarm Except where noted, photos are by Ross Worrall. Particular acknowledgement is given to Back Creek Country Pty Ltd and the Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney, for the use of their photos where noted.

Abbreviations

Units Mn manganese N nitrogen °C degrees Celsius Na sodium % per cent P phosphorus / per S sulphur cm centimetre Zn zinc g gram g/L grams per litre ha hectare Other abbreviations kg kilogram APVMA Australian Pesticides and Veteri- L litre nary Medicines Authority mg milligram (1000 mg = 1 g) AQIS Australian Quarantine and Inspec- mg/L milligrams per litre tion Service mm millimetre (1000 mm = 1 m) DPI Department of Primary Industries mL millilitre (1000 mL = 1 L) GA gibberellic acid mL/L millilitres per litre I&I Industry & Investment NSW, which briefly incorporated the ppm parts per million NSW DPI IBDU isobutylidenediurea Chemical symbols pH measure of acidity B boron ® registered trade name Ca calcium RH relative humidity (%) Cl chlorine Vol. volume of written publication, journal etc. Cu copper A Plant Breeders’ Rights symbol Fe iron K potassium Mg magnesium

Contents

Executive summary vii 1 Marketing quality flannel flowers 1 2 Introduction 3 3 Commercial uses 4 4 Growing as a business 5 5 The plant 6 6 Growing areas 7 7 Site selection criteria 8 8 Propagation 13 9 Setting up 16 10 Crop maintenance 23 11 Harvest 29 12 Postharvest handling 30 13 Markets 34 14 Useful references 36 Appendix 1 Cool room design and layout 37 Appendix 2 Quality specification for flannel flower 41

Executive summary

What the guide is about This guide provides advice and information on all aspects of growing, harvesting, postharvest handling and quality management of flannel flowers.

Who is the guide targeted at? This ‘how to’ guide has been produced for members of the Australian wildflower industry who grow and market flannel flowers, including growers, wholesalers, retailers, florists, exporters, importers, research, development and extension workers, and students.

Where are the relevant industries located in Australia? Flannel flowers are grown mainly in eastern NSW and south-east Queensland. Flowers are mostly marketed domestically, and there is significant demand from export markets, especially Japan.

Background The flannel flower is an iconic Australia native with great potential as a cut flower. There is considerable demand from domestic and export markets. Flannel flowers can be used in many different ways by florists and combine well with many different types of flowers. Until recently, wild-harvested flannel flowers were commonly marketed during spring. Commercial cultivation in beds often incurred large losses, as plants are particularly susceptible to root diseases. Recent research has developed a system for growing the plants intensively in pots in a simple greenhouse. This has the potential to provide an excellent cash flow from a small land area owing to the species’ relatively short plant-to-harvest period.

Aims The aim of this work was to produce a guide that includes all the up-to-date literature and grower and researcher data available in order to provide the industry with practical information and advice about all aspects of growing and marketing flannel flowers.

Methods used This guide results from the project ‘Growing Flannel Flowers All Year Round’ (RIRDC project PRJ 000498), and is linked to the broader project ‘Quality Specifications for Australian Wildflowers’ (PRJ 000331). These projects were conducted by Industry & Investment NSW – Primary Industries (now NSW DPI). Separate guides for the production of waratah and Christmas bush were also prepared at the same time. Information was gathered from industry members, including growers, researchers, wholesalers, exporters and importers, and from a review of the research literature, both published and, where available, unpublished. Particular attention was paid to plantations that were successful.

Results This project produced a guide that provides growers, wholesalers, exporters and retailers with practical information about growing, harvesting, and postharvest handling and treatment of flannel flowers. This is a practical ‘how to’ guide and covers all aspects from selecting the site to marketing the blooms. Particular attention is paid to ‘critical points’—areas that growers have found problematic in the past. A summary of the critical points is provided. It includes appendices that explore cool room vii management and postharvest handling in more detail. It also draws on the personal experience of the author in research on flannel flowers and in advising growers.

Implications for relevant stakeholders This information is now available for people in the industry to use to improve the production and postharvest quality management of flannel flowers. The information should lead to the benefits of lower costs, improved sales and returns, and more efficient production practices. There is a need for ongoing extension of this information and for ongoing R&D in this area (see Recommendations below). For students, this can be an extremely valuable resource.

Recommendations This guide reflects a career-long commitment to research, development and extension in floriculture and provides an opportunity to capture significant knowledge and shared industry learnings gained over a long period of time. The availability of this guide needs to be made widely known, by RIRDC, the author, industry leaders and bodies, and government bodies. We recommend that industry members adopt the production, postharvest and quality management practices outlined in the guide. Individual users can add new information to this guide. The guide can be updated in the future if there is enough new information, demand, funding and expertise. The main areas requiring further research are cultural requirements, propagation, breeding and marketing, specifically: . fertiliser and watering studies to optimise growth rates . trials to define optimal growing conditions . root diseases and their control . improved tissue culture methods to enable the use of clonal materials for flower production . continued development of seedling lines to improve flower numbers and quality, especially with superior flower form and year-round flowering . identification of the breeding systems of Actinotus and investigating other species such as A. schwarzii in a breeding program . development of cultivars and seed lines within private industry. R&D and extension workers need to discover and ensure that new information is made available to the industry in a way that maximises the uptake of those new learnings.

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1 Marketing quality flannel flowers

Growers  Always use sharp blades to harvest and trim flowers.  Ensure good growing conditions, including  Rotate stock—coloured containers indicat- correct light, temperature, fertilisers and ing date of picking or purchase are useful. irrigation.  Choose your varieties carefully for yield, quality, type and vase life. Wholesalers  Control pests and diseases.  Rehydrate on receipt.  Harvest at the correct stage.  Stand flowers in a preservative solution  Use the correct hydrating and pulse solu- made up with clean, low-salt water. tions.  Maintain good hygiene, and keep contain-  Dip the flowers in an appropriate fungi- ers clean. cide/insecticide solution to minimise post-  Store at the correct temperature. harvest wastage. Washing the flowers will also minimise possible allergic reactions.  Don’t sell old stock! Throw it out.  Use clean, low-salt water to make up solutions. Retailers  Cool and hydrate as soon as possible, and pre-cool packed containers.  Do not display flowers in areas that are exposed to full sun, draughts, high temper-  Pack to the appropriate standard for the atures or vehicle exhausts, and avoid dis- market. playing near fruit and vegetables. Use refrigerated displays if possible. General  Use clean buckets for displays.  Use preservative vase solutions made up  Do not allow flowers to dry out anytime with clean, low-salt water. Use also in ar- after harvest. Loss of fresh weight means a rangements. shortened vase life.  Insert the flowers properly into floral  Do not expose flowers to high tempera- foams when making up arrangements, and tures. use enough solution.  Store at 2–5 °C.  If flowers show any signs of wilting or  If stored with other flowers, keep at 7 °C have been stored or transported dry for any or below. length of time, immerse in low-salt water until they recover.  Store only good-quality flowers for extended periods.  Inform customers of how to care for flowers (provide a care sheet) and emphasise  Use the correct hydrating and vase solu- the need for preservative vase solutions. tions. Provide a sachet of cut-flower food.  Always use clean containers and clean, low-salt water. Consumers  Don’t store with fruit and vegetables or old flowers.  Keep vase filled with the correct preserva-  Keep cool rooms and work areas clean and tive solution. Check daily, as flowers can free of old plant material. take up a lot of water. If preservative solu- 1

tion is not used, change water at least every second day. Always use clean vases and clean, low-salt water.  Remove any leaves that sit below the water line.  Do not display in areas that are exposed to full sun, draughts or high temperatures. Keep as cool as possible without freezing.  If flowers show any sign of wilting, immerse in water until they recover.  Discard all faded or dead flowers.

Flannel flower growing on an exposed headland.

2 Introduction

flower. This species has long, straight stems with terminal flower heads that make good cut flowers and have been available commercially for many years. Historically, most of this stock has been sourced from bush-picked plants of variable quality. This has led to an increase in commercially cultivated flannel flowers from selected stock and seed material. Flannel flowers are a profitable crop for many growers, despite frequent problems with production. The plants can be grown intensively and have the potential to provide an excellent cash flow from a small land area with their relatively short plant-to-harvest period. This applies in particular to the continuously flowering clones that can be used as a complementary crop with other native flower and foliage crops. Flannel flowers developed a reputation for being difficult to cultivate—but significant advances were achieved as a result of work by Cathy Offord and Lotte von Richter of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Mt Annan (now known as the Australian Botanic Garden, Mount Annan), and from input from participants of the Flannel flower inflorescence. Flannel Flower Forum and a Review of Culti- vation Practices held in June 2001. The flannel flower is one of the best recognised Australian native plants, with attractive white Overcoming cultivation difficulties increases flowers and grey-green foliage with a flannelly production. Although in the long term this can texture. reduce returns by lowering the average price, initially it ensures that you have enough crop to The most commonly known species is Actino- market reliably. tus helianthi, the Sydney or eastern flannel

3 Commercial uses

The greatest potential use of the flannel flower courtesy of RBG&DT and © Jaime Plaza. is as a feature filler alongside plants such as rice flower (Ozothamnus diosmifolius), Geraldton wax (Chamelaucium uncinatum), Thryptomene spp. and smokebush (Conosper- mum sp.). Actinotus schwarzii has been described as ‘stunning’ when grown under nursery conditions, but is unreliable under cultivation (von Richter & Offord 2000). There is potential for developing a range of shorter selections for use as pot plants and bedding varieties. Some selections that have been released are ‘Federation Star’, ‘Summer- cloud’ and ‘Starbright’.

Australian native floral arrangement with flannel flowers.

Actinotus schwarzii has been recognised for its potential as a cut flower but is unfortunately difficult to grow. Photo

4 Growing as a business

Marketing and financial considerations are important factors in the successful cultivation of flannel flowers for the cut flower market. The key aim of any business should be to make a profit. Failure to make a (real) profit will result in the business folding or simply becoming an expensive rural lifestyle. Potential growers must develop a business and financial plan to control all risks, including physical, financial, marketing, legal or business-related. Experienced growers report the following ‘worst mistakes when starting out’, which The use of a rain shelter can make culti- should be addressed in every business plan: vation possible in high rainfall areas . Not treating the cultivation of native flow- with less than ideal soil types. ers as a business. A strong, healthy plant of the seasonally flow- . Lack of good-quality research. ering cut-flower form can produce 10 to 15 stems in its first year and 15 to 25 in its second . Lack of good-quality marketing: establish- year. In contrast, the continually flowering ing the demand for the crop. semi-dwarf clones can produce at least 60 . Not getting independent sources of advice. flowers a year. With an average of 8 to 10 plants per square metre of bed space, the re- . Working excessive hours without holidays. turns per area of crop can be very high. In . Lack of credit control. practice, though, many growers experience high plant losses with low returns (and reduced . Not adhering to regulations and planning potential profits), although growing in artificial requirements. media under rain shelters minimises risk. . Lack of quality control. Field-grown flannel flowers are considered a . Under- or over-capitalisation. high-risk crop, but encouragingly there are a growing number of successful commercial and . Inability to pay for additional labour. experimental crops with minimal losses. . Exceeding future financial limits. The cost of production will vary according to . Growing the wrong species or varieties. the management system selected by the grower. . Choosing the wrong site. When comparing systems and examining potential returns, likely plant loss must be taken . Poor basic knowledge. into account. Obviously, if it is certain that a Most flannel flowers are produced as open-air higher-cost production system will reduce the crops in the ground or in containers. Some are number of plant deaths and yield a greater produced under rain shelters, which can greatly number of stems, then its use may be economi- increase flower production and therefore prof- cally justified. But all growers must select a its. management system with great care, as there are still no definitive answers for the cause of high plant death rates.

5 The plant

5.1 Plant and flower structure

Flannel flowers are members of the Apiaceae family, in the genus Actinotus. The name Ac- tinotus comes from the Greek actinos, meaning ray or spoke of a wheel, which refers to the bracts of the flower head. They are herbs to small shrubs, mainly perennial, with alternate divided leaves that are usually downy.

A flannel flower cluster root. Cluster roots are suppressed by high fertility levels.

