Enhancing Biodiversity through Nature- based Infrastructure design in New York City
Kinjal Mor SES 660A- Capstone Instructors: Leonel Ponce & Ira Stern Semester: Fall 2020
SPECIAL THANKS Alan Cohn, NYC DEP John Brock, NYC DEP Miki Urisaka, NYC DEP Robert Brauman, NYC DEP Adam Benditsky, NYCHA Novem Auyeung, NYC Parks
Ben Rosenblum, NYC 2030 Districts Haym Gross, NYC 2030 Districts
Leonel Ponce, Pratt Institute Ira Stern, Pratt Institute Samara Swanston, Pratt Institute Ronald Shiffman, Pratt Institute John Shapiro, Pratt Institute Paul Mankiewicz, Pratt Institute Juan Osorio, Pratt Institute Gita Nandan, Pratt Institute Damon Chaky, Pratt Institute Gelvin Stevenson, Pratt Institute Chris Neville, Pratt Institute CONTENTS
Executive Summary Introduction Research Question Section 1: Background Study A. Cloudburst Program I. Cloudburst Management Plan- Copenhagen II. Implementation Process B. Urban regenerative ecosystem solutions I. Nature Based Solutions II. Green Infrastructure III. Blue Infrastructure IV. Blue- Green Infrastructure C. Biodiversity I. Species area relationship II. Urban Biodiversity III. Additional Considerations D. Co-benefits of Biodiversity Section 2: New York City and Cloudburst Program A. Client- Department of Environmental Protection B. NYC Cloudburst Study- Analysis C. Case studies (Synthesized) Section 3: South Jamaica Homes- Existing Study A. Introduction and Proposed ideas B. Proposed Biodiversity C. Plants Matrix Section 4: Research and Analysis A. Site Demography and History- St. Albans B. Design Opportunities- St. Albans C. Recommended Plants Palette D. City Biodiversity Index and Application E. Cost Benefit Analysis F. Recommendations Conclusion Appendix Cloudburst Plans- Copenhagen South Jamaica Homes- Cloudburst Planning Application of Singapore Index on South Jamaica Homes Bibliography EXECUTIVE SUMMARY “Scientific evidence for warming of the climate system is unequivocal” (Climate Change Synthesis Report Summary for Policymakers, 2014). The climate is changing and the paradigm shift in the earth's environment has made it necessary to implement sustainable concepts to all the aspects of life. Environmental damage cannot be reversed owing to the fact- increasing population, world demands, depletion of resources, etc.; but for sure the damage can be slowed down by implementing sustainability. Global climate change has already had observable effects on the environment. Glaciers have shrunk, ice on rivers and lakes is breaking up earlier than it is supposed to, plant and animal ranges have shifted and trees are flowering sooner (Climate Change Evidence, n.d.). The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), which includes more than 1,300 scientists from the United States and other countries, forecasts a temperature rise of 2.5 to 10 degrees Fahrenheit over the next century. These changing patterns have led to more frequent extreme weather events like storms, droughts, and cloudbursts.
Cloudbursts literally mean the bursting of cloud and an extreme amount of precipitation in a short period of time, sometimes accompanied by hail and thunder, which is capable of creating flood conditions. Nature-based solutions like blue-green infrastructure has proven to be very helpful with stormwater management and the way forward mandates synergizing eco-friendly designs and concepts with the existing construction techniques is critical. The focus of the cloudburst management program that the NYC Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) are doing in the neighborhood of Southeast Queens is on integrating blue and green infrastructures and creating BGI networks. Using the Copenhagen Cloudburst Management Plan as a reference model my clients the NYC DEP is trying to create solutions to the stormwater and heavy rainfall disasters in the future. This model has brought together different city agencies like NYC DEP, NYCHA, NYC DOT, NYC Parks, social and civil groups, and engineering firms to implement these programs.
Blue-green infrastructures offer solutions for areas that face the challenges of cloudbursts, droughts, or extreme weather events. As biodiversity is an important element of blue and green infrastructures it is important to understand how this plays a role and the value. Biodiversity is essential to human survival. It includes plant species, animals, birds, bees, and all the different organisms. Biodiversity has multiple co-benefits like reducing the urban heat island effect, soil stabilization, improve air quality, reduce asthma rates, better mental health, improve aesthetics, reduce noise pollution, the lower flow of viruses, improve community cohesion, and crime prevention. This project analyzes the scope of biodiversity in blue-green infrastructures and the benefits that are the result of it. Using Multi-criteria decision and cost-benefit analysis, the paper is an attempt to quantify a few of the ecosystem services and at the same time to understand the benefits that are not quantifiable but still are invaluable and have a lasting positive impact on the communities and environment in the New York City. The resulting goal is to prioritize nature and biodiversity and the invaluable benefits that they provide to mankind. INTRODUCTION The Earth’s climate has constantly changed throughout history but in the last650,000 years Earth has seen more cycles of glacial advance and retreat than in the past. The last ice age abruptly ended about 11,700 years ago making the beginning of the modern climate era, human civilization, and negative climate change effects (Climate Change Evidence, n.d.). The current warming trend is consequential because most of it is extremely likely due to human activities and the development that took place after the Industrial Revolution. The comparison of atmospheric samples that are found in the ice cores and the study has proved that today’s climate patterns are a result of human-induced global warming. Even if humans cut down all their emissions today still there is enough CO2 in the atmosphere that will have lasting and irreversible impacts. (Climate Change 2014 Synthesis Report Summary for Policymakers, 2014)
The changing patterns has made it evident that we need to be more prepared for the future. Infrastructure is the set of structural components that promotes day-to-day functioning and has the ability to mold the human society. Sustainable Infrastructure refers to the design, construction, and operation of these structural components in ways that do not undermine the social, Fig A : Evidence that atmospheric CO2 has increased financial and environmental since the Industrial Revolution (Luthi & Etheridge, 2008) processes that are necessary to preserve the equity, diversity, and functionality of human beings in natural systems (Sustainable Infrastructure, n.d.). The infrastructure that we are building today will change the way our communities live and impact their survival and so it’s important that we built resilient infrastructure. The sea level is rising and the glaciers are melting at an unprecedented rate, and the infrastructure we live in is not built-in consideration to these changing water tables and patterns. Heavy rainfall and storms are not seasonal anymore and have become a part of the new climate change. We must start retrofitting our built environment to accommodate these conditions.
Cloudbursts are more common in today’s world. The infrastructure that we have is not capable of managing the sudden extreme amount of water, floods, heavy rainfalls, and creates damages worth millions of dollars. New York City is an island city and the Superstorm Sandy of 2012 led to damages worth 30 to 50 billion dollars which forced officials and the government to redesign and rework the strategies to be prepared for future events. By integrating traditional underground drainage infrastructure and aboveground solutions into ongoing urban infrastruct- ure plans, the NYC Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) seeks to tackle heavy rainfall. Through storage and surface flow conveyance, the focus is to improve the stormwater management while also creating inspirational and resilient urban areas with co- benefits for the citizens, local businesses, and the city in large. The cloudburst study analyzes the best-available NYC rainfall data till date proposes methodologies for integrating the findings into an ongoing resilient/ sustainability planning initiatives, and identifies industry standards in future neighborhood-specific planning studies to consider climate change. Fig B : Global Sources of Greenhouse gases. (Where Do Opportunities for intervention Greenhouse Gas Emissions Come From?, 2019) within the designated study areas are identified as the outcome of the study to provide retention and conveyance for the severe environmental conditions while also providing community and environmental benefits under optimal conditions. The research also provides an understanding of how, when applied in an NYC environment, the cloudburst typologies may look and how to advance climate resilience models through pilot projects (Ramboll A/S, 2017). Green infrastructure can be a cost-effective strategy for improving water quality and helping communities further expand their infrastructure investment by providing multiple environmental, economic, and community benefits. Blue-Green Infrastructure is the critical component of the cloudburst program and the focus of this research is on maximizing its benefits. Biodiversity is an integral part of the blue-green infrastructure. Biodiversity has multiple benefits and if planned correctly can lead to better results.
Ecosystems encompasses a series of complex interactions between members of different species. Such interactions often lead to negative feedback loops, keeping the environment in roughly the same state. Humans are changing the composition of biological communities through a variety of activities that significantly raise the rates of species invasions and species destruction at all levels, from local to global. These changes in the components of Earth's biodiversity are the problems of moral and esthetic reasons, but they also have a compelling ability to modify the properties of ecosystem services and the goods and services they provide to humanity. Therefore, addressing biodiversity is important concerning sustainability and resiliency. The variety of animals, plants, fungi, and all the other living entities make the natural world and makes upon the incredible biodiversity of Earth. Life is impossible without biodiversity because it supports everything in nature that mankind needs to survive from food to shelter.
Traditionally, the cost analysis that the economists did only took into consideration immediate financial returns and stormwater management benefits of the green infrastructure but the focus of this paper is to broaden the horizon and look at other benefits that come from planned biodiversity and how it impacts the cost-benefit framework of these practices. The cost comparison is by far the most popular tool for estimating the economic impact of green infrastructure. The two basic cost analysis methods recognize: only initial construction costs; and life-cycle costs, including planning, design, construction, operation and maintenance, and restoration. Cost- benefit analysis is more complex than cost analysis, but it also provides a more comprehensive basis for decision-making. It not only involves the cost but also the Fig C : Cost- Benefit Analysis layer over the environmental, social, and public health traditional cost analysis layer (Ramboll A/S, consequences of the alternative manage- 2017). ment approaches. The result is more complete information on the benefits of various stormwater control options (US EPA, 2015). This paper focuses on the biodiversity in the cloudburst program and other blue-green infrastructure interventions happening around the New York City and different city agencies often integrate and work together to achieve greater urban values.
