Carbon Dioxide in Deep Geological Formations
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LBNL-51170 Lessons Learned from Natural and Industrial Analogues for Storage of Carbon Dioxide in Deep Geological Formations Principal Investigator: Sally M. Benson Co-Investigators: Robert Hepple, John Apps, Chin Fu Tsang, and Marcelo Lippmann Earth Sciences Division E.O. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Berkeley, CA 94720 [email protected]: 510-486-5875 TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES iii LIST OF TABLES v LIST OF ACRONYMS vii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1 1 STUDY OBJECTIVES AND METHODS 11 1.1 Introduction 11 1.2 Objectives 11 1.3 Approach 11 2 HUMAN HEALTH, ECOLOGICAL AND INDUSTRIAL RISK ASSESSMENT OF 13 CARBON DIOXIDE EXPOSURE 2.1 Introduction 13 2.2 CO2 Sequestration in the Context of the Global Carbon Cycle 13 2.3 General Physiology of Carbon Dioxide 17 2.4 Human Physiology of Carbon Dioxide: Normal and Hazardous Exposure 19 2.5 Ecological and Environmental Impacts of CO2 Releases 22 2.6 Industrial Sources and Uses of CO2 30 2.7 Carbon Dioxide Regulations 33 2.8 Monitoring and Measurement Systems for Carbon Dioxide 38 2.9 Summary Conclusions and Remarks 39 3 NATURAL ANALOGUES FOR UNDERGROUND CO2 STORAGE: HEALTH, 43 SAFETY, AND ENVIRONMENTAL LESSONS LEARNED 3.1 Introduction 43 3.2 The Global Carbon Cycle, Origins of Subsurface CO2 and Volcanic Hazards 44 3.3 Natural Manifestations of Carbon Dioxide: Surface-Release Analogues 54 3.4 Natural Accumulations of CO2: Subsurface CO2 Reservoirs 60 3.5 Summary Conclusions and Remarks 65 4 DISPOSAL OF INDUSTRIAL LIQUID WASTE IN DEEP GEOLOGIC FORMATIONS 69 4.1 Introduction 69 4.2 History of Underground Disposal of Liquid Wastes 69 4.3 Risk Assessment Framework and Methods 78 4.4 Risk Management Approaches: Monitoring and Reporting Requirements 87 4.5 Risk Mitigation and Remediation Methods 90 4.6 Closure and Post-Operational Monitoring 94 4.7 Case Histories 95 4.8 Summary Conclusions and Remarks 102 i 5 UNDERGROUND NATURAL GAS STORAGE 105 5.1 Introduction 105 5.2 Risk-Assessment Framework and Methods 110 5.3 Risk-Management Approaches for Natural Gas Storage 113 5.4 Risk Mitigation and Remediation Methods 117 5.5 Case Studies for Natural Gas Storage 118 5.6 Summary Conclusions and Remarks 120 6 NUCLEAR WASTE DISPOSAL: LESSONS LEARNED FOR CO2 SEQUESTRATION 123 6.1 Introduction 123 6.2 History of the WIPP Project and Regulatory Process 124 6.3 Broad Technical Criteria and Regulatory Limits 127 6.4 Performance Assessment Methodology 129 6.5 Monitoring Approaches 132 6.6 Lessons Learned and Applications to CO2 Sequestration 134 APPENDICES A1 BIBLIOGRAPHY B1 ii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1. Global biogeochemical carbon cycle 14 Figure 2.2.a Comparison of carbon reservoirs and one-time events 15 Figure 2.2.b Comparison of carbon fluxes and target sequestration rates 16 Figure 2.3. Fundamental biological carbon and energy cycles involving photosynthesis 18 and respiration Figure 2.4. The role of gas exchange and respiration in bioenergetics 18 Figure 2.5. Gas exchange and variation in respiratory gas concentration along 19 the coupled respiratory and circulatory systems Figure 2.6. Comparison of ambient concentrations of CO2 and risks of exposure 23 Figure 2.7. Response of 19 species of soil invertebrate to elevated levels of CO2 27 Figure 2.8. Major U.S. natural CO2 reservoirs, pipelines, and proximity to EOR 32 projects Figure 3.1. Schematics of the global carbon cycle 45 Figure 3.2. Worldwide distribution of volcanism, tectonics, and seismicity 47 Figure 3.3. Worldwide correlation of high CO2 discharge springs and areas 48 of seismicity Figure 3.4. Distribution of high CO2 discharge springs in the United States. 49 Figure 3.5. Block diagram of mixing processes among diverse sources of 52 hydrothermal gases Figure 3.6a. Tentative cross section through Nevado del Ruiz, Columbia 55 volcanic structure showing active volcanic releases of CO2. Figure 3.6b. Passive geothermal release of CO2 at Furnas volcano, Sao Miguel, 56 Azores, including precipitation, evaporation, and groundwater flow rates and CO2 flux from springs and in runoff Figure 3.7. Theoretical model of Mammoth Mountain structure, posited gas 59 reservoir, and geothermal system to explain the variety of CO2 manifestations observed Figure 3.8. Schematic of continuum of CO2 vertical migration relative to 61 temperature, pressure, and depth Figure 3.9. Natural CO2 reservoirs in the Four Corners area, Colorado Plateau, and 62 Wyoming. iii Figure 3.10. Natural CO2 reservoirs in Paradox Basin in the Four Corners area 63 of the western United States Figure 4.1. Number of Class I wells operating in the United States on a yearly 71 basis since 1950 Figure 4.2. Map of the contiguous 48 states, showing major sedimentary basins 72 Figure 4.3. Distribution of states with primacy