5.2 Natural distribution

In Australia, Actinotus spp. are found on low- fertility, sandy soils with low pH. Actinotus helianthi occurs from the South Coast (Bega) and western slopes of NSW (Pilliga Scrub region) through to central and south-eastern Queensland (Carnarvon Gorge), growing on old dunes and coastal heath country, but also in sandy soils in open forests. It often grows abundantly after bushfires, which stimulate germination of seed reserves. Owing to the widespread natural distribution of A. helianthi, there is great variation in flower Flannel flower structure. Note root sys- and foliage form, colour and height. tem with cluster roots, which are an adaptation to low nutrient levels. On coastal headlands the plants tend to be short, bushy and rarely taller than 0.5 m, The daisy-like flowering head is made up of whereas on dunes and inland forests they are numerous crowded, small flowers surrounded taller—often more than 1 m high. Coastal by radiating white or slightly coloured woolly selections are more susceptible to frost; moun- bracts. The seed is small, flat and hairy, and is tain types can be grown in colder climates. shed when ripe.

There are 14 identified species of Actinotus in Australia, and 1 in New Zealand. Of these, only Actinotus helianthi and perhaps A. schwarzii appear to have potential as cut flowers without an extensive breeding program.

6 Growing areas

6.1 Current production areas Use of artificial growing media has overcome this restriction. A relative humidity of between Before 1997 more than 99% of flannel flower 60% and 85% appears to be optimal, although sold as cut flowers came from bush-picked good growth can occur outside this range. Frost material, but reliance on bush picking is unde- is not a limiting factor in cultivation (von sirable for both an environmental and market Richter & Offord 2000). There is scope for the quality reasons. Commercial quantities of the range of growing conditions to be expanded flower were produced by only four or five with the introduction of new varieties. growers in coastal eastern Australia (von Rich- ter & Offord 2000). Although flannel flowers are still bush-picked, commercial cultivation has been increasing, particularly in coastal areas from southern Queensland to eastern Victoria.

6.2 Potential cultivation areas

Expansion of the cultivation of flannel flower in most areas of Australia is limited largely by soil type and climate. The plants will grow well in sandy soils and in a range of heavier soils so Self-sown flannel flowers growing on sandy soil in bushland. long as drainage is excellent.

7 Site selection criteria

Many growers come into the cut flower indus- Overall, the broad adaptability of flannel flow- try after they initially move to a ‘lifestyle’ ers allows them to grow from sea level to property for a change from an urban existence. higher altitudes such as the Blue Mountains. Few farms are selected as the best land suited Owing to an increase of specifically bred to the type of crop that the grower later decides varieties, a broad selection is likely to become to grow and often don’t have an assured water available for different regions of Australia, supply. limited only by soil type. When considering a flower farm, it is important to bear in mind factors such as remoteness from markets or labour supply, and climatic conditions that cause plants to become stressed and more susceptible to pests and diseases. Technology and investment (money and labour) can overcome many of these problems but will significantly reduce the profitability of the crop. Remember: the primary reason to grow flowers commercially is to make a profit. If an existing farm is not suitable for the optimum growth of native flower crops, it may be cheap- Under ideal conditions, flannel flower er to sell it and buy again in a better location. can grow well in the field. Photo: Royal Flannel flowers are usually grown as a com- Botanic Gardens, Sydney. plementary crop to many other native flower and foliage crops that often take up more of the land. When considering a site, take these crops 7.2 Flowering times into account; a compromise might be necessary: growing flannel flowers in artificial media Flannel flowers are generally a biennial crop, is an obvious choice. although they can grow well in cultivation for up to 4 years. Some seasonally flowering varieties have produced the most flowers in 7.1 Climate their second and third years (Offord & Tyler 1993). The continuously flowering clones have The climate of the natural habitat of A. helian- a commercial life of about 2 years. After this, thi varies considerably and ranges from high stems tend to become unacceptably short even rainfall on the coast to lower further inland. with the application of growth regulators. Higher maximum and minimum temperatures Current clones flower mostly from August to are found in Queensland and western NSW, January, usually with a large peak in spring. As and lower temperatures in southern NSW. future selections and varieties become availa- Humidity also fluctuates greatly between sites. ble, along with an expansion of growing regions, the flowering period will become Frosts generally have little impact in wild- staggered throughout the country. A trial with grown plants as they vary considerably across one selection has demonstrated flower produc- the natural habitat. Coastal selections may be tion all year round. susceptible to heavy frost.

7.3 Growing medium As with most crops grown directly in soil, pests and, in particular, soilborne diseases, will build 7.3.1 In the ground up in the ground. Even in virgin soil there may be significant populations of pests and diseases, Like most Australian natives, flannel flowers necessitating some pre-treatment of the soil. need good drainage because of their high Disinfesting the soil between crops by using sensitivity to the fungal diseases Fusarium and chemical soil fumigants or steam is vital before Pythium and also possibly Rhizoctonia and successive crops are grown in the same spot. Phytophthora, all of which occur in many Australian soils. The potential of these fungi to An alternative option is to grow plants in kill the plants is significantly increased if there containers, which makes pre-treatment of the is inadequate air space or too much water in the soil easier and ensures its effectiveness. Potting soil. media can also be easily replaced between crops.

7.3.2 In containers

Properly designed artificial media can meet all the criteria for good soil aeration and drainage. Many growers are now using pots, bags or foam boxes for growing flannel flowers, thereby gaining better control of soil, watering, drainage and growing conditions. For tubes and pots, the following potting mix was used successfully for flannel flower production at NSW DPI, Gosford: . sphagnum peat 25% . aged pine bark fines 25% . perlite (horticultural grade) 25% . washed medium sand 25%.

Fertilisers (per cubic metre): Even slightly hampered drainage causes . lime 0.5 kg large losses. (Note support mesh.) . dolomite 0.5 kg Good soil aeration is extremely important for the successful production of flannel flowers. . IBDU (a source of urea) 0.5 kg Even the maximum level of 10% air space by . Nutricote (18:2.6:6.6 + trace) 9 month 4 kg volume usually found in sandy soils may not be enough to suppress disease. Flannel flowers . Nutricote coated potassium sulphate 500 g. become particularly sensitive to diseases if Ideally, the medium should be pasteurised by there is inadequate air space or too much water heating to 60 °C for 30 minutes before use. in the soil. An increase of up to 25% air space, This is less important if the components are achieved by adding organic matter to the soil, is known to be pathogen free and do not become recommended. For a more detailed discussion contaminated during handling. Most commer- see Handreck and Black (1994). cial growers do not pasteurise their growing The benefits of good soil aeration are twofold. media. First, good aeration helps to control many root diseases. Second, root growth is usually better in well aerated soil, and iron deficiency is much less likely.

mended levels should be approached cautious- ly, as the results will depend on management procedures and their effect on the crop, such as the extent of leaching with irrigation. Other slow-release fertilisers with comparable release rates, such as Osmocote, should also be satisfactory. A wide range of other components can also be used, provided that they allow good aeration. For example, the Australian Botanic Garden, Mt Annan, has successfully used a mixture of coconut fibre and coarse sand for many years.

7.4 Water supply

Growing any cut flower crop requires a reliable supply of good-quality water. While flannel flowers can withstand short periods of drying out, correct irrigation optimises plant growth, ensures good stem length and minimises defects. Water can be supplied from a dam, river or bore, or you can use town water, recycled water or even rainwater. Whatever the source, it must be sufficient to deliver the required amount to Use of well drained artificial growing the plantation when needed. You must take into medium in open beds can greatly im- account future expansion and increased water prove growth rates and reduce losses. requirements when estimating your needs. Photo: Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney.

Good growth rates can be achieved in Typical growing set-up for flannel flow- plastic greenhouses. er in a plastic igloo. The fertiliser rates are not critical—especially that of Nutricote. Up to 10 kg/m3 of the above 7.5 Water quality 9-month formulation was used in trials at Mount Annan Botanic Garden (now the Aus- It is important to have water tested for salinity, tralian Botanic Garden, Mount Annan) without pH and all specific ions likely to be toxic: damage to the plants. But exceeding recom- phosphates, iron, sodium, chloride, boron, bicarbonate and calcium, in particular, before 10

establishing any crop. The quality of bore or river water, even in high- rainfall areas, can be significantly inconsistent and may not be suitable for irrigation. Test the water at the end of summer, when water quality is generally at its poorest. Guide- lines are available from most water testers, and the cost of testing is much lower than crop failure.

Flannel flowers tolerate salt, but even small quantities in the water can reduce growth rates Salt can also cause a reduction in without causing visible symptoms. growth rate without causing any visible leaf symptoms. Left: low salt. Right: The effects of salinity depend on climate, soil high salt. type and management practices. In general, by Soluble iron can be naturally present in many the time symptoms occur, growth has already water sources, particularly groundwater and been damaged. Other effects include a reduc- dams. High levels of iron can stain spray- tion in flower quality (especially vase life) and irrigated crops or block pipes and sprinklers. increased susceptibility to disease and insect Aeration is a good option for treating this type attack. of water. Algae can block micro-irrigation systems and filters. Sunlight and high levels of nutrients stimulate algal growth, so the best way to minimise the problem is to exclude these. Nutrient sources include septic tank seepage and runoff from fertilised beds or livestock sheds. Fine suspended clay particles, which cause turbidity, or murkiness, in water, can stain plants and block irrigation systems in the same way as iron. Generally, chemical treatment can clear water by settling out the clay. Turbidity in farm dams can be reduced by simply grassing the catchment areas. Irrigation from creek or dam water that has High levels of salt cause chlorosis (yel- been collected from farming areas is a potential lowing) of the leaf and marginal burn- ing. source of disease organisms such as Pythium, Phytophthora, Fusarium and Rhizoctonia, all of The electrical conductivity of irrigation water which are problematic to flannel flower crops. should be below 0.75 dS/m. Water salinity is It is vital to treat potentially contaminated difficult to deal with, but its effects can be water in order to control disease. Bore water is minimised by using micro-irrigation systems. generally free of plant pathogens but may have Salt can be removed from water by reverse a high salt content. Chlorinated town water is osmosis, but this is expensive and yields only suitable without any further treatment. low volumes of usable water.

near the top. Elevated areas may be less frost prone. Steep slopes are impractical and dangerous for the use of farm equipment, making daily operations such as planting and harvesting difficult. They also make it more challenging to design a suitable irrigation system and may be more prone to damaging strong winds.

7.7 Other crops

A range of other Australian native cut flower crops can be grown under protected cultivation using similar structures, containers and growing The effect of salt can be variable, espe- media. Certain Anigozanthos hybrids (kangaroo cially in seedlings, ranging from no paw) and Macropidia (black kangaroo paw) are visible effect to death. All these plants especially suitable. Flowering is offset from were watered with the same salt solu- crops grown in the open, and flowers are of a tion. high quality, commanding premium prices.

7.6 Aspect

A gentle slope (less than 15%) is desirable, as it allows for the rapid runoff of surface water and thus reduces the risk of soilborne diseases. Beds should be designed to allow water to run off without ponding or waterlogging. Conversely, if runoff is concentrated through a single channel, this can damage the beds and crop as well as increase erosion. Erosion control is a top priority: the cropping area should be designed to minimise the effects of erosion. Kangaroo paw growing in protected In areas with recurring frosts, choose a slope cultivation. that provides cold air drainage, and plant only

8 Propagation

Flannel flowers can be propagated by seed, gated. cuttings or tissue culture. Although seedlings can be variable, they are more vigorous than cuttings or cultured stock, which tend to establish more slowly and branch less (von Richter & Offord 1997). Seedlings are also less susceptible to wind damage, as they have a deeper root system. So most cut flowers are derived from seedlings grown from selected seed sources.

Some strains of flannel flower germinate readily when fresh. The roots of flannel flowers are very fragile and require care during transplanting to avoid damage. Keep the tap root straight to prevent kinking, which may cause poor growth and an increased tendency to snap off when the plant matures. This can be achieved by pre-dibbling a hole and then by using a pair of forceps to Flowers can produce copious quantities position the root tip right to the bottom before of seed. Viable seed is well filled out. firming the medium in.

