1. Identity: Englishness and the Reconfiguration of the Nation

Home , Castle Dor, Daylight on Saturday, Du Maurier (cigarette), English Journey, I Have Been Here Before, Jacquetta Hawkes

Notes

1. Kevin Davey, English Imaginaries: Six Studies in Anglo-British Modernity (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1999), 6–26; 20. 2. Robert Colls and Philip Dodd (eds), Englishness: Politics and Culture 1880–1920 (London: Croom Helm, 1986), Preface, n.p. 3. Jeremy Paxman, The English: a Portrait of a People [1998] (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1999), 23. 4. Ibid., viii. 5. Colls and Dodd (eds), Englishness (1986), Preface, n.p. 6. Stephen Yeo, ‘Socialism, the State, and Some Oppositional Englishness’, in: Colls and Dodd (eds), Englishness (1986), 308–69; 310. 7. Linda Colley, Britons: Forging the Nation 1707–1837 [1992] (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2005), 6. 8. Davey, English Imaginaries (1999), 6. Davey explicitly contradicts Colley and endorses Adrian Hastings, The Construction of Nationhood: Ethnicity, Religion and Nationalism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997) and E. J. Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism Since 1780 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990). 9. Raphael Samuel (ed.), Patriotism; the Making and Unmaking of British National Identity, Vol. I: History and Politics (London and New York: Routledge, 1989), Preface, x. 10. Raphael Samuel, ‘Introduction: Exciting to be English’, in: Patriotism (1989), Vol. I, xviii–lxvii; lvii. Other somewhat partisan accounts include Tom Nairn, The Break-up of Britain (London: Verso, 1977), Patrick Wright, On Living in an Old Country: the National Past in Contemporary Britain (London: Verso, 1985) and Stephen Haseler, The English Tribe: Identity, Nation and Europe (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1996) on the progressive side and Clive Aslet, Anyone for England? A Search for British Identity (London: Little, Brown, 1997) and Roger Scruton, England: an Elegy (London: Chatto & Windus, 2000) on the conservative side. 11. Davey, English Imaginaries (1999), 16–17. 12. Ibid., 9. 13. On the distinction between political nation (Staatsnation) and cultural nation (Kulturnation) see Christian Geulen, ‘Identity as Progress: the Longevity of Nationalism’, in: Heidrun Friese (ed.), Identities: Time, Difference, and Boundaries (New York and Oxford: Berghahn Books, 2002), 222–40. On the typology of nationalisms, Geulen quotes Rainer Lepsius, ‘Nation und Nationalismus in Deutschland’, in: Michael Jeismann and Henning Ritter (eds), Grenzfälle: Über neuen und alten Nationalismus (Leipzig: Reclam, 1993), 193–215. For the concept of the nation as an ‘imagined community’ see

211 212 Notes

Benedict Anderson’s classic study Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1983). 14. See for example Martin Wiener, English Culture and the Decline of the Industrial Spirit, 1850–1980 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger (eds), The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983); Colls and Dodd (eds), Englishness (1986); Samuel (ed.), Patriotism, Vol. I: History and Politics, Vol. II: Minorities and Outsiders, Vol. III: National Fictions (1989); Hans-Jürgen Diller, Stephan Kohl et al. (eds), Englishness, Anglistik und Englischunterricht, Vol. 46–7 (Heidelberg: Winter, 1992); Roy Porter (ed.), Myths of the English (Cambridge: Polity, 1992); Robert Hewison, Culture and Consensus: England, Art and Politics Since 1940 (London: 1995); Christoph Bode and Ulrich Broich (eds), Die Zwanziger Jahre in Großbritannien: Literatur und Gesellschaft einer span- nungsreichen Dekade (Tübingen: Gunter Narr, 1998); Ross McKibbin, Classes and Cultures: England 1918–1951 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998); Anthony Easthope, Englishness and National Culture (London and New York: Routledge, 1999); Nick Hayes and Jeff Hill, ‘“Millions Like Us”?: British Culture in the Second World War (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1999); Kate Fox, Watching the English: the Hidden Rules of English Behaviour (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 2004). 15. See for example Alan MacFarlane, The Origins of English Individualism: the Family, Property, and Social Transition (Oxford: Blackwell, 1978); Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (Oxford: Blackwell, 1983); Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism Since 1780 (1990); Perry Anderson, English Questions (London: Verso, 1992); Colley, Britons (1992); Adrian Hastings, The Construction of Nationhood (1997); Nick Tiratsoo (ed.), From Blitz to Blair: a New History of Britain Since 1939 (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1997); Lucy Gordon and Elaine McClure (eds), Cool Britannia? What Britishness Means to Me (Lurgan: Ulster Society Publications Ltd., 1999). For an empha- sis on regional and cultural variety see for example Susan Bassnett, Studying British Cultures: an Introduction (London, New York: Routledge, 1997) and Mike Storry and Peter Childs (eds), British Cultural Identities (London and New York: Routledge, 1997). 16. See for example Colin Watson, Snobbery With Violence: English Crime Stories and Their Audience (London: Eyre Methuen, 1979); Brian Doyle, English and Englishness (London: Routledge, 1989); Ronald P. Draper (ed.), The Literature of Region and Nation (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1989); John Lucas, England and Englishness: Ideas of Nationhood in English Poetry 1688–1900 (London: Hogarth, 1990); Alison Light, Forever England: Femininity, Literature and Conservatism Between the Wars (London: Routledge, 1991); Menno Spiering, Englishness: Foreigners and Images of National Identity in Postwar Literature (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1992); David Gervais, Literary Englands: Versions of ‘Englishness’ in Modern Writing (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993); Malcolm Kelsall, The Great Good Place: the Country House and English Literature (Hemel Hempstead: Harvester, 1993); Judy Giles and Tim Middleton (eds), Writing Englishness 1900–1950: an Introductory Sourcebook on National Identity (London and New York: Routledge, 1995); Ian A. Bell (ed.), Peripheral Visions: Images of Nationhood in Contemporary Fiction (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1995); Menno Spiering (ed.), Nation Building and Writing Literary Notes 213

History, Yearbook of European Studies 12 (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1999); Toni Wein, British Identities, Heroic Nationalisms, and the Gothic Novel, 1764–1824 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002); Silvia Mergenthal, A Fast-Forward Version of England: Constructions of Englishness in Contemporary Fiction (Heidelberg: Winter, 2003); Jennifer Shacker, National Dreams: the Remaking of Fairy-Tales in Nineteenth-Century England (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003); Simon Grimble, Landscape Writing and ‘The Condition of England’, 1878–1917: Ruskin to Modernism (Lewiston, Lampeter: Edwin Mellen Press, 2004); Roger Ebbatson, An Imaginary England: Nation, Landscape and Literature, 1840–1920 (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2005). 17. W. G. Hoskins, The Making of the English Landscape (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1955); Philip Dodd (ed.), The Art of Travel: Essays on Travel Writing (London: Frank Cass, 1982); Ian Jeffrey, The British Landscape 1920–1950 (London: Thames and Hudson, 1984); Dennis Cosgrove and Stephen Daniels (eds), The Iconography of Landscape: Essays on the Symbolic Representation, Design and Use of Past Environments (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988); Ian Ousby, The Englishman’s England: Taste, Travel, and the Rise of Tourism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Stephen Daniels, Fields of Vision: Landscape Imagery and National Identity in England and the United States (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1993); John Taylor, A Dream of England: Landscape, Photography and the Tourist’s Imagination (Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 1994); Michael Hunter (ed.), Preserving the Past: the Rise of Heritage in Modern Britain (Stroud: Sutton, 1996); Elizabeth Helsinger, Rural Scenes and National Representation (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997); Erica Carter, James Donald and Judith Squires (eds), Space and Place: Theories of Identity and Location (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1998); David Matless, Landscape and Englishness (London: Reaktion, 1998); Steve Humphries and Beverley Hopwood, Green and Pleasant Land [1999] (London: Channel 4 Books, 2000); David Peters Corbett, Ysanne Holt and Fiona Russell (eds), The Geographies of Englishness: Landscape and the National Past 1880–1940 (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2002). 18. John Darwin, Britain and Decolonisation: the Retreat from Empire in the Postwar World (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1988); Salman Rushdie, Imaginary Homelands: Essays and Criticism 1981–1991 (London: Granta, 1991); Robert A. Lee (ed.), Other Britain, Other British: Contemporary Multicultural Fiction (London and East Haven: Pluto Press, 1995); Simon Gikandi, Maps of Englishness: Writing Identity in the Culture of Colonialism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996); C. C. Barfoot (ed.), Beyond Pug’s Tour: National and Ethnic Stereotyping in Theory and Literary Practice, Studies in Literature 20 (Amsterdam, Atlanta: Rodopi, 1997); Ian A. Baucom (ed.), Out of Place: Englishness, Empire, and the Locations of Identity (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999); Peter Childs (ed.), Post-Colonial Theory and Englishness Literature: a Reader (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1999); Neil Lazarus, Nationalism and Cultural Practice in the Postcolonial World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999); Jed Esty, A Shrinking Island: Modernism and National Culture in England (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004); Wendy Webster, Englishness and Empire 1939–1965 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005). 214 Notes

19. Angus Calder, The People’s War: Britain 1939–1945 [1969] (London: Pimlico, 2003), 17. 20. For theories of collective identity see Friese (ed.), Time, Difference, and Boundaries (2002). 21. For a philosophical discussion of the connection between collective identity and various types of mythmaking see Barbara Henry, ‘Identities of the West: Reason, Myths, Limits of Tolerance’, in: Friese (ed.), Time, Difference, and Boundaries (2002), 77–106.

2. Myth: Ideology, Symbolic Forms and the ‘Mythical Present’

1. Incidentally, this notion of myth best known through Barthes is far from anachronistic; in fact it had already been developed by William Empson in his influential study Some Versions of Pastoral (1935). Thinking about depictions of ‘the Worker’ in the 1930s in the context of ‘plebeian literature’, he sees him as a ‘mythical cult-figure’, not only in ‘proletarian propaganda’, but also in a conservative discourse. Empson analyses the government’s use of an image of a Cockney type worker as a political symbol which creates an ‘obscure magical feeling’. See William Empson, Some Versions of Pastoral [1935] (London: Hogarth, 1986), 15–16. 2. Robert Graves and Alan Hodge, The Long Week-End: a Social History of Great Britain 1918–1939 (London: Faber, 1940), 198. 3. Ivan Strenski, Four Theories of Myth in Twentieth-Century History: Cassirer, Eliade, Lévi-Strauss and Malinowski (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1987), 1. 4. Robert Ackerman, The Myth and Ritual School: J. G. Frazer and the Cambridge Ritualists (New York and London: Routledge, 2002), 45. Ackerman refers to Edward Burnett Tylor, whose Primitive Culture appeared in 1871 and William Robertson Smith who studied Semitic antiquity. 5. See Jane Ellen Harrison, Themis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1912), with Murray’s ‘Excursus on the Ritual Forms Preserved in Greek Tragedy’, Ancient Art and Ritual (London: Williams & Norgate, 1914); Gilbert Murray, Four Stages of Greek Religion (New York: Columbia University Press, 1912), Euripides and His Age (London: Thornton Butterworth, 1913), ‘Hamlet and Orestes’ (New York: Oxford University Press, 1914), Francis Macdonald Cornford, From Religion to Philosophy (London: Arnold, 1912), The Origin of Attic Comedy (London: Arnold, 1914); Arthur Bernard Cook, Zeus (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1914). Jessie Weston’s From Ritual to Romance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1920) represents the first application of the method to more recent material, namely the Grail legend. For an introduction to the topic see Ackerman, The Myth and Ritual School (2002). 6. Ackerman, The Myth and Ritual School (2002), 101. 7. Steven F. Walker, Jung and the Jungians on Myth (New York and London: Garland Publishing, 1995), 4. See also Robert H. Hopcke, A Guided Tour of the Collected Works of C.G. Jung (Boston: Shambhala, 1989) and Polly Young- Eisendrath and Terence Dawson (eds), The Cambridge Companion to Jung (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997). Important archetypal images Notes 215

