THE LAW AND PRACTICE OF THE INTERNATIONAL COURT

by

SHABT AI ROSENNE

SECOND REVISED EDITION

1985 MARTINUS NIJHOFF PUBLISHERS a member of the KLUWER ACADEMIC PUBLISHERS GROUP DORDRECHT I BOSTON I LANCASTER CONTENTS

Priface to the first edition . . . . . v Priface to the second revised edition . IX Acknowledgements. . . . XI Abbreviations and Sources. . . . . XXIII

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION

I. The Political and the Legal in tl.e Settlement of Disputes 2. Arbitration and Judicial Settlement Compared . . 7 3· The Work of the Permanent Court: An Assessment. 10 4; Same: The International Court of justice. . . . . Ioj.

PART ONE. THE COURT AS PART OF THE MACHINERY OF DIPLOMACY

CHAPTER II. THE EsTABLISHMENT AND CoNSTITUTION oF THE CouRT

5· The Outbreak of War ..... 6. Early Inter-Allied Discussions . . 7· The Dumbarton Oaks Proposals. 8. The Washington Committee of jurists 9· The San Francisco Conference . . . IO. The International Court ofjustice-A New Court . I 1. The United Nations Preparatory Commission . I2. The Opening of the New Court ...... rg. The Functional Continuity of the Two Courts . ·.:.) 14. Problems of Interpretation I5. Political Interpretation. . . . . r6. ] udicial Interpretation . . . . . I 7. The Statute and Rules of Court . r8. State Practice. . . . . I9, Travaux Prlparataires . . 20. Non-Judicial Precedents 2 I. Amending the Statute . CONTENTS XIV CONTENTS XV PART TWO. THE ORGANIZATION OF THE COURT