8.1 Seed

Germination of seed is variable and may be slow. Some seed lines may germinate readily when fresh, but others germinate better when aged. A standard well drained germination mix is useful, but the mix should be kept relatively dry to prevent seed rotting. If seedlings are to be transplanted, do this before the root system develops too far (about the two-leaf stage). It is not always practicable to obtain or sow seed immediately after collecting. After the initial fresh phase, the seed often reverts to a dormant state, which may last months or years, Flannel flower seedlings can be suc- although the extent varies between seed lines. cessfully transplanted into cell trays or Seed should be well filled out for maximum tubes. viability. Lightly brushing flower heads of plants growing in greenhouses can enhance the To save labour costs and the problems associat- set of viable seed. ed with transplanting seedlings, some growers also sow seed in the final containers and thin if The development of seed lines that have relia- too many germinate. Thinned seedlings can ble and high germination rates is being investi- also be tubbed up for further use or be used to 13

patch containers where no seed germinated. these are not always as vigorous as seed-grown The resultant elimination of transplantation plants. shock has shown to enhance seedling growth, but omitting intermediate container sizes means more greenhouse space is taken up for a longer period of time. For this to be practical, seed must germinate readily. In the wild there is a proliferation of seedlings following a bushfire, indicating that flannel flower seed has good longevity. Dormancy of some lines of flannel flower seed can be broken by maturing (ageing), application of smoke (smoked water) or chemical treatment. Discs that contain smoke extract and other chemicals that promote the germination of Australian native plant seed are commercially available. Flannel flowers grow reasonably true to type from selected seed (Dalley 2000), but seedlings from hybridised material can be very variable. Growing from seed is an economically viable way of producing large quantities of plants, although a shortage of selected seed exists. Direct seeding into the field is a reasonable method of establishment, provided that timing is correct (autumn), and correct seed propagation techniques are also followed (using fresh seed, possibly treating seed with smoke, and providing adequate water). Even so, variable results still occur, and the problem of death Semi-dwarf flowering clones can flower rates once plants have germinated is not re- precociously in small containers. Remove solved. But economically, it is the cheapest flowers at this stage (unless the pot is form of propagation. to be sold as a flowering pot plant). Most cultivated flannel flower crops are grown To strike cuttings, first treat softwood or semi- from seedlings that are planted directly into soil hardwood material with 2000 ppm IBA (quick bed rows or containers, although the percentage dip method or semi-hardwood powders or gels) of clonally propagated material is increasing. before placing them into a good-quality cutting Most existing plantations may have a variety of mix under mist. If the medium has not been different genotypes producing a range of stem made from disease-free materials, pasteurise it lengths, flower heads and flowering times. As a at 60 °C for 30 minutes before use. Rooting result, there is considerable variation in the pro- percentages are high, especially if the parent duct currently being harvested and marketed. material is of good quality. Drenching with an Concerns have also been raised about the approved fungicide may be required to mini- possibility of transmitting the disease organism mise losses. Fusarium by seed, but this is yet to be substanti- There is a general reluctance to take on vegeta- ated. tive propagation of flannel flowers because of production difficulties and the associated high costs. Even so, a few propagators are success- 8.2 Vegetative fully propagating by cutting and tissue culture. More work is required to develop vegetatively Flannel flowers in general can be readily prop- produced plants from selected varieties with agated by cuttings. This enables the multiplica- specific qualities. tion of selections with desirable qualities, but 14

Whatever the source of the plant stock, using stronger and healthier plants will make disease control easier. At this stage, there is no propagation method or particular variety known to consistently reduce the rate of death.

8.3 Tissue culture

Some flannel flower selections appear to be more suited to tissue culture than others.

The most difficult task is deflasking: removing the plant from the tissue culture; some lines Flannel flower in a tissue culture lab. have a particularly high failure rate. Failure appears to be related to the cultures’ being extremely soft without an effective cuticle, making them prone to drying out, fungal infec- tions and fungus gnats. Some of the problems of deflasking may be overcome by treating the tissue-cultured plants as mini-cuttings. Tissue culture would allow for the production of large volumes of selected high-yielding strains, which could also be used as stock plants for cutting production or seed. Propagation of tissue-cultured plants directly for flower production is uneconomical but may have an important role in the production of ‘mother plants’ from which cuttings can be taken or used for seed production.

Close up of flannel flower in tissue culture.

9 Setting up

9.1 Farm infrastructure An office area with a phone, computer (Inter- net connection) and fax—essential for com- All farms require common facilities and mercial operations. The office can be attached equipment, as well as those specific to the type to the packing shed but needs to be physically and scale of operation being set up. separated from it. A greenhouse or rain shelter. Consider the Basic farm infrastructure design carefully. Growing plants on benches or raised beds improves labour efficiency (the A vermin-proof packing shed with concrete greatest cost) and disease control as well as floor, water, power, lights and good vehicular allowing better ventilation. The floor should be access. A concrete floor is necessary for effi- well drained and suppress weeds and disease— cient cleaning and to prevent mud or dirt from gravel is often used to good effect. A separate contaminating the product. A toilet and shower holding area for new planting material should are essential, especially for hired labour use be included to keep new stock from existing and for decontamination after pesticide applica- crops for quarantine purposes. If a new insect tion. The efficiency of the packing operations or disease is detected, remedial action will then will be greatly affected by the design of the be much easier. packing shed, especially in relation to material flows and handling. Include in the design a feature that will keep disinfested flowers sepa- Machinery rate from freshly harvested material, particular- Second-hand and hired machinery is available, ly for export products. but take into account convenience, availability, At least one cool room is essential for com- reliability and overall cost. Breakdowns or non- mercial operations. Ideally, two cool rooms availability of machinery and equipment at should be available to separate freshly harvest- critical times, such as harvesting, can result in ed material from disinfested and packed mate- expensive losses. Capital costs can be greatly rial. The cool rooms should be within the reduced by using contractors, especially for packing shed or immediately adjacent to it and jobs such as initial bed preparation. positioned with material handling in mind. Cut The machinery and equipment required will stems need to be held at 4 to 8 °C short term depend on the size of the farm and the type of and 2 to 4 °C longer term, at high humidity. production system. An advantage of intensive A shed for storing farm machinery and equip- production in rain shelters is the reduced need ment. Do not store packing materials in open for larger equipment such as tractors for routine sheds where they can become contaminated by production, although maintenance of the sur- insects, animal and bird droppings, or dust and rounding area must be considered. Transport oil. requirements are also reduced owing to the A chemical storage shed is a legal requirement more compact nature of closed operations. if pesticides are used. It must be constructed to Tractors: Tractors should be sized to suit the the required legal standards, be lockable, and operation, especially row widths. Larger field have satisfactory ventilation. operations will require a medium-sized tractor. A fertiliser storage area, preferably separated Smaller tractors, even as a second one, are very to prevent contamination of packing materials useful for towing trailers for harvest and can be and machinery. Many fertilisers can also be fitted with narrower equipment for operations corrosive, flammable or even explosive. between narrow rows, as long as they have a power-take-off of sufficient capacity.

consider bores and dams, pumps, filters and disinfection equipment (e.g. a chlorinator). Equipment for delivery to market: An adequate vehicle to deliver flowers to a central collection point or directly to the market is required unless direct pickup can be arranged. For long-distance transport a refrigerated vehicle is desirable.

Minor equipment

. Sharp secateurs and sharpening equipment. Flannel flowers being cooled and hy- . Scales for weighing chemicals and bunch- drated in a hydration solution before es. processing and packing. . Personal protective equipment for handling and applying chemicals. Attachments: There is a vast range of equipment that can be attached to trailers, such as . Containers such as large buckets that can cultivation equipment (scarifier, bed former or be bought fairly cheaply second-hand, for scarifier blade, rotary hoe), mowers, slashers, storing and treating flowers. sprayers and fertiliser spreaders. . Miscellaneous equipment: bunch-tying Trailers: Trailers attached to tractors, or some machines, strapping machines for cartons, other form of transport (such as a utility), will rollers, a pallet jack or trolley, and sleeving be needed for harvesting operations, and a farm and conveyor systems. bike is useful for crop inspection and mainte- . Tables for bunching, grading and packag- nance operations. ing. Circular rotating packing tables can Pesticide application equipment: A large handle variable loads and take up less range of pesticide application equipment is space; if something goes wrong, the prod- available. It should suit the intended use and be uct goes around again. appropriately sized for efficiency of applica- . Dipping tanks. tion. Tractor-mounted equipment is usually used for field application. Some types can also This list is not exhaustive and should be tai- be used under rain shelters; for example, with lored to individual operations. hoses attached. For small operations and those under cover, battery-powered sprayers may be economical and effective. It is best to have 9.2 Field planting separate equipment—especially tanks—for Seedlings are best planted out when small (4 to herbicides and insecticides. 8 cm high), before there is extensive root Fertiliser application equipment: The equip- development. This allows the root system to ment required will depend on the means of develop in the soil and prevents plants from application. Tractor-mounted spreaders are becoming root bound in pots. Root-bound generally used for efficient application of dry plants may fail to thrive and even die as they fertilisers to large areas. Fertigation, using get bigger. Avoid unnecessary disturbance soluble fertilisers in irrigation systems, is an throughout the propagation and planting phas- efficient means of application and is suitable es, as root systems are easily damaged. for both large and small areas—especially Planting is best done in the spring to produce under protected cultivation. active growth, although summer planting is Irrigation equipment: Besides actual field possible with greater care. It takes approximate- delivery and distribution systems, you need to ly 8 to 12 months from plant-out to harvest for seasonally flowering varieties, so plants estab- 17

lished in September should be available for 9.3.2 Row spacing harvest by the following August. Spring planting also protects from excessively cold condi- Space plants about 30 to 60 cm apart in rows 30 tions in southern regions, especially Victoria. to 60 cm apart. This spacing gives good mutual support against wind damage. Higher planting densities produce a similar total number of saleable stems per unit area, because there are fewer stems produced per plant, but the cost of planting is higher. For current seasonal flowering varieties, yields of 6 to 10 stems per plant can be expected in the first year and 15 to 30 stems in the second. As plants grow, pinch them out to encourage branching. Prune older plants in early autumn to encourage shoots. If this is done too late, the stem length will be reduced in the following spring. Cutting back hard into the main stem can stunt or kill the plant. Removal of about Seedlings ready for planting out. Photo half of the stem length is sufficient to promote courtesy of Backcreek Country Pty Ltd. a new flush of growth (Offord & Tyler 1996).

9.3 Preparing the beds 9.3.3 Field row layout

Site preparation entails cultivating the soil that Row layout is affected by the shape and slope is raised into beds, similar to the requirements of the land as well as by boundaries and access. for most Australian native plant crops. Deep Often, rows are best oriented somewhere be- ripping will improve drainage before final tween a true contour and directly downhill. cultivation. Raised beds are not necessary in Running rows lower than the contour avoids well drained sandy soils. Although most flannel trapping water on the high side, but they should flowers grow naturally in light or sandy soils, not be so low as to cause erosion. Rows are they can tolerate heavier soils with a higher best broken by crossroads at about 50 m inter- clay content if good drainage is provided. Good vals to allow better access, even if the row drainage is essential for the maintenance of soil continues. This results in a plant density of aeration and for extreme events such as heavy approximately 10 000 plants/ha where plants rainfall. are grown in single rows 2 m apart. Some growers use multiple rows, which greatly increases plant density. 9.3.1 Hilling