are Ego, Shadow, Persona, Anima/Animus, Self, Mother, Father, Puer/Divine child (puer aeternus), Kore/Maiden, Hero, Wise Old Man, Trickster. 8. Walker, Jung and the Jungians on Myth (1995), 19. 9. Michael Vannoy Adams, ‘The Archetypal School’, in: Young-Eisendrath and Dawson (eds), The Cambridge Companion to Jung 101–18; 111. Adams quotes James Hillman, Revisioning Psychology (New York: Harper & Row, 1971), xi. 10. Right up until World War Two, at least in intellectual circles, there had been regular and lively exchange between European thinkers and artists. As Aleida Assmann notes, T. S. Eliot thought back in 1947 to the Criterion-years and the subsequent breakup of European exchange. ‘The blight fell first upon our friends in Italy. And after 1933 contributions from Germany became more and more difficult to find. Some of our friends died; some disappeared; some merely became silent. Some went abroad, cut off from their own cultural roots. […] And, from much of the German writing that I saw in the 30’s, by authors previously unknown to me, I formed the opinion that the newer German writers had less and less to say to Europe[.]’ T. S. Eliot, Notes Towards the Definition of Culture (London: Faber, 1948), Appendix: The Unity of European Culture, 116f., quoted from Aleida Assmann, Arbeit am nation- alen Gedächtnis: Eine kurze Geschichte der deutschen Bildungsidee (Frankfurt: Campus, 1993), 96. This European dialogue has been taken up again and should be continued. 11. Ackerman, The Myth and Ritual School (2002), 18. 12. Ibid., 19. 13. Ibid., 32–3. 14. Jennifer Shacker, National Dreams: the Remaking of Fairy-Tales in Nineteenth- Century England (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2003), 2–3. 15. Ibid., 4. 16. Ibid., 12. 17. Strenski, Four Theories of Myth in Twentieth-Century History (1987), 51–2. 18. Petteri Pietikäinen, C. G. Jung and the Psychology of Symbolic Forms (Helsinki: Academia Scientiarum Fennica, 1999), 166–7. 19. Alex Potts, ‘“Constable Country” between the Wars’, in: Samuel (ed.), Patriotism (1989), Vol. III: 160–86; 173. Potts quotes Christopher Hussey, The Fairy Land of England (London: Country Life, 1924), 80. 20. H. V. Morton, In Search of England [1927] ed. and introd. by Simon Jenkins and with illustrations by Peter Bailey (London: The Folio Society, 2002), 299. 21. Ebbatson, An Imaginary England (2005), 1. Ebbatson quotes Eleanor Farjeon, Edward Thomas: the Last Four Years (Stroud: Sutton, 1997), 154. 22. Matless, Landscape and Englishness (1998), 105. 23. On the philosophy and life of Ernst Cassirer see Raymond Klibansky and H. J. Paton (eds), Philosophy and History: Essays presented to Ernst Cassirer (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1936); Susanne K. Langer, Philosophy in a New Key: a Study in the Symbolism of Reason, Rite, and Art (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1942); Paul Arthur Schilpp (ed.), The Philosophy of Ernst Cassirer (Evanston: The Library of Living Philosophers, 1949); Toni Cassirer, Mein Leben mit Ernst Cassirer (Hildesheim: Gerstenberg, 1981); Michael John Krois, Cassirer – Symbolic Forms and History (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1987); Strenski, Four Theories of Myth in Twentieth-Century History; H.-J. Braun, H. Holzhey and E. W. Orth (eds), 216 Notes

Über Ernst Cassirers Philosophie der symbolischen Formen (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1988); Silvia Ferretti, Cassirer, Panofsky, and Warburg: Symbol, Art, and History (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1989); Heinz Paetzold, Die Realität der Symbolischen Formen. Die Kulturphilosophie Ernst Cassirers im Kontext (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1994); Heinz Paetzold, Ernst Cassirer – von Marburg nach New York: eine philosophische Biographie (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1995); William Schultz, Cassirer and Langer on Myth (New York and London: Garland, 2000). 24. Ernst Cassirer was born in Breslau in 1874 into a wealthy and sophisticated Jewish-German family. He studied philosophy in Berlin and in Marburg with the famous neo-Kantian Hermann Cohen. Cassirer taught at Hamburg University until he left Germany in 1933 when the Nazis seized power. He was professor of philosophy at Oxford from 1933 to 1935, and after this he taught in Göteborg, Sweden for some years, until he was obliged to flee to the United States in 1941, where he taught at Yale University. During his stay in New York as a Visiting Professor to Columbia University, he died suddenly of a heart attack in 1945, very shortly before Victory in Europe. 25. ‘The Concept of the Symbol: Metaphysics of the Symbolic c. 1921–1927’, in: Ernst Cassirer, The Philosophy of Symbolic Forms. Volume 4: The Metaphysics of Symbolic Forms with an Essay on Basis Phenomena, ed. John Michael Krois and Donald Phillip Verene, trans. John Michael Krois (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996), 223–34; 223. 26. Ernst Cassirer, ‘Der Begriff der symbolischen Form im Aufbau der Geisteswissenschaften’, in: Vorträge der Bibliothek Warburg, ed. Fritz Saxl, Vorträge 1921–22, I (Leipzig: Teubner, 1923), 11–39; 15, my translation. See also Cassirer, Philosophy of Symbolic Forms [subsequently PSF], Vol. I: Language, trans. Ralph Manheim (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1953), 107; original Cassirer, Philosophie der Symbolischen Formen [subsequently Philosophie], Vol. I, Die Sprache [1923] (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1956), 43. For a later summary of the philosophy of symbolic forms, see Cassirer, An Essay on Man: an Introduction to a Philosophy of Human Culture (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1944). 27. For a helpful account of Warburg’s work see Philippe-Alain Michaud, Aby Warburg and the Image in Motion, trans. Sophie Hawkes (New York: Zone Books, 2004). 28. Cassirer, PSF, Vol II, Mythical Thought (1955), 64. 29. Ibid., 68. 30. Ibid., 69. 31. Ernst Cassirer, The Myth of the State (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1946), 3. For a critique of Cassirer’s concept of myth as expounded in this book, see Hans Blumenberg, Work on Myth, trans. with an introduction by Robert M. Wallace (Cambridge, MA and London: MIT Press, 1985). Original: Arbeit am Mythos (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1979). 32. Potts, ‘“Constable Country”’, 180. Potts quotes Herbert Read (ed.), Unit I: the Modern Movement in English Painting, Architecture and Sculpture (1934). See also Sam Smiles, ‘Equivalents for the Megaliths: Prehistory and English Culture, 1920–50’, in: Corbett, Holt and Russell (eds), The Geographies of Englishness (2002), 199–223. 33. Potts, ‘“Constable Country”’, 180. Notes 217

34. Grimble, Landscape, Writing and the ‘Condition of England’ (2004), 13. 35. Ibid., 7. 36. Stephen Daniels and Denis Cosgrove, ‘Introduction: Iconography and Landscape’, in: Cosgrove and Daniels (eds), The Iconography of Landscape (1988), 1–10; 1. In the same volume, Brian Osborne quotes a classic study by Donald Meinig, who states that ‘[e]very mature nation has its symbolic landscapes. They are part of the iconography of nationhood, part of the shared ideas and memories and feelings which bind a people together.’ See D. W. Meinig, ‘Symbolic Landscapes: Some Idealizations of American Communities’, in: Donald William Meinig (ed.), The Interpretation of Ordinary Landscapes (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979), 164, quoted from Brian S. Osborne, ‘The Iconography of Nationhood in Canadian Art’, in: Cosgrove and Daniels (eds), The Iconography of Landscape (1988), 162–78; 162. 37. Sir Ernest Barker (ed.), The Character of England (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1947), v. The volume treats ‘Land and People’, ‘The Individual and the Community’, ‘Religion’, ‘Government’, ‘Law’, ‘The Organization of Industry’, ‘The Human Side of Industry’, ‘Commerce and Finance’, ‘Childhood and Education’, ‘Universities and Scholarship’, ‘Science’, ‘The English Language’, ‘Literature’, ‘Thought’, ‘Humour’, ‘The Press’, ‘The Visual Arts’, ‘The Making of Books’, ‘Music’ ‘Outdoor Life’, ‘Town Life’, ‘Recreation and Games’, ‘Homes and Habits’, ‘The Englishman Abroad’, ‘England and the Sea’, ‘The English at War’ and ‘An Attempt at Perspective’. 38. Jacquetta and Christopher Hawkes, ‘Land and People’, in: Barker (ed.), The Character of England (1947), 1–28; 3. 39. Sir Ernest Barker, ‘An Attempt at Perspective’, in: Barker (ed.), The Character of England (1947), 550–75; 553. Subsequent page numbers will be given in the main text. 40. The symbolic form of Englishness was also the centrepiece of the ‘Projection of Britain’ to postwar Germany. On British cultural politics in Germany after the war see Gabriele Clemens’ important study Britische Kulturpolitik in Deutschland 1945–1949 (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 1997). 41. Jacquetta Hawkes was an archaeologist and poet, a member of the Council for the Preservation of Rural England, a campaigner for nuclear disarmament and J. B. Priestley’s third wife. 42. Jacquetta Hawkes, A Land (London: The Cresset Press, 1951), 1. Further page numbers will be given in the main text. 43. For this combination of ‘man and nature’ as described by Hawkes, the German language provides the helpful term, Kulturlandschaft (culture landscape). For a more detailed analysis of Hawkes’ A Land see my essay ‘England an Island: Englishness as a Symbolic Form in Jacquetta Hawkes’s A Land (1951)’, in: Insular Mentalities. Mental Maps of Britain, ed. Jürgen Kamm and Gerold Sedlmayr (Passau: Karl Stutz Verlag, 2007), 89–102. 44. William Wordsworth, ‘Lines Written a Few Miles Above Tintern Abbey’ [1798], in: William Wordsworth, The Oxford Authors, ed. Stephen Gill (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984), 131–5, l. 82; 106–10. Hawkes quotes line 81. For an analysis of the specific relation between perception, memory and creation in Wordsworth’s work, see Aleida Assmann, ‘Wordsworth und die Wunde der Zeit’, in: A. Assmann, Erinnerungsräume: Formen und Wandlungen des kulturellen Gedächtnisses (München: Beck, 1999), 89–113. 218 Notes

45. See Stephen Greenblatt, Shakespearean Negotiations: the Circulation of Social Energy in Renaissance England (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988). 46. T. S. Eliot, ‘The Waste Land’ [1922], in: Selected Poems (London: Faber & Faber, 1988), 49–74; 64. 47. E. M. Forster, Howard’s End [1910] (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1975), 165. 48. See Taylor, A Dream of England (1994), for a discussion of tourism and the development of photography.

3. Memory: Shaping the Present out of the Past

1. Jan and Aleida Assmann, together with other colleagues at the University of Konstanz and elsewhere, have worked on memory for over thirty years, and their many publications are widely known in the German academy and beyond. For the purposes of the present introduction, I will draw on two more recent works. Aleida Assmann, Erinnerungsräume: Formen und Wandlungen des kulturellen Gedächtnisses (München: Beck, 1999); Jan Assmann, Religion and Cultural Memory, trans. Rodney Livingstone (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2006). Original: Jan Assmann, Das kulturelle Gedächtnis: Schrift, Erinnerung und politische Identität in frühen Hochkulturen [1997] (München: Beck, 2000). Jan Assmann’s book, which contains a concise explanation of their theory, is now available in English, which will surely help disseminate this important theory in the English-speaking world. 2. Assmann, Religion and Cultural Memory (2006), 3. See Maurice Halbwachs, Les Cadres sociaux de la mémoire (1925) and La Mémoire collective (published posthumously by J. Alexandre, Paris, 1985). 3. See A. Assmann, Erinnerungsräume (1999), particularly VI. ‘Funktionsgedächtnis und Speichergedächtnis – Zwei Modi der Erinnerung’, 130–45. 4. Assmann, Religion and Cultural Memory (2006), 27. 5. Forces Romance (Imperial War Museum, River Records, 2001), CD sleeve text. 6. William K. Ferrell, Literature and Film as Modern Mythology (Westport, CT and London: Praeger, 2000), 12.