The Cloudburst planning is based on the Copenhagen Cloudburst model and is being implemented in the South East Queens neighborhood on different properties. There are a lot of pilot projects that are a part of this overall planning program and multiple sites have been selected over the neighborhood for implementation. Various native plant species have been proposed by the department for these projects which are analyzed in the further sections of the report and attempts to understand the other benefits of those plant species. Biodiversity benefits are explicitly related to the area of the green cover and greater benefits can be reaped with bigger and better green canopies and stretch. The further sections also propose new plant palettes that could be used which might help in reaping additional benefits. RESEARCH QUESTION
"Does the NYC DEP’s Cloudburst program and Blue - Green infrastructure interventions address biodiversity and its impacts on the local ecosystem and communities and how they can quantify those impacts?” SECTION 1: BACKGROUND STUDY 1.A. CLOUDBURST PROGRAM
Urban stormwater management has evolved over the past thousand years shifting from conveyance of water through trenches, ditches, or open gutters to a more complex underground sewer system. The recent climate change, sea-level rise, extreme weather events, and flooding proved that these systems are inadequate in today’s times and needs to be changed. Therefore, most of the governments, civil bodies, and organizations have adopted the most recent best management practices to regulate stormwater runoff and improve the water quality of their neighborhoods. (Rosenzweig et al., 2019).
The modern stormwater systems are a combination of different strategies that manage water more efficiently, layering ‘green infrastructure’ over the traditional grey infrastructure to convey water. However, while these strategies are more sophisticated than their past counterparts; most cities till date remain vulnerable to cloudbursts; that can cause flash flooding and the disruption of critical city systems. The term “cloudburst” has been part of the meteorological literature for decades and was formally defined in 1946 by Ralf R. Woolley as “…a torrential downpour of rain which by its spottiness and relatively high intensity suggests the bursting and discharge of a whole cloud at once.” (Woolley, 1946).
Downpour, water bomb and torrential rains are the alternative terms that are commonly used in place of cloudbursts. The projected increase in frequency and magnitude of cloudbursts has forced cities to urgently adopt policies and strategies to create more resilient and sustainable infrastructure (Fischer & Knutti, 2016). A city that is prepared in advance will suffer minimal damage and disruptions in Fig 1: Cloudburst in an urban setup. (Human and the Climate,2020) extreme weather conditions.
To create a strategy for cloudbursts planning various agencies ranging from practitioners at various levels of government, private sector, stakeholders that include different departments, people living and visiting the cloudburst impacted sites and neighboring communities should come together and share knowledge of the contemporary weather and future climate conditions that determine cloudburst hazard, the vulnerability of urban social, ecological and infrastructure systems and potential strategies for cloudbursts management. The cloudburst planning is a iterative process and is a four-step planning process that includes determining risk, planning, and designing, measuring effects and evaluating costs and trying to maximize the benefits by overlapping different urban projects. 1.A.I Cloudburst Management Plan- Copenhagen
Copenhagen, Denmark, EU is located along the Oresund Strait between the Baltic and North Seas. Copenhagen has a moderate, maritime climate (Köppen: Cfb), with rain distributed equally throughout the year. The city’s topography has been substantially altered and most of its predevelopment streams were filled. It now relies on a combined sewer system constructed in the mid-19th Century for storm and wastewater management (Madsen et al., 2019). On July 2, 2011, an extreme rain event with over 50 mm of rain falling in 30 min in some parts of the City and precipitation exceeding a 2000-year return period hit Copenhagen. The event caused severe pluvial flooding and damage to private homes, businesses, public buildings and infrastructure, including roads and train systems, resulting in insurance claims of more than 800 million EUR (Arnbjerg-Nielsen et al., 2015). In response, a dedicated Cloudburst Management Plan (CCMP) for the City of Copenhagen and the Municipality of Frederiksberg was developed and released in the 2012.
The City of Copenhagen and Greater Copenhagen Utilities (HOFOR) assisted by Cowi have developed a general and citywide cloudburst masterplan that divides Copenhagen and Frederiksberg into catchments to found the basis for the specific master planning and project identification (The city of Copenhagen Technical and Environmental Administration, 2012). The plan was prepared under the administration of Mayor for technical and environmental affairs, Morten Kabell. Ramboll and Studio Dreiseitl, along with the City of Copenhagen, Greater Copenhagen Utilities (HOFOR), Frederiksberg Municipality and Frederiksberg Utilities co-created masterplans covering more than half of the sites in the two cities. These plans were based on the use of integrated planning and implantation of blue green Fig 2: Cloudburst in Copenhagen. infrastructure that inspired designers, professionals (City of Copenhagen,2012) and planners internationally.
The cloudburst master plan prepared for Copenhagen is based on the simple principle of keeping the water on the surface and controlling it rather than building traditional grey infrastructure or large expensive underground pipes. The master plan plans to develop synergy for the city overall, obtained by using water-sensitive solutions to enhance the total viability of the city, with water on the ground being used as a resource in urban space (Cloudburst Concretisation Masterplan - Ramboll Group, 2013). DETAILING THE VISION The city of Copenhagen has been divided into eight areas and a plan for the implementation of each of these catchment area has been established. The Ramboll Group has formulated four of the eight concrete plans with visuals of how cloud-burst streets, retention streets and green streets can be constructed and how these solutions support the city's overall objective of increasing livability. Multiuse spaces are the foundation to the concretization plans to increase benefits receiving from the same space. Parks and playgrounds are recreational spaces that can be used in dry conditions but in weather events they can act as retention basins and can hold water (Cloudburst Mitigation, 2015)
The traditional boulevard has green strip in the middle and roads on both the sides. The traditional green strips are elevated and during rain events the water run from the green area and onto the street and thus causing flooding and destroying the properties in the neighborhoods. Ramboll visioned a V- shaped profile of the boulevard that would change the road profile and give use to the traditional green strip by making it act like a large retention basin. This will reverse the water flow in rain events. Now the water will flow from the streets to the retention basin or the center strip as oppose to water flowing from the center to the roads. During cloudbursts the urban river can carry up to 3.3 cubic m. of water per sq. m. (Cloudburst Mitigation, 2015) Central retention is a key to the cloudburst management plan. The cloudburst design plans can be referred to in the Appendix section.
Fig 3: Rain event handled with multi function boulevard. (ASLA,2012) To mitigate cloudbursts two masterplan solutions were created- conventional and green blue infrastructure. Saint Jorgens is one of the three inner city lakes of Copenhagen. The lake currently lies above the surrounding street levels and flood during rain events and therefore it was necessary to change the current layout. The conventional plan required a creation of underground pipes to convey water to the harbor, and this solution is more costly than the blue- green interventions. On the contrast, the blue green interventions proposed to lower the lake levels by approx. 3 m, creating a new storage volume of approx. 40,000 cubic m. and also improving the recreational value of the lake. The new lakeside became more accessible and thereby increasing community wellbeing (Cloudburst Mitigation, 2015).
Conventional infrastructure is generally considered to be technical, sub surface, hidden elements, while Blue-Green solutions are low-tech, surface-based and engaging. The Blue-Green Approach develops a synergistic connection between the two, integrating climate adaptation solutions within limited urban spaces, and encouraging a solution that uses the best of both techniques (The Copenhagen Cloudburst Formula: A Strategic Process for Planning and Designing Blue-Green Interventions | 2016 ASLA Professional Awards, 2016). The implementation plans help Copenhagen to retain its position as one of the most viable cities in the world.
Fig 4: Saint Joergens Lake. (ASLA,2012) 1.A.II IMPLEMENTATION PROCESS- Copenhagen The city of Copenhagen has neither the ability nor the economic system to take all initiatives at once. The Cloudburst Management Plan operates with a minimum timeframe of 20 years. There is therefore a need to rank measures in order of importance. The essential elements that are considered while defining the cloudbursts the management plan is as follows: 1.High risk areas 2.Areas where measures are easy to implement 3.Areas with ongoing urban development projects 4.Areas where synergistic effects can be gained (The city of Copenhagen Technical and Environmental Administration, 2012)
For the purpose of the report the city was divided into 26 local water catchment areas and the major flow routes were mapped. Each water catchment area was analyzed and studies for the four elements mentioned above. This implies that action will be given the highest priority in areas with a high risk of flooding where the action is easy to implement and achieves good synergistic effects with infrastructure projects or other types of urban planning (Cloudburst Mitigation, 2015).
Fig 5: Water Catchment Area. (CCMP,2012) Fig 6: Water Flow Routes. (CCMP,2012) As part of the ongoing work with the Cloudburst Management Plan where the individual climate adaptive measures were to be planned in detail, the final decision on methodology and the positioning of flow routes was made. The speed with which the Cloudburst Management Plan would be implemented over a duration of roughly 20 years. The Plan is not legally binding per se and to have an impact, it needs to be incorporated into the general planning process of the Administration: primarily the Municipal Master Plan, sectoral plans (Waste Water Plan), and local master plans. (The city of Copenhagen Technical and Environmental Administration, 2012) The Copenhagen Cloudburst The formula provides a framework for integrating the existing, constructed context with Blue-Green retrofit solutions. The practical, pragmatic instruments that are implemented mitigate extreme storm events and enhance our cityscapes. Much more can be provided by Cloudburst solutions than just stormwater management. The strategic flood masterplan is the opportunity to protect Copenhagen while providing the foundations for a city environment of high quality. The Cloudburst planning for Copenhagen was a 6 step process that included data investigation, modeling, cost, and designing of the plan. The plan focuses on creating more integrated solutions, understanding the co-benefits, and trying to create synergies with local communities, flood prevention, and water quality management. The plan also focuses on multifaceted solution and different nature-based approaches and involves stakeholder engagement and collaboration understanding that the project is for the people (The Copenhagen Cloudburst Formula: A Strategic Process for Planning and Designing Blue-Green Interventions | 2016 ASLA Professional Awards, 2016).