Raise beds about 1 m wide to 20 to 30 cm high at the centre. Although hilling or mounding 9.4 Weed control may not be necessary in deep, porous soils that Weed control is a major expense in plantation drain rapidly, it still provides relief from peri- management, but the problem cannot be ig- ods of extended heavy rain or high water tables. nored, as weeds compete with the crop for A well drained soil results in good root growth nutrients, water and sunlight. They also harbour and minimises the potential for root diseases. many pests and diseases. Weeds can cause total Higher mounds often give better growth be- crop loss during the early establishment stages cause of improved aeration in the root zone, when plants are small, and severe reduction in although these tend to dry out more, especially yields later. in times of low rainfall. Hilling is not recommended in very light soils. Weed matting and mulching help control weeds and retain soil moisture. Flannel flowers are shallow rooted, making them susceptible to 18

damage during weeding or close cultivation. . are difficult to apply to a growing crop Weed matting or mulch is useful to avoid weed . require considerable labour input. problems within the rows, and will significantly reduce labour for future control. Hardwood chips do not break down quickly, but phenols that leach from them may pose a Weed mat can repay its cost within 2 years; it: problem. Because the concentrations of phenols . helps reduce the amount of water lost by vary in different timbers, test a particular evaporation hardwood for its suitability first. . helps shed water away from the root zone If the space between crop rows is grassed, weed during periods of excessive rainfall, thus growth can be controlled by mowing or apply- reducing leaching of fertiliser ing chemicals. Do not allow weeds to flower, and use herbicide strips to prevent damage to . prevents cultivation equipment from dam- the crop by the mower or slasher. aging the crop roots Most growers will need to use all available . reduces soil compaction by equipment use, control methods: therefore improving soil aeration and microbial activity. Mulching: Good weed control before planting is easier and safer than later. Two main types of plastic matting are available. Woven plastic usually lasts for 4 or 5 Spraying: Only a limited range of herbicides years—generally more than the life of the crop. are registered for use in flower crops. Systemic Non-woven plastic needs an organic mulch on herbicides can be transferred to the crop via the top to be effective. Weed matting alone is not roots of weeds (especially perennial grass recommended, as it can make the root zone too roots), with deadly results. Contact herbicides hot for good root development. This problem is may be a safer option but are not as effective in more important when the plants are small and weed control and can result in spray drift. Take more susceptible to damage. The plastic cover extreme care in using herbicides close to the also makes application of solid fertiliser diffi- plants, as toxicities have been reported. cult. Mowing, slashing and brushcutting. Use mulch with matting, as it discourages Inter-row cultivation: Can be problematic if weeds and insulates the soil, providing a cool carried out too close to the plants by causing root run for good plant development. damage to shallow roots. Organic mulches aid soil health in the long Hand weeding. A very expensive option, term as they break down slowly and increase owing to its intensive labour requirement. Can organic matter levels. Suitable materials in- also damage shallow crop roots. clude straw, compost and hay; crop residues such as tea tree mulch, cotton trash and ba- gasse; and wood chips or sawdust. 9.5 Plant support and wind Materials should have a large particle size, be protection properly aged, and be free of excess fertiliser and weed seed. The particle size affects both At planting, plants are small with shallow root soil aeration and rate of microbial breakdown. systems (particularly cutting or tissue-cultured If the particle size is too small, the mulch will plants) and may need protection from the wind. break down too fast and may cause nitrogen A plant spacing of 30 cm provides some protec- depletion. Organic mulches can contribute to tion, as the plants support each other. Plastic the control of Phytophthora but must be kept plant guards offer the best protection as well as back from the stems to avoid collar rot. preventing damage from cold, frost and animal attack. The guards cannot be left on as a struc- However, organic mulches: tural support, as humidity inside the sleeve can . can introduce weed seeds cause rotting of the lower leaves. . must be regularly reapplied As the plants grow taller they may need structural support to stop the stems bending or even 19

breaking. Bent stems lower the value of the is unavailable to the plant. It can sometimes crop. Support can be provided by staking or appear that the surrounding soil is moist, when with floral mesh (see photo on page 9) to the root ball is actually very dry. When a soil stabilise plants. Wind damage can remain a has drained after irrigation, water movement problem in mature plants but can be minimised within the soil is very slight, and therefore by windbreaks. transplants can actually require more frequent irrigation than when in their original containers. Failure to supply adequate moisture results in 9.6 Irrigation stressed plants that fail to establish and grow satisfactorily. A cut flower crop requires a reliable supply of good-quality water. Irrigation is essential for The establishment stage lasts around 2 to 3 healthy plant growth and high yields of high- weeks when plants are actively growing. The quality flowers with good stem length and normal irrigation frequency will be two or three minimal defects. times a day immediately after planting, reducing to about once a day after this (in the ab- Proper irrigation is as crucial as correct air sence of rainfall). Apply about 6 L/m2/day. The space ratios and soil drainage capacity. Sched- actual rate and frequency will vary with weath- uling, combined with accurate quantities, is er conditions. important in maintaining high air space ratios. Water must be applied in small quantities and The recommended application method in the must flow through the medium rapidly in order establishment phase is by overhead sprinklers to achieve the optimum air space ratio. Flannel for even distribution of water. After this period, flowers are able to use small amounts of water drippers are preferred, as they do not wet the very efficiently and will die with too much foliage. A dual sprinkler–dripper system is best, water, but can also stress if there is not enough. and can be used as also for frost control or Both extremes can increase disease rates. reducing excessively high foliage temperatures. Avoid overhead watering once plants are estab- Liquid fertilisers may be applied during established, as it can stain flowers and exacerbate lishment through the drip system, but only after other problems, especially disease. The collar any overhead sprinklers have finished, to avoid area of the plant (the area of stem at the soil washing nutrients out of the soil. surface) is very prone to disease. Use an alter- It is particularly important in this phase for soil native system such as drip irrigation on matur- to be freely draining so a high air space ratio ing plants. can be maintained between waterings. Although flannel flowers have a low to medium water requirement, some irrigation is required in most areas, particularly during hot, dry 9.6.2 Growing on periods or in times of drought. Plants also need As a general guide, plants will require about 5 to be irrigated frequently during the establish- 2 2 L/m /day in summer and about 3 L/m /day in ment phase. winter, depending on environmental conditions. Monitor the crop closely, as actual water usage 9.6.1 Planting out can vary greatly. Plants can use more water on mild days than on very hot days, when they The soil or growing medium should initially be become stressed and the stomata close. moist. Plants must be watered immediately Sprinkler irrigation may be used, with care, to after transplanting, as they are susceptible to cool the crop on very hot days. If the crop is in drying out (and over-watering) at this stage the open (with no cover to diffuse sunlight), owing to their limited root systems. This situa- there is a small risk of water droplets acting as tion is exacerbated if the plants are relatively a lens that causes leaf burn. large in relation to the tube size. Avoid excessively wetting foliage, as it pro- After transplanting, water will drain from the motes disease and may cause unsupported root ball into the surrounding medium, where it flowers to lodge (fall over) from the weight of 20

the water. Rainfall (for unprotected crops): The effect of rainfall is determined by the frequency and Table 9.1 Evaporation at three sites over amount of rain and the water-holding capacity the past 15 years (source: Data Drill). of the soil. Natural rainfall may have limited Site Average evapo- Minimum–maximum benefits for the plants, as the good drainage ration evaporation required for disease control removes excess (L/m2/day) (L/m2/day) moisture quickly. Even after heavy rain, irrigation may have to recommence in a day or two Gosford 2.9 0.0–8.0 in summer. Kempsey 3.4 0.2–10.8 Esk 4.5 0.6–11.4 9.7 Growing flannel flowers in Evapotranspiration is the actual water lost from both rain shelters the crop and the surface of the soil. Actual water requirements can be estimated from evaporation pan data. Average values for Gosford (NSW), Kempsey (NSW) and Esk (southern Qld) are shown in Table 9.1. Note how the minimum and maximum values can vary. For precision and to relate to the actual crop site, a local evaporation pan is essential. The irrigation rate and frequency required will depend on the following factors: Actual weather conditions: Within seasons, evapotranspiration varies widely. As a general rule, allow two to three times the rate in summer as in winter. Growing flannel flowers in containers under shelter improves quality. Photo Differences between the pan site and the courtesy of Backcreek Country Pty Ltd. crop site: Even siting of windbreaks and mulching can have a large effect on evapotran- The continually flowering clone is especially spiration. suited to growing under a rain shelter or in a basic greenhouse, where it gives very high The stage of crop growth and the crop fac- yields. Rain shelters help protect flowers from tor: Assume the full rate if plants are more than the weather, greatly increasing their quality. one-quarter grown. Transplants require irriga- Such a protected cropping system also helps tion two or three times a day without additional keep the foliage (and growing medium) dry, rain. The crop factor for flannel flowers is not thereby reducing the incidence of disease. A known, but similar crops have about an 80% number of growers are doing this successfully. requirement compared with the actual evapotranspiration rate. After foliage has been greatly The following points have been found to be key reduced by harvesting, the plants will require to successful growing in a rain shelter: much less water until they regrow. . Well designed, naturally ventilated rain Losses in application systems: Assume 10% shelters are generally used. Forced ventila- loss for night sprinkler irrigation, 20% for day tion can be used, although it is usually ex- application and up to 40% for hot windy days. pensive, especially if designed to keep There are few losses in drip systems, unless temperatures low on very hot days. Flannel excessive water is applied and it runs to waste. flowers in rain shelters will tolerate internal temperatures from 0 to over 40 °C for short The water-holding capacity of the soil: For periods. Rain shelters also give considera- sandy soils with a low water-holding capacity, ble frost protection. During trials at up to 140% of the calculated irrigation rate may Gosford, the temperature within the rain be required on account of runoff. shelter did not fall below 0 °C even when 21

there were heavy frosts outside. drainage, especially if containers are placed on raised benches. Benches also assist in . Some shade is necessary. Choose the maintenance and harvesting efficiency, iso- shadecloth rating carefully, as high shade late the plants from potential pathogens in levels will restrict growth and flowering, the soil, and allow easy removal of any dis- and excessive shade will result in weak eased or underperforming plants. stems. In coastal NSW, shade levels should not exceed 50%. . Maintaining a high level of nutrients in the growing medium is essential for good . The growing medium must be well aerated. growth and flowering. Many growers use a The medium must have a large air space mixture of slow-release and immediately and good drainage, and watering must be available fertilisers (which can be applied restricted to keep the medium ‘on the dry by fertigation). side’. These conditions are essential to controlling waterlogging, which often leads to . Plants grown in containers under cover will root rot, the most common cause of re- generally have fewer weed problems but stricted growth and death. Plants can grow may be more prone to pests such as mites well in the presence of otherwise pathogen- and mealy bugs, especially if the containers ic organisms if the medium is not water- are crowded together. logged, and tolerate drying out better than . Plants should be replaced after about 2 they tolerate waterlogging. years. Plants will continue to produce flow- . Most growers raise the plants in individual ers after this period, but yields will fall and containers (usually 4–6 L) rather than in flower stems will become shorter. beds. This helps prevent the spread of For more details see Worrall and Tesoriero pathogens between plants and improves (2009).

10 Crop maintenance

10.1 Pest and disease control as spray damage or weather. . Learn to distinguish between a symptom The best strategy to reduce pest and disease (the altered appearance of an affected problems is to use a combination of pruning, plant) and a sign (the presence of the actual irrigation and fertilisation. Plants under stress organism or evidence of its presence). are more susceptible to infestation and infection. The ability to look for problems, work out . If you cannot identify the cause of the the cause and take an appropriate course of problem, take samples and send them to a action is a vital skill which must be learned. service provider who can diagnose the cause. This involves collecting plant material showing all the symptoms along with Good practices healthy material for comparison. Send it . Good hygiene in and around the growing fresh and include specific information areas will help avoid problems. Clean up about the problem. Pack insects in un- and remove prunings and plough in old breakable containers, preferably in methyl- crops when they are finished. ated spirits. . Know what a healthy crop looks like and investigate changes immediately. Treating a problem . Check plants regularly (at least weekly). Native flower production is fairly new and . Monitor insect pests using sticky traps in often small scale, so there may be no registered order to enable early recognition of poten- pesticides for some of the problems encoun- tial problems and avoid wasteful overuse of tered. Regulations on the use of pesticides are sprays. Identification of the pests also ena- strict: a product has to be registered, or a permit bles the correct spray to be chosen for the must be obtained, for a particular species of job. Some insects may be helpful predators. plant and situation, before it can legally be used or recommended. When there is any doubt as to . Keep good records of pesticide sprays: the toxicity of a particular product to plants, when and what was used, what pests were test it first on a small area of the crop. seen and the time of year they were seen. Pest management during the growing season . Check that the irrigation water is free of will make exporting easier. pathogens, especially when using dam water, and investigate the services of a commercial testing laboratory. 10.1.1 Insects

