ABSTRACT

HOME GARDENSCAPES FOR THE PROMOTION OF ECOLOGICAL AND CULTURAL DIVERSITY ON SINT EUSTATIUS, DUTCH

by Briana N. Berkowitz

Home gardens are an important topic for geographic research due to their potential to contribute at the intersection between plant diversity conservation and local livelihoods. Home gardens have the potential to be sites of ecological restoration, transforming a small-scale landscape through higher plant richness and density. This study looks at home gardenscapes on St. Eustatius, a small Caribbean island, focusing on all growing in a home area. Field research between June and July 2016 aimed to determine how home gardenscapes contribute to botanical measures and cultural perceptions of plant diversity, and how St. Eustatians value the importance of their gardens to their homes and livelihoods. Through a floristic and ethnobotanical survey of plants growing in home areas, I found 277 plant , indicating high levels of plant diversity, as well as 260 plants with uses. Interviews with home gardeners indicated that home gardening could be difficult due to drought and pests, but also that gardens contributed to their livelihoods, especially through the production of edible plants and for small incomes. Gardening was reported to be a declining activity on St. Eustatius, but this study shows how gardening activities support plant diversity and livelihoods across the island’s highly-modified landscape.

HOME GARDENSCAPES FOR THE PROMOTION OF ECOLOGICAL AND CULTURAL PLANT DIVERSITY ON SINT EUSTATIUS, DUTCH CARIBBEAN

A Thesis

Submitted to the

Faculty of Miami University

in partial fulfillment of

the requirements for the degree of

Master of Arts

by

Briana N. Berkowitz

Miami University

Oxford, Ohio

2017

Advisor: Kimberly E. Medley

Reader: Mary Jane Berman

Reader: David L. Prytherch

This Thesis titled

HOME GARDENSCAPES FOR THE PROMOTION OF ECOLOGICAL AND CULTURAL PLANT DIVERSITY ON SINT EUSTATIUS, DUTCH CARIBBEAN

by

Briana N. Berkowitz

has been approved for publication by

The College of Arts and Science

and

Department of Geography

______Kimberly E. Medley

______Mary Jane Berman

______David L. Prytherch

Table of Contents

List of Tables……………………………………………………………………………..v List of Figures………………………………………………………………………...….vi Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………..vii Chapter One: Introduction……………………………………………………………...1 Statement of Purpose and Research Questions…………………………………....4 Chapter Two: Literature Review……………………………………………………….7 Ecological and Cultural Plant Diversity of Biogeographical Landscapes………...7 Gardens as Restoration Ecology…………………………………………………..9 Feminist Participatory Research as Collaborative Learning…………………..…10 Chapter Three: Study Area……………………………………………………………13 Chapter Four: Data and Methods……………………………………………………..17 Garden Measurement and Delineation…………………………………………...18 Floristic Survey…………………………………………………………………..18 Ethnobotanical Survey………………………………………………………...…20 Local Perceptions on Gardenscapes……………………………………………...20 CHAPTER FIVE: RESULTS………………………………………………………….23 Ecological and Cultural Diversity of the Gardenscapes……………………...25 Floristic Diversity of the Gardenscapes………………………………….25 Ethnobotanical Diversity of the Gardenscapes…………………………..28 Ecological Diversity Patterns among Gardenscapes……………………..31 Local Perceptions on the Management and Livelihood Contributions of Gardenscapes…………………………..………………………………………..35 Transformation of the Garden Space…………………………………….35 Maintaining Plant Diversity in Gardenscapes……………………………38 Gardenscape Contributions to Homes and Livelihoods………………….42 Chapter Six: Discussion and Conclusions…………………………………………….46 Gardenscapes for Conserving Biodiversity……………………. ……… ……46 Diverse Gardeners Create Diverse Gardenscapes…………………..………..48 Engaging Communities in Ecological Restoration………………………...... 51 References……………………………………………………………………………….54 iii

Appendix 1: List of Flora Found in St. Eustatian Gardenscapes ………………...…66 Appendix 2: Research Approval from Miami University’s IRB ……………………80 Appendix 3. Participant Consent Form………………………………………………..81 Appendix 4. Approval for Collection of Plant Samples on St. Eustatius…………….82 Appendix 5: Permit for Import of Plant Materials from St. Eustatius……..……….83

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List of Tables

Table 1. Questions asked in semi-structured interviews…………………………………21 Table 2. Demographics of participants by gardenscape…………………………………24 Table 3. Gardenscape Floristic Survey Results………………………………………….25 Table 4. Plant species by origin status, following Richardson et al. (2000)……………..25 Table 5. Potentially invasive non-native species (sensu van de Berg et al. 2015) found in gardenscapes on St. Eustatius………………………….…………...... 27 Table 6. Ethnobotanical plant uses mentioned by gardeners on St. Eustatius…………...28 Table 7. Number of plants with uses by plant origin type……………………………….29 Table 8. Number of species, density, and evenness per gardenscape……………………32

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List of Figures Figure 1. A conceptual model for the study that examines gardenscapes as sites for the restoration of ecological and cultural diversity on St. Eustatius………...4 Figure 2. Map of St. Eustatius showing locations of gardenscapes……………………...13 Figure 3. An example of a gardenscape measurement made in Google Earth Pro………18 Figure 4. Plant voucher specimen collected for the Miami University Herbarium……...19 Figure 5. Equipment for drying plant specimens………………………………………...19 Figure 6. Size-class distributions of gardenscapes………………………………………23 Figure 7. Plant species found in gardenscapes with different origin statuses……………26 Figure 8. Examples of plants with several common names……………………………...27 Figure 9. Examples of plants from different use categories……………………………..29 Figure 10. Number of plants with one to multiple uses………………………………….30 Figure 11. The plants with the most recorded uses………………………………………31 Figure 12. Floristic composition (plant origin and growth habit) of gardenscapes by location……………………………………………………………………….33 Figure 13. Ethnobotanical plant uses in gardenscapes by location………………………34 Figure 14. Comparison of gardenscape compositions…………………………………...34 Figure 15. Frequency of species in gardenscapes………………………………………..35 Figure 16. Examples of gardenscape transformation…………………………………….36 Figure 17. Techniques for maintaining established plants……………………………….39 Figure 18. Ways of adding infrastructure to the garden. Raised beds in gardenscape 10 (left) made from oil barrels acquired from NuStar oil terminal. Garden beds lined with cardboard and shaded by palm fronds to keep moisture in and weeds out in gardenscape 15 (right).………………………………..…...40 Figure 19. Ways that gardenscapes contribute to lives and livelihoods. A jar of gooseberry jam made by the gardener from gardenscape 4 (top left), the entrance to the inn ran by the gardener from gardenscape 1 (top right), a community garden initiative where gardenscape 5 is located (bottom right) and plant seedlings from gardenscape 16 that are ready to be sold (bottom left) …………………………………………………………………43

vi

Acknowledgements

First and foremost I must thank Kim Medley, a truly wonderful advisor, who went above and beyond for me during my time at Miami. I most appreciate the time she spent carefully editing my thesis, her encouragement to realize my full potential as a writer and academic, and the way she has shifted my worldview on the relationships of people, the environment and plants. Her passion for those subjects really helped me find my passion for them, and I am very grateful for all I’ve learned. Thanks as well to my committee members, Mary Jane Berman and David Prytherch, for their help in the thesis process.

Many thanks to the Willard Sherman Turrell Herbarium and Michael Vincent for the generous grant to complete my fieldwork, and for the help in identifying my plant specimens. I deeply appreciate my field assistants Hannah Madden and Celford Gibbs, who were instrumental in carrying out this research, and my field participants, who generously took their time to show and tell me about their plants and gardens.

I must acknowledge my fellow graduate students, without whom writing this would have been a much less enjoyable process. Finally, thanks to my family and Maurice.

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Chapter One INTRODUCTION

The effective conservation of biodiversity gained priority as an environmental objective, following its introduction at the 1986 “National Forum on BioDiversity” (Wilson 1988). Plant diversity in particular presents its own challenges and considerations. Many species are still unrecorded, distribution patterns for many species remain uncertain, and plants are inadequately protected in places where conservation needs are most urgent (Joppa et al. 2013). The 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity, under the Environment Program, provides targets to document, conserve, sustainably use, and raise awareness of plant diversity as both a global and local concern (Convention on Biological Diversity n.d.), and for the 21st century, the United Nations Millennium Development Goals identify biodiversity conservation as essential for mitigating future environmental challenges and improving livelihoods. These global strategies focus primarily on reducing deforestation and increasing protected areas (United Nations 2015). In order for the conservation and management of biodiversity on a local level to be effective, however, strategies need to more broadly consider landscape complexity and better incorporate the knowledge and concerns of local people who know their home areas best (Pirot et al. 2000; Redford 1996). Conservation priorities need to better incorporate both cultural and biological concerns in plant conservation (Wolverton et al. 2014). Biogeography provides an applied framework for biodiversity research due to its ability to effectively integrate the study of ecological and cultural patterns and processes at multiple scales (Zimmerer 1994). The many ways that plant diversity patterns across landscapes are culturally modified, together with ecological effects over time, reflect societal priorities and values (Zimmerer and Young 1998). Research in ethnobotany and cultural ecology shows that humans identify, use, and value the flora around them in myriad ways (Martin 2004). The challenge is to effectively integrate the ecological importance of diversity, such as its contributions to ecosystem resilience, recovery and services, with the cultural importance of diversity for sustainable livelihoods (Fabricius et al. 2007). The ways that different communities and cultures use plants show how people value biodiversity in the landscapes where they live, not only for material needs critical to their sustenance and well-being but also for its mere existence (Alcorn 1995; Cuerrier et al. 2015). “Biogeographical landscapes” can be seen as a