4. Media: Challenging Modernism – the ‘Middlebrow’ and Memodrama

1. For challenges to the traditional accounts of modernism see, for example, Nicola Beauman, A Very Great Profession: the Woman’s Novel 1914–39 (London: Virago, 1983); Andy Croft, Red Letter Days: British Fiction in the 1930s (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1990); John Carey, The Intellectuals and the Masses: Pride and Prejudice Among the Literary Intelligentsia, 1880–1939 (London: Faber, 1992); John Baxendale and Chris Pawling (eds), Narrating the Thirties. A Decade in the Making: 1930 to the Present (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1996); Maria Dibattista and Lucy McDiarmid (eds), High and Low Moderns: Literature and Culture, 1889–1939 (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996); Janet Montefiore, Men and Women Writers of the 1930s: the Dangerous Flood of History (London and New York: Routledge, 1996); Gill Plain, Women’s Fiction of the Second World War (New York: St. Martin’s Press, Notes 219

1996); Patrick Quinn, Recharting the Thirties (Selinsgrove: Susquehanna University Press, 1996); Jenny Hartley, Millions Like Us: British Women’s Fiction of the Second World War (London: Virago, 1997); Karen Schneider, Loving Arms: British Women Writing the Second World War (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1997); Keith Williams and Steven Matthews, Rewriting the Thirties: Modernism and After (London: Longman, 1997); Patrick Deane, History in Our Hands: a Critical Anthology of Writings on Literature, Culture and Politics From the 1930s (New York: Leicester University Press, 1998); Heather Ingman, Women’s Fiction Between the Wars: Mothers, Daughters and Writing (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1998); Phyllis Lassner, British Women Writers of World War II: Battlegrounds of Their Own (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1998); Maroula Joannou, Women Writers of the 1930s: Gender, Politics, and History (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1999); Tyrus Miller, Late Modernism: Politics, Fiction, and the Arts Between the Wars (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999); Michael North, Reading 1922: a Return to the Scene of the Modern (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1999); Lynn Hapgood and Nancy Paxton, Outside Modernism: In Pursuit of the English Novel 1900–30 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2000); Elizabeth Maslen, Political and Social Issues in British Women’s Fiction (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001); Stella Deen (ed.), Challenging Modernism: New Readings in Literature and Culture, 1914–1945 (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2002); Patrick Lee- Browne, The Modernist Period 1900–1945: English Literature in its Historical, Cultural and Social Contexts (New York: Facts on File, 2003); Kristin Bluemel, George Orwell and the Radical Eccentrics: Intermodernism in Literary London (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004); Ina Habermann, ‘Modifikationen des Modernismus – Medialität, Identität, Populärkultur’, in: Vera Nünning (ed.), Eine Kulturgeschichte der englischen Literatur: Von der Renaissance bis zur Gegenwart (Tübingen and Basel: UTB/Francke, 2005), 251–64. 2. For a pioneering and now classic study of mass media, see Stuart Hall, ‘Culture, the Media and the “Ideological Effect”’, in: James Curran, Michael Gurevitch and Janet Woollacott (eds), Mass Communication and Society (London: Arnold, 1977), 315–48. See also Clive Bloom (ed.), Literature and Culture in Modern Britain, Vol. I: 1900–1929 (London and New York: Longman, 1993); Keith Williams, British Writers and the Media 1930–45 (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1996); and Nick Hayes and Jeff Hill (eds), ‘Millions Like Us’? British Culture in the Second World War (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press 1999). 3. Sandra Kemp, Charlotte Mitchell and David Trotter, Edwardian Fiction: an Oxford Companion (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 328. 4. Ibid., xxiii. 5. For some criticism on the middlebrow see Rosa Maria Bracco, British Middlebrow Writers and the First World War, 1919–39 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); R. M. Bracco, Betwixt and Between: Middlebrow Fiction and English Society in the Twenties and Thirties (Parkville: University of Melbourne Press, 1990); Joan Shelley Rubin, The Making of Middlebrow Culture (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992); Teresa Mangum, Married, Middlebrow, and Militant: Sarah Grand and the New Woman Novel (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1998); Mary Grover, 220 Notes

The Authenticity of the Middlebrow: Warwick Deeping and Cultural Legitimacy, 1903–1940 (Sheffield: Sheffield Hallam University, 2002); Lisa Botshon and Meredith Goldsmith (eds), Middlebrow Moderns: Popular American Women Writers of the 1920s (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 2003); Christina Klein, Cold War Orientalism: Asia in the Middlebrow Imagination 1945–1961 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003). 6. Baxendale and Pawling, Narrating the Thirties (1996), 49. 7. Punch, 23 December 1925, 673. Quoted from Melba Cuddy-Keane, Virginia Woolf, the Intellectual, and the Public Sphere (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 18–19; 200. On the role of the BBC in wartime see Siân Nicholas, ‘The People’s Radio: the BBC and its Audience, 1939–1945’, in: Hayes and Hill (eds), ‘Millions Like Us’? (1999), 62–92 as well as the classic study by Asa Briggs, The History of Broadcasting in the United Kingdom, Vol. I The Birth of Broadcasting [1961], Vol. II: The Golden Age of Wireless [1965], Vol. III: The War of Words [1970] (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995). 8. Arnold Bennett, ‘Queen of the High-Brows’, Evening Standard, 28 November 1929; reprinted in Virginia Woolf: the Critical Heritage, 258, 259. Quoted from Cuddy-Keane, Virginia Woolf (2003), 17; 200. The Diaries of Virginia Woolf, Vol. 3, entry of 8 September 1930. 9. J. B. Priestley, ‘High, Low, Broad’, Saturday Review, 20 February 1926, 222, reprinted in Open House: a Book of Essays (London: Heinemann, 1929), 162, 165. Quoted in Cuddy-Keane, Virginia Woolf (2003), 27; 201. 10. Virginia Woolf, ‘Middlebrow’, in: Virginia Woolf, The Death of the Moth and Other Essays (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1942), 176–86; 176. 11. See Part II, chapter 4 in Q. D. Leavis, Fiction and the Reading Public [1932] (London: Pimlico, 2000). 12. J. B. Priestley, ‘Too Simple?’, in: Delight (London: Heinemann, 1949; New York: Harper, 1949), quoted in The Priestley Companion: Extracts From the Writings of J. B. Priestley Selected by Himself (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1951), 404–6. 13. Nicola Humble, The Feminine Middlebrow Novel 1920s to 1950s: Class, Domesticity, and Bohemianism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 3. 14. Winifred Holtby, South Riding [1936] (London: Virago, 2003), 49. 15. Light, Forever England (1991). 16. Woolf, ‘Middlebrow’, 177. 17. William Temple, ‘The Resources and Influence of English Literature’, The First Annual Lecture of the National Book Council, delivered by His Grace the Archbishop of Canterbury, Dr William Temple, at Caxton Hall, Westminster on 21 May 1943, 16, copy at the British Library.

5. Steak-and-Kidney Pie in the Land of Cockaigne

1. Vincent Brome, J. B. Priestley (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1988), 432, quoting The Times, 14 September 1964. For biographical information and criticism on Priestley see Ivor Brown, J. B. Priestley (London: Longman, 1957); David Hughes, J. B. Priestley: an Informal Study of his Work (London: Hart-Davis, 1958); Kenneth Young, J. B. Priestley (London: Longman, 1977); John Braine, J. B. Priestley (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1978); John Notes 221

Atkins, J. B. Priestley: the Last of the Sages (London: John Calder, 1981); Holger Klein, J. B. Priestley’s Plays (London: Macmillan, 1988); Diana Collins, Time and the Priestleys: the Story of a Friendship (Stroud: Sutton, 1994); Supriya Sengupta, J. B. Priestley: a Study of his Major Novels & Plays (Jaipur: Printwell, 1996, originally written in 1955); Judith Cook, Priestley (London: Bloomsbury, 1997); Dulcie Gray, J. B. Priestley (Stroud: Sutton, 2000); Holger Klein, J. B. Priestley’s Fiction (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2002); John Baxendale, Priestley’s England (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2007). 2. Brome, J. B. Priestley (1988), 432. 3. Ibid., 480. 4. See for example Priestley’s account of this in Midnight on the Desert: a Chapter of Autobiography [1937] (Geneva: Heron Books, n.d.), 247–84 and my brief discussion of Dunne’s theory in the introduction. 5. See Priestley, Margin Released (London: Heinemann, 1962), 215. 6. Priestley, Midnight on the Desert (1937), 16. 7. Ibid., 14. 8. Priestley, Margin Released 180. 9. J. B. Priestley, Literature and Western Man (London: Heinemann, 1960), 416. Priestley also makes this point in Margin Released (1962), 178–9. 10. Sengupta, J. B. Priestley, 185. 11. Priestley, Margin Released (1962), 177. Priestley’s approach in fact recalls that of earlier socially committed novelists. For example, George Eliot believes that aesthetic teaching makes ideas ‘thoroughly incarnate’, but that it must not lapse ‘from the picture to the diagram’. The George Eliot Letters, ed. Gordon S. Haight, vol. IV (London: Oxford University Press, 1956), 300–1. 12. Priestley, Margin Released (1962), 192. 13. In Margin Released, Priestley notes the effect of the dissemination of his work: ‘If you are as prolific as I have been, you find something you have written turning up in the oddest places, travellers often obligingly reporting the discovery of a book of yours in the mysterious reaches of the Amazon or in some engineer’s cabin among the icebergs. You toss a tale or some chapters of autobiography into the pool and the ripples go out and out, on and on.’ Priestley, Margin Released (1962), 182. 14. J. B. Priestley, The Good Companions [1929] (St Albans: Granada, 1981), 11–12. 15. For an account of the cultural significance of the music hall and its relation to other media, see Andy Medhurst, ‘Music Hall and British Cinema’, in: Charles Barr (ed.), All Our Yesterdays: 90 Years of British Cinema (London: BFI Publishing, 1986), 168–88. 16. J. B. Priestley, They Walk in the City [1936] (Leipzig: Tauchnitz, 1937), 7. 17. Hussey, The Fairy Land of England, 4. Hussey discusses Highways, Ways and Hedgerows, Castles, Manor Houses, Country Houses, Gardens, Abbeys and Churches, Villages, County Towns, and Inns. 18. Ibid., 3. 19. J. B. Priestley, Faraway (London: Heinemann, 1933), 412–14. 20. Ebbatson, An Imaginary England, 109. 21. Diana Loxley, Problematic Shores (London: Macmillan, 1990), 117, quoted in Ebbatson, An Imaginary England (2005), 121. 222 Notes

6. English Journeys

1. Paul Fussell, Abroad: British Literary Travelling Between the Wars (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980). 2. There was a noticeable interest in early travel accounts in the interwar period. Defoe’s A Tour Through England and Wales was republished by Everyman (London: Dent, 1928), Arthur Young’s Tours in England and Wales were published in 1932 as No. 5 in the Scarce Tracts in Economics Series by the London School of Economics from Selections From the Annals of Agriculture and Other Useful Arts, 1784–1798, and Cobbett’s Rural Rides were widely available. For the nineteenth-century discourse of social explo- ration see Peter Keating, Into Unknown England 1866–1913: Selections From the Social Explorers [1976] (Glasgow: Fontana/Collins, 1978). 3. Baxendale and Pawling, Narrating the Thirties (1996), 15. 4. Michael Bartholomew, In Search of H. V. Morton (London: Methuen, 2004). My brief account of Morton’s background relies on Bartholomew’s pioneering work. 5. Matless, Landscape and Englishness, 64. 6. Jonathan Culler, ‘The Semiotics of Tourism’, in: Jonathan Culler, Framing the Sign: Criticism and Its Institutions (Oxford: Blackwell, 1988), 153–67; 157. For the distinction between tourist and traveller in the context of ‘the nineteenth century’s ambivalent confrontation with a democratizing and institutionalizing tourism’ (5) see James Buzard, The Beaten Track: European Tourism, Literature, and the Ways to Culture, 1800–1918 (Oxford: Clarendon Press 1993). ‘The master-trope for my investigation is named in my title. If there is one dominant and recurrent image in the annals of the modern tour, it is surely that of the beaten track, which succinctly designates the space of the “touristic” as a region in which all experience is predictable and repetitive, all cultures and objects mere “touristy” self-parodies’ (4). See also the classic study by Dean MacCannell, The Tourist: a New Theory of the Leisure Class [1976] (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999). 7. Taylor, A Dream of England, 7; 14. 8. Matless, Landscape and Englishness (1998), 67. 9. Morton, In Search of England [1927], (2002), xviii–xix. The editor, Simon Jenkins, sees Morton as a ‘determined nostalgic’ (vii) and concludes that the people ‘need the country as much as ever. To that extent, Morton was right’ (xiii). 10. Bartholomew also emphasizes the fact that Morton developed a persona for his travel writings and that, although ‘the success of the book depends entirely on the reader’s being convinced that the events narrated really happened’, the account has the shape of a novel and ‘the narrator is a literary persona, a version of himself or herself, invented by the author.’ Bartholomew, In Search of H. V. Morton (2004), xvii. 11. Morton, In Search of England (2002), 3–5. 12. H. V. Morton was personally interested in spiritualism and repeatedly tried to contact his deceased and beloved mother in séances. 13. Hugh Trevor-Roper, ‘The Invention of Tradition: the Highland Tradition of Scotland’, in: Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger (eds), The Invention of Tradition [1983] (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 15–41. Notes 223