CHAPTER III: THE POLITICAL AND CHAPTER v: THE PERSONNEL OF THE INSTITUTIONAL RoLE OF THE CouRT CouRT

22. The Permanent Court and the League 6o 53· Introductory . . . . . 165 23. The Court and the United Nations . 63 54· The Judges-Qualifications . I 66 24. Charter and Statute ...... 65 55· Nomination of Candidates I 70 25. The Court as a Principal Organ . . . . 68 s6. The System of Election. . . I 73 26. The Court as Principal Judicial Organ . 74 57. 'Meeting' and 'Ballot' . . . I 76 27. The Organs and the Court ...... 78 58. Procedure in the General Assembly I 77 28. Litispendance, Political and Legal . . . . 83 59· Procedure in the Security Council . 18o 29. The Specialized Agencies and the Court · . . 87 6o. The Avoidance ofDeadlock. 182 30. The Political Function ofJudicial Settlement go 61. Occasional Elections. . . . . 183 31. The Judicial Role of the Court ...... g6 62. The Frequency of Elections. . 184 32. The Attitudes of States towards Judicial Settlement roo 6g. Evaluation of Electoral System 184 33· Same: The Western Attitude . . I03 64. Term of Office of Judges . . 1go 34· Same: The Communist Attitude. 106 65. Judges' Solemn Declaration. . 191 35· Same: The Synthesis...... IIO 66. The Presidency ...... 192 67. Abstention of President in Particular Case 193 CHAPTER IV: THE PosT-ADJUDICATIVE PHASE 68. Precedence ofJudges. 194 6g. Resignation of Judge. . . I 94 70. Removal ofJudge . . . . I 95 g6. The Character of the Post-Adjudicative Phase . I 15 71. Compatibility of Functions ...... I 95 3 7. The Views of the Court ...... II 8 72. Disqualification and Abstention ofJudge in Particular Case I 96 g8. Underlying Characteristics of the Problem II9 73· The Quorum ...... 198 39· The Obligation of Compliance . . . . . , 22 74· The Composition of the Bench 199 40. Compliance with Interlocutory Decisions . 124 75· Chambers ...... 200 41. Compliance with Final Decisions ...... 125 76. The Concept ofJudge Ad Hoc. 202 42. Scope of Obligation to Comply-The Socohel Case I29 77· The Appointment of the Judge Ad Hoc 205 43· The Theoretical Qualification of Non-Compliance 133 78. Parties in the Same Interest. . . . . 208 44· The Role of Self-Help ...... I36 79· Qualifications of Judge Ad Hoc . . . 209 45· Methods of Securing Compliance ...... 139 8o. Registrar, Deputy-Registrar and Staff 210 46. The Cotfo Channel Case ...... I42 8 1. Assessors ...... · 2 12 47· Institutional Measures to Give Effect to Judgments. 148 82. Experts of the Court...... 212 48. The Role of the Security Council ...... I49 8g. Representation of the Parties . . . 214 49· The Role of Other Organs ...... 155 84. Witnesses and Experts of the Parties 2 I 6 50. Complaint oflranian Failure to Comply with Indication of 85. Diplomatic Privileges and Immunities 2 I 7 Interim Measures (I95') ...... I56 51. The Arbitral Award Case (rg6o-g) ...... '59 CHAPTER VI: FINANCE AND PROPERTY 52. An International Force and Judgment Enforcement I6I 86. The League System. . . 221 87. The I 945 Provisions . . 222 88. The Court's Expenditure 223 89. Unforeseen Expenditure. 226 CONTENTS XVII XVI CONTENTS I . States not to the . 278 go. The Court's Income 23 ~arties Stat~te 227 I . Same, contmue?: Rules, Ar_tlcl? 36 282 gi. Judges' Salaries . . 24 228 I , Public Internatlonal_Or(l'amzatlons 284 25 g2. The Revision of I950 230 I 6. International OrgamzatiOns-Non-Governmental . 2go 93· The Revision of Ig6I 2 232 I 7. Individuals ...... - . · - . · . · · 290 94· Registrar's Salary. . . 233 2 95· Registry Staff's Salary...... 234 CHAPTER IX: JuRISDICTION: GENERAL CoNcEPTS g6. Tax Equalization--Staff Assessment. . 236 97· Travelling and Subsistence Allowances 2 39 I 8. The Concept of 'Dispute' ...... 292 g8. Witnesses and Experts...... 24I 2 I2g. Jurisdiction and Competence...... 296 gg. Appraisal of Budgetary Arrangements . 24I I o. Meaning of Jurisdiction: ...... ·...... 302 IOO. Judges' Pensions ...... 243 I3r. Mutuality and Reciprocity as Elements ofJunsdictlon. 304 10 I. The Pension Plan of I946 . . . . 3 244 I32· Jurisdiction and Propriety . . . . · · . · · · · · · 307 I 02. __The Revised Pension Plan of Ig6o 245 I33· Jurisdiction and Seisin of the Court. 3II I 03. The Revision of I963 ...... 246 I 4. The Consensual Basis ofJurisdiction. 3I3 I04. The Financing of the Pension Plan 3 247 I35· Principal and Incidental Jurisdiction 3I8 105. Registrar's Pension ...... 249 136. Form of Consent ...... · 3I9 106. Registry Staff's Pension ...... 249 I37· Consent by Subsequent Conduct . . 322 107. Court's Property: General Remarks. 249 138. Withdrawal of Consent ...... 322 108. Seat of the Court. . . . 250 I39· Jurisdiction to Decide Ex aequo et bono . 323 109. Intangible Property. . . 25I I40· The Non Ultra Petita Rule ...... 326 141. Conferment of Jurisdiction Ratione Materiae. 327 CHAPTER VII: THE REGISTRY AND ITS WORK 142. Jurisdiction Ratione Temporis . . . . . · . 329

I 10. Organization of tbe Registry . 253 CHAPTER X: TREATIES AND AGREEMENTS II r. Staff Regulations ...... 256 I I2. Instructions for the Registry 257 I43· Treaties in Force ...... 332 "3· The Registry's Duties . . . 2 57 I44· Treaties Concluded before I945 335 I I4. Publications of the Court 260 I 45· Matters Provided for in U.N. Charter . 342 II5. Judicial Sessions . . . . 262 146. The General Theory of Forum Prorogatum. 344 I I6. Relations with the Press . 262 I47· Early Developments . . . . 346 I I7. Postal Services . . . . . •. 263 148. The Discussions of I934-6 . . 349 I49· Time for Formal Agreement. 35' I 50. Agreement by Successive Acts ...... 352 PART THREE. JURISDICTION IN CONTENTIOUS I5r. Agreement in Course of Pleading (Tacit Consent). 357 CASES 152. The Negation of Tacit Consent. . . . . 359 '53· State Organs Competent to give Consent 361 CHAPTER VIII: PAR TIES IN CASES I 54· Evaluation ...... 362