1 patchwork of land areas at different stages of recovery and different levels of diversity due to natural processes and human relationships with natural resources (Zimmerer and Young 1998). Humans and their profound effects on nature are well substantiated (Gouldie 2013). Most civilizations were established and flourished through the process of exploiting the resources found in ‘wild’ landscapes; a process that has reduced diversity levels (Mills 2008). But just as humans transform natural landscapes toward less diverse settlements or agricultural landscapes, so too can human restorative practices contribute to diversity conditions that have both ecological and cultural values (Allison 2004). Ecological restoration, by definition, aims to restore and repair natural functions and structures to designated lands, with the goal of returning a sense of naturalness and wildness to an area (France 2008). France (2008) emphasizes the necessity of acknowledging and championing the role of humans in the restoration process, as a process and outcome. Essentially, restoration is a way of engaging and establishing a relationship with nature. Higgs (2003, 284) expands on the idea of restoration as a design process that should have “a deep appreciation of what an ecosystem requires to flourish, and then making such systems possible,” Restoration as a conservation strategy naturally benefits from cultural practices that support many forms of life and ecological processes, are flexible to ecological and social needs, and show adaptability to new ideas or activities. Gardens are a small-scale setting in which to explore restorative ecology and gain views on the ecological and cultural values of plant diversity: what plants occur, why they are there, and what are the botanical outcomes of local land practices (Howard 2003). Gardens by design create a new landscape that can be particularly important, ecologically and culturally, in human settlements (Hall 2005). Pollan (1991) proposes what he calls a “garden ethic,” which follows the land ethic introduced by Aldo Leopold. Humans need to position themselves as members of a biotic community instead of its conqueror, and show respect for that community and its fellow members (Leopold 1949). A garden ethic accepts human interaction with nature, reflects on what fits and makes sense ecologically and culturally in local landscapes, and stays positive about the impact humans can have on a newly-defined nature (Pollan 1991). I introduce ‘gardenscape’ to describe a portmanteau of garden and landscape that goes beyond the traditional idea of a garden as a cultivated area of plants around a home to include the presence of plants, actively managed or not, in a cultural landscape bounded by human interests. I recognize the richness and spatial structure of plant species beyond those purposefully grown in the garden as contributions to

2 biodiversity and human livelihoods. As a human created domain for the conservation of plant diversity, gardenscapes provide a lens through which to examine how biodiversity and societal roles relate to the processes of ethno-ecological change (Gbèdomon et al. 2015). All gardens restore plant diversity, from a collection of potted plants on a balcony to expansively manicured land areas (Rapoport 1993). Culturally, gardens conserve a diversity of plant uses and particular knowledge about plant values (Clarke et al. 2014), as people often change their surroundings to reflect what they value or need most (Zagorski et al. 2004). The Caribbean islands provide an interesting geographical setting to look at gardens as a restorative process that can promote the conservation of plant diversity. Recognized as a biodiversity hot spot, these islands form a distinct sub region within Neotropical flora, showing high species richness (>11,000 plant species), high species endemism (72%, 182 endemic genera), and distinct patterns of ‘island’ fragmentation (Caribbean Islands Biodiversity Hotspot: Ecosystem Profile Summary 2010). Each island shows a unique composition of species and habitats influenced by their physical-environmental site conditions and history of human influences (Maunder et al. 2008). The Caribbean islands especially show a deep and profound history of political-economic influences that altered biodiversity patterns and human populations- the indigenous landscape or its people do not exist (Deloughrey 2004). A brief chronology highlights human migration to the islands around 4000 years ago from the South American mainland with consequent landscape change for settlement and agricultural production, a ‘Columbian Exchange’ of people, plants, and animals between the Old and New worlds after 1492, and a plantation legacy where large lands went into sugar production supported by African slaves (Fitzpatrick and Keegan 2007; McNeill 2010). As agriculture declined and urbanization increased towards the end of the 20th century, vegetation showed recovery (Lugo 2012), but these changes occurred in response to changing land values and not through a conscientious decision for conservation (Lugo 2002). The current state of Caribbean landscapes as recovering ecosystems makes them ideal for the consideration and implementation of ecological restoration practices (Echeverria et al. 2015). A Caribbean legacy of gardening emerged in colonial times, both among European colonizers who brought their tradition of private and botanical gardens, and African slaves who did their own gardening and small scale farming in order to supplement their diets, preserve their culture, and make extra money through selling produce at markets (Martin 2012). Previous gardening

3 studies in the Caribbean identify gardens as places where human ecological management creates high levels of plant diversity and helps preserve indigenous knowledge and culture (Brierly 1991; Kimber 1973; Buchman, 2009). They also often provide many direct benefits to gardeners, such as food, medicine, and income through the selling of plant material (Buchmann 2009). In view of the long and constantly changing ecological history of the Caribbean islands, an investigation of gardenscapes as a process and outcome, shows potential to contribute to the creation of novel but potentially diverse landscapes of value to plant conservation.

Statement of Purpose and Research Questions My research focuses on the contribution of home gardenscapes as sites for the conservation and restoration of ecological and cultural plant diversity on the island of Sint Eustatius in the Dutch Caribbean (Figure 1). St. Eustatius, with an area of only 21 km2, is home to 482 wild plant species, including two endemics (Rojer 1997; Krings and Axelrod 2013). The island’s landscape has a long history of human transformation, and ongoing development and population growth are further limiting the land resources that can be protected. The setting

4 supports a strong need for local people’s active involvement in ecologically restorative processes within and near their homes (Rojer 1997). People on St. Eustatius have cultural traditions for using plants, but modern conveniences such as supermarkets and pharmacies are leading to a a growing lack of interest in plants from younger generations (Posthouwer et al. 2016). As a very small island with limited resources, St. Eustatius could benefit from increasing sustainable practices such as gardening that can improve people’s livelihoods, diversify their diets, and provide valuable ecosystem services such as erosion control and shade (Verheijden 2016). Verheijden (2016) also reports a loss of connection with the island’s natural resources, which make the setting a particularly interesting place to explore plant knowledge and how garden activities are valued as a contribution to residents in today’s society. The study asks two research questions to gain local views on the role of home gardenscapes in restorative plant conservation (Figure 1):

1. How do the plants growing around homes contribute to ecological and cultural measures of plant diversity? Gardenscapes can be seen as a type of ecological restoration, in which a piece of land is transformed, directly or indirectly, for aesthetic or practical reasons. Working collaboratively with home residents, I completed a floristic-ecological inventory of the composition and structure of plant species around a sample of homes, and gained cultural measures of diversity that included the number of plants with uses, how they are used, and the total number of uses described.

2. How do people on St. Eustatius situate and value the importance of gardens to their homes and livelihoods? The plants that occur in a gardenscape reflect decisions made by home residents. I conducted semi-structured interviews with gardeners to consider how people value gardenscape plants for their livelihoods. Of particular interest was how plants are introduced and managed around their homes, the opportunities and constraints they have to actively engage in those activities, and the importance of ‘garden’ space in their lives.

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The study engaged local people to collaboratively record ecological measures of plant diversity and understand cultural perspectives on that diversity. Gardens also function as a type of urban restoration that reprioritizes where local ecologies are managed and how they contribute to ecosystem functions and services (Allison 2004; Higgs 2010). The study contributes to better understanding the contribution of gardens, as modified small-scale landscapes, to the protection of plant diversity. Looking at people’s home areas on a developing small island setting such as St. Eustatius, where people are increasingly modernizing many aspects of their lives, provides a unique context for examining how local plant knowledge might affect and contribute to local decision making, particularly concerning conservation.

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Chapter Two LITERATURE REVIEW

The research by design integrates ecological and cultural measures of diversity patterns in a human-modified landscape with local people’s perceptions about their plant/garden relationships. I identify two important areas of scholarship that establish the theoretical context for this research: (1) ecological and cultural diversity of biogeographical landscapes; and (2) gardens as a form of restorative ecology. The methodological context for the research focuses on feminist participatory research as collaborative learning.

