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Lakes Nyos and Monoun Gas Disasters (Cameroon)—Limnic Eruptions Caused By

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Lakes Nyos and Monoun Gas Disasters (Cameroon)—Limnic Eruptions Caused By GEochemistry Monograph Series, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 1–50 (2017) www.terrapub.co.jp/onlinemonographs/gems/ Lakes Nyos and Monoun Gas Disasters (Cameroon)—Limnic Eruptions Caused by Excessive Accumulation of Magmatic CO2 in Crater Lakes Minoru Kusakabe Department of Environmental Biology and Chemistry University of Toyama 3190 Gofuku, Toyama 930-8555, Japan e-mail: [email protected] Citation: Kusakabe, M. (2017) Lakes Nyos and Monoun gas disasters (Cameroon)—Limnic erup- tions caused by excessive accumulation of magmatic CO2 in crater lakes. GEochem. Monogr. Ser. 1, 1–50, doi:10.5047/gems.2017.00101.0001. Abstract Received on December 5, 2015 This is a review paper on the Lakes Nyos and Monoun gas disasters that took place in the Accepted on May 11, 2016 mid-1980s in Cameroon, and on their related geochemistry. The paper describes: (i) the Online published on April 7, 2017 gas disasters (the event and testimonies); (ii) the unusual geochemical characters of the lakes, i.e., strong stratification with high concentrations of dissolved CO2; (iii) the evolu- Keywords tion of the CO2 content in the lakes during pre- and syn-degassing; (iv) the noble gas • Cameroon signatures and their implications; (v) a review of models of a limnic eruption; (vi) a • Lakes Nyos and Monoun revision of a spontaneous eruption hypothesis that explains the cyclic nature of a limnic • gas disaster eruption (Kusakabe 2015); (vii) a brief review of the origin of the Cameroon Volcanic • crater lakes Line (CVL) and the geochemistry of CVL magmas; (viii) a brief review of other CO - • magmatic CO2 2 • limnic eruption rich lakes in the world; and (ix) concluding remarks. • disaster mitigation Degassing of the two lakes has been successful. Most of the dissolved CO2 has been • degassing removed from Lake Monoun, resulting in the stoppage of the degassing system. How- • Cameroon Volcanic Line ever, the CO2 content in the lake started to increase in recent years due to the continuing •SATREPS supply of gas from the underlying magma, indicating the necessity of the continuous removal of gas from the lake. Lake Nyos will attain the same situation in several years when degassing will stop. Thus, a continuation of scientific monitoring of the lakes is essential. Since the transfer to Cameroonian scientists of monitoring techniques, includ- ing analytical equipment necessary for the monitoring, has been effected through the SATREPS project (Japan’s Official Development Aid), the responsibility is now theirs, and it is strongly hoped that the lake monitoring, the rehabilitation of displaced people, and the setting up of an infrastructure for them, etc., will be carried out by the Cameroonian Government and local scientists. 1. Introduction degassing of CO2 is the quiet discharge of gas often derived from a magmatic source, with varying degrees Volatiles in the deep interior of the Earth are brought of contamination by crustal or biological CO2. Crater to the surface mainly by volcanic activity. In terms of lakes usually sit on top of volcanic conduits and act as the present-day global carbon cycle, the CO2 discharge condensers or traps for magmatic volatiles. The Lake from subaerial volcanism including the passive dis- Nyos gas disaster in 1986, and a similar event in 1984 charge from the craters or flanks of volcanoes, is the at Lake Monoun, both in Cameroon, Central Africa, major non-anthropogenic contributor to atmospheric resulted from an excessive accumulation of magmatic CO2 (e.g., Kerrick, 2001; Gerlach, 2011). The passive CO2 in the bottom layers of the lakes. These volcanic © 2017 TERRAPUB, Tokyo. All rights reserved. doi:10.5047/gems.2017.00101.0001 ISSN: 2432-8804 2 M. Kusakabe / GEochem. Monogr. Ser. 1: 1–50, 2017 Fig. 1. Location of Lakes Nyos and Monoun (red circles) and volcanoes along the Cameroon Volcanic Line (solid black) in Cameroon, Central Africa. Modified from figure 1 of Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Journal, Hydrogeochemistry of surface- and groundwater in the vicinity of Lake Monoun, West Cameroon: Approach from multivariate statistical analysis and stable isotopic characterization, 2015, Kamtchueng, B. T., Fantong, W. Y., Takounjou, A. F., Tiodjio, E. R., Kusakabe, M., Mvondo, J. O., Zhang, J., Ohba, T., Tanyileke, G., Hell, J. V. and Ueda, A. „ Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015 with permission of Springer. crater lakes are considered to be the sites of passive geochemical investigations revealed that the gas was degassing of CO2. On 26th August, 1986, a large CO2 that originated from magma and had accumulated amount of CO2 was suddenly released from Lake Nyos passively in the deep part of these lakes. The physico- that asphyxiated 1746 people, and an unaccountable chemical characteristics of the lakes are unique and number of cattle, living near the lake (Sigvaldason, have evolved with time, even after the gas release, due 1989). A very similar gas event took place in August to the continuing supply of magmatic CO2. 