There are relatively few serious pests of flannel Diagnosing a problem flowers. However, a few, if left untreated, can It is important to be able to identify the cause of cause a serious reduction in the number of a problem when it arises. Many insects seen in harvestable flowers or even plant death: plantations are harmless. Also, visible symp- . Bud mites are difficult to detect in small toms are not always due to a pest or disease. numbers because of the dense hairs on the . Define the problem first. Is it death of a leaf surface. In high numbers they can plant, leaf drop or leaf spots? Is this the cause stunting in plants and even death. primary problem or a consequence of the Plant recovery may be slow even after the primary problem? mites have been controlled. . Look for patterns. Non-uniform damage to . Mealy bugs can cause problems during a crop usually indicates a living agent as periods of active growth, producing distor- the cause, whereas uniform damage is gen- tion and stunting of new leaves. A systemic erally the result of non-living factors such insecticidal spray is beneficial. 23

. Plague thrips can heavily infest flowers (10 or more per flower). They cause little damage to the flowers but cause serious disinfestation problems. . The caterpillar stage of light brown apple moth can become a serious problem in protected cultivation if not controlled. . Aphids have been recorded on plants. . Two-spotted mites have been occasional pests. . Spiders may also cause quarantine prob- Root rot caused by fungal pathogens is lems. a major cause of plant death in the field. Overall, flannel flowers are relatively trouble- Left: uninoculated plant. Right: plant free. If regular monitoring and corrective action infested with a fungal root rot. are taken, pests will rarely cause failure of the Fusarium: Two major organisms that appear to crop. be associated with root rot are Fusarium ox- ysporum (Fusarium wilt) and F. solani (collar rot). Infected plants can die within 7 days. 10.1.2 Diseases Other Fusarium species (not identified) have also been associated with plant death. There are Root diseases a large number of species and races of Fusari- The major cause of crop loss is root death due um that vary widely in their pathogenicity to to disease and is the most difficult to control. flannel flower. There is an urgent need to sort The major root diseases are a range of species out which types are involved, as not all are of Pythium and Fusarium, but other pathogens pathogenic. Some may even provide protection have also been isolated. from pathogenic strains. There are also probable interactions with other diseases and growing conditions. For example, there is some evidence that Fusarium and Pythium occurring together are far more pathogenic than either alone (see next paragraph). Pythium: The only identified species of Pythi- um to occur on flannel flowers is Pythium mastophoron, although there are a number of reports of other species being associated with plant death. Two or more species of Pythium may also be present at the same site. When both

Pythium and Fusarium are present they become Root rot due to fungal pathogen. highly pathogenic: one fungicide may control the symptoms of both diseases, but may be effective against only one disease. Other organisms include Phytophthora, especially P. drechsleri, and Rhizoctonia. These have been associated with large plant losses. More root diseases will probably be identified in the future. In at least two instances no known pathogen could be isolated from plants dying of a suspected root pathogen. Sclerotinia and Rhizoctonia affect a wide range of other crops and so could become a problem. 24

Methods for controlling root diseases: . Follow normal crop hygiene protocols similar to those used for exotic flower crops (e.g carnations, which are very susceptible to Fusarium). These require crop rotation or chemical fumigation of soil between crops. . Avoid contamination, especially of propagation material. Control of fungus gnats is important, as they spread disease and readily attack fine roots. . Provide good cultural conditions. Adequate Bract browning on flannel flowers due soil aeration is of critical importance, as to Botrytis fungal infection. Photo by Lowan Turton, NSW DPI. waterlogged plants die quickly. Excessive fertiliser (especially N) or not enough The way the virus is transmitted is uncertain. makes plants more susceptible to disease. The best ways to control spread of the disease are general hygiene, destruction of infected . Control soil moisture conditions closely. plant material, control of likely vectors such as Avoid wetting the base of plants or foliage thrips, and avoiding transfer of infection, as much as possible. especially when cutting flowers. . Use protected cultivation. Flannel flowers are potentially profitable under ‘normal’ protected cultivation. Similar growing 10.2 Fertilisers methods can be used as with other crops vulnerable to root disease. There are 13 elements essential for normal plant growth. These fall into two groups ac- . Use fungicides and biocontrol. Some fungi- cording to their abundance in plants: cides are already effective and new ones are being introduced. These are more suc- . The major nutrients or macronutrients, cessful in beds or pots than in open ground. which are found in the highest concentra- Biocontrol is also a future possibility. tions: nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), sulphur (S), calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg). Flower and foliage diseases . The micronutrients or trace elements, Recorded foliage diseases include: which are found in the lowest concentra- . leaf blight—Botrytis species tions: iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), boron (Bo), molybdenum . leaf spot—Septoria species. (Mo) and chlorine (Cl). For control, it is important to keep the foliage Three others (silicon, sodium and cobalt) may as dry as possible. Fungicides may be used if have beneficial effects under special circum- necessary. stances but are not considered important for Tomato spotted wilt virus has recently been commercial horticulture. Many other elements identified in flannel flowers. The symptoms are absorbed from soil but are not essential for include chlorotic (yellowish) spots and mottling plant growth. on leaves, which are sometimes puckered. The Lack of any one of the essential elements will tops of shoots have shortened internodes. impair crop growth. Nutrients will limit growth when supply is too low (deficient) or too high (toxic or excessive).

A wide range of nutrient imbalances or Healthy crop of flannel flower. Photo deficiencies may cause a reduction in courtesy of Backcreek Country Pty Ltd. growth rates before symptoms become Table 10.1 shows leaf analysis results of plants visible. From left to right the effect of growing satisfactorily with a wide range of growing medium nitrogen levels: defi- added fertilisers. In particular, note that the cient, optimal and excess. range in percentage N is small, despite a wide Because plants absorb most nutrients through range of N fertiliser being applied. In addition, their roots, fertilisers must be soluble in water. the percentage P varies with the P applied, but This is also why proper irrigation scheduling is despite its uptake by the plants there is little so important—not only to prevent water stress effect on growth. but also to maintain nutrient supply. Table 10.1 Nutrient levels in healthy Good plant nutrition aids disease control by leaves. developing a strong, healthy plant. Nutrient element Average Max Min Nutrition also plays a key role in plant development: optimum nutrient levels increase stem Al (mg/kg) 50.7 158 27.1 quantities and stem length. Ca % 0.58 1.26 0.38 The application of phosphorous acid as a fungi- Cu (mg/kg) 6.77 9.29 3.44 cide (not phosphoric acid) if pathogens are present, especially in the early stages of plant Fe (mg/kg) 113 305 63.1 growth, may have significant benefits in im- K % 1.17 1.58 0.61 proving root health and thus nutrient uptake. Mg % 0.17 0.21 0.13 Mn (mg/kg) 181 372 59.6 Soil and plant testing Mo (mg/kg) 0.57 3.33 0.03 Before you can apply the correct fertiliser you N % 1.97 2.56 1.45 need to know the nutrient status of the soil. A Na % 0.37 0.68 0.21 soil test will show this. The results will enable you to plan a fertiliser program aimed at mini- P % 0.05 0.43 0.05 mising nutrient losses and preventing the build- S % 0.18 0.72 0.12 up of individual nutrients. Zn (mg/kg) 58.5 161 27.6 Plant tissue analysis is also essential. The results give a reliable guide to a crop’s condition and are useful in identifying nutritional disorders. Standards have yet to be set for flannel flowers.

30 ppm P and 150 ppm K, assuming watering frequencies of every day or every other day, depending on the weather. In winter, there may be a need to increase the concentration of nutrients, as watering is reduced to every 3 or 4 days. Fertiliser rates will vary with a given situation and management techniques, and optimum rates will vary greatly with manage- Nitrogen deficiency (left two leaves) and ment practices. nitrogen excess (right two leaves).

Monitoring fertility levels

Flannel flowers tolerate a wide range of soil nutrient levels and have flourished at most trial sites, except one with exceptionally high P levels (291.9 meq%; von Richter & Offord 1997). Chlorosis is often present in flannel flowers, especially when they are growing in pots or clay soils. An induced iron deficiency is suspected as the cause, probably due to poor root health, high pH or excessive levels of other elements, particularly P, which binds iron. Iron deficiency causing leaf chlorosis (yellowing). There can be a variety of Container trials have shown that flannel flow- causes besides an actual deficiency of ers respond well when the level of nutrition is iron in the growing medium. increased. In one trial, the upper limit of re- sponse to fertiliser application was not reached For example, if the amount of water applied even though twice the normal rate for fertiliser- exceeds the requirement by more than 10% and tolerant crops was used (10 kg/m3 of Nutricote significant leaching occurs, higher rates will be slow-release fertiliser: N:P:K 13:2.6:10.8 or required. Similarly, if the growing medium is 18:2.6:6.6 with 9-month formulation). With already high in nutrients because of previous increased rates of fertiliser application, plants fertiliser application or the presence of residues grew larger with more stems and more floral of fertilisers or manures, then less will be bracts (von Richter & Offord 1997). required. Trials at Gosford have shown that flannel flower is not sensitive to P. The addition of 2 kg/m3 superphosphate did not cause any toxicity symptoms or reduce growth rate. Flannel flowers will tolerate a wide range of fertilisers with different nutrient ratios. In trials using container plants, responses to the Nu- tricote slow-release formulations listed above appeared to be directly related to the N content of the fertiliser. Some forms of N fertilisers may be more toxic than others at excessive rates, e.g. IBDU (a urea source). Liquid fertiliser rates will depend on the fre- Leaf symptoms of excessive IBDU. quency of irrigation, rate of leaching, quantity of water supplied (and salt levels), time of year and stage of the crop. Suggested rates (as a starting point only) for summer are 100 ppm N, 27

10.3 Stem length the plants’ growth rate and production of flowers are reduced. GA should be applied to plants The semi-dwarf continuously flowering varie- only when flower buds are visible, or flowering ties tend to have flower stems that are shorter may be inhibited. than many of the seasonal flowering varieties. Note: GA is currently not registered for this Pricing tends to be related to stem length, so it purpose, so before using it, you must obtain a makes economic sense to improve it where permit from the Australian Pesticides and possible. Veterinary Medicines Authority Besides good watering and fertiliser practices, (www.apvma.gov.au). there are two ways of increasing stem length: Shade: Shade of up to 50% can increase stem length and the number of flowers. Above this level, flower stems become too weak and yields tend to fall. Shade levels can be increased by painting or shielding greenhouse roofs or covering with shadecloth. Measure the actual levels of shade in the greenhouse before applying shading materials, as covers and structural supports can reduce light transmission. Actual light transmission of some shadecloths can be much less than the stated value, as transmission percentages may be determined with the light source at 90° to the cloth (directly above it). At lower sun angles, found in higher latitudes and during winter, light transmission percentages may be much less. Use a light meter of reasonable quality to determine actual shade levels. These can be purchased from many electronic stores for less than $100. Photographic light meters are usually unsuitable, as each f stop represents a doubling of light intensity. The use of gibberellic acid (GA): Many of the semi-dwarf ‘year-round’ flowering clones are

GA-deficient dwarfs. So the application of GA will increase their stem length. Trials have Effect of GA on the stem length of semi- shown the optimum level of GA to be about 20 dwarf flannel flowers. Left: GA at 20 ppm applied every 5 to 6 weeks. Above this ppm. Right: no GA applied. level, stems may become excessively weak and

11 Harvest

The aim of any cut flower business is to pro- 11.2 Harvesting practices duce high-quality cut flowers while maximising yield per unit area. To optimise the financial To maximise the postharvest life of the stems it return, the crop must be harvested at its peak is vital to keep them cool and well hydrated. and then processed, packed and delivered in Lowering the temperature decreases the flow- good condition to the consumer. If it is not ers’ respiration rate and reduces water loss. It possible to fully harvest the crop, because of also arrests microbial development, which can either poor management (such as underestima- cause both disease and stem plugging. tion of labour requirements or high cost of Temperature management starts by moving labour) or other circumstances (such as weath- freshly picked stems promptly into a shaded er), returns will suffer. Similarly, a lapse in packing area or tunnel, either of which can be quality control anywhere along the marketing cooled with an evaporative cooler. Avoid chain can result in a poor-quality product picking during the heat of the day. Follow delivered at the end. normal harvesting procedures applicable to other cut flowers: harvest in the morning and 11.1 When to harvest place the stems directly into cool water. All water used should be as clean as possible, Traditional varieties should be available for low in salt and with a pH of around 5 (citric harvest in the first spring if planted by at least acid at 0.25 g/L will help acidify it). Rainwater the middle of the previous summer (i.e. after 8 is preferred. Flowers can be stored in water in a months). A second crop may be produced in cool room (approximately 2 to 4 °C) for several late summer. weeks. Flowers are ready for harvest when about 15 to The use of postharvest treatments such as citric 20 individual florets are open in the centre of acid, sucrose and a chlorine biocide may be the disc of the main flowering head (von Rich- beneficial in prolonging vase life, but more ter & Offord 1997). See Appendix 2 for prod- information is needed. Trials at Gosford did not uct specifications and harvest maturity stages. demonstrate any great extension in vase life by Continuously flowering varieties can start the use of preservative solutions. Vase life can flowering within 6 months after germination. normally be expected to be 14 to 21 days. The flower stems are generally very short and Bush-picked flowers tend to have a shorter vase should be pruned off to allow the plant to life, partly attributable to water stress in the develop into a reasonable size. field.