Ecological and Cultural Plant Diversity of Biogeographical Landscapes Humans have been modifying landscapes for millennia, often as an organizational response to ecological problems (Netting 1982). Today, developing countries in particular are rapidly changing their landscapes according to resource needs. Biogeography, which explores the distribution of organisms, their ecological composition, structure, and dynamics in place, and human relationships over time effectively integrates different perspectives to critically explore biodiversity patterns and their conservation (Young et al. 2003). Vegetation and physical- environmental relationships across heterogeneous landscapes are of importance in many geographical studies (Young and Aspinall 2006). Zimmerer and Young (1998) propose ‘biogeographical landscapes’ as a construct for investigation that integrates analyses of ecological and cultural processes (Fagerholm et al. 2012). Instead of positioning humans as outside nature and its systems, they are in fact deeply entangled in the fabric of Earth and its processes (Head 2007). Diversity patterns across a ‘biogeographical landscape’ should, therefore, jointly consider ‘ecological’ and ‘cultural’ attributes (Fagerholm et al. 2012). Hamilton and Hamilton (2006) also suggest approaches to plant conservation that emphasize both ‘ecological’ and ‘cultural’ measures inherent in biogeographical research. Ecological diversity focuses on quantitative measures such as number of species, their floristic distribution patterns (i.e. endemic or exotic), and how these measures are influenced by landscape use and management (Huntley 1988). Species diversity can also be measured through analyzing the distribution of species in the landscape, looking at what Whittaker (1975) termed alpha diversity, or the mean species in a site,

7 along with beta diversity (differences in species composition among sites) and gamma diversity (species diversity in an entire landscape or region). Culturally biodiverse plants often provide ecosystem services, or benefits that people receive from ecosystem function, categorized by The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) as services that provide provisions (food, water, fuel, etc.), services that regulate things like , change, and disease, cultural services (aesthetic, spiritual, educational) and supporting services (nutrient cycling, soil formation, etc.). These services are often examined through the field of ethnobotany, which provides important insight on how plants contribute to material needs and services for use by humans (Lipp 1995; Martin 2004). Participatory research to learn from and with local people who are using plants can result in valuable insight into the availability of local plant resources and the formulation of best management practices (Cunningham 2001). Ethnobotanical research measures ‘cultural’ plant diversity by the number of plant uses, their categories of use such as for food, medicine, building material and ecosystem services (Prance et al. 1987; Ayantunde et al. 2008), and the number of plants with uses. Collecting traditional plant knowledge before it is lost due to societal changes and habitat loss, is of the utmost importance, and studies today are working to fill in those gaps (Nabhan 2016; Turner 2003; Prance 1991). While ecological and cultural biodiversity is undoubtedly necessary for human survival, Wilson’s (1984, 22) ‘biophilia’ references something bigger, which he defines as an innate tendency to focus on life and lifelike processes, explaining “humanity is exalted not because we are so far above other living creatures, but because knowing them well elevates the very concept of life.” Biogeographic landscape research necessarily intersects with cultural-political ecology (CAPE), considering human relationships with plants as ‘cultural’ measures of diversity. CAPE especially looks at how humans adapt in different settings in response to local and extra-local influences on their livelihoods (Head 2010). Head and Atchison (2009) acknowledge how fundamental plants are in human life and vice versa, and how cultural ecology facilitates examining the value that people place on engagement with non-human worlds such as gardens. Modification of the environment due to diverse factors such as development and climate change is changing people’s relationship with and knowledge of plants (Head and Atchison 2009), and in some cases, preserving important cultural plant knowledge may only be possible on the very local level such as in home gardenscapes.

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Gardens as Restoration Ecology Gardens are a human tradition, used for both beautifying the world and cultivating plants for various uses, which also exemplify an important human-environment relationship by providing clues to understanding culturally specific relationships with the natural environment. Gardens are both a work of culture and a work of place, a “hybrid space” that whether actively managed or not, can reveal much about their owners and uses (Kimber 2004; Kimber 1973). Diverse, multidisciplinary research occurs in home gardens, looking at how they can contribute to food security, community development, and resilience at multiple scales (Taylor and Lovell 2014). Home gardens are important protectors of agro-diversity due to many people growing plants for food, particularly traditional food that may be unique to their region (Galluzzi et al. 2010). Gardens can play an important role in helping build social-ecological resilience during difficult political or economic times, through the nurturing of diversity by sharing plant resources, incorporating scientific, lay, and traditional knowledge about plants into their management, and the organizing of social networks to allow for a flow of plant material and social support (Buchmann 2010). The various plant arrangements found in gardens can also be analyzed, as “plants are physical markers of activity fields that are both associated with the plants and independent of them” (Kimber 1973, 13). The implications of home garden studies are far ranging, and show the complexity of home garden systems, with their sophisticated structures of species selection and management that are guided by the diverse perceptions and convictions of each individual gardener (Fernandes and Nair 1986). This study adds to garden literature by combining perspectives on ecological and cultural diversity in gardenscapes, focusing on situated knowledge, and gaining local perspectives on the values of these spaces to local livelihoods and biodiversity conservation. While ‘gardening’ is often seen as an artificial process of domination and domestication of a landscape, it is also an apt description for restoration because gardens demonstrate an innate connection between humans and the land (Allison 2004). Restoration work and gardening often have the same goal of bringing benefit to natural ecosystems through the creation of a new landscape, which can be particularly important in urban and suburban areas, where more land is degraded or significantly altered (Hall 2005). Restoration should take people, ecology and culture into account with the purpose of highlighting ‘human’ attributes that hold importance

9 such as skillful practices, connections to places and natural processes, and community participation (Higgs 2010). Biodiversity in an ecosystem can be enhanced by restoration through the use of native plants and planting rare species with the aim of creating a more structurally complex ecosystem, providing food and habitat for pollinators and wildlife that are adapted to local and soil (Greipsson 2011; Tallamy 2007). Many gardens feature both natives and often showier non-natives, and it can take experimentation to find the right balance of aesthetics and function in a garden space, something that gardeners are often willing to experiment with (Marris 2011). This study bridges the gap between gardening and restoration, showing how gardenscapes potentially integrate restoration activities and values in the home area and may contribute to creating landscapes that are ecologically diverse and provide important ecosystem functions (Allison 2012).

Feminist Participatory Research as Collaborative Learning Participatory research, if done right, should result in the co-production of knowledge that benefits both the researcher and the participants (Whitman et al. 2015). Musante (2015) addresses the issue of reciprocity- ‘what’s in it for me’, and ‘what’s in it for you’, saying that while there may not be any grandiose or highly beneficial outcomes to either participating or doing research, being honest and realistic about what the outcomes might be with the study participants or community allows everyone involved in the study to understand the purpose of the research. Particularly in plant conservation research, the local community who is involved with local plants has knowledge to share and should have a say about how plants are managed or conserved (Cunningham 2001). In feminist research, often the participant is the one who is teaching the researcher, which can then lead to collaboration and moving forward together on the project (Oberhauser 1997). Triangulation, in which information in research is cross-checked with multiple sources in order to verify its correctness, can allow for even more collaboration, and results in a more thorough and engaged study (Bradshaw and Stratford 2000). Ultimately, research studies are not just about what the researcher wants to know, but also about what local people are willing to and enthusiastic about sharing with them. Especially when research cross-culturally engages local people, best practices including recognizing power relations, encouraging equal participation and collaboration, and creating trust need to be incorporated into the research design (Barbutiu 2016). The Society for Ethnobiology

10 adopted a code of ethics that embodies “mindfulness” and includes respecting indigenous knowledge, returning information back to the community, and engaging local people in research (Hardison and Bannister 2011). Power dynamics are very important to consider in participatory research on multiple levels, from including women and minorities in the research, to validating traditional techniques and knowledge, and to recognizing power structures in communities (Kapoor 2000). Oberhauser (1997) found that in her study of women and home-based work, power dynamics were very influenced by doing research in someone else’s home, and instead of positioning herself as an academic who was there to conduct a study and then leave, she presented herself as someone with similar experiences and dilemmas in her personal life, allowing her to engage with her participants on their own terms in their everyday surroundings. Feminist research facilitates reflexive positionality by allowing researchers to acknowledge and bring in their own perspectives, personal background, and biases as they guide inquiry (England 2000). Reciprocity is critical to feminist participatory research (Fortmann 2008). Once a researcher completes research in a community, it is important to consider how relationships continue. Kearns (2000) says that, ethically, a researcher should maintain ties with the community and be in communication with them even after leaving. It’s particularly important to communicate research findings with the community once the research is complete, and to do that through a using medium and language that has meaning to the local community (Schensul et al. 2015). This study is sensitive to how differences in social roles and livelihoods may determine plant knowledge, and thus also incorporates concepts and context from the field of feminist political ecology. Feminist political ecology, as a geographic research strategy, provides an effective synthesis of political ecology and feminism, looking at the gender dimensions in resource struggles and livelihoods (Elmhirst 2011). Of particular relevance to this study is the idea that due to the gender and class division of labor, poverty, and power, a person’s gender, class and race will structure their interactions with nature, and the opportunities and constraints they see in those relations (Agarwal 1994). Rocheleau et al. (1996) describe an intersectional and gender-sensitive focus within feminist political ecology that focuses on situated knowledge, the complexity of access and control over resources, and why local perceptions matter when conserving environments for livelihoods. As feminist research, the proposed study is sensitive to

11 how power differences shape the lived experiences of people and the meaning that they attribute to those experiences. Feminist research particularly values relational and situated knowledge that is driven by local experiences, aiming to actively engage and even change the world of research participants (Kobayashi 2001; Sewell and Harris 2016). For this study, gardens provide a site and situation of transformative change to both the landscape and the people who live there.

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Chapter Three STUDY AREA

St. Eustatius is a 21 km2 island located in the northern (Figure 2).