Fig 7: Copenhagen Cloudburst Formula. (The Copenhagen Cloudburst Formula: A Strategic Process for Planning and Designing Blue-Green Interventions | 2016 ASLA Professional Awards, 2016) 1.B. URBAN Regenerative ECOSYSTEM SOLUTIONS Humanity has lived a rural life throughout most of our history, and our ancestors depended primarily on subsistence hunting and agriculture. A mere 3 percent of the world's population lived in urban areas two hundred years ago, while city dwellers became the majority of the world's population in 2011, for the first time in human history. The growing urbanization that characterizes our planet causes a growing lack of sustainability, posing challenging challenges. It generates economic wealth but at the same time, is a source of natural and environmental poverty and therefore it is important to look at the different methods of regenerating our ecosystems.
Nature-based Solutions are decisions aimed at protecting, sustainably managing, and restoring natural and modified ecosystems in ways that not only effectively and adaptively addresses social problems but also provides benefits for both human well- being and biodiversity (Nature-Based Solutions, 2016) They are bolstered by the benefits of healthy ecosystems and are targeted at major challenges such as climate change, the reduction of disaster risk, flood management food, and water security, health, and economic development. A solution Fig 8: Nature based solutions. (Nature-Based based on nature uses the tools already Solutions, 2016) provided by nature to tackle problems resulting from poor land or resource use, climate change, or societal challenges. (Nature-Based Solutions, 2016) Solutions often improve existing natural or man-made facilities and promote long-term economic, social and environmental benefits. Nature- based solutions aim to promote the achievement of the development objectives of the society and to safeguard human well-being in ways that reflect cultural and societal values and improve the resilience of the ecosystems, their capacity for renewal and the provision of services. Fig 9: Blue Infrastructure. (Blue-Green Cities Grey infrastructure refers to buildings, Definition, n.d.) roads, and other urban constructions. Blue Infrastructure refers to the water elements, like rivers, canals, ponds, wetlands, floodplains, water treatment facilities, etc. (Bioveins | What Is Green and Blue Infrastructure?, n.d.) Section 502 of the Clean Water Act defines green infrastructure as "...the range of measures that use plant or soil systems, permeable pavement, or other permeable surfaces or substrates, stormwater harvest, and reuse, or landscaping to store, infiltrate, or evapotranspiration stormwater and reduce flows to sewer systems or to Fig 10: Green Infrastructure. (Green Infrastructure surface waters."(OW US EPA, 2015a) Has Benefits, but Upkeep Can Be Challenging | Ensia, Green infrastructure is a cost-effective, n.d.) resilient approach to wet weather impact management that offers many advantages for the community. While conventional piped drainage and water treatment systems are designed to move urban stormwater away from the constructed environment, green infrastructure reduces and treats stormwater at its source while providing environmental, social, and economic benefits. Fig 11: Blue- Green Infrastructure. (What Is Blue- Green Infrastructure? | NONAGON.Style, n.d.) Blue-Green Infrastructure (BGI) is globally and internationally literature recognized approach to urban flood resilience that capitalizes on the benefits of working with urban green spaces and naturalized water flows. Literature reveals the sustainable functioning and benefits of BGI-the provision depends on the behavior of those who use it, so local management is often suggested to promote maintenance. (Lamond & Everett, 2019) Blue-Green infrastructure (BGI) offers a feasible and valuable solution for urban areas facing the challenges of climate change such as cloudbursts and droughts. BGI connects urban hydrological functions with urban nature, landscape design, and planning. Biodiversity is a critical component of the BGI network and its understanding and study are therefore vital. 1.C. BIODIVERSITY Earth's biodiversity is the result of 4 billion years of evolution—a change in the hereditary traits of the population of organisms down the generations. Until about 600 million years ago, life consisted of single-celled organisms. The history of biodiversity during the Phanerozoic era (the last 540 million years) commences with the fast expansion of the explosion in Cambria, the period in which most multicellular organisms emerged. Global diversity showed a little overall trend in the next 400 million years and was marked by periodic, huge losses of diversity categorized as events of mass extinction. The causes of previous mass extinctions are not fully understood, but extinctions usually occur when sudden shocks compound long-term stresses like climate change. Four of the five previous mass extinction events are likely to have been caused by greenhouse gas emissions and global warming. (The Elements of Biodiversity, n.d.)
Ecosystem diversity is critical to human survival and ecosystem integrity. Biodiversity supports everything in nature and beyond its intrinsic value, it is an absolute must for existence. Diversity in food crops and pollinating insects and bats enable agriculture to support our populations; only diversity can save the system from collapse when disease strikes a food crop. Plant and animal diversity provide both current and potential building blocks for medicine; nearly half of the pharmaceutical products used today in the United States are manufactured using natural compounds, many of which cannot be synthesized (The Elements of Biodiversity, n.d.)
‘Biodiversity not only has economic value but also has social and moral values. In our language, religion, literature, art, and music, it plays a central mythic and symbolic role, making it a critical component of human culture with benefits to society that have not been quantified but are clearly vast.’ Throughout most of our history humanity led a rural life, and our ancestors mainly depended on subsistence hunting and agriculture. People never lived in a world with low biodiversity and have always been dependent on the resources that nature and Mother Earth have to provide. Therefore, protecting and understanding biodiversity is Fig 12: Biodiversity Conservation Wheel (ORD US EPA, 2015) important if humans want to live and survive. (The Elements of Biodiversity, n.d.) Biodiversity is all the different kinds of life you’ll find in one area—the variety of animals, plants, fungi, and even microorganisms like bacteria that make up our natural world. Life is impossible without biodiversity because it supports everything in nature that mankind needs to survive from food to shelter and has great carbon capture potential. “Biodiversity is all the different kinds of life you’ll find in one area—the variety of animals, plants, fungi, and even microorganisms like bacteria that make up our natural world. Each of these species and organisms works together in ecosystems, like an intricate web, to maintain balance and support life. Biodiversity supports everything in nature that we need to survive: food, clean water, medicine, and shelter.” (ORD US EPA, 2015) 1.C.I. SPECIES AREA RELATIONSHIP The relationship between the area of a habitat, or part of a habitat, and the number of species found within that area is described in the species-area relationship or species-area curve. Larger regions tend to contain larger numbers of species, and the relative numbers appear to follow systematic mathematical relationships empirically. A wide range of factors determining the slope and elevation of the relationship between species and area have been proposed by ecologists. These variables include the relative balance between immigration and extinction, the rate and magnitude of disturbance in small Fig 13: Large landscapes provide a range of vs. vs. large areas, the dynamics of ecosystem good and services that are key for predator-prey, and the clustering of sustain social, ecological, and economic function people of the same species as a result of human and natural systems. (Species-Area of the limitation of dispersal or the Relationship - an Overview | ScienceDirect Topics, n.d.). heterogeneity of habitat (Species-Area Relationship - an Overview | ScienceDirect Topics, n.d.). The species-area relationship is one of the oldest known and most documented patterns in ecology. It describes the general pattern of increase in species richness with increasing area of observation. Large islands typically have more species as compared to smaller islands and they are often interrelated.
The species diversity is usually categorized in three forms • Genetic- “Each individual species possesses genes which are the source of its own unique features: In human beings, for example, the huge variety of people's faces reflects each person's genetic individuality.” The term genetic diversity also covers distinct populations of a single species, such as the thousands of breeds of different dogs or the numerous variety of roses. (Biodiversity - Genetic Diversity, n.d.) • Species- “Species diversity has two primary components: species richness (the number of species in a local community) and species composition (the identity of the species present in a community).“ While most research on the relationship between ecosystem diversity and stability has focused on species richness, it is variation in species composition that provides the mechanistic basis to explain the relationship between species richness and ecosystem functioning. Species differ from one another in their resource use, environmental tolerances, and interactions with other species, such that species composition has a major influence on ecosystem functioning and stability. (Biodiversity and Ecosystem Stability | Learn Science at Scitable, n.d.) • Ecological- “Ecosystem biodiversity refers to the number of ecosystems in a certain area. Ecosystems are all of the animals, plants, bacteria, and fungi as well as the physical components of the area.” An ecosystem can be as large as an entire forest or as small as a clump of moss that provides a habitat for plants, microscopic invertebrates, fungi and bacteria. Cleland, E. E. (2011) Biodiversity and Ecosystem Stability. Nature Education Knowledge 3(10):14
Fig 14: Genetic Diversity Fig 15: Species Diversity Fig 16: Ecological Diversity 1.C.Ii. URBAN BIODIVERSITY
Fig 17: Different areas in Cities where one encounters Biodiversity As the percentage of people living in urban areas continues to grow, and the extent of urbanized lands continues to expand (United Nations Department of Economic Social Affairs Population Division, 2014), understanding and protecting biodiversity in cities where large numbers of people live is of global conservation relevance. Importantly, making cities more welcoming to nature can provide large portions of the populace with greater chances for regular contact with, and appreciation for, biodiversity (Parker, 2015). As human activities create a more fragmented environment, it becomes increasingly important to create linkages between natural areas, such as preserved forests, to maintain populations and their biodiversity (Special Report, 2017). Ecosystems contribute to nonmaterial well-being in all manner of complex ways, which might seem to defy comprehensive or structured understanding. (Russell et al., 2013). Therefore, experiencing biodiversity is critical to human existence and maintaining these urban areas is very important. 1.C.Iii. Additional considerations Everything in the ecosystem is part of the biodiversity. Plant selection alone wouldn’t help to improve biodiversity in the cloudburst model and there are few other considerations that should be taken into account as they have a direct impact on the planning and maintenance of the flora:
“Soil Quality is the capacity of a soil to function for specific land uses or within ecosystem boundaries. This capacity is an inherent characteristic of a soil and varies from soil to soil. Such indicators as organic-matter content, salinity, tilth, compaction, available nutrients, and rooting depth help measure the health or Fig 18: Soil Quality (6 Components of condition of the soil-its quality-in any given Soil-Quality Management, n.d.) place.” (Soil Quality, 1995)
“Salinity becomes a problem when enough salts accumulate in the root zone to negatively affect plant growth. Excess salts in the root zone hinder plant roots from withdrawing water from surrounding soil. This lowers the amount of water available to the plant, Fig 19: Salt Content (What Can We Do regardless of the amount of water actually in about Salinization of Soils? | Ensia, n.d.) the root zone.” (Basics of Salinity and Sodicity Effects on Soil Physical Properties, 2003)
“The roots of a plant have several important functions. The roots anchor the plant in place, resisting the forces of wind and running water or mud flow. Each native plant's root system has evolved to perform best in the environment where it is usually found.“ (It’s All Fig 20: Plant Root Structure (Indoor About the Roots, 2017) Grow Media.| by Monti Willis |Medium, n.d.) “The material in which the plants grow in is called the “growing medium or media” never dirt. Growing medium has three main functions- supply roots with nutrients, air, and water, allow for maximum root growth, and physically support the plant. Roots grow in the spaces between individual particles of soil.” Air and water also travel through these pore spaces. Water is the Fig 21: Soil Medium (How to Choose medium that carries nutrients that plants need to the Right Growing Medium for Your fuel their growth, and air is needed for root Cannabis Plants, n.d.) growth and the health of soil microorganisms that help supply plants with nutrients. (“Soil” for Containers | University of Maryland Extension, n.d.)