12 Postharvest handling

12.1 Grading Currently, one of the most economical and effective ways to disinfest flowers after pick- Price is directly related to stem length. Cut the ing, especially for export, is with a dip contain- stems as long as possible without cutting into ing the fungicide iprodione and the insecticide the old stem, as this can kill the plant. Strip the deltamethrin (this procedure is permitted under leaves from the lower part of the stem before the APVMA Minor Use Permit PER 12785; see packing. Stems are usually bunched in groups text box on the following page for details.) of 10, although this may vary with the size of Dipping has another advantage: The fine hairs the flowers. Shorter stems may be packed in on the leaves and flowers can cause allergic bundles of up to 25. reactions with prolonged exposure, as seen with For field-grown material in season, 40 cm is kangaroo paws and grevilleas. Sensitive work- generally the shortest length acceptable at ers, in particular those handling large quantities market (except for bouquets); the export market before flowers are dipped, should wear protec- prefers 60 to 80 cm or even longer. tive clothing, especially on the forearms and For cultivated product, especially out of season, hands, and a dust mask. Dipping removes most excellent returns have been achieved for stems of the free hairs, greatly reducing sensitivity to as short as 20 cm, especially on the export market. flannel flowers. Bush-picked product appears in the market in Placing dipped flowers back into the cool room October–November. Bush-picked product will help them pre-cool quickly without losing competes with cultivated product both directly, water. lowering returns, and indirectly, through incon- sistency of supply and quality, harming the general image of flannel flowers. In the past, large quantities of bush-picked material have been exported, but the level is expected to fall owing to the implementation of a native flora management plan in NSW by the Wildlife Licensing and Management Unit of the National Parks and Wildlife Service (NSW Office of Environment and Heritage). The Protected and Threatened Plants in the Cut Flower Industry—Sustainable Management Plan 2008–2012 includes details of licensing regimes affecting flower growers and bush harvesters. Growers and marketers of all Aus- tralian native species need to be aware of their obligations under this plan. For more information go to www.environment.nsw.gov.au and search for ‘Plant licensing FAQs’.

12.2 Disinfestation Typical bunch of sleeved flannel flowers for export. Flowers intended for export must be disinfested, and be treated with a fungicide solution if held for any length of time.

Sample of permit information. Postharvest dip for control of quarantine pests Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medi- cines Authority Permit PER 12785. Current 7 April 2011 to 30 June 2016. For all states of Australia. For a copy, go to www.apvma.gov.au. Products containing 10 g/L deltamethrin as the only active constituent: ® Cislin Residual Insecticide, or Barmac Delta Force Insecticide, or Foil-backed sleeve. Insectigone® Insecticide and 12.4 Packing products containing 500 g/L iprodione as the only active constituent: Packing is the last stage at which you can make Rovral® Aquaflo Fungicide, or simple, low-cost quality checks. Discard any Farmoz Civet® Aquaflo Fungicide substandard flowers or those that do not meet order specifications. Check for insect and fungal Directions for use and critical comments damage, especially if the stems have been stored. Rate: Mix 250 mL product containing del- Pack bunches firmly into boxes to avoid tamethrin per 100 L of water. movement or damage. Pack bunches of the Mix 100 mL product containing iprodione per same grade together: do not pack thick and thin 100 L water. stems together. Make sure the presentation is Flowers must be totally immersed in the neat and tidy and the count is correct. diluted solution for not less than 1 minute and A carton liner of plastic film that is folded over left to dry naturally for 2 hours. the stems is useful, as it reduces water loss. It Withholding period: Not required if used as also reduces the absorption of water vapour by directed. the carton, maintaining its strength. Unless otherwise stated, the use of these Unless a forced-air cooling system is available products must be in accordance with the (see 12.5), pre-cool flowers before packing. instructions on their labels—for example, but not exclusively, ‘Safety Directions’—as listed. 12.5 Storage

Temperature management is as much a man- 12.3 Sleeving agement tool as a technical handling aid is. A properly operating cool room increases man- Flowers are usually sold in sleeves. These agement flexibility: flowers can be picked at protect the flowers, improve market appeal and optimum maturity and held over for market make packing easier. Select sleeve size accord- instead of being left to deteriorate. Storage ing to bunch size. temperature is very important, and cool rooms Micro-perforated sleeves are used to help should be kept at high relative humidity (90% minimise condensation. Foil-backed sleeves or greater), or flowers should be wrapped in a can enhance presentation. vapour barrier such as plastic to avoid drying out. Flannel flowers are not known to be sensitive to ethylene, but this requires further investigation.

12.5.1 Refrigeration requirements This method overrides the problems associated with room cooling packed produce, from which Simple cooling methods can be used to good heat is difficult to remove. The cooling process effect in helping to reduce temperature. But for becomes very slow and, in some cases, cartons best results, mechanical refrigeration must be in the centre of a stack are not cooled at all. installed to obtain the low temperatures that Pressure cooling pulls cold air through the keep flowers at their premium. ventilation holes in every carton in a stack, quickly removing heat from the flowers. Pres- 12.5.2 Correct temperature for sure cooling methods are available to suit holding or storing almost all applications. The most effective method for stems (in general operations) is by There has been little research on the optimum stacking end-ventilated cartons one deep storage temperature for flannel flower, although against the wall of a box or chamber (plenum). 2 to 4 °C is acceptable in practice. Careful Cold air is then drawn through each carton vent planning is necessary to achieve this result, as through aligned slots cut in the chamber wall. air temperatures within a cool room can vary The chamber is constructed at one end of the considerably. The air delivery temperature is cool room, directly beneath the forced-draught always at least 1–2 °C lower than the set point cooler. One or more fans installed horizontally in the room in order to offset warming inside in the upper wall draw cold air into the leading the room. For example, depending on the cool vent holes of each carton and then into the room design, setting the room at 2 °C could entire chamber. The heated air is expelled mean the delivery air is –1 °C, which will upwards towards the cooling unit, where it is freeze plant material. cooled and returned to the room. Never place or stack flowers within 2 m of the evaporator face, as they may get too cold. The risk of freezing is particularly high in small, overfilled rooms, where the evaporator is struggling to cool the room to the set temperature. An operating temperature of 5 to 7 °C would be satisfactory if the cool room is used solely to prepare a wide range of flowers picked the day before for local marketing. It is cheaper to build and run a room at 5 °C than at 2 °C, and any cooling is better than none. Even installing an evaporative cooler in the packing area can be worthwhile. But a cool room operating at optimum temperature is the best long-term Forced-air cooling using a tunnel. Dia- investment. gram by Dr Jenny Ekman; reproduced with permission. Important requirements for pressure cooling: 12.5.3 Cooling methods . Stack flower cartons only one carton deep. Flowers are ‘room cooled’ by placing them . The carton end walls (both inner and outer) inside a closed refrigerated room, where heat is must be suitably ventilated. There should removed directly from flower and container be at least two vent holes in a total area that surfaces. Room cooling is ideal for flowers in is at least 2.5% of the end wall. A vent area buckets. of at least 5% is ideal. ‘Pressure’ or ‘forced-air’ cooling achieves fast cooling and is the most effective way of cooling flowers packed in cartons, crates or bins.

. Pack the contents of the carton so that air can run through. If plastic film is used, ensure that it does not block vent holes. . An airflow on the order of about 3 to 5 L/s for each kilogram of flowers is usually suitable and will allow cooling in about 30 minutes. To achieve the required airflow in cartons with adequate vent holes and air channels, fans need to develop a back pressure (fan static pressure) of about 13 mm of water (1.3 kPa). You can make a measuring gauge with clear glass or plastic tubing, a container of water and a ruler. Completed box. . Sufficient refrigeration must be available to match the rate of heat removed by the forced airflow. Pressure cooling increases the rate of heat removal and consequently the demand for refrigeration. . The refrigeration plant used for pressure cooling must be properly designed to handle the relatively high heat loads that are applied to the evaporator over a short time. Particular attention should be given to compressor oil return. . Turn off auxiliary fans used for pressure cooling once the flowers have cooled in order to avoid unnecessary weight loss. Use Bunches can be overlapped to save automatic controls to ensure shutdown. space. You can use a timer or a thermostat with the sensor placed inside a carton or within the air collection chamber. Note: A partial cooling effect can be achieved by following only some of these requirements, but a substantial redesign will eventually be necessary. Another advantage of pressure cooling is the prevention of moisture condensation on packed flowers in cartons, which causes the spread of Botrytis (grey mould). Cool room condensation can be a problem when packed flower cartons are simply room cooled. Adequate air circulation and temperature management are vital in Packing hooks with a rubber band over maintaining optimum produce. the outer plastic lining prevent flower movement in transit.

13 Markets

13.1 Domestic

Market prices for flowers can vary considerably with time of year and bunch quality. As a guide only, prices on the domestic market during 2010–2011 for cultivated flowers of average quality ranged from $6.00 to $7.50 or even $8.00 for a bunch of 10 longer stems (40–60 cm). Shorter bunches (25–40 cm) were difficult to sell in the peak spring season, but out-of- season flowers attracted $6.50 to $7.50 per bunch of 10, and longer-stemmed bunches (40– 60 cm) $7.00 to $8.50, when the total volume available for sale was low (around 50–150 bunches a week). Market conditions and prices can change rapidly and unexpectedly, for Flannel flowers with hydrangeas in a example if bush-picked flowers are available at bridal bouquet. Arrangement created by the same time, so research recent prices and Del Thomas. market trends before you commit to production. In general, flowers produced out of season, in Even though greenhouse-grown flannel flowers greenhouses, return much higher prices. can be sold all year round, production is lowest in midwinter. There is potential to fill this gap The domestic market is currently small but if flowering times could be extended, either by offers significant potential for expansion with selection of long-flowering forms or by artifi- further market development. To date, flannel cial climate control. flowers have a reputation for a relatively short vase life owing to the high proportion of bush- picked material. In contrast, flowers from cultivated plants last for 2 to 3 weeks. This could provide a marketing advantage if promot- ed on cartons or bunch sleeves. Flannel flowers complement most other flowers in arrangements and could be endorsed as an ideal focal filler—incorporated into arrangements to enhance the colour, form and texture of other flowers. Flannel flowers provide great emotive value to Australians with their attractive form and colour. People on the east coast also have a strong sentimental attachment to them. Flannel flowers are also very popular in Japan for use in weddings, opening up an opportunity Short stems can be used in innovative to target their promotion as the ‘Australian arrangements. wedding flower’. Flannel flowers can be mixed within ‘traditional’ wedding bouquets such as roses and gerberas with excellent results.