Topographically, the island is dominated in the southeast by the dormant Quill volcano, which reaches 601 m at its highest point, and in the northwest by hills that have elevations up to 294 m, with a flat plain between known as De Kultuurvlakte where the population centers are located (Rojer 1997). The Quill dates from the Holocene, bordered by a limestone formation called White Wall. The hills in the northwest are remnants of Pleistocene volcanoes. Rainfall averages

13 around 986 mm per year and is seasonal, with highest rainfall during the warmer months (van Andel 2016). Climate conditions across the island vary from a wetter tropical to the southeast within the hurricane zone, and a drier tropical climate to the northwest, following Köppen’s The average temperature ranges from 30 degrees Celsius in warmer months (May to November) and 24 degrees C in cooler months (December to April; van Andel 2016). St. Eustatius is classified by the World Wildlife Fund as part of the Lesser Antilles Dry Forest ecoregion, which is endangered due to its small area of only 130 km2 split among five islands, a relatively high level of endemism, and a legacy of degradation and disturbance (World Wildlife Fund 2016). The vegetation on St. Eustatius varies from evergreen woodland to deciduous woodland and to shrubland, but is generally adapted to seasonally dry conditions and drought. De Freitas et al. (2014) distinguishes 16 vegetation types on the island, with greatest variation around Quill Hill. The majority of the island is classified as urban and disturbed land areas. Rojer (1997) found 482 plant species on St. Eustatius, of which 85 are only found in the , 18 are only found in the Lesser Antilles, and 5 of those species are limited to only a few islands. A more recent study (Axelrod, in press) has raised the number of species on the island to 617. Examining the history of St. Eustatius, particularly its ecological changes, provides context for the current environmental state of the island and the factors that led to that state. The original forest types on St. Eustatius included littoral, thorn, deciduous and semi-evergreen woodland (World Wildlife Fund, 2016), and the island would have originally been significantly forested, evidenced by the importance of wood derived items like canoes and wooden tools to the Saladoid people who lived there before the arrival of the Europeans (SECAR n.d.). The island was spotted by Christopher Columbus during his second visit to the New World in 1493, and along with other islands in the region came to be of interest to the French, English, and Dutch, amongst whom it changed hands multiple times (Aceto 2006). Plantation agriculture was established on the island by the French in the 1600’s, with crops grown including indigo, coffee, tobacco, cotton and sugar (Palmer 2014). As the number of plantations increased, so did the import of slaves from to work on them, with as many as 25,000 people living on the island during the heyday of the plantation period. Plantations were so extensive that they reached as far up as the slopes of the Quill and the northern hills by 1650, and by 1740 all arable land

14 was being used and it was no longer possible to expand agriculture on the island (Stelten 2013). However, the climate semi-arid climate of St. Eustatius meant that the quality and quality of crops grown on the island was limited, and with other compounding problems for agriculture such as increasing soil erosion and nutrient loss and invasive species (McNeill 2010), the island turned to trade as its major industry. By the mid 1700’s St. Eustatius became the commerce center of the Caribbean due to its absence of an import tax, giving it the nickname of ‘the Golden Rock’ and gained recognition for supplying American revolutionists with weapons and ammunitions. (Aceto 2006). Consequently, by 1840 there were just ten plantations left, and following the abolishment of slavery in the Dutch Caribbean in 1863 slaves largely left the countryside to settle in town and most large scale agriculture on the island ended as a result (Stelten 2013). St. Eustatius’ economy dwindled in the following century, and by 1948 the population was down to only 921 people (Rojer 1997). The past three decades have brought new economic developments and employment through the installation of an oil terminal in 1982 and increased tourism efforts. Today, many remnants of a ‘plantation landscape’ remain on the island, particularly on the north and northeastern side of the Quill, mainly of smaller eighteenth and nineteenth century plantations, which is evident in remains like stone walls, fortifications, and building remnants (Stelten 2012). While most evidence of natural vegetation was destroyed under the plantation system, vegetation regeneration has since occurred in many areas. National parks were established in 1999 and are managed by the St. Eustatius National Parks Foundation (STENAPA) protecting 28% of the island’s area, including the Quill volcano and most of the area around Boven and Gilboa Hills in the north of the island. Stoffers (1956) carried out the first vegetation survey on the island, which was based on research and collections made between 1755 and 1953. van Andel’s (2016) survey of island vegetation types found several ways that vegetation has changed since Stoffers’ (1956) study, including disappearance of montane thicket and elfin forest from the Quill crater rim, vegetation deterioration in the White Wall area, and an increase in plant diversity on the slopes of the Quill and in Boven National Park. The secondary woodland that is growing on the island today includes many introduced and naturalized species, and these lands are threatened due to agriculture encroachment, proximity to development, and limited enforcement of environmental legislation (World Wildlife Fund, 2016). Increasingly more research is being done on the island’s unique natural features, often by Dutch researchers,

15 aided by STENAPA, its parent organization, the Dutch Caribbean Nature Alliance, and the recently founded Caribbean Netherlands Science Institute. Prior ethnobotanical studies are reported for St. Eustatius and nearby islands, including an early survey of medicinal plants on St. Eustatius (Boldingh 1907), medicinal plant studies on St. Kitts and Montserrat (Whittaker 2001; Brussell 2004), and recent research on ethnobotanical knowledge loss and sustainability of wild plant extraction on St. Eustatius (Verheijden 2016; Posthouwer et al. 2016). St. Eustatius is one of three islands known as the Dutch Caribbean (along with Saba and Bonaire), and retains status as a Special Municipality of the Netherlands, ultimately under Dutch control but with its own local government. It currently has a population of about 4000 people. The majority of people are of African descent, but there are also small Dutch, East Asian, and Hispanic populations. Inter-Caribbean migration is characteristic among islands due to push factors such as declining economic and social conditions, and as of 2000, about 25% of the population of the Netherland Antilles, including St. Eustatius, Saba, St. Maarten, Aruba, Bonaire and Curacao, were migrants (United Nations Economic Commission for the Latin America and the Caribbean 2006). English has been the defacto language on St. Eustatius since its prominence as a commerce center, though Dutch is the official language and is currently the language taught in schools. Most people on the island are employed in government or by the oil terminal, with only 7% unemployment, and an average income of $26,300 a year (Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek 2016). St. Eustatius’s small size and population limits the diversity of services it provides, causing people to go off-island for major medical procedures and higher education (Institute of Island Studies 2007).

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Chapter Four DATA AND METHODS

The study employed a feminist participatory approach to gain quantitative and qualitative measures of ecological and cultural diversity and local perspectives on that diversity in home gardenscapes. Before leaving for the field, I completed online training and gained Miami University’s Institutional Review Board approval for human subject research (Appendix 1). Each participant was asked to sign a consent form that described their participation in the study and ensured their anonymity (Appendix 1). I did my research on St. Eustatius in June and July 2016, under affiliation with Caribbean Netherlands Science Institute, which provides accommodation and research facilities for visiting students and scientists. Two research assistants helped to identify initial participants on the island. My assistants were a former STENAPA employee, originally from the UK but a longtime St. Eustatius resident, who has extensive knowledge of the ecology of the island, and one of her associates, a native St. Eustatian who also knew quite a bit about plants and gardening due to growing up on the island with parents who gardened. My first participants were primarily people that my assistants knew who gardened. We then expanded the sample by following a ‘snowball technique’ (Secor 2010), asking the first participants to provide the names of other gardeners who they thought might participate. I often visited a participant’s home twice, depending on their schedule and availability, as many were employed outside of the home. First, I introduced myself and the project, toured the garden with the participant, and conducted an interview. Second, I returned to survey the garden plants and ask any follow-up questions. Participants didn’t need any particular training to participate in the study, as they were considered the ‘experts’ on their plants and gardens. All of my study participants were adults who lived at the gardenscape property, and I focused on plants growing around their homes or in association with their homes. During the home visits, I recorded observations on the size of the home, its relative age, and the family structure. To answer my first research question (How do the plants growing around homes contribute to ecological and cultural measures of plant diversity?) I employed three techniques.

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Garden Measurement and Delineation The first task was to survey with the home participants the boundary around their garden space that defines where they have and/or actively manage plants. In most cases, this was the land around their homes and was delineated by fencing, but in three cases the properties were very large (bigger than one third of a hectare) and I only surveyed one or two areas of their gardenscape, which were generally the areas that were identified as being under the most intense management by the gardener. Two participants had a garden plot that was separate from their home but under their management, in one case a rented garden plot, and in the other case part of a community garden, both of which the participants drove to daily to tend. This study limited the area of a gardenscape to 60 meter by 40 meter plots (one third of a hectare) to make study areas uniform across all homes used in the study, though one gardenscape was larger than that size. The size of plots was determined through several measures: GPS points were taken in the corners of all gardenscapes, which once displayed in ArcGIS, could be used to determine the approximate size of the space, with additional points taken to outline the house (if present) so that the area of the house could be subtracted from the area of the entire property to get the area of the gardenscape. This was cross-checked with measurements of each gardenscape made on satellite imagery in Google Earth, which provided an even more accurate area for each gardenscape (Figure 3).

Floristic Survey Once the boundary of the garden was delineated, I compiled a floristic and ethnobotanical survey in collaboration with my field assistants and participants. All plants in the gardenscape were identified by and species and their life form (e.g., annual or perennial herb, , , and ) with most identifications made in the field by myself, the field assistants (both of

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whom had knowledge of local plants), or the garden owner. While considerable effort was made to record every plant in the gardenscape, some smaller grasses and herbs were particularly difficult to distinguish and may have been missed in the survey. Pitt (2015) advocates for the use of photography in garden studies to capture a plant’s physicality, and photography may also be useful for identification purposes (Lima dos Santos et al. 2014). I took many photos in each gardenscape, particularly of immediately unidentifiable plants. I also collected voucher specimens in gardenscapes of both unidentifiable plants and other representative gardenscape plants (Figure 4). I received training on plant sample collecting and drying from Dr. Michael Vincent, the curator of Miami University’s Turrell Herbarium, before doing fieldwork. I processed and dried my plant voucher samples after every day of fieldwork, and brought them back to Miami University for deposit in the Turrell Herbarium (Figure 5). These unknown specimens were later identified with the help of resources, including the Plants of the Eastern Caribbean online database that is maintained by the University of the West Indies in , Rojer’s (1997) floristic inventory of St. Eustatius, and van der Burg et al.’s (2012) report on

19 naturalized and invasive plants in the Dutch Caribbean. Dr. Vincent was also consulted for plant identification assistance. For woody plants and herbaceous perennials, I also recorded abundances as a measure of ecological structure. From these data, my analyses of biodiversity include floristic measures of species richness, total plant densities, ecological measures of species importances based on their relative abundances, and a comparison of species differences among the gardenscapes. PC-ORD software, which provides multivariate analyses of ecological community data, was used to calculate evenness based on relative species abundances and a jackknife estimate of species richness based on plot occurrences (McCune and Grace 2002).