“The sequence of natural layers, or horizons, in a soil is a soil profile. Each soil series consists of soils that have significant horizons that are similar in color, texture, structure, reaction, consistency, composition of minerals and chemicals, and soil Fig 22: Below grade study (A Soil profile arrangement.” From the surface Profile | NRCS Soils, n.d.) downward, the soil profile extends to unconsolidated material. There are three main horizons for most soils, called the surface horizon, the subsoil, and the substratum. (Soil Profile Gallery | NRCS Texas, n.d.)
“The amount of negative space between soil particles is described by pore space in the soil, also known as soil porosity.” Pores, or pore Fig 23: Soil Porosity(Diagram of Soil spaces, are created when the soil moves through Texture and Structure + Porosity | plant roots, insects, and earth worms. One of the Quizlet, n.d.) main reasons that pore space is needed by plants is because oxygen is stored in the pores. Too densely compacted soil will not make it possible for enough oxygen to reach the root system. When the soil is aerated, plants absorb water more effectively. (Pro-Soil | Why Is Soil Porosity Important?, n.d.) “Macropores (>50 μm diameter), through which roots can generally Fig 24: Soil structure & proliferate readily, are much reduced in Macropores (Diagram of Soil Texture compacted soil.” As a result, root growth is and Structure + Porosity | Quizlet, n.d.) restricted or even inhibited. (Macropores - an Overview | ScienceDirect Topics, 2005). “A soil's pH determines its nutrient availability. Some species have very specific pH requirements. Chlorosis (leaf yellowing) is a sign that the pH is Fig 25: Soil PH (“Importance of Soil too high for that species.” Urban environments PH | Soil Care,” n.d.) usually have high ph. (Soil Study, n.d.) 1.D. CO- BENEFITS OF BIODIVERSITY Climate change and biodiversity loss are leading environmental crises that converge most critically in tropical forests. Policies for reducing emissions from deforestation and degradation are often portrayed as win-win solutions for forest- based climate change mitigation and biodiversity conservation. However, the win- win narrative has obscured necessary trade-offs and a range of alternative policy approaches, insulating policymakers from difficult, potentially unpopular decisions (Phelps et al., 2012). Biodiversity has multiple benefits that are categorized here as Environmental and social and health.
Fig 26: Different areas in Cities where one encounters Biodiversity The value of green infrastructure as a municipal or private investment is partly dependent on its effects beyond water management and therefore on the ability of a community to model and measure these extra values. Municipalities have generally lacked the tools to determine the multiple benefits of green infrastructure short of conducting an intensive study and calculation of actions in a specific community (Center for Neighborhood Technology 2010, American Rivers- Thriving with Nature, 2010). Since then, trying to define or evaluate the extent of the multiple advantages of green infrastructure has remained a challenge. Whilst the number of cities have started to explore GI within their own city and county infrastructure investments, no general method has yet emerged to estimate or document such advantages. Municipalities have often favored single-purpose grey infrastructure projects with a limited ability to quantify the benefits of GI. However, without factoring in the multiple benefits green infrastructure can provide any cost- benefit analysis comparing grey infrastructure with green infrastructure would be incomplete. As a result of this information and methodology gaps, decision-making on investments in stormwater infrastructure has generally lacked recognition of the monetary benefits provided by GI to communities. Although this figure does not provide a comprehensive list of urban locations where biodiversity is encountered, it describes the eight biodiversity areas and examines the scope of benefits that this type of infrastructure can offer. An illustrative summary of how these practices can produce various combinations of advantages in the following matrix. Please note that these benefits accrue according to local factors such as climate and population at varying scales. (Center for Neighborhood Technology 2010, American Rivers- Thriving with Nature, 2010)
Fig 27: Different areas in Cities where one encounters Biodiversity and the benefits that they provide. SECTION 2: New York city and cloudburst program 2.A. CLIENT- NYC DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
New York City is facing increasing risks from the effects of climate change. Recent storms, including heavy rain events and coastal floods, indicate that the water and wastewater system of the city has risks from severe weather that need to be tackled by introducing additional climate adaptation measures. Incidents of heavy rainfall ("cloudbursts") can flood urban areas and potentially cause serious damage. Natural hydrological flows have been modified by development in many areas of New York City. The city has constructed sewer systems for draining the streets and wastewater treatment facilities for runoff before discharging to nearby waterways. Nature-based approaches, such as the Bluebelt and Green Infrastructure programs however have emerged as cost-effective solutions for managing stormwater while offering additional benefits to the society and the ecosystem.
The NYC Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) in 2016 initiated the very first process of a cloudburst study, conducting the Cloudburst Resiliency Planning Study, assessing risks, prioritizing response, developing neighborhood-based solutions, and assigning costs and benefits to manage extreme rainfall events or 'cloudbursts.’ DEP seeks to address severe rainfall through the integration of traditional underground drainage infrastructure and ground-level solutions into ongoing urban infrastructure planning. The aim is to enhance stormwater management through storage and surface flow, while at the same time creating inspired urban areas with co-benefits for residents, local businesses, and the city. (Ramboll A/S, 2017). The cloudburst study analyzes the best available information on NYC rainfall, recommends methodologies for integrating study results into continuing resilience development plans, and recognizes best practices to address climate change in future neighborhood-specific planning models. The cloudburst program in NYC is not explicitly related to any other plans but for funding, they are often integrated with other proposals like green infrastructure program, blue belt program, long term control plans reasoning multiple benefits of the project.
Fig 28: Timeline of events for MOC signed in 2015 by Copenhagen and New York City 2.B. CLOUDBURST study- ANALYSIS The Cloudburst study is designed around two main pillars: Integrated Planning (IP) and Blue-Green Infrastructure (BGI) (Ramboll A/S, 2017). Integrated Planning (IP) is a system of interlinked actions that seek to bring about a lasting improvement in the economic, physical, social, and environmental conditions of a city or an area. In the IP, all initiatives and projects are considered concerning each other. A wide range of interrelated aspects of urban life, from governance, economics, and planning to physical infrastructure, sustainable buildings, climate adaptation, and the environment, are covered by the creation of livable urban environments. An integrated and coherent strategy to these elements enables cities to grow and prosper sustainably, and thus, IP has now become an inherent part of urban planning. The EPA, for example, encouraged the advantages of the IP incorporated in local efforts to comply with the Clean Water Act (US EPA, 2013).
Budgets can be combined across city agencies and stakeholders by applying IP to cloudburst management program and planning to increase any available funds and provide buy-in for the agencies and the stakeholders. IP may also drive greater collaboration and capacity building across the city and encourage the movement from conventional step-by- step silo planning to a more inclusionary and multidisciplinary strategies across all the agencies involved. Fig 29: Integrated Planning (Ramboll A/S, 2017) The study is developed in close cooperation between DEP, Ramboll and Arcadis. Several NYC agencies have provided crucial input in the process as has the City of Copenhagen. Ramboll the engineering firm has developed a 4-step approach to cloudburst resiliency planning based on experiences from Copenhagen and other cities. GIS data act as the foundation of the study and is crucial in providing a solid basis for informed decision making. Spatial overlay of datasets and analyses at multiple levels help to identify potential synergies and cumulative effects (Ramboll A/S, 2017). In Ramboll’s 4-step approach to cloudburst resiliency planning, • Step 1, 3, and 4 are technical by nature and thus relatively similar from project to project. • Step 2, on the other hand, is a creative phase that needs to be adapted to reflect the context and nature of the local environment to which it is applied. • The iterative process is moving from initial determination of risks, to the development of a resiliency plan, and documenting the adaptation effect. Fig 30: The Cloudburst Resiliency Approach (Ramboll A/S, 2017)
The creative plan & design phase (Step 2), is a key part of the 4-step process. Step 2 has a dual objective: to develop a master plan and to estimate the associated capital investment and operating costs. Relevant stakeholders go through the process of understanding where floodwaters flow, where water can be stored or transported, where frameworks or decisions are limited or supported, and finally where connections can be established to other urban environmental plans, such as parks or bike lanes. Using predefined BGI elements to store or transmit water, stakeholders map their cloudburst management approach. Cloudburst roads, retention streets, and central and local retention comprises the BGI components. Grey infrastructure such as cloudburst pipes may be supplemented by the network of BGI solutions.