14. Bartholomew, In Search of H. V. Morton (2004), 124–5. 15. Ibid., 112. He sought to redress the balance somewhat unsuccessfully with his next book The Call for England (1928). 16. Matless, Landscape and Englishness (1998), 63. 17. Ibid., 84–6. 18. The Beauty of Britain: a Pictorial Survey, The Pilgrims’ Library, ed. Charles Bradley Ford, introd. J. B. Priestley (London: Batsford, 1935), vii. 19. Ibid., 10. For influential contributions to the discourse of preservationism and the dangers of ribbon development see Clough Williams Ellis, England and the Octopus (London: Geoffrey Bles, 1928) and Britain and the Beast (London: Dent, 1938) by the same author. Ellis was one of the founders of the Council for the Preservation of Rural England, which came into exist- ence in 1926 and has been an active charity ever since, from 1969 under the name Council for the Protection of Rural England, and since 2003 under the name Campaign for the Protection of Rural England, always abbreviated as CPRE. The National Trust was founded in 1895. 20. Thomas Burke, The Beauty of England (London, Bombay & Sydney: George G. Harrap, 1933), 32. 21. Ibid., 30–1. 22. Ibid., 16. 23. Ibid., 11, 13. 24. Taylor, A Dream of England (1994), 19. 25. Ibid., 20. 26. Ibid., 135. 27. Ibid., 138, 139, 142. 28. In fact, this impulse to participate has been an ingredient of depictions of landscape from an early point. As Simon Grimble argues, landscape ‘speaks of a space that has no centre, yet which invites the observer to locate himself within it: a viewer looks at a seventeenth-century Dutch interior painting and realises there is no place for him inside, whilst a Constable does tender that invitation’. Grimble, Landscape, Writing and the ‘Condition of England’ (2004), 26. See also Pierre Bourdieu, Photography: a Middle-brow Art (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1996). For a photographic expression of Englishness as a symbolic form, see Bill Brandt, The English at Home (London: Batsford, 1936). Brandt was born in Hamburg in 1904 as Hermann Wilhelm Brandt and came to London in 1931. 29. H. V. Morton, I Saw Two Englands, revisited and photographed 50 years on by Tommy Candler (London: Methuen, 1989), 42. 30. J. B. Priestley, English Journey. Being a Rambling but Truthful Account of What One Man Saw and Heard and Felt and Thought During a Journey Through England During the Autumn of the Year 1933 [1934] (London: Heinemann, 1968), 233. 31. Keating, Into Unknown England (1978). 32. Andrew Higson, Waving the Flag: Constructing a National Cinema in Britain (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995), 181. 33. Ibid., 190, 194. 34. Ibid., 186. 35. Marsha Bryant, ‘Auden and the Homoerotics of the 1930s Documentary’, in: Mosaic 30:2 (1997), 69–92; 71, 90. 224 Notes

36. George Orwell, The Road to Wigan Pier [1937] (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 2001), 156. 37. Martin J. Wiener, English Culture and the Decline of the Industrial Spirit, 1850–1980 [1981] (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004). 38. Matless, Landscape and Englishness (1998), 35. See also Chris Stephens, ‘Ben Nicholson: Modernism, Craft and the English Vernacular’, in: Corbett, Holt and Russell (eds), The Geographies of Englishness (2002), 225–47. As Stephens notes, ‘one can argue that in the two decades between the wars the recovery of specifically English vernacular traditions gave craft and, by association, the handmade surface, a nationalistic dimension’ (245). This is part of a process characterized by ‘the feminisation of British culture and the positing of the private and domestic as key components of a modern consciousness’ (245). 39. For the persistence of these traditions in the interwar period, see Fiona Russell, ‘John Ruskin, Herbert Read and the Englishness of British Modernism’, in: Corbett, Holt and Russell (eds), The Geographies of Englishness (2002), 303–21. Russell states that ‘[b]oth [Herbert] Read and [Paul] Nash were anxious to root the Modern Movement in Britain’s “solid traditions”. To this end, both created a series of purpose-built lingeages: for Nash, Regency furniture was the best example of modern British design; for Read, pottery was the quin- tessential modern English art form. But it is striking that these lineages were largely made up of objects and styles, rather than ideas. […] The presence of Ruskin in Read’s work, however, points to a potentially rich British resource of ideas, a resource which raised insistent and pertinent questions about the circumstances – political and social – under which art was and could be made’ (306). See also Grimble, Landscape, Writing and ‘The Condition of England’ (2004). For a more bourgeois discourse of moral and social improve- ment, see Diana Maltz, British Aestheticism and the Urban Working Classes, 1870–1900: Beauty For the People (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006). 40. On the Frankfurt School, see Jean Seaton, ‘The Sociology of the Mass Media’, in: James Curran and Jean Seaton, Power Without Responsibility: the Press and Broadcasting in Britain [1981] (London: Routledge, 1991), 249–76; 249–56. 41. In his short discussion of Priestley’s English Journey, Philip Dodd hastily conflates the ‘real enduring England’, which he also mentions in passing, with Priestley’s Old England ‘of ministers and manors and inns, of Parson and Squire’. There is no warrant for this, and while Dodd’s judgement that ‘Priestley, the traveller, could observe only division and conflict in England in 1934 [sic], but that Priestley, the citizen, wished to see unity’ may be valid, his analysis remains very much on the surface. Philip Dodd, ‘The Views of Travellers: Travel Writing in the 1930s’, in: Prose Studies 5:1 (1982), 127–38; 129. 42. Brome, J. B. Priestley (1988), 326. 43. Ibid., 146. 44. See Matless, Landscape and Englishness (1998), 279. 45. Collins, Time and the Priestleys (1994), 192; 204. 46. Brome, J. B. Priestley (1988), 412. 47. Susan Cooper, J. B. Priestley: Portrait of an Author (London: Heinemann, 1970), 157. 48. J.B. Priestley, Rain Upon Godshill (London: Heinemann, 1941), 214. 49. Ibid., 212. 50. Priestley, English Journey (1968), 409. Notes 225

51. Ibid., 404. 52. For a different opinion on The Road to Wigan Pier see Taylor, A Dream of England (1994) in chapter 5, ‘Documentary Raids and Rebuffs’, 166–71. Taylor sees Wigan Pier as a problematic text because Orwell did not produce the documentary-style work that the Left Book Club had wished for. Thus, Gollancz included an explanatory preface and photographs of distressed areas. ‘While Orwell talked of Lancashire and Yorkshire, the photographs reproduced views of Wales and London; while Orwell attacked the Left, it distanced itself from Orwell through the foreword and the photographs. The Left interrupted the authorial voice, and disturbed the credibility of its witness’ (168). For a more ‘appropriate’ left-wing documentation, Taylor points to Wal Hannington, The Problem of the Distressed Areas (London: Victor Gollancz, 1937). Nowadays, the offending passages contribute largely to the continued interest of Wigan Pier. For a recent discussion of Orwell’s politics see Philip Bounds, Orwell and Marxism: the Political and Cultural Thinking of George Orwell (London: I. B. Tauris, 2009). 53. George Orwell, Homage to Catalonia [1938] (London: Secker & Warburg, 1959), 248. 54. Priestley, Rain Upon Godshill (1941), 211. 55. George Orwell, ‘The Lion and the Unicorn: Socialism and the English Genius’ [1941], in: The Collected Essays, Journalism and Letters of George Orwell, ed. Sonia Orwell and Ian Angus, vol. II (London: Secker & Warburg, 1968), 56–109; 57. 56. Ibid., 68. 57. Ibid., 78, 96. 58. Ibid., 109. 59. George Orwell, ‘The English People’ [1943/47], in: The Collected Essays, Journalism and Letters of George Orwell, 1–38; 6. 60. Ibid., 19. 61. George Orwell, Nineteen Eighty-Four [1949] (London: Secker & Warburg, 1959), 34. 62. Raymond Williams, The Country and the City (London: Chatto & Windus, 1973), 10. 63. For a political account of this preoccupation with the past, see Patrick Wright, On Living in an Old Country: the National Past in Contemporary Britain (London and New York: Verso, 1985). 64. Michael Bunce, The Countryside Ideal: Anglo-American Images of Landscape (London and New York: Routledge, 1994), 8. 65. Ibid., 206. 66. Ibid., 208. 67. Bartholomew, H. V. Morton (2004), xi.

7. Addressing the People

1. For a recent helpful overview of Priestley’s broadcasting career, see Peter Buitenhuis, ‘J. B. Priestley: the BBC’s Star Propagandist in World War II’, in: English Studies in Canada 26 (2000), 445–72. 2. See, for example, Tom Henthorne, ‘Priestley’s War: Social Change and the British Novel, 1939–1945’, in: The Midwest Quarterly 45:2 (2004), 155–67. 226 Notes

Henthorne argues that Priestley continued his political struggle in novels which were less susceptible to censorship and government control. 3. Jean Seaton, ‘Broadcasting History’, in: Curran and Seaton, Power Without Responsibility (1991), 129–233; 166. 4. J. B. Priestley, Out of the People (London: Collins, in association with Heinemann, 1941), 18. 5. Orwell, The Road to Wigan Pier (1937), 103. 6. Orwell, ‘The Lion and the Unicorn’ (1941), 109. 7. J. B. Priestley, British Women Go to War (London: Collins, 1943), 19. 8. J. B. Priestley, Britain at War (New York and London: Harper & Brothers, 1942), 20. 9. I am relying here on the collection Britain Speaks (New York and London: Harper & Brothers, 1940), which carries a somewhat confusing notice on the flyleaf: ‘This story is published in England under the title of Postscripts.’ This is actually not true, because the Postscripts published in London by Heinemann in 1940, with a second edition in 1941, are Priestley’s domestic talks, which were published later in the USA under the title All England Listened, the Wartime Broadcasts of J. B. Priestley, ed. & introd. by E. Sevared (New York: Chilmark, 1967), with an additional preface by Priestley. Peter Buitenhuis is one of the few people to discuss the Britain Speaks series, but he adds to the confusion by asserting that they were never published. See Buitenhuis, ‘J. B. Priestley’ (2000), 449, 469. 10. Postscripts published according to Jeffrey Butcher’s bibliography: ‘Excursion to Hell’, Listener, 13 June 1940; ‘The Hour of Greatness’, Answers, 20 July 1940; ‘Out with the Parashots’, Answers, 27 July 1940; ‘Dark Face of Germany’, Answers, 3 August 1940; ‘Two-Ton Annie’, Answers, 10 August 1940; ‘That’s the stuff to give ’em’, Answers, 17 August 1940; ‘A Trip to Margate’, Answers, 27 August 1940; ‘There Must Be No Going Back’, Answers, 31 August 1940; ‘Happy Landings for Heroes’, Answers, 7 September 1940; ‘Long, Long Trail from August 1914’, Answers, 14 September 1940; ‘Hard Work and High Jinks’, Answers, 21 September 1940; ‘Don’t Let the War Get You Down’, Answers, 28 September 1940; ‘War Anniversary’, Answers, 5 October 1940; ‘The Bright Face of Danger’, Answers, 12 October 1940; ‘London Can Take It’, Answers, 19 October 1940; ‘The Triumph of the Women’, Answers, 26 October 1940; ‘The Pie They Couldn’t Bomb’, Answers, 2 November 1940; ‘I’m Not Blaming Anybody, But’, Answers, 9 November 1940; ‘Ribbentrop Should Have Met “Ma”’, Answers, 16 November 1940; ‘My Last Postscript’, Answers, 23 November 1940; ‘Dunkirk – Excursion to Hell’, Answers, 30 November 1940. ‘Excursion to Hell’ was also published as a contribution to Home From Dunkirk (London: Murray, 1940). Talks from the Britain Speaks series published: Britain Speaks, Listener, 27 June 1940; ‘Britain Speaks, the Sign of the Double Cross and a Word to Intellectuals’, Listener, 4 July 1940; ‘The Three Faces of Nazism and American Criticism’, Listener, 11 July 1940; ‘Camp and Kitchen and Nazi Tales’, Listener, 18 July 1940; ‘As the Broadcaster Sees It and The Parent’s Dilemma’, Listener, 25 July 1940; ‘Pott and Kettle Dynics’, London Calling, 22 August 1940; ‘Britain’s Ordinary Folk’, London Calling, 29 August 1940; ‘This Air-Raid Life of Ours’, London Calling, 12 September 1940; ‘The Spirit of London’, London Calling, 26 September 1940. At the same time, Priestley Notes 227