Ethnobotanical Survey For the ethnobotanical survey, following Martin (2004), I recorded local plant names and any known uses for the plant. I collected this information from participants both while surveying their gardens, where they might mention how they used a particular plant when we saw it in their yard, and in more formal interviews. From these data, I compiled cultural measures of plants with local names, number of plant species with uses, number of plants by use categories (such as food, medicinal, and ecosystem services), and total number of uses (Martin 2004). I wrote down all local names as identified by participants as growing in their yards, which I then linked to a scientific name, to get an idea of what local people call plants, and where they might get these names from. I also wrote down whether a plant was identified as having use(s) or not, and what that use might be. From there, I was able to characterize types of uses, and calculate the total number of uses and total number of plants with uses. Cultural plant uses were compared for native or non-native plants in the gardenscapes.

Local Perceptions on Gardenscapes To answer my second research question (How do people on St. Eustatius situate and value the importance of gardens to their homes and livelihoods?) I employed one technique. I gained this insight through semi-structured interviews, in which I asked open-ended questions and relied on participant’s responses to guide the interview and narratives compiled (Table 1). Of

20 particular interest was how plants are introduced and managed around their homes, the opportunities and constraints they have to actively engage gardening activities, and the importance of gardenscapes and plants in their lives, both in terms of livelihoods and personal well-being. Ten interviews occurred at homes and/or an identified garden space, and one interview took place at the Caribbean Netherlands Science Institute. The length and depth of the interviews depended on the amount of time the participant had to talk, the level of elaboration they provided, their level of involvement in gardening, and overall plant knowledge. My research

21 assistants knew most of the participants, and often joined in with asking questions or discussing certain topics with the gardeners. Plant values were also discussed, such as economic, semi- economic (ecosystem services such as shade or erosion prevention), aesthetic, and ethical (the inherent value of living things) values (Martin 2004). At several gardens, I used audio recording for the interviews, which can be particularly useful because of the anecdotal nature of ethnobotanical research (Gbèdomon et al. 2015; Randolph, 1996; Gallaher et al. 2015), but mostly I relied on copious note-taking.

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Chapter Five RESULTS During fieldwork from June to mid-July 2016, local field assistants identified gardeners and gardens they knew at different locations on the island defined by their neighborhood (Figure 2). We interviewed 11 home gardeners and surveyed 14 gardenscapes at 15 locations in seven named neighborhoods. For two of the gardeners interviewed, we were not able to survey their garden, and in four of the gardenscapes surveyed, we were not able to interview the gardener. The gardenscapes ranged from 492 to 6518 m2 in size (mean = 1531 m2) (Figure 6; Table 2). Sampled gardenscapes were managed by 8 females, 5 males, and two couples who shared garden labor (Table 2). All participants were adults and most were in their 50’s or 60’s. Eight of the participants were native St. Eustatians, and the others were from the (1), (1), Netherlands (1), and other Caribbean islands (4) (Table 2). The gardeners from elsewhere have lived on St. Eustatius for periods ranging from five years to over three decades. The participants reported gardening at their current gardenscapes from one year to several decades (Table 2). Most of the sampled gardens were in the Golden Rock, Concordia and Cherry Tree neighborhoods in a densely settled area in the center of the island (5 interviews, 6 gardens surveyed). Land in this area has been highly modified due to being formerly used for agriculture, and topographically is a flat upland and tends to be drier and open. Four garden surveys and five interviews were conducted in Rosemary Laan, along a major road south of the capital Oranjestad, which runs from the top of the cliffs near the bay to the base of Quill hill. Topographically this area is a windy slope with natural vegetation that tends to be more

23 moist, and gardenscapes in this area are generally larger. The Upper Town gardenscape is near the edge of the cliffs by the bay at the capital Oranjestad in a highly-modified land area. Two gardenscapes at Behind the Mountain differed climatically because of their location on the

northeast side of Quill hill. This side of the island is exposed to northeastern tradewinds and the

24 soil contains volcanic ash. Salt spray from the sea influences the plants on these properties. Finally, the sampled gardenscape at Lynch is located in a semi-residential area on a flat upland.

Ecological and Cultural Diversity of the Gardenscapes Floristic Diversity of the Gardenscapes I compiled a floristic record of all flowering plants and one genus of found in the 14 gardens, a cumulative sampled area of 2.14 ha. The island was experiencing a drought before and during the field survey, with only 45 mm of in May and 37 mm in June 2016 compared to averages of 119 mm and 54 mm, respectively (St. Eustatius Rainfall History 1981-Today, 2017). Several participants suggested that the dry conditions may have contributed to a lower diversity or abundance of plants in their garden. Cumulatively for the gardens, the study reports 277 species in 211 genera and 75 families (Table 3). Photo records assisted with plant identification, as did the 89 voucher specimens collected, which are now deposited at the Willard Sherman Turrell Herbarium at Miami University (MU). The identity of these specimens were confirmed with Dr. Michael Vincent, Director of the Herbarium. Plant classification and nomenclature followed van der Burg et al. (2012) and Rojer (1997), and I also considered these resources and field observations with participants to understand why plants occurred and how they functioned in the sampled gardenscapes. Plant families with the most species are Fabaceae with 16 species from 14 genera, with 14 species from 7 genera, and and Lamiaceae, with 12 species from 9 and 7 genera, respectively. Euphorbiaceae and Apocynaceae have several frequently observed species of ornamental plants,

25 such as Nerium oleander and Codiaeum variegatum, while Fabaceae was represented by more native or naturalized species, such as Mimosa pudica and Centrosema virginianum, and Lamiaceae has many edible herbs such as Ocimum basilicum and origanum vulgare. Of the 277 species, 87 were , 67 were and 123 were herbs (Table 3). I found that 85 of the recorded plants, or 31%, are native to St. Eustatius, while 192 plants, or 69%, are considered non-native (Table 4). Most (162) of the non-native plants were ‘introduced’, 25 are ‘naturalized’ and five are considered ‘invasive’ (Richardson et al. 2000; Table 4). Gardens usually have a combination of native and native non-plants (see Appendix 1). For example the study recorded native Hymenocallis caribea (found in 8 gardenscapes) the non- native ornamental sp. (5 gardenscapes), naturalized non-native Catharanthus roseus from (7 gardenscapes) and the invasive non-native vine leptopus (7 gardenscapes; Figure 7). Van de Berg et al. (2012) includes a list of plants species in the Dutch Caribbean that may be of concern due to their potential to be invasive, but their threat on St. Eustatius is not yet known. Twenty-one of these species were found in the gardenscapes that I surveyed (Table 5).

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The survey reports 207 plants with common names, which were provided by the study participants, names used by the field assistants, and/or names used in St. Eustatius’s botanical garden (Appendix 1). Many are common names for Caribbean flora, while others are consistent with English names. For example, 57 of the plant names were English names used for common (e.g. coconut, mango) or vegetables (e.g. tomato, parsley). Additionally, 22 plant species were found to have two common names and six were reported with three common names. For example, the herb spathacea is called both ‘lady in a boat’ and ‘oyster plant’, and the herbaceous vine Momordica charantia is referred to as ‘maiden apple’, ‘lizard food’, and ‘bitter melon’ (Figure 8).

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Ethnobotanical Diversity of the Gardenscapes The ethnobotanical survey recorded 260 plant species with uses and a total of 363 plant uses (Table 6).I learned these plant uses by walking around gardenscapes with participants,

28 having them point out useful plants to me, through sit-down interviews where they would recall plants and uses from memory, and also through observation of plant uses while in the gardenscape. The study participants emphasized the aesthetic contributions of their gardenscapes and accordingly most plants (184) were reported for their ‘ecosystem service’ as an . Native and non-native plants showed contributions to cultural resource diversity, with 81% of native plants, 76% of naturalized plants, and 80% of invasive plants also having recorded uses (Table 6, Table 7). The category with the highest number of plant uses was ecosystem services (187 species, and 200 uses), which in addition to ornamental plants included plants selected for qualities such as their drought resistance or supportive function to other plants in the garden (Table 6). For example, the of invasive Azadiracta indica provide an insecticide that can be sprayed on other plants to prevent pests like mites and ants (Figure 9).