Fig 31: The different BGI (Ramboll A/S, 2017) These different Blue Green Infrastructure elements have specific purposes and are site specific. They could be either used in isolation or in a combination depending on the needs of the project and site capacity. The research intercession that I tried to do is in Step 2 and Step 4. The focus here is to integrate biodiversity specific study at step 2 and evaluating the co-benefits of it for step 4. The research intercession includes: •Analysis of the NYC DEP Cloudburst Study- Understanding the existence of Cloudburst Planning in NYC. •Case Study Research- Analyzing different and similar stormwater management programs around the world. •Analysis of the first pilot project- St. Jamaica Homes- Understanding the planning process of the first pilot project that is happening in St. Jamaica Homes •Analyzing proposed Biodiversity- Analyzing and creating a matrix explaining the ecosystem services provided by the proposed plants' list. •Recommending Plant Palette- Creating a new palette that is native to NYC and provides a better ecosystem services. •Creating tools for biodiversity study for the St. Albans pilot project- Understanding the Singapore Biodiversity Index and applying it to the St. Jamaica homes. •Additional Recommendations- Creating an additional set of recommendations for biodiversity index and BGI maintenance. 2.C. CASE STUDIES- SYNTHESIZED
Climate change is undeniable. Scientists have been arguing for decades that anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions have been causing global warming. But, it took decades for policymakers, government officials, professionals and civilians to understand the intensity of it and act. Eventually professionals begin looking at natural ecosystems and repairing them with an aim to reverse or slower the climate change process. Different practices have been ongoing around the world with the common ambition to protect the planet. The three case studies that I looked at to create this paper are- • Cloudburst Management Plan- Copenhagen (Explained in brief in section 1.A.) • Pan European Ecosystem Model • Shenzhen Sponge City Transition
Pan European Ecosystem Model: The method is used in a continental scale analysis covering the territory of the EU-27, taking into consideration the delivery of eight ecosystem regulatory and maintenance services and the requirements of the populations of large mammals. The areas of best performance for the provision of ecosystem services and/or natural habitat cover 23% of Europe and are classified as the core GI network. The subsidiary GI network is classified as another 16% of the study area with relatively good ecological performance. It integrates recent high-resolution geospatial layers with experimental findings from substantial field surveys that measure the specific influence of individual semi-natural habitats. The resulting maps make it easier to compare the relative biological potential of different regions. (Bouwma et al., 2011)
Fig 32: Methodology and Application of the Pan European Model (Bouwma et al., 2011) Shenzhen Sponge City Transition: In China, due to various factors such as urbanization-induced wetland loss and outdated drainage system designs, a striking number, about 98 percent of all cities, are exposed to frequent flooding. As the demand for freshwater supplies grows as a result of rapid urbanization, problems such as water quality deterioration and freshwater shortages will only exacerbate the vulnerability of these cities (Gloria Luo, 2018). At the end of 2014, China launched the "Sponge City" program to design and construct city infrastructure that can absorb and capture rainwater for reuse in response to this complex and pervasive water challenge. The concept behind the "Sponge City" approach is to revitalize urban landscapes and allow cities to imitate the cycle of natural water. This is done to capture and retain rainwater for future use by replacing hard, impermeable surfaces with permeable, spongy materials and features such as green roofs, rain gardens and wetlands. The concept is similar to other stormwater management approaches such as the low impact development adopted in the United States and the water sensitive urban design in Australia. (Gloria Luo, 2018)
Fig 33: Schematic presentation of a typical layout of a typical Chinese city and associated strategies related to the different zones (Zevenbergen et al., 2018) Both the above case studies focus on nature based solutions as the alternatives to traditional grey infrastructure and stormwater management. The critical takeaways from the Pan European Ecosystem Model is to prioritize ecosystem services and biodiversity and try to regenerate and integrate them at the maximum capacity possible and the Shenzhen Sponge city is to revitalize urban landscapes and try to trace the historic waterways. SECTION 3: SOUTH JAMAICA HOMES- EXISTING STUDY(NYC DEP CLOUDBURST PROGRAM) 3.A. Introduction and PROPOSED IDEAS At NYCHA's South Jamaica Houses (SJH), the objectives are to regulate neighborhood flooding for rain events ranging from a 10- year storm to daily rain events through the use of well-designed outdoors and infrastructures. The project will be the first pilot for the cloudburst planning program in New York City. SJH is located between 160th Street and the Long Island Rail Road, Tuskegee Airman Way and Brinkerhoff Av. Fig 34: South Jamaica Homes- Selected Site for the near the transit hub of Jamaica application of cloudburst strategies (NYCHA-South Center in Queens. Jamaica Cloudburst Master Plan, 2018).
The team examined BGI precedents and their relevance to the location in South Jamaica. The Design Charrette team explored the size and shape of prospective Cloudburst features that would accommodate the expected volumes of stormwater as part of this analysis. Alternatives that did not use below-grade tanks were examined, so that all construction funds could be directed to public space above ground as underground storage tanks were traditionally considered. A number of combinations of BGI landscape components and the dimensioning of underground tanks were examined by other alternatives (NYCHA-South Jamaica Cloudburst Master Plan, 2018). The charrette team met residents and stakeholders to educate them of the SJH cloudburst planning project, the design advice opportunities for the city, and the upcoming public design charrette.
Alternate 1 examined the use of retaining stormwater in the shallow landscape elements in Blocks 5 & 7. The limited vol. of water; the shallow landscape spaces could store necessitated over 30,000 cubic feet of underground retention tanks. Alternate 2 examined somewhat deeper landscape excavations in order to retain more stormwater above grade. This required approx. 5,000 cubic feet of underground retention tanks. Another Alternative examined the somewhat extensive landscape excavations in order to retain all stormwater above grade. The Fig 35: Design Alternatives (NYCHA-South Jamaica Cloudburst Master Plan, 2018) option required no underground tanks. 3.B. PROPOSED BIODIVERSITY
Species play essential roles in ecosystems, and the fundamental metric of ecosystem functions has relevance for global food supply and for rates of climate change because primary production reflects the rate at which carbon dioxide (a greenhouse gas) is removed from the atmosphere. The alternatives designs that were created for cloudburst planning in South Jamaica Homes are rich in plant species and landscaping and plants are one of the core components of the blue green infrastructure.
While designing BGI networks in SJH, the city and the stakeholders discussed and created a list of plant species that are relevant to stormwater management and the locals. Below are the plant species that were selected for the cloudburst plan. They are allocated according to whether they are in an area that will flood frequently or in an area that is mostly dry. Eighteen different plant species were used to create species and genetic diversity in the blue green infrastructure (NYCHA-South Jamaica Cloudburst Master Plan, 2018).
Fig 36: Plant species selected by the residents to be planted at the South Jamaica Homes site. (NYCHA-South Jamaica Cloudburst Master Plan, 2018) 3.C. PLANTS MATRIX
The plant species proposed by the city officials and the neighborhood stakeholders are native species and require low maintenance. The matrix below helps in understanding the ecosystem services that these plants have to provide and their co- benefits. Plants are a critical component of the ecology and their understanding is essential for ecosystem management. Plant Ecosystem Plant Species Images Co-benefits Category Services
Shallow Attracts birds Medicinal use Emergent and butterflies Joe Pye Weed (Herb to Know: Marsh (How to Grow and Joe-Pye Weed, (Native Plant Guide Care for Joe Pye 1996) 2019, 2019) Weed, n.d.)
Shallow Attracts Emergent Cardinal hummingbirds Marsh - Flower (Native Plant Guide and butterflies 2019, 2019) (Lobelia Cardinalis - Plant Finder, n.d.)
Attracts birds Soil Woodland - and butterflies Stabilization Phlox (Woodland Phlox, (Woodland Phlox, 2018) 2018)
Attracts bees Forbs (Adirondack Tall Meadow (Native Plant Guide Wildflowers: Tall - Rue 2019, 2019) Meadow Rue | Thalictrum Pubescens, 2019)
Value to insects Ostrich Fern - (Ostrich Fern | - Better Homes & Gardens, n.d.) Plant Ecosystem Plant Species Images Co-benefits Category Services
Successional Wildlife value Somewhat Mixed low, but eaten tolerant of Sensitive Hardwoods by some urban Fern (Native Plant insects. pollution Guide 2019, 2019) (Native Plant Guide (Native Plant Guide 2019, 2019 2019, 2019
Used for restoration Eaten by of swamp Scrub Shrub rabbits, but forest Cinnamon (Native Plant overall wildlife Guide 2019, 2019) habitats, Fern value low. (Native Plant Guide woodland 2019, 2019 pond edges. (Native Plant Guide 2019, 2019
Floodplain Used Interuped Forest infrequently by (Native Plant - Fern wildlife. Guide 2019, 2019) (Native Plant Guide 2019, 2019
Seeds eaten by Tolerant of birds and drought; Floodplain small medium Wild Forest (Native Plant mammals moisture Geranium Guide 2019, 2019) eaten by deer. usage. (Native Plant Guide (Native Plant Guide 2019, 2019 2019, 2019
Medicinally Attract used as an Coral Bells - hummingbirds astringent (Mulsya Melco, (Mulsya Melco, n.d.) n.d.)
No Bottomland Attracts stormwater Blue Wood Forest butterflies. (Native Plant (Native Plant Guide tolerance Aster Guide 2019, 2019) 2019, 2019 (Native Plant Guide 2019, 2019 Plant Ecosystem Plant Species Images Co-benefits Category Services
Maritime Attracts Medicinal use Grassland Rudbeckia butterflies (The Medicinal (Native Plant Plant Garden, n.d.) Fulgida Guide 2019, 2019) (The Medicinal Plant Garden, n.d.)
Attracts butterflies and bees (Amsonia Blue Star - Tabernaemontana - Bluestar, Blue Dogbane from New Moon Nurseries, n.d.)
Mixed- Oak Hickory Offers cover Christmas Forest for wildlife - Fern (Native Plant (Christmas Fern, Guide 2019, 2019) n.d.)