also published in the New Statesman, the Sunday Express, Horizon, The Spectator, Daily Telegraph, Picture Post, News Chronicle, and Reynold’s News. Jeffrey R. Butcher, The Works of J. B. Priestley: Classified and Chronological Lists (Leyland: J. R. Butcher, 1993). See also Alan Edwin Day, J. B. Priestley: an Annotated Bibliography (Stroud: Ian Hodgkins, 2001). 11. Priestley, Postscripts (1940), 69–70. 12. Anthony Weymouth (ed.), The English Spirit: J. B. Priestley – Sir Philip Gibbs – Philip Guedalla – Somerset Maugham – Sir Hugh Walpole and others (London: Allen & Unwin, 1942), 7. 13. Priestley, Postscripts (1940), 6. 14. J. B. Priestley, Daylight on Saturday: a Novel About an Aircraft Factory (London: Heinemann, 1943), 306. 15. Priestley, Margin Released (1962), 193. 16. This famous phrase was coined by John Shearman in the Documentary News Letter with respect to the Crown Film Unit’s film Western Approaches (1944). See John Shearman, ‘Wartime Wedding’, Documentary News Letter 6/54, Nov.–Dec. 1946, 53, quoted from James Chapman, The British at War: Cinema, State and Propaganda, 1939–1945 (London: I. B. Tauris 1998), 137. 17. ITMA (‘It’s that man again’), developed by Tommy Handley with the scriptwriter Ted Kavanagh, was a comedy series which ‘sparkled through the life of the nation like bubbles through soda water’. Calder, The People’s War, 362. 18. Elizabeth Bowen, The Heat of the Day [1948] (London: Vintage, 1998), 93. 19. J. B. Priestley, Blackout in Gretley, A Story of, and For Wartime (London: Heinemann, 1942) republished in a ‘Classic Thrillers’ series (London: Dent, 1987), 8. 20. J. B. Priestley, Three Men in New Suits [1945] (London: Allison and Busby, 1984), 16. 21. J. B. Priestley, Bright Day [1946] (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983), 1.

8. Dreamtime in Cornwall

1. For biographies and monographs on Daphne du Maurier, see Judith Cook, Daphne: a Portrait of Daphne du Maurier (London: Bantam, 1991); Alison Light, Forever England (1991); Margaret Forster, Daphne du Maurier [1993] (London: Arrow, 1994); Flavia Leng, Daphne du Maurier: a Daughter’s Memoir (Edinburgh and London: Mainstream Publishing, 1994); Avril Horner and Sue Zlosnik, Daphne du Maurier: Writing, Identity and the Gothic Imagination (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1998); Nina Auerbach, Daphne du Maurier: Haunted Heiress (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2000). 2. See for example Daphne du Maurier, Enchanted Cornwall: Her Pictorial Memoir (London: Penguin and Pilot, 1989), ed. Piers Dudgeon with photographs by Nick Wright. This memoir interweaves episodes of du Maurier’s life with her novels and picturesque photographs of Cornish scenes, explaining the inspiration for each novel and giving a rather sanitized account of both life and work. 3. Light, ‘Daphne du Maurier’s Romance with the Past’, in: Forever England (1991), 156–207; 156. For an earlier version of the chapter see Light, ‘“Returning to 228 Notes

Manderley”: Romance Fiction, Female Sexuality and Class’, in: Feminist Review 16 (1984), 7–25. 4. Grimble, Landscape Writing and ‘The Condition of England’, 13. For a send-up of the trope of family as nation and history as genealogy see the Blackadder series starring Rowan Atkinson where the ‘filthy genes’ of ‘Blackadder’ surface again and again at crucial stages in the country’s history. 5. Du Maurier, Enchanted Cornwall (1989), Foreword. 6. Among the few critical analyses of du Maurier’s work, one focus has been on class. In Forever England (1991) Alison Light sees du Maurier in the interwar period as catering to a snug, private middle class in need of escap- ist fantasies as supplied by the author’s ‘romance with the past’. Malcolm Kelsall, in ‘Manderley Revisited: Rebecca and the English Country House’, in: Proceedings of the British Academy, 82 (1993), 303–15, sees her as an ‘upwardly mobile writer’ afraid of the ‘proletariat’ (310). Other studies have emphasized gender and psychology. See, for example, Tania Modleski, ‘“Never to be Thirty-six Years Old”: Rebecca as Female Oedipal Drama’, in: Wide Angle 5:1 (1982), 34–41; Mary Ann Doane, ‘Caught and Rebecca: the Inscription of Femininity as Absence’, in: Constance Penley (ed.), Feminism and Film Theory (New York and London: Routledge and BFI Publishing, 1988), 186–215; Auerbach, Daphne du Maurier (2000). Horner and Zlosnik, in Daphne du Maurier (1998), have made the most persistent attempt to place du Maurier in the tradition of gothic literature. 7. Cook, Daphne (1991), 230. 8. For extended discussions of these issues see Forster, Daphne du Maurier (1994), Zlosnik and Horner, Daphne du Maurier (1998) and Auerbach, Daphne du Maurier (2000). 9. Quoted in Brome, J. B. Priestley (1988), 178. 10. J. W. Dunne, An Experiment With Time [1927/1929/1934] (Basingstoke: Papermac, 1981), Note on the Second Edition, 8. 11. Ibid., 236–7. 12. Ibid., 237–8. In The Serial Universe (London: Faber & Faber, 1934), J. W. Dunne places his Serialism in the context of these findings of modern physics. This book, replete with diagrams, figures and formulas, has a less popular appeal than An Experiment With Time with its accounts of dreams and premonitions. In contrast, Dunne tries to restate the theory of Serialism in a way acceptable to scientists. 13. Cook, Daphne (1991), 40. As she is usually classed as a writer of women’s romance fiction, the strong supernatural element in du Maurier’s writing often goes unacknowledged. Neil Wilson’s Shadows in the Attic: a Guide to British Supernatural Fiction 1820–1950 (Boston Spa and London: The British Library, 2000) offers a substantial bibliography of supernatural writing which includes neither George nor Daphne du Maurier, although by rights it should, according to its definition of the supernatural. Highbrow artists and writers tend to explore new techniques of painting and narrative while middlebrow writers like Priestley and du Maurier engage with the new ideas on the plot level, as do writers of science fiction. 14. Alison Light also points to this: ‘In this imagination every family becomes a kind of lineage and it is not an ancestral home which is threatened with loss but family itself which must be protected as the central way in which Notes 229

individuals make sense of themselves and social changes. Families become the true histories, a connective sense of the past which makes it organic like a “family tree”, with “roots” and “branches”, where we can place ourselves.’ Light, Forever England (1991), 194. 15. The dedication runs: ‘In the belief that there are thirty-one descendants of Louis-Mathurin Busson du Maurier and his wife Ellen Jocelyn Clarke alive to-day, this story of the past is dedicated to all of them, with affection.’ In terms of family history, the account is in fact rather iconoclastic, because Daphne du Maurier emphasizes the important role of the disreputable Mary Anne Clarke and explodes the family myth that ‘du Maurier’ was an aristocratic name. In fact, the Bussons had taken the name from a farm estate where they lived, called ‘le Maurier’. Du Maurier edited her grandfather’s letters in 1951, revisited family history with the novels Mary Anne (1954), The Glass Blowers (1963) and, somewhat obliquely, The Parasites (1949). She also published Gerald: a Portrait (1934), a rather outspoken biography of her father written shortly after his death. Family history and biography was also a favourite subject for her non-fiction; she wrote a biography of Patrick Branwell Brontë, The Infernal World of Branwell Brontë (1960) and studies of the Bacon family – Golden Lads: Anthony Bacon, Francis and their Friends (1976) and The Winding Stair: Francis Bacon, his Rise and Fall (1976), all published by Gollancz. When Daphne du Maurier died in 1989, her children reacted in the family spirit. Her beloved son Christopher (‘Kits’), who had contributed photographs to his mother’s writings on Cornwall, went to live with his family in Ferryside, the du Maurier’s first house in Cornwall, and her younger daughter Flavia wrote a biography of her mother, or rather an account of their family life. It is an intriguing and often moving account, candid, laconic, unflinching and sometimes critical, but also generous and humorous. In characteristic du Maurier style, the account begins: ‘I dream often that my mother is still alive. I suppose the unconscious mind is not yet reconciled to the fact that she is dead.’ The book ends with a kind of apothe- osis: ‘I feel I have no “roots” left, that they were blown away when Tessa, Kits and I scattered Bing’s ashes over her chosen spot, above the Cornish cliffs, the fitful April sun shining bright upon the calm and distant sea. A lone gull mewed a final farewell overhead, and as we three stood there we did not mourn, for we knew that our beloved Bing was free at last to go to that “never never land”, where she had always believed that “Daddy” would be waiting in his boat for her and together they would sail into infinity.’ Leng, Daphne du Maurier, 11; 206. 16. See Cook, Daphne (1991), 68–9. 17. Daphne du Maurier, The Du Mauriers (London: Gollancz, 1937), 330–1. 18. Ibid., 331. 19. Ibid., 334. For the importance of the English Channel/la Manche in literature and cultural history, see Dominic Rainsford, Literature, Identity and the English Channel: Narrow Seas Expanded (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002). Rainsford notes that a number of authors, among them William Wordsworth, experienced ‘the Channel as the physical correlative of a fractured family life’ (29). Rainsford does not mention du Maurier, but his statement is certainly true of her. As Rainsford concludes, the Channel ‘lets fresh air and water into a particular part of the world, but it symbolises the 230 Notes

monitory and invigorating effects that might be associated with borders everywhere: geographical moments where identities are interrupted or exchanged, but, for a while, not taken for granted, and open to supplemen- tation and renewal’ (159). 20. Daphne du Maurier, The Loving Spirit [1931] (London: Arrow Books, 1994), 11, 16. 21. For the Victorian connection of femininity with spiritualism, see Alex Owen, The Darkened Room: Women, Power and Spiritualism in Late Victorian England (London: Virago, 1989). 22. See Forster, Daphne du Maurier (1994), 158ff. Frenchman’s Creek is singled out as ‘the only one of my novels that I am prepared to admit is romantic’. Du Maurier, Enchanted Cornwall (1989), 89. Du Maurier often said that she tried to lift the wartime gloom by revisiting her enchanting honeymoon on Tommy’s boat Ygdrasil in Frenchman’s Creek. Of course, the fact that she was also working through her attraction to Christopher Puxley was not meant to become public. The novel is dedicated to Puxley and his wife Paddy. 23. Daphne du Maurier, Frenchman’s Creek [1941] (London: Arrow Books, 1992), 11–12. Subsequent page numbers will be given in the main text. 24. See Light, Forever England (1991), 180. 25. See Jeffrey Richards, Films and British National Identity from Dickens to Dad’s Army (Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 1997), 125. 26. On the issue of marital relations, see Carol Smart, ‘Good Wives and Moral Lives: Marriage and Divorce 1937–51’, in: Christine Gledhill and Gillian Swanson (eds), Nationalising Femininity: Culture, Sexuality and British Cinema in the Second World War (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1996), 91–105. Smart also discusses Brief Encounter. For an interesting empirical study (based on questionnaires) of attitudes about love, sex, marriage, children, law, religion and morality in the years after World War Two, see Geoffrey Gorer, Exploring English Character (London: The Cresset Press, 1955).