1984 at Lake Monoun, with 37 casualties (Sigurdsson In the present paper, issues related to these gas dis- et al., 1987). Lake Monoun is located only 100 km charges are reviewed in the following sections; (III) south-east of Lake Nyos (Fig. 1). A term “limnic erup- what happened at the time of the Lakes Nyos and tion” was coined by J.-C. Sabroux to describe a gas Monoun gas disasters?; (IV) pre- and syn-degassing outburst from a lake (Halbwachs et al., 2004), and will chemical evolution of the lakes; (V) possible causes be used in this review. Given that this type of gas dis- of the disasters, the models and the repetitive nature aster had not been previously recorded (Sigurdsson, of a limnic eruption. In relation to the recurrence pre- 1987a), the Lakes Monoun and Nyos events attracted vention of a limnic eruption, a bilateral scientific a great deal of attention, not only from the media but project between Japan and Cameroon called SATREPS- also from a disaster science perspective. At that time, NyMo was carried out during 2011 and 2016, and is nobody imagined that the lakes had accumulated so outlined in Section 5. much lethal gas and that the gas was released into the The upper 40 m of Lake Nyos is bounded on the north atmosphere without any precursor. Subsequent by a narrow dam of poorly consolidated pyroclastic doi:10.5047/gems.2017.00101.0001 © 2017 TERRAPUB, Tokyo. All rights reserved. M. Kusakabe / GEochem. Monogr. Ser. 1: 1–50, 2017 3 Fig. 2. (a) Victims near Lake (Stager and Suau, 1987). Reproduced with permission of Helimission (www.helimission.org). (b) Dead cow by the lake (photo taken by the author). rocks. This dam is being affected by back erosion. A gional units which are differentiated by their geogra- warning was given that the collapse of the dam could phy, climate and vegetation characteristics as follows: cause a flood that would affect inhabited areas over a (1) The Sudano-Sahelian zone in the North is composed 220 km distance (Lockwood et al., 1988). An accurate of the Mandara mountains, Diamaré plains and the estimation of the rate of back erosion of the dam is Benue Valley. (2) The savanna zone is composed of critical for the safety of people living downstream. the Adamawa highlands, the Tikar plain, the low land Thus, the age of the dam formation (or Nyos maar for- savanna of the Center and East regions, and the high- mation) has been hotly debated using different age land of the West and Northwest regions. (3) The tropi- determination techniques. Recent progress on the age cal forest zone is composed of the degraded forests of of the dam is briefly reviewed in Section 6. the Central and Littoral regions, and the tropical rain- Thirty nine crater lakes including Lakes Nyos and forests of the Southwest and East regions. (4) The Monoun and numerous soda springs are located along coastal and marine zone spreads along the Gulf of the Cameroon Volcanic Line (CVL). An understand- Guinea. The country’s economy is driven by agro-in- ing of the origin and the geochemistry of CVL mag- dustry in the coastal, central and southern zones (Molua mas is essential. These subjects are reviewed in Sec- and Lambi, 2006). Because of the above geographic tion 6, which constitutes the basis on which CO2 accu- characteristics, its wide range of climatic types, and mulation in these lakes is scientifically interpreted. We its cultural diversity, Cameroon is often nicknamed also need to understand why CO2 becomes enriched in “Africa in miniature”. The population of Cameroon is magmatic volatiles as they leave the magma. The Lakes estimated to be ~23 million as of January 2015 (http:/ Nyos and Monoun events have stimulated geochemical /countrymeters.info/en/Cameroon). According to the interest in other CO2-rich volcanic lakes in the world Demographics of Cameroon (http://en.wikipedia.org/ for their gas hazard potential. This is reviewed in Sec- wiki/Demographics_of_Cameroon), the country com- tion 7. prises an estimated 250 distinct ethnic groups, which may be classified into five large regional-cultural di- 2. Gas disasters at lakes Nyos and Monoun, visions: (1) the western highlanders (Semi-Bantu or Cameroon grassfielders), including the Bamileke, Bamoun, and many smaller Tikar groups in the Northwest (~38% of 2-1. Cameroon: Location and physiography the total population); (2) the coastal tropical forest peoples, including the Bassa, Duala (or Douala), and Cameroon is a country in Central Africa located be- many smaller groups in the Southwest (12%); (3) the tween 2–13∞N latitude, and 8–16∞E longitude (Fig. 1). southern tropical forest peoples, including the Beti- It is bounded by 6 countries: Chad to the northeast, Pahuin with subgroups called Bulu, Fang, Maka, Njem, Nigeria to the west, Central African Republic to the and Bakapygmies (18%); (4) the predominantly Islamic east, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and Congo to the south.
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