I I8. Introductory...... CHAPTER XI: CoMPULSORY JuRISDICTION "9· Members of the United Nations ...... I20. Non-Members of the United Nations as Parties to the I 55· History ...... 364 Statute ...... 156. Statute, Articles g6 (2) and (3)...... 367 I 2 r. Consequences of being Party to Statute ...... '57· 'Ipso Facto and Without Special Agreement' 369 I22. Withdrawal, Suspension and Expulsion from United 158. 'Any Other State' ...... 37I Nations ...... CONTENTS XIX XVIII CONTENTS CHAPTER XIV: THE TITLE OF jURISDICTION I59· 'Accepting the Same Obligation' 373 I 95· Definition ...... I60. 'Legal Disputes' ...... 374 469 Ig6. Validity in Time of Title ofJurisdiction. I6I. Declarations made before 1945 . 376 47I I97· Registration under Charter, Article I02 I62. Form of Declaration . 379 473 I 8. Plurality of Titles ofJurisdiction .... I63. Statute, Article 36 (4). . . . . 380 9 475 I99· Successive Titles ofJurisdiction. . . . . I64. Reciprocity ...... 384 479 zoo. Retroactive Effect of Title of Jurisdiction 165. Reservations.... and Conditions . . 388 483 201. Temporal Limitations...... I66. Objective Reservation of Domestic Jurisdiction . 489 393 202. Application of Temporal Limitation I67. Subjective Reservation of Domestic Jurisdiction. 395 493 203. Temporal Element ofJurisdiction Ratione Personae. I68. Temporal Conditions-Terminology 399 soo 204. Lapse of Title ofJurisdiction...... I69. The War Exclusion Clause. . 400 50 I no. Special Reservations ...... 403 I7I. Interpretation of Declarations . . . 405 I72. The Juridical Qualification of the System 409 PART FOUR. CONTENTIOUS PRACTICE AND I 73· Denunciation of Declaration . 4I5 PROCEDURE I74· Evaluation ...... 4I9 CHAPTER XV: THE INSTITUTION AND CHAPTER XII: INCIDENTAL jURISDICTION TERMINATION OF PROCEEDINGS

I75· General Characteristics . . . . 422 205. Concretization of Issue ...... 509 I 76. Interim Measures of Protection. 424 zo6. Premature Institution of Proceedings: Prior Diplomatic I77. Interpretation ofJudgment 428 Negotiations...... 5I3 I 78. Revision ofJudgment . 429 207. Same: Non-Exhaustion of Local Remedies. 5I6 I 79· Intervention ...... 430 208. The Interest of the Applicant State 5I8 I 8o. Counter-Claims . . . . . 434 209. Methods of Instituting Proceedings 52 I r8 r. Jurisdiction over Procedure 436 2IO. Notification of Proceedings. . . . 522 2 I r. Special Agreement ...... 523 2I2. Application Instituting Proceedings . 524 CHAPTER XIII: PRELIMINARY OBJECTIONS 2 I 3· Appointment of Agents ...... 525 2 I4. Relations of Litigating States. . . . 526 I82. Importance of Questions of jurisdiction 437 2 I 5· Institution of Interlocutory Proceedings 528 I83. Jurisdiction as to the Jurisdiction . . . 438 Preliminary Objections . . . . 528 I84. Meaning of 'Dispute as to Jurisdiction' 442 Interim Measures of Protection . 530 I 85. Consequence of Raising Jurisdictional Questions 445 Discretionary Intervention . 530 I86. Time for Raising Question of jurisdiction 447 Intervention of Right . . . . . 530 I87. Rules, Article 62 ...... 448 _\ Miscellaneous Applications. . . 53 I I88. Suspension of Proceedings on Merits . . 454 \j 2 I 6. Institution of Derivative Proceedings 53 r I89. Successive Objections ...... 455 Interpretation ...... 532 I90. Classification and Priorities of Objections 457 Revision ...... 532 I9I. Distinction between Objection and Defence 459 Determination of Quantum of Damages . 532 I92. Character of Decision on Preliminary Objections 46I Appeals ...... 533 I 93· Disposal of Objections...... 464 2 r ?· Termination of Proceedings by Parties Jointly 534 I 94· Questions ofJurisdiction Raised by Court . . . 467 2 r8. Termination of Proceedings by Applicant 535 International Law. 541 2 2 r. Purpose of Proceedings ...... 544 CHAPTER XVIII: EXTRA-jUDICIAL 222. The Equality of the Parties...... 546 ACTIVITIES 223. Steps following Institution of Proceedings 55° 262. Nature of Practice ...... 224. Joinder and Consolidation of Cases 55 1 633 263. International Agreements ...... 225. Written Proceedings . . 553 636 226. Language of Proceedings ss6 264. Agreements between a Government and Private Concern. 641 227. Documentary Evidence . ss6 265. Contracts between Private Concerns 644 266. Unilateral Invocation of Extra-Judiciai 228. Affidavits ...... 557 Fu~cclo~ 645 229. Correction of Errors in Pleading 558 267. Evaluation ...... 645 230. Order of Written Pleading. . . 558 231. Fixing of Time-Limits ...... 559 232. Further Documents: Rules, Article 48. PART FIVE. THE ADVISORY PRACTICE AND 562 PROCEDURE 233· Secrecy of Written Proceedings . 566 234· Date of Oral Proceedings . s67 CHAPTER XIX: THE INITIATION OF 235· Preparations in the Registry s68 ADVISORY PROCEEDINGS 236. The Hearing...... 568 237. Order of Oral Pleading . . . 571 268. The Experience of the League of Nations 65r 238. Examination of Witnesses and Experts. 572 269. The San Francisco Conference . . . . . 655 239· Obtaining of Evidence by the Court. . 576 270. Comparison of Covenant and Charter . . . . 658 240. Submission of Evidence by Third State 579 271. The Principal Organs: The General Assembly 66r 241. Establishment of Facts and Burden of Proof 58o 272. Same: The Security Council...... 666 242. The Submissions ...... 584 273. Same: ECOSOC...... 66g 243· Closure of Hearing ...... s89 274. Same: The Trusteeship Council . . 671 244· Proceedings in Default of Appearance . 59° 2 75· Other Organs of the United Nations 672 245· Proceedings before Chambers 591 2 76. The Specialized Agencies ...... 675 246. Costs ... 592 277. The International Atomic Energy Agency .. 68o 24 7. Evaluation ...... 593 278. Special Advisory Procedures: 'Compulsive' Opinions 682 279. Same: Recourse from Administrative Tribunals ... 686 CHAPTER XVII: THE CouRT's DECISION 28o. The Request...... 690 281. The Drafting ofthe Request . 6g3 248. The Court's Deliberation ...... 595 249· The Judgment ...... 6oo CHAPTER XX: ADVISORY jURISDICTION 250. The Operative Clause of the Judgment 6oi 251. Statute, Article 38 (I). . . . . 6o3 (j 282. General Concepts. . . 6g8 252. General Principles of Law . . . 6o8 283. Legal Question. . . . 702 253· Subsidiary Means: Article 38 (r) (d): Judicial Decisions 6Ir 284. The Court's Discretion ...... 708 254· Same: Teachings of Publicists ... 614 285. Discretion based on Court's Judicial Character . . . . 709 255· Critique of Statements of Law . . . 6r6 286. Discretion based on Court's Status of Principal Organ . 71 I 256. The Obligatoriness of the Judgment. 619 287. Jurisdiction in Special Advisory Procedures. . 718 288. Judicial Interpretation of Advisory Opinions . 257· The Finality of the Judgment .. 622 719 258. Res Judicata ...... 623 289. Revision of Advisory Opinion . . . 724 259· The Judgment and Third Parties. 628 290. Treatment of Preliminary Questions. 726 XXII CONTENTS CHAPTER XXI: ADVISORy PROCEEDINGS