9. From Gothic to Memodrama

1. See Margarette Lincoln, ‘Shipwreck Narratives of the Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Century’, in: British Journal for Eighteenth-Century Studies 20 (1997), 155–72; 155. Lincoln identifies the ‘earliest collection of narratives of shipwrecks’ as ‘Mr James Janeway’s legacy to his friends, containing twenty-seven famous instances of God’s Providence in and about sea-dangers and deliverances (London 1675)’ (159). 2. Alain Corbin, The Lure of the Sea: the Discovery of the Seaside in the Western World 1750–1840, trans. Jocelyn Phelps (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), 223, 225. 3. For a more detailed analysis of the wrecking tale and du Maurier’s contribution to the tradition, see my essay ‘Death by Water: the Theory and Practice of Shipwrecking’, in: B. Klein (ed.), Fictions of the Sea: Critical Perspectives on the Ocean in British Literature and Culture (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2002), 104–21. Notes 231

4. Incidentally, the name of the house, Jamaica Inn, suggests that these cargoes are mostly the fruits of a prior injustice, namely the colonial trade. However, du Maurier did not invent the name, and the implications of colonial trade are not explored in the novel. During an excursion with her friend Foy Quiller-Couch, she visited the real ‘Jamaica Inn’ where she was inspired, having also read Stevenson’s Treasure Island. It is tempting but, I think, unwarranted to argue for more than a small element of ‘exotic’ excitement in this context. Du Maurier prefaces her book with the customary disclaimer about the fictional nature of her descriptions. Daphne du Maurier, Jamaica Inn [1936] (London: Pan Books, 1976). 5. Ibid., 32, 38. 6. Du Maurier, Enchanted Cornwall (1989), 101, 52. 7. See Patsy Stoneman, Brontë Transformations: the Cultural Dissemination of Jane Eyre and Wuthering Heights (Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1996). For criticism on the gothic, see Ann Williams, Art of Darkness: a Poetics of Gothic (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1995); Richard Davenport-Hines, Gothic: 400 Years of Excess, Horror, Evil and Ruin (London: Fourth Estate, 1998); M. Mulvey-Roberts, The Handbook to Gothic Literature (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1998); David Punter, Gothic Pathologies: the Text, the Body and the Law (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1998); R. Mighall, A Geography of Gothic Fiction: Mapping History’s Nightmares (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999); David Punter (ed.), A Companion to the Gothic (Oxford: Blackwell, 2000); Markman Ellis, The History of Gothic Fiction (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2000); Avril Horner (ed.), European Gothic: a Spirited Exchange 1760–1960 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2002); Toni Wein, British Identities, Heroic Nationalisms, and the Gothic Novel, 1764–1824 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002). 8. Daphne du Maurier, Rebecca [1938] (London: Arrow Books, 1992), 19. 9. Light, Forever England (1991). 10. Of course there are clues which suggest a reading of Jane Eyre as a rebellious text. For contemporary reviews stressing this rebelliousness, see Charlotte Brontë, Jane Eyre [1847], ed. Richard Dunn, Norton Critical Edition (New York and London: Norton, 2001); for influential feminist readings see for example, Virginia Woolf, A Room of One’s Own (London: The Hogarth Press, 1928), and Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar, The Madwoman in the Attic: the Woman Writer and the Nineteenth-Century Literary Imagination (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1979). 11. Gilbert and Gubar, The Madwoman in the Attic, 337. 12. In their study of Daphne du Maurier, Avril Horner and Sue Zlosnik focus on the author’s negotiation of the gothic tradition, arguing that Rebecca is the narrator’s dark double with connotations of the femme fatale, of Jewishness, of polymorphous sexuality and of the vampire. They stress the role of Rebecca and Mrs Danvers in enabling the heroine’s development in the direction of both adult sexuality and writing skills. Horner and Zloznik, Daphne du Maurier (1998), 119–20. 13. The canonization of Rebecca is developing apace, and the novel has been included as a set text in the third-level Open University Course A300 Twentieth-Century Literature: Texts and Debates. One of the aspects that the course book emphasizes is tourism. See Nicola J. Watson, ‘Daphne du Maurier, 232 Notes

Rebecca’, in: David Johnson (ed.), The Popular & the Canonical: Debating Twentieth-Century Literature 1940–2000 (London and New York: Routledge, 2005), 13–56. ‘Indeed, Rebecca’s protagonist is in some sense herself merely a tourist in Manderley, as the poignant moment when she remembers her childhood trip to the local shop and the purchase of the postcard of the house should remind us from the very earliest pages of the novel. As the narrator traverses house, garden and shoreline, picking up the traces of Rebecca in her domestic landscape, she begins to construct for us as readers a similar itinerary of desire and investigation. […] Like the typical tourist, she is a middle-class interloper in an aristocratic social system, obsessed with a lost, invisible and enigmatic past embodied in an infinitely desirable and ultimately unattain- able piece of property. Alert with febrile attentiveness to every clue and trace in the present-day landscape of what once was, condemned to (and desiring to) repeat the past, determined actually to insert her body into the imaginary past […], the narrator efficiently and inevitably both prefigures and constructs the present-day literary tourist’ (52). 14. Horner and Zlosnik, Daphne du Maurier (1998), 101. Daphne du Maurier’s reference occurs in Enchanted Cornwall (1989), 106. 15. Du Maurier, Enchanted Cornwall (1989), 101. 16. Ibid., 101–2. 17. Ibid., 113. 18. Ibid. 19. Yet another set of mythical resonances can be added by relating Rebecca with Shakespeare’s The Winter’s Tale and via this Shakespearean romance with classical myth. Janet S. Wolf makes a convincing case for the presence in The Winter’s Tale of the ancient earth goddess depicted in classical antiquity in her three aspects of maiden, mother and crone, as represented by Persephone (Perdita), Demeter (Hermione) and Hecate (Paulina). Moreover, these three aspects are often blurred and the three figures have a tendency to change places or be regarded as three aspects of one goddess. In ‘de Winter’s tale’, these three aspects of the goddess are represented by the young orphaned narrator, Rebecca and Mrs Danvers. Janet S. Wolf, ‘“Like an old tale still”: Paulina, “triple Hecate”, and the Persephone Myth in The Winter’s Tale’, in: Elizabeth T. Hayes (ed.), Images of Persephone: Feminist Readings in Western Literature (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1994), 32–44. Daphne du Maurier’s repeated comments that Rebecca was not a romance but a study in jealousy would strengthen the thematic link with The Winter’s Tale. 20. The letter, written on 4 July 1957, is quoted from Forster, Daphne du Maurier (1994), 424. ‘Jan’ is Jan Ricardo, Tommy Browning’s glamorous fiancée of whom Daphne du Maurier was intensely jealous, ‘Sixpence’ is supposed to be a young woman in Fowey that Browning had an affair with, ‘Tod’ is a friend living and working in the household, ‘Moper’ is Tommy Browning, du Maurier’s husband, and ‘Yggie’ is ‘Ygdrasil’, Tommy Browning’s boat. 21. Ibid., 227. 22. For a related argument, see Gina Wisker, ‘Dangerous Borders: Daphne du Maurier’s Rebecca: Shaking the Foundations of the Romance of Privilege, Partying and Place’, in: Journal of Gender Studies 12:2 (2003), 83–97. ‘As the basis for the romance is destabilised, so too are the values of the Notes 233

country house and Englishness and the aristocracy. The union of Maxim and Rebecca is childless, as is that of the second Mrs de Winter – there will be no inheritance of wealth and the maintenance of family strengths and values. Far worse probably, the actual edifice of English stability and the nostalgic, comfortable conservatism of the romantic fiction are entirely destroyed when the grand house goes up in flames. Du Maurier, in Rebecca, undermines the conservative traditions which she seems to be upholding and rewarding both in terms of upper middle class values as embodied in the house, Manderley, and in the forms of romantic fiction which themselves seek to continually play out a version of achieved desire which can only render the sexually active transgressive, lively minded woman as demon, and exorcised demon at that’ (94–5). For a different reading emphasizing containment and the reformation of the aristocratic ruling class through bourgeois femininity, see Roger Bromley, ‘The Gentry, Bourgeois Hegemony and Popular Fiction: Rebecca and Rogue Male’, in: P. Humm, P. Stigant and P. Widdowson (eds), Popular Fictions: Essays in Literature and History (London: Methuen, 1986), 166–83.

10. The Skeleton in the Cupboard

1. Daphne du Maurier, Come Wind, Come Weather (London: Heinemann, 1940). The first edition came out in August 1940 and a new and revised edition in November 1940. This was reprinted in July 1941, November 1941 and March 1942 and also published in Canada, Australia, India, the USA, the Dutch East Indies and Switzerland. It sold for sixpence and was produced in compliance with the ‘Book Production War Economy Standard’ with a very simple white and red cover. At the back are two pages of adver- tisements for ‘Moral Re-Armament Books’, among them Peter Howard’s Innocent Men. Royalties went to the ‘Soldiers’, Sailors’ and Airmen’s Families Association’. 2. The ‘Oxford Group’, later known as the Moral Re-Armament Movement (MRA), was founded by the American anti-communist Frank Buchman who believed that a reformation of society could be brought about by initiating change in individuals. His right-wing sympathies became obvious when he praised the Nazi regime after a visit to Germany in 1936. Daphne du Maurier became very interested in this philosophy for a while and went to an MRA conference in Eastbourne in 1939 with her friend Bunny Austin, a tennis champion. See Cook, Daphne (1991), 149–60 and Forster, Daphne du Maurier (1994), 144. 3. Forster, Daphne du Maurier (1994), 167. One indication of how different this propaganda effort was from her usual work is the fact that she offered it to Heinemann rather than her usual publisher Victor Gollancz, much to his dismay. See ibid., 151. 4. Judith Cook remarks that the idea for the play ‘was sparked off by a true story’. They knew John Rathbone, the Conservative MP for Bodmin and his American wife. John, an RAF pilot, was reported missing and when his death was confirmed, his wife married a friend of the family. Daphne du Maurier kept wondering what would have happened if he had come back. 234 Notes

5. The reception of the play was generally lukewarm and it was considered old-fashioned. James Agate opined that ‘a heroine wearing three rows of whacking great pearls cares threepence whether working-class houses are provided with baths or not’. See Cook, Daphne (1991), 196. 6. Clearly, the format of Hungry Hill recalls Thomas Mann’s Die Buddenbrooks (1901), telling the tale of the decline of a powerful family, and the novel is also intertextually related to Maria Edgeworth’s Big House novels Castle Rackrent (1800) and The Absentee (1812) which anatomize the Anglo-Irish ruling class, as well as to Elizabeth Bowen’s The Last September (1929). 7. Daphne du Maurier, Hungry Hill [1943] (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1976), 10. 8. See Cook, Daphne (1991), 177–84. 9. Daphne du Maurier, The King’s General [1946] (London: Pan, 1974), 43–4. Index