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The study recorded 94 species and 101 plant uses for food, including edible fruits, edible herbs, and juice made from fruits (Table 6). We recorded 47 different trees, ranging from fruits native to the Caribbean like Spondias purpurea and Malpighia emarginata to commonly known fruits such as mango (Mangifera indica) and pomegranate (Punica granatum) and (Table 6, Figure 9). The third most common use category was for health remedies, with 50 uses among 33 species, and the most common uses included treatments for diabetes, blood pressure, weight loss, and cough, often through making tea (Table 6). Nine species had ten material uses such as covering coal pits, attracting fish, using the fruits to make cups and bowls, and fencing (Table 6). As a symbolic use, gardeners described using the flowering branches of Delonix regia for house decoration particularly on St. Eustatius’ Independence Day (Figure 9). Many of the non- ornamental plant uses that I recorded, particularly those for health remedies, came from two longtime women residents, a native St. Eustatian woman and woman originally from who had lived on St. Eustatius for many decades. Their gardenscapes had the highest levels of plant diversity. Several participants said that they had learned about plant uses from their parents, but didn’t remember many uses anymore. Among the plants with uses, I found 185 plants with only one use and 24 plants with three or more uses (Figure 10). Of the 184 plants considered ornamental, 47 (or 26%) had additional ethnobotanical uses, such as Ricinus communis (castor oil plant), which is also used by women to ‘clean out’ after having a baby, to help a baby be birthed quicker, and can be used on hair. Several plants were mentioned as having uses by multiple participants, indicating that they are well-known and highly valued, such as Senna occidentalis, whose can be used to make coffee, Amaranthus dubius, a green originating from West Africa that is commonly known as callaloo that is used in Caribbean cooking, and Moringa oleifera, which one participant called the most important medicinal plant on St. Eustatius, and was said to help with weight loss. Two plants with five or more uses were also mentioned by multiple participants. These were

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Cocos nucifera with eight uses, including food (milk for tea and porridge; oil; a refreshing drink), health remedies (jelly is good for kidney and bladder; drink oil for colon), material uses (can be used as a roof on structures for shade), and ecosystem service (palm leaves are good for shade, palm leaves can be put around plants to keep in moisture), and vera with five uses, including health remedies (swallowing pieces of aloe that have been soaked in water treats diabetes; it can also be roasted on a fire and then combined with Epsom or cornmeal and tied on a foot to cure tetanus if a nail or the poisonous kasha plant is stepped on), ecosystem services ( like the , which usually come out in February; ornamental plant) and fodder for animals (Figure 11).

Ecological Diversity Patterns among Gardenscapes Species richness in the gardens ranged from a low of 22 species in gardenscape 8 to high of 92 species in gardenscape 6 (mean = 55, Table 8), which together contributed to the floristic inventory of 275 plant species in all gardenscapes (Table 8). Plant densities (#/ha) in the gardenscapes were high, ranging from a low of 599/ha in gardenscape 14 to 3953/ha in gardenscape 13, with a mean of 2179/ha (Table 8). Evenness of species in the gardenscapes ranged from a low of 0.702 in gardenscape 2 to a high of 0.875 in gardenscape 12, with a mean of 0.793 (Table 8). Gardenscapes with the most and lowest number of species were in the same area (Behind the Mountain) and those gardens with highest species richness occur in more arid (e.g., Behind the Mountain) and moist (e.g., Rosemary Lean) settings (Table 8). Species richness differences among the gardens relate more to the gardener and the purpose of the garden. For example, the three gardenscapes (6, 2, and 4) with the highest number of species (Table 8) were managed by older women who had more time to garden and had extensive knowledge of plants

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and plant uses. Gardenscape 2 had a less manicured yard, allowing for a greater number of native species (32), and the gardener grew vegetables and knew the most plants for health remedies, which contributed to high gardenscape richness (82) and the highest overall plant density (3367/ha; Table 8). The gardener from gardenscape 6 had one of the largest gardenscapes (0.19 ha; Table 2), where she had planted many ornamentals and fruit trees, and also engaged in vegetable gardening. The gardener from gardenscape 4, the highest in richness (90) and among the highest in density (3193/ha) and evenness (0.872) grew many fruit trees that she used to make products both for her own use and to sell, and had collected and managed plants in her gardenscape for “many” years (Tables 2 and 8; Figure 14). The gardens clearly show the contribution of non-native plants to their ‘ecological’ diversity, but the survey results also highlight on average about 25% of the flora represented by native plants (Figure 12). Some of the most commonly found plants include Carica papaya (papaya) which is found in 10 gardens, muricata () which is found in 10 gardens, Anacardium occidentale (cashew) which is found in 9 gardens, and Hymenocallis caribea (spider lily) which is found in 8 gardens. Some of the species with the highest density in gardenscapes include non-native Leucaena leucocephala with a total density of 1945 /ha, Musa sp. with a density of 1560/ha, and native gossypiifolia with a density of 1226/ha. Most gardens, typical of tropical flora, showed highest species richness and plant abundances attributed to woody plants (mean = 33), followed by perennial herbs (15), annual herbs (6), and biennial plants (1 or 2 present per garden, Figure 12). Only gardenscapes 5 and 10 showed

32 highest percentages attributed to herbaceous plants explained by the gardeners’ focus on vegetable production (Figure 12).

Culturally, the number of plant uses per garden followed species richness as nearly all species were purposely managed in the garden. Gardenscapes had on average 52 plants with uses (out of an average of 55 plants per garden) and a recorded 75 uses for their plants, meaning that 95% of garden plants had uses on average. Most of the plants recorded in the study were recognized for their ecosystem service, mostly as an ornamental plant, with a few also

33 recognized as drought resistant or providing shade. All but one gardenscape had the most plant uses for ecosystem services, followed by food, health remedies, material uses, and symbolic

services (Figure 13). Gardenscape 10, primarily a vegetable garden, showed an emphasis on food plants (Figure 13). The most diverse gardens show both species and structural complexity with ornamental trees and shrubs, planted and accidental (errant) herbs, and food production plants

such as fruit trees and vegetable plants (Figure 14). Plot occurrences among the sample gardens explain the cumulatively high plant diversity of the surveyed gardenscapes. The majority of species (102) are only present in one gardenscape, and no species were recorded in all gardenscapes (Figure 15). A Jackknife analysis for

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anticipated number of species in gardenscapes based on plot occurrences (sensu McCune and Grace, 2002) shows a first order jackknife estimate of 393 species and a second-order jackknife estimate of 449. The most common species were the fruit trees Annona muricata, Cocos nucifera, Carica papaya , and Mangifera indica , each found in 11 gardenscapes. Also common were fruit bearing herbs Ananas comusus and Musa sp., the fruit trees Citrus aurantiifolia and Anacardium occidentale, the ornamental shrub Pseuderanthum carruthersii, and the invasive tree Leucaena leucocephala. Fruit trees grow well in most areas of the Caribbean, and are clearly popular in home gardens. Gardenscapes 6, 2, and 4 have the most species overall and correspondingly also have the most unique species that are only found in that one gardenscape, with 21, 15, and 14 unique species respectively. These gardenscapes are maintained by active gardeners, whose choice of plants reflect their personalities as well as needs.

Local Perceptions on the Management and Livelihood Contributions of Gardenscapes

Transformation of the Garden Space I first focused on the garden as transformed space, asking the gardeners where they had gained their knowledge about plants and gardening. Nine people said that they had grown up gardening and farming with their parents. A man who grew up on St. Eustatius (gardenscape 7) said that farming was the main source of income for his parents and grandparents, which is how he learned about plants and came to love growing them. Another gardener who grew up on St. Eustatius (gardenscape 3) said that his family lived in town when he was a child but that they would go out to the country to farm where they grew vegetables (sweet pot, peanut, corn, pumpkin) and had lime trees. Even if they didn’t have much money they always had food. He also shared his knowledge with the community by running a high school biology club on St.

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Eustatius for several years where, among other activities, he taught students about how to grow plants. One of my assistants told me that he attended a biology club growing up, which contributed to the plant knowledge that he now has. A woman who grew up on St. Lucia (gardenscape 9) said that her father had a farm when she was growing up, with acres and acres of bananas and ginger, and all of what they had was from the farm. The male gardener at gardenscape 10 told me that he grew up on a farm in Guyana where his parent grew , sweet potatoes, peppers, and peanuts, and he grew up selling peanuts. An older woman from St. Eustatius at gardenscape 2 said that she learned to garden as a girl from her parents, who expected her to tend their cattle and weed the yams and potatoes. Her son (participant 16), learned from her. A Dutch woman (gardenscape 15) that I interviewed said that she worked as a florist and gardened back in Holland, but in order to learn about tropical plants upon arrival on St. Eustatius she volunteered at a nursery for 8 months and got books on gardening in the . Since then she said “it has been trial and error to learn how to grow different plants on Statia.” Five gardeners mentioned having to do a lot of work to transform their gardenscape when they first acquired it, while two were gardening on land that has been in their family for decades (Figure 16). The woman who maintains gardenscape 1 said “I had to remove lots of stones from

my yard and planted the garden piece by piece, getting many blisters on the way.” The woman from gardenscape 15 said that there wasn’t much in her yard when she arrived a few years ago besides a few trees, and the soil was bad with lots of sand and stones, but with fertilizer, water