291. The Composition of the Court 730 292. The Seisiu of the Court . . . 730 ABBREVIATIONS AND SOURCES 293· Accompanying Documents...... 294. Principal Features of Advisory Procedure 73' 732 A Publications of the Permanent Court of 295· Right of Participation...... International J usticc, Series A, Collection of 733 296. Individuals ...... 736 Judgments. 297· The Proceedings ...... 739 Publications of the Permanent Court of 298. The Role of the Secretary-General A/B 742 International Justice, Series AJB, Judgments, 299· The Opinion...... 744 Orders and Advisory Opinions. 300. Legal Effect of Advisory Opinion . 744 301. Reception of Advisory Opinions . A.D. Annual Digest of Public International Law Cases, 747 302. Evaluation . . .' ...... vols. 1-5 (I9I9-1930), Annual Digest and 755 Reports of Public International Law Cases, vols. 6-I6 (I93I-I949l· Continued as International APPENDIX Law Reports, from vol. 17 (I950). Citation is in accordance with I.L.R. 25 (I958-I), p.v. The Rules of Court, I922-1978, Table of Concordance 760 A.F.D.I. Annuaire Frar!fais de Droit International. Cases . . . . . a.1. agenda item. 769 Articles qf Charter A.J. American Journal of International Law. Articles qf Statute. . 774 776 Annuaire Annuaire de l'lnstitut de Droit International. Articles qf Rules of Court. . General Assembly Resolutions 778 B.Y. British Year Book of International Law. Index qf Names . . 779 78! c Publications of the Permanent Court of General Index ...... 785 International Justice, Series C, Acts and Documents relating to the judgments and opinions of the Court. D Publications of the Permanent Court of International Justice, Series D, Acts and Documents concerning the Organization of the Court. E Publications of the Permanent Court of International Justice, Annual Reports of the Court. ECOSOC Economic and Social Council. F Publications of the Permanent Court of InternationalJustice, General Indexes. G.A.O.R. General Assembly Official Records. Hudson, Permanent Court Hudson, The Permanent Court of International Justice 1920-1942 (New York, 1943).