Ackerman, Robert 11, 12, 13, Beaverbrook, Lord (William Maxwell 214, 215 Aitken) 62 adventure tale 59, 60, 117, 158, 163, Bennett, Arnold 33, 220 170, 171–3 Benson, Sir Frank 68, 70 Anderson, Benedict 75, 212 Betjeman, John 63 Anderson, Perry 212 Blake, William 118, 122 animatism 12 Blavatsky, Helena Petrovna 10 archetypal images 12, 15, 38, 48, 49, Blitz, the 7, 36, 100, 114, 120, 194 50, 51, 54, 64, 75, 90, 145, 150, Book Club 47, 127 214, 215 Book Society 46 Armstrong, Martin 125 Booth, Charles 82 Arts and Crafts Movement 87 Bounds, Philip 225 Aslet, Clive 211 Bourdieu, Pierre 223 Assmann, Aleida 26–8, 32, 154, 215, Bowen, Elizabeth 129, 131, 133, 217, 218 227, 234 Assmann, Jan 26–9, 154, 218 Heat of the Day, The 133, 227 Auden, Wystan Hugh 117, 223 Last September, The 234 Auerbach, Nina 227 Bracco, Rosa Maria 219 Austen, Jane, Northanger Abbey Braine, John 220 183 Brandt, Bill 223 Authors’ National Committee 95 Braveheart 68 Authors’ Planning Committee 95 Briggs, Asa 220 British Drama League 95 Bachofen, Johann Jakob 13 British Empire 6, 49, 52, 53, 56, 57, Bacon, Francis 229 59, 60, 69, 78, 107, 112, Barker, Sir Ernest 21, 22, 217 116–25, 187, 204 The Character of England 21–2, 217 Britishness 3–7, 23, 109, 125, 212; Barr, Charles 221 see also Englishness Barrie, Sir James Matthew, Dear Britten, Benjamin 46 Brutus 154 broadcasting, see radio Barthes, Roland, Mythologies 9–10, Brome, Vincent 220, 221, 224, 228 63, 144, 184, 214 Brontë, Charlotte, Jane Eyre 177, Bartholomew, Michael 69, 70, 104, 179, 231 222, 223, 225 Brontë, Emily 156 Bates, Herbert Ernest 123–4 Brontë, Patrick Branwell 229 Battle of Britain 29, 36, 114 Brooke, Rupert 15, 73 Battle of the Brows 32–4, 45, 220 Browning, Robert 94 Baucom, Ian A. 213 Browning, Thomas ‘Boy’ 149, 152, Baxendale, John 32, 61, 218, 220, 199, 205 221, 222 Bryant, Marsha 83, 223 BBC 29, 32, 33, 36, 63, 77–8, 105, Buchan, John, The Thirty-Nine 113–26, 220, 225 Steps 130, 132 Beauman, Nicola 218 Buitenhuis, Peter 225, 226

235 236 Index

Bunce, Michael, The Countryside 95, 106, 107, 108, 117–28, 134, Ideal 103, 225 137, 138, 144, 150, 156, 160, Bunyan, John 127, 193 182, 197, 210, 211, 217 Pilgrim’s Progress 127 condition of England 21, 35, 47, 51, Burke, Thomas, The Beauty of 53, 61, 80, 81, 85–7, 127, 131, England 74, 223 177, 213, 217, 223, 224, 228 Burns, Robert 124, 125 Constable, John 22, 90, 108, 215, Butcher, Jeffrey 226, 227 216, 223 Buzard, James 222 Cook, Judith 154, 221, 227, 228, Bystander 99 229, 233, 234 Cooper, Susan 94, 224 Calder, Angus 7, 214, 227 Corbett, David Peters 213, 216, 224 Cambridge Ritualists 11, 214 Corbin, Alain 170, 230 Campaign for Nuclear Cosgrove, Dennis 21, 213, 217 Disarmament 94, 95, 152, 217 Cotman, John Sell 108 Carey, John 218 Council for the Preservation of Rural Carlyle, Thomas 13, 21, 87 England 72, 74, 94, 217, 223 Cassirer, Ernst 16–20, 48, 214, Country Life 55, 74, 79, 215 215, 216 countryside 7, 15, 54, 55, 63, 65, 70, Myth of the State, The 19, 20 76, 88–94, 98, 101–4, 117, 123, Philosophy of Symbolic Forms, 124, 136, 137, 140, 142, 173, The 17–19, 216 203, 225; see also landscape, censorship 78, 108, 118, 168, 226 ruralism Chapman, James 227 Coward, Noël, Still Life 168 Chaucer, Geoffrey 125 Creuzer, Georg Friedrich 13 Churchill, Sir Winston Leonard Cromwell, Oliver 99, 124, 182, 192 Spencer 109, 121 Cuddy-Keane, Melba 220 cinema 46, 52, 57, 58, 76, 82, 83, Culler, Jonathan 63, 222 88, 106, 118, 129, 130, 131–3, Curran, James 224, 226 139, 142, 143, 145, 168, 223, 227, 230 Dane, Clemence 125 class 6, 7, 25, 36–9, 40, 49, 52, 53, Daniels, Stephen 21, 213, 217 62, 64, 70, 72, 74, 75, 81–5, 88, Davey, Kevin 3–5, 211 92, 95–101, 104, 107–9, 125, Dean, Basil 46 128, 129, 137, 150, 151, 161, Deep England 49, 61, 64, 68, 77, 92, 164, 167–9, 179, 180, 187, 188, 98, 102, 104, 122 194–9, 203, 206, 212, 220, 224, Defoe, Daniel 222 228, 233, 234 Delafield, E. M. (Edmée Elizabeth Clemens, Gabriele 217 Monica Dashwood), Diary of a Cobbett, William 61, 124, 222 Provincial Lady; The Provincial Cohen, Hermann 16, 216 Lady Goes Further 37, 168 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor 13, 158, 184 Dell, Ethel M(ary), The Way of collective unconscious 12, 13, 15, an Eagle 32 24, 64, 144, 145, 152, 160 Dickens, Charles 35, 45, 126, 200 Colley, Linda 4, 211 Dilthey, Wilhelm 14 Collins, Diana 94, 221, 224, 224 discovery of England 47, 61, 81, 82, Colls, Robert 3, 211 96, 222 community 8, 11, 16, 28, 36, 40, documentary 82, 83, 127–9, 143, 47–9, 53, 56, 57, 60, 75, 84, 223, 225, 227 Index 237

Dodd, Philip 3, 211, 224 family romance manqué 150, 159, Doubleday, Ellen 190 169, 184, 186, 191, 199, 204, Drake, Sir Francis 124, 192 210, 212 Dunkirk 115, 137 family saga 37, 73, 156–61, 199–204 Dunne, J(ohn) W(illiam) 10, 46, Ferrell, William K. 218 152, 153, 155, 221, 228 Fielding, Henry 108 An Experiment With Time 152, 228 Flying Dutchman 158, 184 Durkheim, Emile 12 folklore 14, 71, 126 Ford, Charles Bradley (ed.), The Beauty Easthope, Anthony 212 of Britain 73, 74, 223 Ebbatson, Roger 16, 59, 213, Forster, E(dward) M(organ) 25, 34, 215, 221 218 ecology, see industrialism, organicism, Forster, Margaret 189, 227, 232, 233 preservationism Frankfurt School 88, 106, 224 Edgeworth, Maria, Castle Rackrent; Frazer, Sir James, The Golden The Absentee 234 Bough 10, 11, 15, 68 Elias, Norbert 16 Freud, Sigmund 10, 12, 60; see also Eliot, George 35, 221 psychoanalysis Eliot, Thomas Stearns 25, 81, 185, Friese, Heidrun 211, 214 215, 218 Fussell, Paul 61, 222 Ellis, Clough Williams 223 Ellis, Markman 231 Gainsborough Melodrama 168; Elton, Godfrey, 1st Baron 125 see also cinema Empson, William 214 Gardiner, Rolf 16 Englishness 3–8, 42, 51, 55, 60, 62, Gaskell, Elizabeth 35 78, 87–90, 94, 96, 100, 109, Geertz, Clifford 99 151, 155, 158, 162, 211–14 Gellner, Ernest 212 myth of 63, 64, 89, 105, 111, 115, gender 6, 36–8, 40, 49, 52, 59, 72, 121–5, 134, 144, 164, 177–8, 83, 85, 109–12, 132, 133, 136, 180, 184, 212, 225–7 151, 152, 158, 160, 161, 163–8, mythical present of 22–5, 38, 48, 172, 176, 183, 186, 188, 189, 53, 54, 64, 71, 73, 90, 91, 101, 199, 203, 208, 218–19, 228, 104, 108, 121, 126, 136, 145, 230–2 154, 156, 161, 169, 176, 199, genealogy 100, 150, 151, 154, 157, 210, 216–18 159, 209, 228 as a symbolic form 8, 20–5, 29–30, Georgian poetry 102 41, 42, 47, 48, 52, 56, 61, 65, Gervais, David 212 75–80, 81, 90, 92, 97, 99, 101, Gikandi, Simon 213 104, 106, 126, 136, 140, 145, Gilbert, Sandra 231 146, 150, 156, 169, 176, 177, Giles, Judy 212 183, 184, 190–1, 204, 210, 214, Girtin, Thomas 108 216–18, 223 Glyn, Elinor, Three Weeks 31 English Spirit, The 119–25, 227 Gollancz, Victor 61, 95, 154, 196, Excalibur 68 225, 229, 233 gothic 38, 54, 55, 92, 150, 170–91, family 42, 99, 107, 122, 150, 154, 199, 206, 207, 213, 227, 228, 155, 159, 167, 169, 177, 182, 230–3 189, 191, 199, 204, 207, 209, Graves, Robert 10, 214 228, 229, 234 Gray, Dulcie 221 238 Index

Greenblatt, Stephen 25, 218 identity 3–8, 60, 101, 126, 138, 141, Greene, Graham 36, 132 144, 155, 179, 211–14 Greenwood, James 82 collective 3–8, 13, 15, 16, 20, Grimble, Simon 21, 150, 213, 217, 26–30, 45, 47, 105–26, 155, 223, 224 158, 160, 169, 182, 192, 200, Grimm, Jakob and Wilhelm 14 211–14, 225–7 Gubar, Susan 231 cultural 3–8, 26–30, 40, 41, 55, 126, 186, 190, 211–14 Haggard, Rider 59, 82 national 3–8, 9–10, 14, 15, 27–30, Halbwachs, Maurice 26, 218 40, 47, 48, 60, 62, 63, 71, Hall, Stuart 219 73, 75, 90, 101, 105–26, 159, Hardy, Thomas 41, 117 169, 177, 179, 192, 193, 199, Tess of the d’Urbervilles 41 211–14, 217 Hartley, Jenny 219 see also Britishness, Englishness Haseler, Stephen 211 Imperial War Museum 29 Hastings, Adrian 211 imperialism, see British Empire Hawkes, Jacquetta 22–5, 152, 217 industrialism 48, 49, 51, 70, 71, 77, A Land 22–5, 217 79, 81–9, 90, 93, 96, 98, 102, Hayes, Nick 212, 219, 220 107, 108, 200, 203, 212, 214 Hazlitt, William 90 Into Unknown England, see discovery Hentschel, Irene 196 of England and Keating, Peter Herder, Johann Gottfried 13 Ireland 199–204, 234 Higgs, Mary 82 It’s That Man Again (ITMA) 129, 227 highbrow 31, 32, 33, 34, 37, 39, 40, 45, 46, 50, 81, 218, 220, 228 Joannou, Maroula 219 Higson, Andrew 82, 83, 223 John of Gaunt 177 Hill, Jeff 212, 219, 220 Johnson, Celia 168 Hillman, James 13 Jonson, Ben, To Penshurst 180 Hitchcock, Alfred 130, 132 Joyce, James 32, 46, 185 Hobsbawm, Eric John Ernest 211, Jung, C(arl) G(ustav) 10, 12, 15, 212, 222 111, 152, 160, 214; see also Hodge, Alan 10, 214 psychoanalysis Holt, Ysanne 213, 216, 224 Holtby, Winifred, South Riding 36, Keating, Peter, Into Unknown 38, 220 England 82, 222, 223 Home Guard 116, 132 Korda, Alexander 131 Hope, Anthony, The Prisoner of Zenda 31 Lang, Andrew 59 Horner, Avril 184, 227, 228, 231, 232 Langer, Susanne K. 215 Howard, Peter, Innocent Men 195 landscape 5, 6, 15, 20–5, 41, 42, Hull, E(dith) M(aude), The Sheik 32 48–54, 63, 66, 71, 73–7, 86, Humble, Nicola 36, 37, 220 89–91, 96–8, 101, 102, 104, Hussey, Christopher, The Fairy Land 116, 121, 126, 136–8, 145, 150, of England 15, 55, 56, 74, 221 172, 176, 178, 185, 213, 217, Huxley, Aldous 33 222–5, 232 Brave New World 103 Lawrence, D(avid) H(erbert) 10, 15, 32, 37 Idealism 13, 14 Lean, David, Brief Encounter 168 Symbolic 17, 18 Leavis, F(rank) R(aymond) 32, 34, 45 Index 239