36 and shade she’s been able to grow a lot. The woman whose gardenscape is located behind the mountain (6) said that there were lots of invasive weeds on her land before she moved there such as kasha (Vachellia sp.), corallita (), and tantan (Leucaena leucophala) that needed removal, as well as some already growing genip ( bijugatus) and calabash (Crescentia cujete) trees that she kept. The man from gardenscape 10 rents his land from a lady he did carpentry work for. He had previously been gardening at home but this space was bigger, so he decided to move his garden. He had to remove lots of corallita at first, plowing it up, taking out with a rake, and throwing it across the road into an empty lot. Gardenscape 8 is on land that has been in the gardener’s family for centuries. He had been gardening on another property in town until recently, but had just moved back to his family land. I was told by my assistant that this was due to property right issues he had with his land in town. When I visited he was in the process of clearing the land, both manually and through burning, to start growing things more formally and potentially establish a campground. Another man (gardenscape 7) was gardening on property that he said had been left to him by his father about 15 years ago, and he had planted many fruit trees on it since. Gardenscape 3 was maintained by a man whose family had farmed there for centuries, though he said he had transformed the area through putting in shelters for family gatherings and other buildings on the land including a museum about his family, and has planted over 20 types of fruit trees. All surveyed gardenscapes were maintained by the gardener who I talked to, but they mentioned getting help from other people. At gardenscape 1, the interview respondent said that she planted everything herself, but that a hired gardener comes every Wednesday to spray for pests, rake, and do other garden upkeep. The woman who maintains gardenscape 2 said she gets help for some upkeep from her son, who is the gardener at gardenscape 16, particularly with vegetable beds. Another woman who maintained gardenscapes 4 and 5 does most work by herself, but brought her grandson with her to help with maintenance and vegetable picking while I surveyed gardenscape 5. Both gardenscape 3 and 8 were maintained by men who were living on property that had been in their families for many decades, so various family members and friends were often around and contributed some to garden maintenance. Two gardenscapes (13 and 14) were maintained by a couple who shared garden upkeep responsibilities. Eight gardeners said they spend time in their gardens every day, either to maintain it or for pleasure, often in the morning when it is cooler. “Every morning I take off yellow leaves and

37 dead flowers and give them a little sip [of water]” said the woman from gardenscape 1. One gardener said she works in her home gardenscape (4) in the morning, usually finishing by about 10 am, and works in the other gardenscape (5) away from her home in the early evening. The gardener from gardenscape 2 said she likes working in the garden in the morning, which wakes her up and gives her energy, and then she will often spend the rest of the day cooking and baking. In gardenscape 10, the gardener said he visits for two hours a day to maintain his space, one hour in the early morning before he goes to his job, and one in the afternoon after working. The woman from gardenscape 9 says that she gets up every morning to collect fruit from her garden. The gardener at gardenscape 7 said that he goes to his garden every day, either in the morning or afternoon, whenever he’s not busy or the trees need water, and finds that gardening doesn’t usually take him too much time. He does other chores as needed, such as trimming trees and fertilizing them when the weather is right or it is needed, not on a particular schedule. Two gardeners said they wished they could spend more time gardening, with the gardener from gardenscape 10 saying he lacked the help necessary to do so, and the woman from gardenscape 1 saying that she was often too busy running her catering business to spend more time in the garden.

Maintaining Plant Diversity in Gardenscapes Plants are both cultivated by the gardener and obtained from outside sources. Seven participants mentioned plant material being brought to St. Eustatius from other islands or regions, including St. Maarten, St. Lucia, , , Dominica, , , US , St. Kitts, Nevis and . I was also told by two participants about plants that were brought from Holland, but they either didn’t survive or didn’t bear fruit, such as the olive tree in gardenscape 2, due to the differences in climate. Two participants emphasized their dedication to growing “local” fruit, like mango, and soursop, because they are easier to grow and more drought resistant. Six people said they grew their own plants from cuttings and seeds. I was told by two gardeners that you can buy seeds at the hardware store on St. Eustatius for vegetables like celery and pak choy, but not in the large quantities that many of these gardeners want. The gardener from gardenscape 10 said that he saved his own seeds, three people said they got them from friends or family, and two people mentioned getting them when they are in other countries. There are also several plant nurseries on the island, though from what

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I observed and was told they open infrequently. Three of the gardeners I talked to also gave or sold seedlings from their own gardens. Interview respondents provided different perceptions on how they promote diversity in their gardens. Three people told me that they never think about the and that it is possible to grow some plants year round, though certain types of vegetables have to rotate in and out. Three people also said that they avoid consuming things that are bad for health like by growing their own food organically. Participants also expressed why they like growing the types of plants that they grow, with the gardener from gardenscape 10 preferring cash crops of vegetables because they have a quicker turnaround, the gardener from gardenscapes 4 and 5 preferring fruit trees because of the healthy fruit they provided, and the gardener from gardenscape 7 preferring fruit trees over ornamentals because he likes getting a ‘reward’ from his plants. The woman from gardenscape 15 said that she started most of her fruit trees from , and in the five years that she has lived on St. Eustatius most of them have gotten to 4 or 5 feet tall and started to produce fruit. The gardener at gardenscape 6 said that you can stimulate fruit production in coconut by driving a rusty nail into the tree so that the healing process ‘kicks off’ production, and if you plant a tree during wintertime when there are shorter days you will get a dwarf tree, but if it is planted during seasons with longer days you will have a taller tree. Maintaining established plants can often be the biggest challenge on St. Eustatius (Figure 17). I was told about several sources people use to get water for their gardens. Gardener 7 had large water storage tanks on his property, which he got from a storm water holding area near the bay. Gardener 10

39 had access to two cisterns for water, and also went to the same storm water holding area to collect water into a tank on the back of his truck. Gardener 15 uses water provided by the St. Eustatius utility company (STUCO), though she says the fluoride in the water sometimes damages plants, and also waters with grey water from her house. I also observed cisterns on gardenscapes 8 and 4. Two gardeners said they caught rainwater on their property to use for watering and two gardeners said that no matter how much you water, rain is really the best thing for a garden, and that it adds important minerals. Five gardeners mentioned using compost, fertilizer or manure to enhance soil conditions. Gardener 10 said he collected manure left by roaming animals, which he then soaks in water to make a “tea” to give plants a “boost.” This same gardener also said he mixes dust from charcoal beds into the soil. The gardener from gardenscape 15 said that when she first moved to St. Eustatius she brought fertilizer from Holland, but she has now used it all and it’s too expensive and hard to replace so she now uses manure. Gardeners described enhancing their space by adding infrastructure to their garden (Figure 18). The woman who maintains gardenscape 15 showed how she puts cardboard in the

space between plants, which she said keeps the weeds out and moisture in, and through suspending shade cloth plants and palm fronds to provide more shade and keep moisture in. The gardener in gardenscape 6 mentioned putting pallets around new trees so that donkeys and cows couldn’t get to them. Raised beds were used for growing vegetables in five gardenscapes. The gardener from gardenscape 16 said that raised beds covered with shade cloth and lined with plastic to keep moisture in were the best way to grow things like spinach, herbs, and lettuce. The

40 gardener in gardenscape 10 had fashioned raised planters for growing vegetables starts from container drums that he got from STUCO and the oil terminal, which he then cut in half and filled with soil. I also observed that nine gardeners had decorative and edible plants in pots on their properties, with gardenscape 5 and 6 having pots made from things like tin cans and water containers. Gardenscapes and the plants they contain also provide support for other species. Two gardeners mentioned their yards providing habitat for the Lesser Antilles Iguana, found in the yard at gardenscape 1 or in the branches of the tree flexuosa at gardenscape 2. The gardener from gardenscape 15 mentioned that there were no in her yard, and she wasn’t quite sure why, but said that hummingbirds seem to like the flowers of the aloe (Aloe vera) and century (Agave americana) plants she had in her yard. Palm tree leaves were mentioned as very useful by two gardeners, both for providing shade and for putting around the base of trees to keep moisture in. The gardener from gardenscape 9 mentioned that having lots of trees in her yard makes the whole place seem much cooler, and she had a large passionfruit (Passiflora sp.) vine growing on an arbor in her yard that she used as a ‘greenhouse’ because it stays cool and moist under it. One gardener from gardenscape 14 said that he thinks every house should have a minimum of six fruit trees for flowers for bees, which is one of the reasons he had fruit trees in his yard. The gardeners highlighted some important constraints on maintaining diversity in their gardens. Eight participants told me that St. Eustatius was in a bad drought while I was doing my fieldwork, which affected the plants that they could grow. Two older participants told me that they thought the climate on St. Eustatius had gotten drier over the years. Four people said that it had gotten so dry there that it wasn’t possible to grow certain crops year round such as pineapple, yams, potatoes, sugar cane and pumpkins, and that if they are able to grow them they grow very slowly and often do not get big enough to bear fruit. In contrast, the gardener at gardenscape 13 said that trees and shrubs more when it is dry, and another participant from gardenscape 2 told me that other islands have worse drought than St. Eustatius. Four people mentioned roaming livestock to be a problem in maintaining their gardenscapes. I was told that people on St. Eustatius allow their livestock (mostly cows and goats) to roam freely on the island, and the animals are always looking for food and sometimes get into gardens and trample and eat plants. But because they belong to people, you can’t just kill

41 an animal that gets into your yard. One woman from gardenscape 9 just had a cow break into her yard in the middle of the night, and even though she chased it out the animal ate some of her plants and vegetables. Another woman who maintained gardenscapes 5 and 6 proposed that problem animals be taken off the road and housed for two days to give their owners a charge to reclaim them. If not, they should be “slaughtered at a local market.” Pests were identified as one of the biggest problems in gardenscapes. Three people mentioned problem on St Eustatius several years ago that took out all their coconut trees, with one person describing it as a bug that goes inside the tree and lays eggs that hatch and eat through the middle of the tree, killing it. Mites or mealybugs were mentioned as problems by three people, especially for hibiscus plants, with the woman from gardenscape 1 saying she tried bringing in lady bugs to eat them but it didn’t work. Gardener 10 mentioned worms as a problem for his vegetables, as they like leafy vegetables like pak choy, and said he tries to remove them by hand instead of using pesticides. Aphids, caterpillars, white flies, fire ants, weevils, and a butterfly egg pest were also mentioned as problem insects by gardeners. Two people told me about a ‘tea’ that can be made from boiling leaves of the neem tree (Azadirachta indica), which can then be sprayed on other plants to prevent pests such as ants and mealybugs. Larger fauna also pose a threat to plants. Two gardeners mentioned rats being a problem, with one saying that she used to grow passionfruit but stopped because it brought rats, and another saying that rats ate his lettuce starts. The gardener from gardenscape 10 said that thrush eat his eggplants, and the gardener from gardenscape 2 mentioned that birds get her peppers. The African snail was mentioned as a bad pest by the gardener from gardenscape 15, and she said that she collects them from her garden and kills them with poison. Though I identified five species of plants found in gardens as invasive, I didn’t hear much about invasive species being a concern for gardeners. Two gardeners that I asked about corallita (Antigonon leptopus) said that it wasn’t a problem to keep back, that you just have to dig out the roots little by little every year and it will eventually disappear.