over regulation of Class I wells 76 Figure 4.4. A flow chart illustrating EPA’s no-migration review process for Class I 82 deep-well-injection disposal facilities Figure 4.5. A typical configuration of a Class I hazardous waste injection well 85 Figure 5.1. U.S. underground natural gas storage working-gas capacity 106 Figure 5.2. Natural gas-storage facilities in the United States 106 Figure 5.3. Definition of a storage system (section of an anticlinal reservoir) 109 Figure 5.4. Section of an underground structure 109 Figure 5.5. Artist’s conception of the vent gas cycling system at Herscher, Illinois 112 Figure 6.1. Comparison of mean CCDF (complementary cumulative 129 distribution function) and curves resulting from CCA PA and PAVT iv LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1. Concentrations of CO2 and the duration required for effective control Page 26 of the rusty grain beetle Table 2.2. Species abbreviations and descriptions modified from Sustr and Simek Page 28 Table 2.3. U.S. sources of CO2 in 1998, emissions and sinks in MMTC Page 31 Table 2.4. Maximum allowed percentage of CO2 in mixed supplied/rebreathed air Page 35 from SCBA apparatus Table 2.5. Summary of information regulatory limits for exposure to CO2 Page 36 Table 2.6. CFRs relating to carbon dioxide Page 37 Table 3.1. Average annual flux rates of CO2 for various volcanic and hydrothermal Page 49 processes and events. Table 3.2. Known natural disasters (possibly) caused by CO2 Page 53 Table 3.3. Natural CO2 reservoirs and high CO2 natural gas reservoirs Page 64 Table 4.1. Hazardous waste characteristics Page 79 Table 4.2. Probabilistic assessment of component failure of a Class I Page 90 hazardous-waste-injection well Table 4.3. Problems associated with the operation of deep well injection facilities Page 97 Table 5.1. Underground storage of natural gas in the U.S. and Canada: 1998 Page 107 Table 5.2. Average reservoir properties for gas-storage reservoirs in the Page 108 U.S. and Canada Table 5.3. Web guide for the most relevant state regulations as related to Page 114 underground natural gas-storage projects, especially in depleted reservoirs and/or aquifers Table 5.4. Permit requirements for the Wild Goose Storage Project, Page 116 Butte County, California Table 6.1. WIPP history Page 126 Table 6.2. Congressional, regulatory and legal process Page 126 Table 6.3. The 40 CFR Part 191 release limits for the containment requirements Page 128 Table 6.4. Potentially disruptive events and processes Page 131 Table 6.5. Techniques for assessing or reducing uncertainty in the WIPP Page 132 performance assessment v vi LIST OF ACRONYMS ACGIH American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists AEC Atomic Energy Commission AER Annual Energy Report AGU American Geophysical Union ANSI American National Standards Institute AoR Area of Review ASHRAE American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-conditioning Engineers ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers ASR Aquifer Storage and Recovery ATP adenosine tri-phosphate ATSDR Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry BCF billion cubic feet Billion 109 CAM Crassulacean acid metabolism CCA compliance certification application CCA PA compliance certification application performance assessment CCDF complementary cumulative distribution function CCGG Carbon Cycle – Greenhouse Gas CCP Carbon Capture Project CDC Center for Disease Control and Prevention CEQA California Environmental Quality Act CERCLA Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act CFR Code of Federal Regulations CGA Compressed Gas Association CGMP current good manufacturing practice CMA Chemical Manufacturers Association CMDL Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory COSPEC Correlation Spectrometer/Spectroscopy CPCN Certificate of Public Convenience and Necessity CPUC California Public Utilities Commission CWA Clean Water Act DEP Department of Environmental Protection DHHS Department of Health and Human Services DIAL differential absorption lidar DOA Department of Agriculture DOC Department of Commerce DOE Department of Energy DOGGR Division of Oil, Gas, and Geothermal Resources (California) DOI Department of the Interior DOL Department of Labor DOT Department of Transportation DP disturbed performance ECOR eddy-flux correlation EDF Environmental Defense Fund EEG Environmental Evaluation Group (State of New Mexico) EIA Energy Information Administration EOR enhanced oil recovery EPA Environmental Protection Agency FAA Federal Aviation Administration FACE free air CO2 enrichment vii FDA Food and Drug Administration FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency FEP features, events, and processes FIFRA Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act FTIR Fourier-transform infra-red FWQA Federal Water Quality Administration GAO General Accounting Office GC gas chromatography GC-TCD