13.2 Export 13.3 Market threats

As on the domestic market, prices on the export All flowers are fashion items. Demand for market can vary considerably with time and flannel flower may also vary with ‘fashion’ quality. trends, although it is less likely to be affected because of its unusual form, texture, neutral When flannel flowers are in short supply, colour and ability to enhance other products. prices can be very high, with returns of approximately 1 to 3 cents per centimetre of stem. A The most significant threats to the expansion of surprising result in the Japanese market has the market and price returns are: been the relatively good prices obtained for . insufficient product to maintain the market sub-20-cm stems. The highest prices are gained (crop failure due to unresolved cultivation for out-of-season flowers. Japan is still the problems) primary market with the best returns, but ex- ports to other countries are expanding. . inconsistent quality of flowers offered to market Be aware that the Australian Government requires that growers and exporters have per- . competition from bush-picked product mits to export certain native flower products, . allergic reactions—reduced by dipping. including flannel flowers, and insists that state regulations be complied with. Export permits may be required by the Australian Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Popula- tion and Communities (DSEWPC; see www .environment.gov.au), AQIS and the Australian Customs and Border Protection Service. Export permits are required in order to export flowers derived from native species not included in an exempt list. This requirement is designed to protect and manage nationally and internationally important flora, including en- dangered species. Permits need to be obtained by the grower or exporter, and a fee applies. Some growers report that freight forwarders can assist them with export permits. Some flowers may be exempt from this requirement, including those protected in the Plant Breeder’s Rights Act 1994 (except those in the threatened species list); artificially propagated hybrids of Australian native species that do not naturally hybridise; and commercial cultivars that do not occur in the wild. Check the requirements for your flowers with DSEWPC or your exporter. Close-up of flannel flower crop. Photo courtesy of Backcreek Country Pty Ltd.

14 Useful references

Carson C, ed. 2000. Should I Grow Wildflow- culture and Uses, 212–217. UNSW Press, ers? Agrilink, Department of Primary In- Sydney. dustries, Queensland. Steain G, Gollnow B. 2001. Environmental Dalley P. 2000. Eastern Australian Native Cut Management Guidelines for Growing Cut Flower Crops. Mountain Nursery, Flowers. NSW Agriculture, Orange. www.mountain-nursery.com.au. Worrall R, Offord C, von Richter L. 2004. Faragher J, Gollnow B, Joyce, D. 2010. Post- Flannel flower. In The New Crop Indus- harvest handling of Australian flowers tries Handbook, 434–441. RIRDC, Can- from Australian native plants and related berra: www.rirdc.gov.au/eshop or phone species, 2nd ed. Pub No 10/027. RIRDC, 02 6272 4819. Canberra: https://rirdc.infoservices Worrall R, Tesoriero L. 2009. Flannel Flowers .com.au/items/10-027. the Year Round: A Model Production Sys- Gollnow B. 2012. Getting started in wildflow- tem. Pub No 10/065. RIRDC, Canberra: er growing. How to grow native Australi- https://rirdc.infoservices.com.au/items/10- an and South African species for the cut 065. flower market, 1st ed. RIRDC, Canberra: Wrigley JW, Fagg M. 1998. Australian Native https://rirdc.infoservices.com.au/items/12- Plants: Propagation, Cultivation and Us- 090. es in Landscaping, 4th ed. Reed New Handreck K, Black N. 1994. Growing Media Holland, City?. for Ornamental Plants and Turf. UNSW von Richter L, Offord C. 1998. Flannel flow- Press, Sydney. ers. In The New Rural Industries, 505– Nursery and Garden Industry of Qld. 2009. 511. RIRDC, Canberra: Insects, beneficials, diseases, disorders www.rirdc.gov.au. and weeds of nursery production. Down- von Richter L, Offord C. 2000. Flannel Flow- load onto a PDA via an external Secure er. Development of a Production System. Digital (SD) memory card. Contact NGIQ RIRDC, Canberra: on 07 3277 7900. https://rirdc.infoservices.com.au/items/00- Offord CA, Tyler JL. 1996. Actinotus helianthi 106. (flannel flower). In Burchett M, Johnson Other publications on the RIRDC website: K, eds. Australian Native Plants: Horti- www.rirdc.gov.au

Appendix 1 Cool room design and layout

General small hatchway in the wall of the cool room, where buckets or cartons can be moved through Good design is critical for the proper function- on a roller conveyor. Allow adequate aisle ing of a cool room. The room should be suita- space for access, enough clear space to manipu- bly sized for the business and planned to suit late trolleys and carts, and air gaps for free the current or intended handling procedures. circulation of air. At least 25% of the floor area Before building a cool room, consider how will be taken up with aisles and gaps. your business might expand and what could improve handling efficiency. For example, provide for access and manipulation in the Room height initial plans, as well as for pressure cooling if Room height must be adequate for ease of the room will be used to cool stacks of cartons movement and stacking of buckets or cartons. before dispatch or during storage. The cooling unit should be hung beneath the The room must be designed to operate reliably ceiling at a level where nothing needs to be with a uniform temperature of 2 °C and at high stacked higher than its base. In cool rooms with relative humidity (90%) when fully loaded. operations done by manual handling, the height Adequate refrigeration capacity also needs to should be at least 2.75 m. be included, which will require good insulation. Make rough sketch plans, which cost nothing Gaps for air circulation but help get the best result. This appendix examines cool room design and Allocate space to allow unimpeded circulation procedures in more detail. There is a checklist of air around the room and between stored at the end to assist in cool room design. objects. Circulating air takes away the heat that comes in from outside and from stored products, carrying it to the cooling unit. Heat that Storage and access leaks in from outside is best removed by air that flows over the entire inner sides of the Tiered racks can be used to stack several buck- ceiling, walls and floor. Similarly, air should be ets. Straight racks of open mesh can be used to able to circulate freely around each object in lay out packed cartons. Mobile racks that can the room. be moved between the packing area and cool Recommended clearances for good air circula- room are efficient. Alternatively, trolleys or tion and appropriate size of air spaces are given carts can be used. Another option is to install a in Table A.1.

Table A.1 Recommended clearances for good air circulation.

Item Space to allow (mm)

Clear space in front of cooling unit At least 2000 mm Space between buckets or cartons and floor (buckets and 50–100 mm (must be 100 mm if the floor is not cartons must be stood off the floor on pallets or racks) insulated) Space between buckets or cartons and the outer walls 75–125 mm if the wall is unshaded and faces north to north-west Clearance between top of flowers and ceiling Absolute minimum of 300 mm. Preferred space is 450 mm or greater Space between individual buckets or stacks of cartons 50 mm

Insulation diffusion temperature of 3 °C. The airflow from the unit should give at least Adequate insulation is essential if the room is 60 room air changes per hour when hot material to maintain a uniform temperature and high is first placed in the room. The air change rate humidity while using electricity efficiently. should be reduced to 15–30 per hour when Select insulation to suit each application and already cooled flowers are being stored. This location. A minimum specification for a cool reduction can be achieved with a two-way room built inside a shed is for the walls and switch on the unit fans, which run continuously ceiling to contain 100 mm and the floor 50 mm during temperature pull-down but cycle with of expanded polystyrene or equivalent; the the cooling unit afterwards. If electric defrost- common provision of 75 mm polystyrene is ing is not installed as recommended below, usually inadequate. All new floors should be then the fans must be left to run continuously. insulated, but where an existing floor is in use the cost of insulation may not be justified, A room operating at 2 °C and used for the especially if the room is not used for storage. storage of flowers must have electric defrost- Be aware though that problems are likely if ing. The daily defrosting cycle should be turned flowers are stored in rooms without floor on by a clock and terminated by a refrigeration insulation. pressure switch. Take care in deciding the size of the unit and Vapour barrier the velocity of air it discharges. Low-profile units are essential in small rooms so that stor- Protect the insulation from moisture in cool age space not be wasted. Most units discharge rooms used for flower storage with a high- air at a velocity too high for contact with flow- grade vapour barrier. The barrier is formed by ers exposed in buckets. The air velocity also the outer skin of a sandwich-panel room. All makes working conditions uncomfortable. joints (and holes) must be sealed with an ap- Low-profile, low-velocity units that still pro- proved high-quality sealant. vide adequate air circulation and humidity are preferable. Such units typically have a dis- A contract for employing a tradesperson might charge velocity of about 0.7–1 m/s. The veloci- say: ‘The room shall be constructed so that a ty of air over exposed (unpacked) cut flowers continuous, impervious vapour barrier is estab- once they have cooled down should not exceed lished. Only installers with extensive experi- around 0.3 m/s. Even with low-velocity units it ence in the construction of vapour-proof cool may still be necessary to hang plastic sheets in rooms shall be employed.’ the room to act as windbreaks. Never allow holes to be cut or drilled in the outer skin of a cool room by anyone other than an experienced installer. Refrigeration capacity The refrigeration machinery installed must Cooling unit have adequate capacity to properly cool the largest, hottest load that will ever be put into The unit cooler for the ceiling consists of a the room under the worst probable heatwave refrigeration evaporator and fans that circulate conditions. Estimating the refrigeration capaci- room air over the evaporator coils. The correct ty is a job for an experienced engineer. But a selection of the unit cooler is a job for an reliable estimate can be made only if you experienced refrigeration engineer. provide reasonable and realistic information. The unit must have sufficient surface area and Ask yourself: airflow to provide high humidity. The optimum . What is the largest quantity of flowers that humidity will depend on how flowers are held will be harvested and placed in the room on and the length of time they may be stored. For the same day at the peak of the season? most purposes a target humidity of 90% should be satisfactory and can be achieved with a coil . How hot is this load of flowers likely to be?

. Will a similar quantity be harvested the water and noting the temperature shown— next day or the day after that? melting ice should read 0 °C. . What is the largest amount of flowers that will be held in storage (after cooling down) Checklist for cool room design at any one time? This checklist summarises many of the items that need to be considered and other infor- Thermostats mation needed when you are designing a good cool room. Room temperature must be controlled by a sensitive and accurate thermostat, because flowers are easily frozen. It is often desirable 1 Capacity of room for the thermostat to control the refrigeration cycle through a liquid-line solenoid valve. An . What is the maximum weight of flowers electronic thermostat is recommended, set to a that will be picked and placed in the room differential of 1 °C, with the determined tem- on any one day? perature appearing on a digital display outside the room. Models that have an under- . What is the maximum weight of flowers temperature warning alarm should have the that might be stored in the room (not dis- sensing element located in the return air stream patched before flowers from the next har- to the cooling unit and kept at least 300 mm vest start coming into the room)? away from the walls, ceiling and lights. The . What is the weight of each water-filled best location may have to be established by trial bucket without flowers? and error. Never assume that by setting the thermostat to 2 °C the room will necessarily operate at precisely 2 °C, as the operation of 2 Desired cooling time any cool room below 5 °C always carries a very real risk of freezing. Take great care during . How quickly do you wish to cool the flow- initial set-up and in maintaining safe operating ers? conditions. Independent thermometers must be used to set up and maintain the correct conditions. 3 Handling method

. Are flowers handled entirely in buckets, or Thermometers is some or all of the harvest packed into cartons? Thermometers are used to check that the air . Are buckets and cartons handled manually, temperatures in different parts of the room are or are handling aids such as mobile racks, uniform and that flowers are being held at the pallet trucks or roller conveyors used? correct storage temperature. Glass or electronic thermometers of good quality are suitable, . Are forklift trucks used? provided that the latter are specifically recom- . Are changes in handling anticipated in mended for use in cool rooms. The scale should future? be readable to at least 0.5 °C. Thermometers used to gauge air temperature should have the bulb or sensing element immersed in a small 4 Handling flow vial or jar of water (20 to 100 mL) that smooths out short-term fluctuations in the air tempera- . How will flowers be handled when picked? ture and must remain in the room. . Will they be accumulated in the cool room Always test thermometers after purchase and at until graded or stood outside? least once each season or if they have been . damaged in any way. Test by inserting the Will they be graded and packed, or graded, thermometer into a slurry of crushed ice and cooled and packed? 39

. Which of the suggested conditioning treat- . Will other types of flower be cooled? ments will be used? . Will the room be used to store any other types of produce? 5 Commodities to be cooled . If the room will be used for storing other produce, will there be times when flannel . Are flannel flowers the only flower that flowers and other produce might be put into will be cooled? (See Table A.2.) the room together? . Will only your produce be stored in the room, or will it be shared with another grower’s? Table A.2 Commodity roster for multi-purpose cool room.