Summarizing the above matrix, one can infer that the ecosystem services provided by the plants are roughly attracting butterflies, bees, and pollinators, and only a few of they have medicinal uses. The plant matrix suggested by the Department is native but it is still doesn’t provide additional benefits that could be reaped from a better palette. After assessing the biodiversity, it seems that the biodiversity was not the focus of the project and therefore it seems less informed and additional study should be done in creating a better plant palette. SECTION 4: RESEARCH AND ANALYSIS 4.a. site demographics & history- St. Albans
St. Albans is the second pilot project in the NYC DEP’S cloudburst planning and the site is located between 177 and 178 Street between Mudrock and Sayres Avenue. It is a residential middle class community in the southeastern portion of the NYC borough of Queens. Population of St. Albans was 48,593 (2010 United States Census).
St. Albans pumping station lies just outside the study area, Fig 37: St. Albans- Sit Location (Ramboll A/S, 2017) pumping stormwater into the area . Three proposals were developed to reduce the stormwater volumes in the pumping station service area and presented to the city by Ramboll. First, a design to handle a 100-year storm through mainly BGI is presented, thereby replacing the need for the pump (Scenario 1). For a lower design criterion of a 10-year storm, a smaller BGI solution is developed (Scenario 2). Lastly, White African American a design to upgrade the pump to a 10-year storm connected Native American Asian to limited BGI is proposed. Fig 38: Racial Makeup of Neighborhood Water would be pumped to the nearby St. Albans Memorial Park (Scenario 3) (Ramboll A/S, 2017) SITE SITE Highlighted in red in fig 39. is the site. The site is frequently flooded in the present and as seen from the historic map there used to exist a stream of water in the past. Water has the tendency to trace its original paths and therefore, Fig 39: Historic Waterways of NYC and St. Albans Site . implementing BGI is vital. 4.b. DESIGN OPPORTUNITIES- St. Albans
DESIGN APPROACHES/PROPOSALS BEING CONSIDERED, TAKING INTO CONTEXT THE EXISTING BUILT FABRIC AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS: A generic road profile is redesigned to illustrate the potential of cloudburst roads. The design suggests a bike lane and rain gardens in the side of the road for retention (Ramboll A/S, 2017). A green roundabout can also retain large volumes of water and help ease the transit through the area and replace full stop crossings. These green infrastructure interventions would create benefits to the immediate neighborhood. Native plants used in plantings would result into better air quality, reduce urban heat island, reduce energy, improved health, sense of safety and community wellbeing. These plants would also bring aesthetic value to the neighborhood and many other birds, bees, pollinators that have direct impact on the ecosystem around.
The streets enhanced with green infrastructure would provide better infiltration, retention and natural cleansing (Ramboll A/S, 2017). Including bike paths would motivate healthy living and alternative transportation. Biodiversity has a potential to create more community involvement and also reduces the flow of viruses (Rodelo-Urrego et al., 2015). The new recommended plant palette (Refer section 5.B.) could be used which would lead to enhanced ecosystem values.
Fig 40: Google Map Image of 176th Street Fig 41: Green Infrastructure Interventions
COMMUNITY IMPROVED HEALTH WELLBEING REDUCE URBAN HEAT ISLAND SENSE OF SAFETY REDUCE ENERGY
BETTER AIR QUALITY
Fig 42: Biodiversity Benefits To The Community that these green spaces provide. 4.c. recommended plants palette
The below matrix is the new recommended plant that is proposed after the research and analyzing the city’s suggested plant palette- this new palette has better ecosystem services and co-benefits. These plant species have low maintenance and are native to New York City. Using native plants is a way to support the ecosystems of New York City. Local Law 11 of 2013 was enacted to increase biodiversity within ecosystems using native plants (§ 18-141 NYC Admin. Code). These species when used in conjunction with the cloudburst planning and designing principles in blue-green infrastructure would bring better results and are also conducive to the health of the overall ecology. Plant Images Ecosystem Services Co-benefits Species
Long lifespan. One of Roots eaten by muskrats; Seacoast the few native sedges seeds eaten by songbirds bulrush to tolerate brackish and waterfowl. conditions.
Tough, reliable plant, Common Wildlife value high, host to resistant to goose rush butterflies. depredations once established.
Host to some butterflies, seeds eaten by waterfowl, Low drought tolerance; Green roots eaten by muskrats medium moisture bulrush and geese, provides cover usage. for nesting birds.
Provides cover for Long lifespan, often Indiangrass pheasants, mourning used in tall grass doves, and songbirds. prairie restorations.
Purpletop Host to some butterflies. Used for bioretention Plant Images Ecosystem Services Co-benefits Species
Used for increased Canadian Attracts butterflies and diversity and aesthetics anemone insects. in wetland restoration and mitigation.
Wildlife value high, attractive to butterflies, Swamp bees, wasps. As with - milkweed other milkweeds, host to monarch butterfly
Arrow- Erosion control leaved Food for waterbirds on open soil tearthumb
Fringed Attracts butterflies and Soil erosion control loosestrife other insects
Provides cover for Green arrow invertebrates and small Erosion control arum fish.
Prevents invasion from Wrinkle leaf Attracts birds. mug wort in nutrient goldenrod rich, moist fill soils.
The data that refers to the above matrix is the Native Plant Guide 2019. The above plant species provide better aesthetic value and ecosystem services and also have better co-benefits like soil erosion control, retention, and increased diversity. The design charette team, city officials and all the concerning departments can approach biologists and professionals in the field to review the same. 4.d. CITY BIODIVERSITY INDEX & APPLICATION The City Biodiversity Index, on Cities’ Biodiversity or the Singapore Index (SI), is a self-assessment tool for cities to evaluate and monitor the progress of their biodiversity conservation efforts against their own individual baselines. In COP-9 of 2008, Singapore’s then Minister for National Development Mr. Mah Bow Tan proposed for the establishment of a city biodiversity index to benchmark biodiversity conservation efforts of cities. (National Parks Board, Singapore, 2014) It comprises: a) the “Profile of the City”, which provides background information on the city; and b) the 23 indicators that measure native biodiversity, ecosystem services provided by biodiversity, and governance and management of biodiversity based on guidelines and methodology provided in the User’s Manual on the Singapore Index on Cities ‘ Biodiversity. (National Parks Board, Singapore, 2014)
Most of the existing city indices focuses on brown issues such as clean water, sanitation, energy efficiency, quality of air, and waste management whereas the Singapore index tries to integrate all these indices at the local level. Cities using the Singapore Index found that: •the process facilitated capacity-building in the conservation •the indicators also function as guidelines for the conservation of biodiversity; and •quantitative scoring could help set priorities for conservation actions and budget allocation. (National Parks Board, Singapore, 2014)
The idea is to adapt this index to the New York City’s Cloudburst Program site to understand and analyze the scope of improvement in terms of biodiversity and how well does the site perform in current existing conditions? Therefore, I have tried to use this index and analyze the first pilot project site of the NYC DEP Cloudburst Plan i.e. South Jamaica homes.
ASSUMPTIONS- Few of the assumptions that I considered while applying a citywide scaled index to a site are- • the index is based on the citywide scale but for this study, South Jamaica Homes the neighborhood is assumed as the city. •Only considering the biodiversity through the cloudburst program for reporting (No existing trees and landscape included). •The catchment area for each of the determination in the table ahead is the South Jamaica Homes site (Same as shown in section 3.A.)
NOTE- • the index is scalable and may result in different conclusions when applied citywide (NYC). •The values assigned are based on the scale created within the Singapore Index and for brief understanding and point allocation, please refer to the appendix section. •This table represents a first attempt at assigning biodiversity scoring to the neighborhood of South Jamaica and the proposed cloudburst project. Fig 43: Singapore Index. (National Parks Board, Singapore, 2014) Indicators Core Points (Singapore Study Components Given Index) "Site Size= 23.2 acres (South Jamaica Homes)- Cloudburst Infrastructure Size= Proportion of (Area 7.1= 8000sqf no biodiversity) 0 + Natural Areas 1 (Area A 13000sq.f - 4000[Assumption excluding all the extra no biodiverse area]) Answer- 9000 sq. ft. " Connectivity Considering block 1, 528 feet long and Measures 4 130 ft, 228 ft, 170 ft apart. Jamaica Bay Wildlife Refuge is one of the best places in New York City to observe migrating species. In fact, it’s a birder's paradise with 332 bird species sighted at Native the refuge over the last 25 years (38 are Biodiversity 3 accidental, and include several New York State records); that is nearly half the species in the Northeast.(Source- http://www.nycaudubon.org/queens- birding/jamaica-bay-wildlife-refuge) Change in number of 20 native plant species proposed Native vascular 4 Biodiversity plants in the area Change in number of 4 Plants attract birds bird species Change in number of butterfly 4 Plants attract butterflies and bees species Change in No data available for other species. number of 1 Assuming that plants would bring at least species one reptiles Change in No data available for other species. number of 1 Assuming that plants would bring at least species one reptiles Proportion of Site Size= 23.2 acres (South Jamaica Protected 1 Homes)- Cloudburst Infrastructure Size= Natural Areas 9000 sq. ft. Proportion of Invasive Alien 4 All native species are planted Species Core Indicators Points Study Components (Singapore Index) Given Regulation of More than 50% land cover is 2 Quantity of Water green 60% of the site is built space. Therefore, approx. 9 acres is Climate Regulation: terrestrial. Number of trees in Carbon Storage 2 that block= (Approx. 30 trees and Cooling Effect with a canopy of diameter 9 of Vegetation meter). Hence the carbon storage percentage is 21% Ecosystem Recreation and services Assuming that the new spaces Education: Area of provided by the 2 would create learning Parks with Natural Biodiversity opportunity Areas Recreation and Education: Number of Formal Assuming that the new spaces Education Visits 1 would create learning per Child Below 16 opportunity Years to Parks with Natural Areas per Year
Budget Allocated to Assuming the cloudburst 2 Biodiversity intervention at this block
Number of Biodiversity Projects 3 4 sites were selected in that block Implemented by the City Annually Existence of Local No real strategy or action plan is Biodiversity Strategy 2 considered Governance and Action Plan and Management Institutional Capacity: of Biodiversity Number of Quantifying the co- benefits of 4 Biodiversity Related Biodiversity Functions Institutional Capacity: Number of City or Local Government Agencies Involved in 1 NYC DEP, NYCHA, Parks Department Inter-agency Cooperation Pertaining to Biodiversity Matters Core Indicators (Singapore Index) Points Study Components Given Participation and Partnership: 4 Many stakeholder Existence of Formal or charettes and public Informal Public Consultation voting Process
Participation and Partnership: 1 In partnership with Number of Agencies/Private local groups and Companies/NGOs/Academic Ramboll Institutions/International Organizations with which the Governance City is Partnering in and Biodiversity Activities, Management Projects and Programs of Biodiversity Education and Awareness: Is 0 N/A Biodiversity or Nature Awareness Included in the School Curriculum
Education and Awareness: 0 N/A Number of Outreach or Public Awareness Events Held in the City per Year
SUMMARIZING THE ABOVE TABLE Core Maximum Points Summary Components Points Given allowed All the plant species are native and Native therefore this section score the most Biodiversity in the 40 27 point and might yield better results area when all the other landscaped areas are accounted. This is a pilot project and is a part of the Ecosystem service bigger cloudburst program and provided by the 16 7 therefore when correctly analyzed this Biodiversity can lead in to better results. Management of GI and subsequently Governance biodiversity has been an issue and it is And Management 36 17 important to create a taskforce that Of Biodiversity specializes in the policies and management of it. Total 92 51 Scope for improvement. 4.e. COST- BENEFIT ANALYSIS
Considering the cost of laying biodiversity in a 25’ long X 5’ wide bioswale and the benefits that they provide to the immediate neighborhood. Bioswales Construction Cost- $15.00 per sq. ft. (Water Environment Research Federation Low Impact Development Best Management Practices Whole Life Cost Model 2007) and assuming 10% is the cost allocated for native plants. For created values Cost Benefit Evaluation of Eco roofs, 2008, Case Studies Analyzing the Economic Benefits of Low Impact Development and Green Infrastructure Programs, 2013, Methodology used in Cost Benefit Analysis of Green Infrastructure Low Impact Development Phoenix AZ, 2018 are referred and a discount rate of 7% is used as recommended by FEMA and maintenance cost is assumed as 25%.