Leavis, Q(ueenie) D(orothy) 33, 34, Come Wind, Come Weather 192, 38–40, 45, 163, 220 195, 233 Fiction and the Reading Public 34, ‘Don’t Look Now’ 153 38–40 Du Mauriers, The 154, 155, Lebensphilosophie 14 166, 229 Lee, Robert A. 213 Enchanted Cornwall 151, 173, 227, Left Book Club 225 230, 231, 232 leisure industry 7, 31, 38, 62, 63, 78, Frenchman’s Creek 161–9, 230 162, 222 Hungry Hill 150, 154, 192, 196, Lévy-Bruhl, Lucien 12 199–204, 234 Lewis, Wyndham 31 Jamaica Inn 150, 170–7, 230–1 Light, Alison, Forever England 38, King’s General, The 42, 150, 192, 149, 179, 190, 212, 220, 227, 193, 204–10, 234 228, 229, 230 Loving Spirit, The 149, 150, 153, Lincoln, Margarette 170, 230 154, 156–61, 167, 176, 199 literary value 31–42, 45–7, Rebecca 42, 149, 150, 167, 177–91, 149; see also Battle of the 195, 231–3 Brows, highbrow, lowbrow, Years Between, The 192, 196, middlebrow 231, 233 Local Defence Volunteers, see Home du Maurier, George 153, 154, 228 Guard Peter Ibbetson 154 London, Jack, The People of the du Maurier, Gerald 151, 154, Abyss 96 196, 229 lowbrow 31–4, 40, 218, 220 memodrama 31, 41–2, 138–46, 170, Loxley, Diane 59, 60, 221 177–91, 204–10, 218, 227, Lucas, David 22 230–4 memory 67, 139, 141, 178, 183, MacCannell, Dean 222 191, 218 MacCarthy, Desmond 33 collective 6–8, 26–9, 47, 64, 71, MacFarlane, Alan 212 101, 118–26, 186, 193, 200, Madonna of the Seven Moons 168 201, 205, 218 Malinowski, Bronislaw 11, 14, 15 communicative 26–9, 41, 52, 101, Malory, Sir Thomas 77 138, 144, 154, 180, 181, 204, Mansfield, Katherine 40 218, 230 Marett, R(obert) R(anulph) 12 cultural 6–8, 25, 27–9, 47, 64, 68, Marryat, Captain Frederick, The 69, 71, 89, 90, 101, 118, 125, Phantom Ship 158 126, 138, 144, 170, 171, 177, Maslen, Elizabeth 219 185, 191, 218 mass culture 6, 31, 32, 35, 36, 40, middlebrow 31–42, 45, 46, 71, 81, 51, 53, 55, 82, 88, 106, 108, 143, 149, 152, 157, 163, 168, 131, 136, 218, 219, 224 171, 172, 218, 219, 220, 228 Mass Observation 80, 82 Middleton, Tim 212 Massingham, H(arold) J(ohn) 16 Millions Like Us 129 Masterman, C(harles) F(rederick) Mills & Boon 31 G(urney) 82 Ministry of Information 105, 108 Matless, David 16, 62–4, 71, 72, 87, modernism 20, 31, 34, 46, 104, 213, 213, 215, 222, 223, 224 218, 219, 224 du Maurier, Daphne 13, 38, 42, 146, Moral Re-Armament 192, 194, 149–210, 227–34 195, 233 240 Index

More, Thomas 103 Orwell, George 36, 61, 95–102, 106, Morris, William 87 107, 109, 168, 219, 224 Morton, H(enry) V(ollam) 16, 61–80, Coming Up for Air 36, 168 81, 92, 93, 95, 104, 107, 114, Down and Out in Paris and 123, 151, 159, 161, 215, 222, London 96 223, 225 ‘English People, The’ 100, 225 Call for England, The 223 Homage to Catalonia 98, 225 Heart of London, The 62 ‘Lion and the Unicorn, The’ 99, I Saw Two Englands 75–80, 223 225, 226 In Search of England 16, 61–80, 81, Nineteen Eighty-Four 101–2, 159, 222 103, 225 In Search of Ireland 62 Road to Wigan Pier, The 83, 95–9, In Search of Scotland 62, 69 109, 224, 225 In Search of Wales 62 Ouspensky, Peter D. 10 Nights of London, The 62 Oxford Group 10; see also Moral Spell of London, The 62 Re-Armament What I Saw in the Slums 62 motoring pastoral 62, 63, 80 pastoralism, see ruralism Müller, Max 13 Pawling, Chris 32, 61, 218, 220 music hall 36, 46, 50, 51, 52, 121, Paxman, Jeremy 3, 211 127, 221 People’s War, the 7, 42, 100, 108, myth 3, 7, 8, 9–25, 26, 59, 63, 65, 113, 129, 130, 134, 192, 193, 67, 71, 103, 105, 108, 115, 124, 195, 199, 214 134, 138, 142, 144, 146, 153, photography 63, 73, 74, 75, 82, 111, 170, 183, 184, 214–16 112, 181, 218, 223 myth-and-ritual school 11, 214 Plain, Gill 218 mythical present 9, 22–5, 66, 150, Potts, Alex 15, 20, 215, 216 155, 165, 167, 169, 172, 176, Pound, Ezra 31, 34 185, 214; see also Englishness popular writing 31, 34–7, 39, 59, mythology, solar 13 81, 129, 131, 136, 149, 151, 158, 170, 219, 228; see also Nairn, Tom 211 adventure tale, romance Nash, Paul 20, 224 preservationism 16, 56, 72, 85–7, 90, National Book Council 40 92, 93, 94, 96, 100, 107, 108, National Geographic 62 126, 203, 223 nationalism 3, 4, 97, 109, 114, Preuss, Konrad Theodor 12 211–13, 231; see also identity, Priestley, Jane 111 national Priestley, John Boynton 13, 33–6, Nazism 113, 116, 122, 129–32, 233 40, 41, 42, 45–60, 61, 74, Nelson, Lord Admiral 99, 124 80–95, 98, 99, 105–46, 152, Nicolson, Harold 45 156, 161, 168, 195, 199, 203, Nightingale, Florence 111, 124 210, 217, 220–7, 228 nostalgia 64, 103, 104, 136, 155, An Inspector Calls 46 177, 180, 191, 222 Angel Pavement 55, 56 Blackout in Gretley 129–34, 227 Open Road, the 62; see also tourism Bright Day 42, 136, 138–46, oral history 29 210, 227 organicism 15, 16, 55, 56, 64, 66, Britain at War 112, 226 72, 73, 122, 126, 156 Britain Speaks 113, 226 Index 241

British Women Go To War 110, 226 Richards, Jeffrey 230 Daylight on Saturday 127–9, 227 Richardson, Ralph 46 English Journey 47, 61, 80–95, Rohmer, Sax 130 106–8, 223, 224 romance 31, 32, 35, 37, 38, 59, 60, 67, Faraway 56–60, 136, 156, 168, 221 69, 71, 149, 150, 161, 163, 166, Festival at Farbridge 127 167, 170, 176, 177, 180, 184, Good Companions, The 36, 40, 41, 190, 214, 227, 228, 230, 232 47–53, 54, 55, 127, 136, 145, Romanticism 13, 21, 24, 69, 91, 126, 161, 221 150, 158, 160 ‘High, Low, Broad’ 33 Rubin, Joan Shelley 219 I Have Been Here Before 152 ruralism 5, 7, 15, 16, 22, 49, 54, 62, Johnson Over Jordan 46 64, 66, 72, 89, 95, 102–4, 116, Let the People Sing 127 121, 126, 150, 178, 212, 213, Literature and Western Man 46, 221 215, 216, 217, 223, 224 Margin Released 46, 128, 221, 227 Rushdie, Salman 213 Midnight on the Desert 221 Ruskin, John 87, 224 Out of the People 106–9, 122, Russell, Fiona 213, 216, 224 129, 226 Postscripts 36, 105, 106, 113–19, Samuel, Raphael 4, 211 122, 226, 227 Sayers, Dorothy, Gaudy Night 35 Rain Upon Godshill 94, 98, Schelling, Friedrich Wilhelm 224, 225 Joseph 13 They Walk in the City 53–6, 221 Scott, Sir Walter 69, 108, 124 ‘This Land of Ours’ 121–3 Scruton, Roger 211 Three Men in New Suits 134–8, 227 Seaton, Jean 105, 224, 226 Time and the Conways 45, 152 Sengupta, Supriya 46, 221 ‘To a High-Brow’ 33 Shacker, Jennifer 14, 213, 215 ‘Too Simple?’ 35 Shakespeare, William 41, 49, 58, 68, Projection of Britain, the 217 89, 90, 97, 102, 121, 124, 162, propaganda 52, 75, 77, 78, 99, 104, 165, 177, 184, 187, 232 105, 108, 110, 112, 118, 126, A Midsummer Night’s Dream 68, 127, 129, 134, 137–9, 146, 121, 162 192–6, 214, 225–7, 233 Richard II 177 psychoanalysis 141, 145–6, 152, Tempest, The 184 157, 158, 159, 160, 189, 190 Winter’s Tale, The 232 Punch 124, 154, 220 Shell Guides 63 Punter, David 231 Shelley, Percy Bysshe 91, 124 Puxley, Christopher 154, 199, 230 shipwrecking 170–7, 230 Sidney, Sir Philip 192 Quiller-Couch, Sir Arthur 34, 59, 185 Sing As We Go 83, 127 Castle Dor 185 soil, cult of the 15, 16, 20, 56, 64, Poison Island 59 72, 122, 185, 214, 215, 222 Somerset Maugham, William 36, radio 32, 70, 82, 88, 99, 105, 124, 227 113–26, 129, 225 spirituality 10, 16, 20, 22, 24, 54, 56, Raleigh, Sir Walter 124, 192 64, 66, 72, 76, 90, 92, 108, 109, Ranger, Terence 212, 222 146, 157, 158, 160, 167, 172, Read, Herbert 224 175, 176, 185, 192, 194, 203, Reed, Carol, The Third Man 133 204, 222, 230 242 Index

Steiner, Rudolf 16 Warburg, Aby 16, 18, 216 stereotypes 7, 9, 11, 22, 47, 64, 87, Warburg Institute 18 89, 97, 98, 111, 121, 124–6, Waugh, Evelyn 36, 64 164, 177, 179, 180, 182, 211–14 Brideshead Revisited 36 Sterne, Laurence 108 Wells, H(erbert) G(eorge) 103 Stevenson, Robert Louis 59, 163, 231 Weston, Jessie 214 Stopes, Marie, Married Love 168 Weymouth, Anthony (ed.), The English Stratford Festival 71 Spirit, see English Spirit, The Strenski, Ivan 11, 14, 214, 215 Whitman, Walt 118 symbolic form 8, 17–18, 20, 21, 24, Wicked Lady, The 168 25, 27, 28, 56, 92, 97, 126, 214, Wiener, Martin, English Culture 215, 216; see also Englishness and Decline of the Industrial Spirit 84, 212, 224 Taylor, Edgar 14 Williams, Keith 219 Taylor, John 63, 75, 213, 218, 222, Williams, Raymond, The Country and 223, 225 the City 102–3, 225 Temple, William, Archbishop of Women’s Institute 37 Canterbury 41, 220 Women’s Land Army 112 Tennyson, Lord Alfred 116, 142 Woolf, Leonard 33 Thomas, Edward 16, 102, 215 Woolf, Virginia 32, 33, 34, 45, 111, time, serial theory of 10, 46, 146, 220, 231 152–4, 158, 221, 228 Three Guineas 111 Time and Tide 37 Wordsworth, William 91, 120, 124, Times Literary Supplement 41 178, 217, 229 Tolkien, J(ohn) R(onald) R(euel), Lord World War One 6, 11, 16, 32, 36, of the Rings 122 45, 52, 62, 70, 71, 82, 114, 116, tourism 61, 63–80, 92, 161, 178, 123, 130, 134, 138, 140, 141, 184, 213, 218, 222, 231, 232 149, 194, 202 travel writing 16, 31, 47, 59, 61–104, World War Two 7, 29, 40, 42, 77, 126, 161, 162, 213, 222–5 104, 105–39, 169, 192–9, 205, Trevor-Roper, Hugh 69, 222 215, 225, 230 Tristan and Iseult 184, 185 Wright, Patrick 211, 225 Turner, William 108 Tylor, Edward Burnett 214 Yeo, Stephen 3, 211 Young, Arthur 61, 222 Walker, Stephen 12, 214 Walpole, Sir Hugh 34, 123, 227 Zimmer-Bradley, Marion, The Mists Walton, Izaak, The Compleat of Avalon 68 Angler 77 Zlosnik, Sue 184, 227, 228, 231, 232