Commodities to be cooled Months of year when cooling will Maximum expected commodity occur temperature

Appendix 2 Quality specification for flannel flower

Product: Flannel flower Product botanical name: Actinotus helianthi FLANNEL FLOWER FLANNEL Quality specifications for Australian wildflowers

(see flower chart: stages 2 and 6 are easily easily are 6 and 2 stages chart: flower (see All-year-round flowering cultivars can can cultivars flowering All-year-round in greenhouses in intensively grown be and aeration allows This media. artificial and easily more managed be to drainage diseases. soilborne controlling in assists flower. terminal single a have to tend Stems usually are flowers flannel Spring-flowering generally and plantings field in grown flowers The stems. thicker and longer have three – heads multiple in borne be to tend at bloom a with (each branches more or maximise to needed are stem per tip) the Japan. in especially appeal, market Browning of the flower tips seems to be to seems tips flower the of Browning or drought heat, by caused stress to related burn. pesticide to or salinity, can flowers flannel to exposure Prolonged caused those to similar reactions allergic cause due is This grevilleas. and paws kangaroo by flowers. and leaves the on hairs fine the to usually botrytis) against protect (to Dipping Sensitive hairs. free the of most removes large handling those especially workers, wear should flowers, undipped of quantities forearms the on especially clothing, protective mask. dust a perhaps and hands, and n n Two types of flannel flowers are now are flowers flannel of types Two grown: being Flowering season: Flowering January to August with a peak in spring round (but year all flowers); (field-grown selected at times) for volume limited in greenhouses. cultivars grown life: vase Typical Export the vase 14–21 days. can reduce especially if the transportlife, conditions the product dries out, or not cold, are transport takes long. too As flannel flowers mature and the flower flower the and mature flowers flannel As bracts petal-like the prime, its passes difficult it make can This again. up close to opening of stage correct the judge to harvest confused). Typical bunches look like this. like look bunches Typical They have long, straight stems and and stems straight long, have They as popular them making flowers, terminal and domestic both on flower filler cut a markets. export today marketed flowers flannel Most past the In plants. cultivated from come bush-picked from come largely have they flower in greatly varied which material, clones better of Selection quality. and form stems longer with plants produced has the Given periods. longer over flowering to planting from period short relatively provide to potential the have they harvest, area. land small a from return excellent an as treated generally are flowers Flannel grow can they although crop, biennial a More years. 4 to up for cultivation in well and second the in produced are flowers to tend stems which after years, third shorter. become The flannel flower is one of the of one is flower flannel The native Australian recognizable most flowers white attractive with flowers, a with foliage grey-green and texture. flannelly

Product: Flannel flower Botanical name: Actinotus helianthi Product: Flannel flower STAGES OF OPENING

Very immature. Earliest to market Ideal to market Too mature for export, All flowers overmature If the head still droops (export). The flower (export and domestic) but still suitable for (equivalent to stage 5 slightly it is too needs to be partly open domestic market on chart) immature to harvest to ensure that the stem at the neck is strong The stages shown apply to the product at market entry. Pay attention enough to support it to the weather, time of year, and mode and duration of transport, because the flowers will continue to open during transport. You must consult with your target market to ensure that the flowers arrive at the desired stage. Common defects

Common defects to be avoided at market entry: n Petal (bract) browning n Insect damage n Leaf damage due to insects or nutritional Botrytis damage causing bracts problems to shrivel – do not market n Poorly coloured or undersized flowers Bract damage due to insect Flower greenish feeding – discard rather than white n Deformed flowers n Overmature flowers n Bent or marked flower stems Bract browning due to spray burn n Poorly assembled bunches

Multiple flower Overmature (‘blown’) flowers heads resulting from in centre of bunch Bract browning due to earlier damage to heat damage developing shoot tip Stages in flannel flower development

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Stage 3 or 4 is the optimum stage to market

The stages of opening for flannel flowers can be defined as follows:

Stage 0 Immature stage: small, closed, green ‘bud’; Stage 3 Flower open, held upright on Stage 6 Closing: unaccepted by many unacceptable to markets stem; bracts fluorescent white; markets centre of flower light green Stage 1 Immature stage: opening green ‘bud’; the Stage 7 Bracts closed head still droops naturally, as the stem is Stage 4 Flower open; latest stage for Stage 8 Finished: seeds formed, bracts not yet strong enough to hold it upright picking; centre of flower light open or reflexed backwards green. Prime stage for domestic Stage 2 Early stage: open ‘bud’, bracts still small and markets green, florets <10 mm; preferred by only a few markets, e.g. export. Among certain Stage 5 Overmature: centre of flower light cultivars (e.g. all-year-round flowering), brown partly opened buds will fully open during shipping to export markets

Caterpillar webbing

Poor-quality Bent stem Iron-induced chlorosis Leaf burn in bunch: twisted close-up stems Product: Flannel flower

FLOWERS GRADING AND BUNCHING

Appearance Clean white bracts with green tips (length of green Grading Discard any poor-quality product. tip depends on cultivar). Size is proportional to stem thickness or weight, Minimum size is 3 cm (or the size of a 50 cent coin). e.g. larger flowers on thicker stems. The most mature flower on the stem must be fully developed, with the petal-like bracts mostly or Bunching The number of stems per bunch varies, and is fully reflexed (bent back) and the central dome at determined by their length and by market and full size. Individual flowers in the central dome are buyer requirements. However, presentation is open or about to open. No browning of central important, so for example if 5 stems make a thin flower mass (which indicates ageing). looking bunch, increase bunch size in lots of 5 stems, i.e. go to 10 or even 15 stems per bunch. For domestic market: when 1 flower is fully open Stay consistent for the grade and make all bunches When to the same. Aim for symmetrical bunches. harvest (stage 2 or 3). For export: when 1 flower is at stage 1 or 2. Ensure stems are held firmly so the bunch remains tight. Use 2 ties, 1 at the base and another further Avoid harvesting when flowers are wet. up the bunch and looser; or use 1 tie at the base plus a sleeve to support the bunch. Some growers Damage No obvious damage to bracts. use 3 ties on long-stemmed bunches. No obvious blemish (sunburn, wilting of individual Especially for export, stems should be flowers). approximately the same diameter within a bunch, Minimal noticeable bract browning or other with the ends aligned. blemishes. Stem length Stem length (cm) Av. no. of stems per bunch Contamination Product free of grit and soil, weeds or weed seeds, living or dead insects, and signs of insects or 70 cm + 5–10 spiders, such as webbing. 60 10 Pests and No insects, insect damage or disease. diseases 40–50 10–15

LEAVES <40 10–20 Appearance Fresh grey-green; not wilted. Sleeves To maintain quality, sleeve bunches (mandatory Remove from lower 1/3 of stem. for export, preferred for domestic markets). This improves product appearance, reduces drying out Damage Free of evidence of pests, disease or other and makes it easier to pack. Select the sleeve size blemishes, including mechanical damage. to suit the bunch size. Microperforated sleeves are recommended, as they reduce the formation of condensation. The sleeve should extend well past STEMS the top of the bunch to prevent drying out. Appearance Rigid and strong enough to support blooms. Relatively straight with <20° bend. Not damaged by removal of leaves. Neatly cut end.

Length As long as possible, but never cut into the oldest part of the stem (or plants lose vigour).

RECOMMENDED HANDLING AT HARVEST

Minimise drying out and exposure to heat – pick when it is cool, preferably straight into buckets of clean potable water. Do not add sugar. Hold cut stems in the shade. Move cut stems promptly to a cool, shaded packing area. HOLDING AND STORAGE TRANSPORT

Cooling Effective cooling soon after harvest is important Refrigerated vehicle at 2–4 °C for long-distance transport. to retaining quality and maximising vase life. There JN: 8634 • Layout by Wild Poppy Design • Edited Stevens, by Editing, Matthew ScienceScape Sydney are two options: COMMON POSTHARVEST PROBLEMS • Cool, process, cool – for example, remove field Refer to Postharvest Manual* for general advice. heat by cooling flowers immediately on entry into shed to 10 °C in buckets of solution, process Fungal decay Use preharvest fungicide sprays during wet flowers (bunch, grade), and then cool to 2–4 °C weather to reduce the risk of botrytis disease. by either forced-air cooling (if boxed) or holding in storage due Use preharvest insecticide sprays to reduce the overnight in a cool room. to botrytis pest population at harvest. • Process within 1 hour of cutting, and then cool (grey mould) Dip flowers that are to be packaged and held for to 2–4 °C by either forced-air cooling for 20–30 any significant length of time (export product) in minutes (if boxed) or holding overnight in a cool Insects a registered fungicide or insecticide solution with room (if in buckets). (for export) added wetting agent for not less than 1 minute, Forced-air cooling of packed flowers is ideal for then dry naturally for 2 hours to ensure thorough large volumes of product. disinfestation.

Holding If necessary, hold at 2–4 °C (but not colder) in high Browning of Minimise pre- and postharvest stress due to heat, temperature relative humidity (≥95%) for up to 3 days. flower tips drying out or salinity. and humidity Test pesticides before use to avoid phytotoxicity – some have been associated with tip browning. Postharvest Pulsing solution: Not required. Flannel flowers do not appear to be susceptible to Postharvest solution: Use high-quality water. Ethylene solutions ethylene. Do not add sugar. sensitivity Holding solution: Same as postharvest solution.

Longer-term For longer-term storage, store dry and in final Messages for importers and wholesalers storage packaging. Seek professional advice and test in n the market before committing product. Recut stems and place into fresh water containing a registered biocide. n Cool product before marketing or sending on and keep it cool. PACKAGING n Maintain good hygiene and keep containers clean.

Pack bunches of the same size (stem number, weight or thickness) Messages for retailers together. n Recut stems and place into fresh water containing a registered biocide. Put bunches of similar length together, and ensure all bunches meet n Use clean buckets and containers for displays. this specification. n Do not display flowers in areas that are exposed to full sun, draughts, Pack bunches firmly so the product will not move and be damaged. high temperatures or vehicle exhausts, and preferably do not display Pack boxes according to customer requirements. near fruit and vegetables. Use refrigerated displays if possible. Use boxes with holes to allow forced-air cooling. n Tell the customer how to care for the flowers and emphasise the need for Minimise water loss, especially for long-distance domestic shipping, fresh water and clean vases. by lining boxes with plastic. If shipping overseas into high summer temperatures, check with the Messages for consumers overseas customer about whether to use sleeves or paper liners. n After packaging, cool flowers to 2–4 °C before transport. Keep vase filled with fresh clean water. Check daily, as flowers can use a lot of water. Change the water at least every second day. Always use clean vases and clean water. LABELLING AND DOCUMENTATION n Ensure there are no leaves below the water line. Label boxes and buckets as recommended in Postharvest Manual* n Do not display in areas that are exposed to full sun, draughts or high or as required by customer. temperatures. Ensure box contents are exactly the same as specified in the documentation and on the end of the box.

SUPPORTING INDUSTRY PARTNER: The information contained in this publication is intended for general use to assist public knowledge and discussion and to help improve the development of sustainable regions. You must not rely on any information contained in this publication without taking specialist advice relevant to your particular circumstances. The Commonwealth Authors: Dr Ross Worrall and Bettina Gollnow. Photographs by: Dr Ross Worrall and Lowan Turton. of Australia, the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation (RIRDC), the authors or contributors expressly disclaim, to the maximum extent permitted by law, all responsibility and liability to any person, This publication is one of a series of Quality Specifications for Australian Wildflowers. arising directly or indirectly from any act or omission, or for any consequences of any such act or omission, ISSN 1440-6845. ISBN 978-1-74254-001-6. RIRDC Publication No. 10/028. www.rirdc.gov.au made in reliance on the contents of this publication, whether or not caused by any negligence on the part of the *The Postharvest Manual is the manual ‘Postharvest Handling of Australian Flowers from Australian Native Commonwealth of Australia, RIRDC, the authors or contributors. Plants and Related Species’, 2nd edition, 2010. ISBN 978-1-74254-000-9. RIRDC Publication No.10/027. © 2010 Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation. This publication is copyright. Apart from any use as permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, all other rights are reserved. Requests concerning reproduction and Both publications were developed by RIRDC Project No. PRJ-000331. rights should be addressed to the RIRDC Publications Manager on phone 02 6271 4165. Growing Flannel Flowers for the Cut Flower Market A guide for commercial growers By Ross Worrall Pub. No. 12/088

This ‘how to’ guide has been produced for members of the Australian wildflower industry who grow and market flannel flowers, including growers, wholesalers, retailers, florists, exporters, importers, research, development and extension workers, and students.

This guide provides advice and information on all aspects of growing, harvesting, postharvest handling and quality management of flannel flowers.

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Most of the information we produce can be downloaded for free or purchased from our website .

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