Area of 25’ long X 5’ bioswale = 125 sq. feet Cost of 125 sq. ft. bioswale= 125 X 15 = $ 625 Cost of plantations= 10% of 625 = $ 62.5 Therefore, only considering the cost of plantations and the benefits that they provide. (Present Value ($X) = $X / (1 + r) n (where r is the discount rate and n are the number of years)
Benefits of YEAR YEAR YEAR Indicators Sources Biodiversity 1 2 3 Soil Stability Soil erosion rate U.S. Dept. of 1.02 0.89 0.83 and soil Agriculture, Natural structure Resources Conservation Service Reduces Avoided cost for New York City 15 13.15 12.29 Stormwater CSO abatement Government 2015 Runoff and reduction in runoff Improved Air Reduce NYC DEP 2015 3 2.63 2.45 Quality pollutants and particulate matter Reduce Urban Better human US EPA, 2014 2.5 2.19 2.04 Heat Island health and Effect comfort Aesthetics Aesthetic value FEMA 2012 1.5 1.31 1.22 Better Recreational 3 2.63 2.45 Paul M. Sherer, Community value 2006 Livability Benefits of YEAR YEAR YEAR Indicators Sources Biodiversity 1 2 3 Improve Habitat Bird and Insect NYS Dept. of 1.5 1.31 1.22 species Environmental Conservation Reduce Noise Reduce heart Noise, NYC Health 3 2.63 2.45 Pollution ailments and better health Reduce Asthma Hospitalization FastStats, 2020 6 5.26 4.9 rates rates Better Avoided costs East Carolina 6 5.26 4.9 Cardiorespirator for health University, 2016 y health ailments Education Awareness and Why Biodiversity Is 3 2.63 2.45 Opportunities green jobs9 Essential for Sustainable Development, 2018 Total Benefits ($) 45.52 39.89 37.2
(Using the discount formula, I discounted the benefits for three years considering from year 1 getting the maximum benefits and the benefits decreasing at a discount rate of 7 %)
Year 1 2 3 $ 62.5 - - Biodiversity Cost Maintenance Maintenance Cost- $ 15 Cost- $15 45.52 39.89 37.2 Benefits (From table above) 45.52- 62.5= 39.89- 15= 24.89 37.2- 15= 22.2 Benefit- Cost -19.98 Total -19.98 + 24.89+ 22.2= $ 27.11 Total= $ 27.11 (Benefit/ Positive) Plant species have multiple benefits- few of their services are invaluable and cannot be justified through dollar values. Such values may look small in number, but they could result insignificant advantages when scaled. As seen by the cost- benefit analysis, there are multiple advantages of one single bioswale. If properly practiced, biodiversity can contribute to many more benefits that are critical to human existence. BIODIVERSITY COST- BENEFIT BIODIVERSITY INDEX ANALYSIS PLANT MATRIX RECOMMENDATIONS All the above work would help the department and the city to understand the importance of biodiversity and the benefits that they provide. It also will create a framework for analyzing the city’s efforts and the study would help them prioritize ecosystem wellbeing and nature based solutions with biodiversity being a vital component of it. 4.f. RECOMMENDATIONS
The recommendations for the implementation of Biodiversity and its practices are consolidated under two broad headings: the Biodiversity Index and the Blue-Green Infrastructure Maintenance. Each of the two headings sets out transformational approaches to the realization of biodiversity as the core of the planning process and the associated equity and sustainability.
A- BIODIVERSITY INDEX The Singapore Index has been used in the past by many other cities and cities that have used the Index to plan their local biodiversity have had better ecosystem services. The index could be used by the city of New York to evaluate and understand the biodiversity of cities and could lead to enhanced ecology. i. Creating new Biodiversity index for New York City, which would be specific to NYC’S topography and requirements. Biodiversity is directly related to the soil structure, weather conditions, climate pattern, air quality and so on. Therefore, creating a new index would be very beneficial. The Singapore Index doesn’t consider marine biodiversity. NYC being an island city could be highly benefitted by creating an index that takes into consideration the flora and fauna, land elevation, and culturally-relevant plant palates, alongside native species. The index should also incorporate environmental justice and equity that are critical in NYC. New York State’s Park, Recreation and Historic Preservation has Biodiversity Tool that could be the foundation NYC’S biodiversity index. ii. Educating and spreading Awareness, regarding the importance of biodiversity is important. Few people still don’t understand the importance of plants and biodiversity. It is important that an interactive tool is created online or public charettes are held where they could learn about biodiversity and how they could support it. For the sustainable and equitable use of biodiversity and its conservation, education is essential. It is also crucial for the mainstreaming of biodiversity. The erosion of indigenous and local knowledge and the associated decline in sustainable traditional land use threatens biodiversity and ecosystem services, as well as the contribution of communities to the achievement of SDG 4 (inclusive and quality education). Integrating biodiversity in education and learning programs is therefore vital. (Education and Awareness, 2019). The NYC DEP can collaborate with Department of Education and Parks to spread awareness regarding the same.
B- BLUE- GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE MAINTENANCE The blue green infrastructure maintenance has always been an issue for the government. If the spaces are not maintained it eventually reduces its capacity of stormwater management and providing ecosystem services. The recommendations for the maintenance of green infrastructure are categorized in two sections- Equity and Sustainability. i. Equity- Socio-political aspects of inequality are inextricably linked with the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, including gender and ethnicity. This is because, although they are often marginalized and disadvantaged, indigenous peoples and local communities and women are important guardians of biodiversity and related traditional knowledge. Paying back the benefits to the community in terms of community/green jobs through avoided costs can lead to more equitable neighborhoods. This could be done through- a. Creating jobs in form of Internships /Fellowships- DEP can collaborate with the Department of Education and Ramboll in creating internship opportunities for the locals and adolescents. This would help in creating green jobs and better maintenance of their local areas. These internships would also support the locals and the city’s initiative of a sustainable future. b. Training/ Learning Opportunities- Trees New York provides youth programs and trains youths to maintain trees (“Youth Education,” 2015). Learning from them the city can either collaborate with them or create a new organization that could provide courses in blue- green infrastructure maintenance. c. Free MTA passes- Reimbursing civilians for their services is of due importance. The recommendation is to create green jobs and not free labor. If the government has no funds or financial capacity to reimburse the civilians then they can provide them with free MTA passes in the short term. Fair fare NYC provides reduced fares to the underprivileged New Yorkers. Taking their reference the city can provide weekly passes to the service providers. d. Food Vouchers or Coupons- The city can also collaborate with the local Deli or Grow NYC to provide food vouchers or coupons which would not only help in healthy eating but would also promote locals. ii. Sustainability- Well maintained green spaces are more effective and have longer life.
a. Trash free spaces- If the community members are well aware of the importance of the green spaces they would reducing trashing it and will keep it maintained. Additionally, a team that is dedicated to the maintenance of the blue- green infrastructure will play an important role in it. If the spaces are not maintained they will end up dying leading to loss of money and power that was used in creating them. The NYC DEP can achieve this by training the civilians and educating them. b. Better Return on Investment- Well maintained spaces have long life and that explicitly means better return on investment. If they are regularly maintained chances of damage are less and repairs are easy. CONCLUSION In 2015, the City of Copenhagen and New York City signed a memorandum of co- operation followed by risk mapping, stakeholder charettes, GIS analysis and designing. The city started blueprinting and implementing pilot projects beginning from 2018. The sites are all located in Southeast Queens which is an area predominantly of people of color. Biodiversity is an essential component to these plans. The biodiversity focused cloudburst model would lead to environmental justice to these communities and at the same time better community living.
Working collaboratively with NYC DEP, and other government organizations, and Pratt Community, I tried to explore ecosystem services and the multiple benefits that they provide to the civil society in relation to the blue- green infrastructure that is the part of the bigger Cloudburst planning model. The report also is an attempt to understand that services provided by the biodiversity and ecosystem are invaluable and therefore always assigning dollar value to the services they provide isn’t justifiable. Plants not only have impact on the urban fabric of our neighborhoods but also elevates human moods and are important for human survival.
“Our world is evolving without consideration, and the result is a loss of biodiversity, energy issues, congestion in cities. But geography, if used correctly, can be used to redesign sustainable and more livable cities.” -Jack Dangermond APPENDIX CLOUDBURST PLANS- COPENHAGEN
Fig 44: Urban intervention tools to mitigate common urban typolgies (ASLA,2012)
Fig 45: Masterplan with highest concentration of BGI. (ASLA,2012) Fig 46: Identified hotspots in the city. (ASLA,2012)
Fig 47: Cloudburst Streets Profile. (ASLA,2012) Fig 48: The redesigned lake in Copenhagen. (ASLA,2012) SOUTH JAMICA HOMES- CLOUDBURST PLANNING
Fig 49: Alternative A- Planning for SJH. (NYCHA-South Jamaica Cloudburst Master Plan, 2018)
Fig 50: Alternative B- Planning for SJH (Block 5). (NYCHA-South Jamaica Cloudburst Master Plan, 2018) Fig 51: Alternative B and C- Planning for SJH. (NYCHA-South Jamaica Cloudburst Master Plan, 2018) APPLICATION OF SINGAPORE INDEX ON South Jamaica homes
Core Components Indicators Points Assumption Study Calculate points Basis of Scoring
0 points: < 1.0% -Site Size= 23.2 acres (South Jamaica Homes) 1 point: 1.0% – 6.9% - Only cloudburst biodiversity - Clouburst Infrastructure Size= (Area 7.1= 8000sqf no - 9000 sq.t= 0.23 acres Proportion of Natural Areas 1 2 points: 7.0% – 13.9% considered biodiversity) 0 + (Area A 13000sq.f - 4000[Assumption excluding - 0.23/ 23.2 X 100= 1.3% 3 points: 14.0% – 20.0% 4 all th extra no biodiverse area]) Answer- 9000 sq.ft points: > 20.0% 0 points: < 200 ha - Exception= In general, patches are 1 point: 201 - 500 ha - Considering block 1, 528 feet long and 130 ft, 228 ft, 170 ft Connectivity Measures 4 - Considering Block 1 considered as connected if they are less 2 points: 501 - 1000 ha apart. than 100m apart. 3 points: 1001 - 1500 ha 4 points: > 1500 ha -Jamaica Bay Wildlife Refuge is one of the best places in New York City to observe migrating species. In fact, it’s a birder's 0 points: < 19 bird species - considering the wildlife on Jamica paradise with 332 bird species sighted at the refuge over the last 1 point: 19 - 27 bird species Bay. But taking the site area in Native Biodiversity 3 25 years (38 are accidental, and include several New York State 2 points: 28 - 46 bird species context an assumption of 50 records); that is nearly half the species in the Northeast.(Source- 3 points: 47 - 68 bird species species is considered http://www.nycaudubon.org/queens-birding/jamaica-bay-wildlife- 4 points: > 68 bird species refuge) 0 points: maintaining or a decrease in the number of species 1 point: 1 species increase Change in number of vascular plants 4 -20 native plant species proposed 2 points: 2 species increase 3 points: 3 species increase 4 points: 4 species or more increase 0 points: maintaining or a decrease in the number of species 1 point: 1 species increase Change in number of bird species 4 - Plants attract birds 2 points: 2 species increase 3 points: 3 species increase 4 points: 4 species or more increase Native Biodiversity in the area 0 points: maintaining or a decrease in the number of species 1 point: 1 species increase Change in number of butterfly species 4 - Plants attract butterflies and bees 2 points: 2 species increase 3 points: 3 species increase 4 points: 4 species or more increase 0 points: maintaining or a decrease in the number of species - No data available for other 1 point: 1 species increase Change in number of species 1 species. Assuming that plants 2 points: 2 species increase would bring atleast one reptiles 3 points: 3 species increase 4 points: 4 species or more increase 0 points: maintaining or a decrease in the number of species - No data available for other 1 point: 1 species increase Change in number of species 1 species. Assuming that plants 2 points: 2 species increase would bring atleast one reptiles 3 points: 3 species increase 4 points: 4 species or more increase 0 points: < 1.4% -Site Size= 23.2 acres (South Jamaica Homes) 1 point: 1.4% - 7.3% - Clouburst Infrastructure Size= (Area 7.1= 8000sqf no Proportion of Protected Natural Areas 1 2 points: 7.4% - 11.1% biodiversity) 0 + (Area A 13000sq.f - 4000[Assumption excluding 3 points: 11.2% - 19.4% all th extra no biodiverse area]) Answer- 9000 sq.ft 4 points: > 19.4 0 points: > 30.0% 1 point: 20.1% - 30.0% Proportion of Invasive Alien Species 4 - All native species are planted 2 points: 11.1% - 20.0% 3 points: 1.0% - 11.0% 4 points: < 1.0%
1 point: 33.1% - 39.7% 2 points: 39.8% - 64.2% 3 Regulation of Quantity of Water 2 - Only assuming block 5 - More than 50% land cover is green Approx 60% points: 64.3% - 75.0% 4 points: > 75.0% - 60% of the site is built space. Therefore, approx 9 acres is terrestial. 1 point: 10.5% - 19.1% 2 Carbon storage and cooling effect of vegetation Number of trees in that block= (Approx points: 19.2% - 29.0% 3 Climate Regulation: Carbon Storage and Cooling Effect of Vegetation 2 - Only assuming block 5 (Tree canopy cover) ÷ (Total terrestrial area of the city) × 100% 30 trees with a canopy of diameter 9 points: 29.1% - 59.7% 4 meter). Hence the carbon storage points: > 59.7% percentage is 21%
0 points: 0 formal educational visit/year 1 point: 1 formal educational visit/year Assuming that the new spaces 2 points: 2 formal educational Recreation and Education: Area of Parks with Natural Areas 2 Ecosystem services provided by would create learning opportunity visits/year the Biodiversity 3 points: 3 formal educational visits/year 4 points: > 3 formal educational
0 points: 0 formal educational visit/year 1 point: 1 formal educational visit/year Recreation and Education: Number of Formal Education Visits per Assuming that the new spaces 2 points: 2 formal educational 1 Child Below 16 Years to Parks would create learning opportunity visits/year 3 points: 3 formal educational visits/year 4 points: > 3 formal educational
0 points: < 0.4% 1 point: 0.4% - 2.2% Assuming the cloudburst Budget Allocated to Biodiversity 3 2 points: 2.3% - 2.7% intervention at this block 3 points: 2.8% - 3.7% 4 points: > 3.7%
0 points: < 12 programmes/projects 1 point: 12 - 21 programmes/projects 2 points: 22 - 39 Assuming that 4 sites were Number of Biodiversity Projects Implemented by the City Annually 3 programmes/projects 3 selected in that block points: 40 - 71 programmes/projects 4 points: > 71 programmes/projects
0 points: No LBSAP* 1 point: LBSAP not aligned with NBSAP 2 points: LBSAP incorporates elements of NBSAP, but does not include any No real strategy or action plan is CBD initiatives** Existence of Local Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 2 considered 3 points: LBSAP incorporates elements of NBSAP, and includes one to three CBD initiatives 4 points: LBSAP incorporates elements of NBSAP, and includes four or more CBD initia
Indicator 18: 0 points: No functions 1 point: 1 function Institutional Capacity: Number of Biodiversity Related Functions 4 Quantifying those benfits 2 points: 2 functions 3 points: 3 functions 4 points: > 3 functions 0 points: one or two agencies* cooperate on biodiversity matters 1 point: three agencies cooperate on biodiversity matters Institutional Capacity: Number of City or Local Government Agencies NYC DEP, NYCHA, Parks 2 points: four agencies Involved in Inter-agency Cooperation Pertaining to Biodiversity 1 Department cooperate on Matters biodiversity matters 3 points: five agencies cooperate on biodiversity matters 4 points: More than five agencies 0 points: No routine formal or informal process 1 point: Formal or informal process being considered as Governance and part of the routine process Management of Biodiversity 2 points: Formal or informal process being planned as Participation and Partnership: Existence of Formal or Informal Public Many stakeholder charettes and 4 part of the routine process Consultation Process public voting 3 points: Formal or informal process in the process of being implemented as part of the routine process 4 points: Formal or informal process exists as part of the routine process 0 points: No formal or informal partnerships 1 point: City in partnership with 1-6 other national or subnational agencies/private companies/NGOs/academic institutions/international organisations 2 points: City in partnership with 7-12 other national or subnational agencies/private companies/NGOs/academic institutions/international Participation and Partnership: Number of Agencies/Private In partnership with local groups 1 organisations Companies/NGOs/Academic and Rambol 3 points: City in partnership with 13-19 other national or subnational agencies/private companies/NGOs/academic institutions/international organisations 4 points: City in partnership with 20 or more other national or subnational agencies/private companies/NGOs/academic institutions/international organisations points: Biodiversity or elements of it are not covered in the school curriculum 1 point: Biodiversity or Institutions/International Organizations with which the City is N/A elements of it are Partnering in Biodiversity Activities, being considered for inclusion in the school curriculum 2 points: Biodiversity or elements of it are 0 points: 0 outreach events/year 1 point: 1 - 59 outreach events/year 2 points: 60 -149 outreach Projects and Programs N/A events/year 3 points: 150-300 outreach events/year 4 points: > 300 outreach events/year BIBLIOGRAPHY 6 components of soil-quality management. 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