Gardenscape Contributions to Homes and Livelihoods Gardeners had much to say about how the plants contributed to their livelihoods, their lives in general, and to St. Eustatius (Figure 19). Nine gardeners mentioned ways that products from their garden contribute to their livelihoods. Two gardeners had small inns that were run out

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of their homes and had nice gardens as a potential draw for their customers and a source of food for their restaurant. Three people mentioned selling plants to people. The gardener from gardenscape 15 said that she only sold plants when she had a lot of them or on special occasions like mother’s day, and mostly sold fruit trees and decorative plants. The gardener from gardenscape 16 said he sold tree slips to people who want to backyard garden, charging 50 cents per plant or $1 for bigger ones, and also sold vegetable plants like spinach and pak choy. Health remedies were sold by the man from gardenscape 8, who made herb treatments for dengue and chikungunya, treatments for prostate problems made from dandelions (Taraxacum officinale), and tinctures made from cinnamon and cloves for pain. Two gardeners sold their vegetables, with the gardener from gardenscape 10 selling spinach and other produce at a local vegetable stand, and gardener from gardenscapes 4 and 5 also selling spinach and eggplants at the Friday market. The gardener from gardenscapes 4 and 5 also sold other products including juices and jams made from mango, gooseberry, sorrel and guava and dried herbs like basil, oregano, rosemary, and marjoram at fairs and markets on the island. However, those events

43 are only held sporadically, and she said that she wished there were more opportunities to sell her products. Finally, the gardener from gardenscape 6 told me that she has an arrangement with one of the Chinese markets in town to exchange produce she grows like pumpkins and beans for bottles of liquor or wine. Gardeners on St. Eustatius expressed that their gardenscapes played important roles in their lives. One woman from gardenscape 1 told me how much she loves all her plants, and any time she goes away when she gets back her plants look like they were sad that she was gone. She also believes that plants hear what you say about them, for example, one year she told off her ponciana tree (Delonix regia) for not giving flowers at Christmas time, and next Christmas it gave lots of flowers. Another gardener from gardenscape 7 told me how he enjoys sharing the fruit from his trees with his family and friends and eating his fruit from the tree, and that he thinks gardening is relaxing and good for his health. “Every day I can’t wait to get to the garden, inhale oxygen, put my fingers in the dirt. I don’t like to use gloves,” said the woman from gardenscape 9, and she also said she knows the beauty of growing your own plants. Two people said that they find gardening to be very rewarding and fun. “If you want to be independent you have to plant. You’re not independent if you can’t feed yourself,” said the man from gardenscape 3. Four people also emphasized that gardening had taught them the value of healthy eating, and two people said they also tried to stay away from sugar for that reason. Having talked to many people who were older and had lived on St. Eustatius for a long time, the consensus of 8 gardeners was that people garden a lot less than they used to. The participant from gardenscape 1 said that everyone used to grow plants (pumpkin, tamarind, cashew, and passionfruit) when she first came to St. Eustatius, but people are lazy now and can get everything at the store. Another participant from gardenscape 6 said that the oil terminal coming to the island really changed things, as more people now have full time jobs and thus have less time to garden, and the people who used to garden avidly grew old. I heard from three people that St. Eustatians used to always keep a lime tree in their yard, and two other people mentioned that vegetables, bananas, coffee plants, bromeliads and passionfruit used to be commonly grown on the island. I was also told by the gardener from gardenscape 7 that invasive corallita (Antigonon leptopus), which is the most threatening invasive plant species on St. Eustatius, used to be much scarcer on the island because farmers knew how to keep it under control.

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The gardener from gardenscape 15 mentioned that getting people into gardening today is difficult, because “you need money, a good fence to keep out livestock, and time.” However, the gardener at gardenscape 6 says that “you can save a lot of money gardening on St. Eustatius because produce is expensive at the grocery store,” and the gardener at gardenscape 15 say “you can grow almost anything if you know how to do it.” Lack of education about gardening and the importance of plants in schools is one main reason that five people mentioned being worried about gardening being on the decline. “It’s not easy to get younger generations excited about plants,” said a gardener from gardenscape 13, and “young people are too busy with school these days.” The woman from gardenscapes of 4 and 5 was from the former British colony of Dominica and said that she thought the British were much better about teaching about gardening and plants than the Dutch. I was also told about larger environmental issues on the island that may affect peoples’ abilities or drive to garden. The woman from gardenscape 1 made the observation that overall St. Eustatius doesn’t have enough vegetation, and thinks that the government should plant more trees. The participant from gardenscape 16 works at the St. Eustatius Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, and said that 85% of food on the island is imported, and 80% of the island now relies on paying for water from the utility company. He would like to see more people using wells, and to work on catching more water on the island instead of letting it run off into the sea, which will provide more water and cause less soil erosion. He recently started a community garden initiative on Department of Agriculture land and now has four gardeners who each have their own space but also help each other out with garden maintenance (e.g., gardenscape 5). Anyone can get a piece of the land, he said, and as their garden spaces improve he will give them more land to grow on.

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Chapter Six DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS This study investigated how home gardenscapes contribute to ecological and cultural diversity on St. Eustatius, a Dutch Caribbean island. Using a participatory approach, I did floristic and ethnobotanical surveys of 14 gardenscapes to gain insight on their diversity, as well as 11 semi-structured interviews to gain insight on how people value and use gardenscapes for livelihoods. My results show that gardenscapes have high levels of species diversity and richness, that people create gardenscapes with plants that have many uses, and that people overall greatly value the contributions that gardenscapes make to their lives.

Gardenscapes for conserving biodiversity Gardenscapes clearly contributes to plant biodiversity on St. Eustatius, exemplified by my findings of 275 plant species in 14 gardenscapes (a total of 2.14 hectares of land). By comparison, similar home garden studies have found 182 plant species in 25 Cuban home gardens (Buchmann 2009), 177 species in 19 home gardens in (Carvalho et al. 2013), 600 species in 244 gardens in (Davoren et al. 2016), and 520 plant species in 62 home gardens in (Hemp 2006). In terms of composition, St. Eustatian gardenscapes contain about a third native plants and two thirds non-native. While some restoration ecologists promote planting only native plants, saying that non-native plants don’t positively contribute to diversity due to their potential to become invasive, lack of ecosystem services, and not being adapted to the area where they are planted (Tallamy 2007), the participants described how these plants transformed highly degraded land, added to the availability of cultural plant resources, and make positive changes in the landscape. Species density levels in gardenscapes on St. Eustatius can also be compared to studies of species density on uncultivated land both on St. Eustatius and elsewhere in the Caribbean to show just how much gardening can increase both the diversity and density of plants. Van Andel’s (2016) studied vegetation types on St. Eustatius through species counts in a 25 meter plots representative of each vegetation type. The majority of gardenscapes are located on what is classified as abandoned agriculture land (now mostly urban), generally populated with invasive species and some scattered trees, in which Van Andel et al. (2016) found 1 tree species (5 individual trees), 4 shrubs species, and 5 herb species. Other gardenscapes (4, 7, 12, and 14) are

46 classified as dry forest halfway up the Quill, which is host to 8 tree species (82 individual trees), 3 shrub species, and 5 herb species. A study by Franklin et al. (2015) of tree density in several dry forest regions of the Caribbean that include much of the vegetation on St. Eustatius also provides an interesting comparison. A dry forest in Puerto Rico was found to have 107 species (1299 trees overall) in 91 plots (670 m2 each), a forest in the US Virgin Islands was found to have 63 species (975 trees overall), in 62 plots (670 m2 each), and a forest in was found to have 70 species (4140 trees overall) in 42 plots (314 m2 each). While it is important to note that Franklin at al. (2015) studies only trees, and I looked at all plant types, the number of tree species in St. Eustatian gardenscapes (81) is higher, which is remarkable especially since they are present in such a small amount of land. Gardenscapes can be an important way to increase plant diversity on degraded landscapes. There is also a high level of ethnobotanical diversity present in gardenscapes on St. Eustatius. While about half of plants with uses (150 species) were used as ornamental plants, the other 172 plant uses are diverse and show how garden plants are sources of important cultural resources home livelihoods, providing food, health remedies, and other material and non- material resources. Reyes-Garcia et al. (2010) say that ornamental and medicinal plants increase a garden’s diversity because people tend to plant a smaller number of them but more varied species, which was also exemplified by my findings. Two of the oldest participants with diverse gardenscapes told me about nearly all of the medicinal plant uses that I reported in my study. Interestingly, the most common ailments treated by plants were high blood pressure and diabetes, which Verheijden (2016) correlates to a new prevalence of those diseases on the island, showing how knowledge may still be adapting and changing to what health remedies are needed most. Material and symbolic services were less frequently reported, likely due to other materials for those uses being widely available in stores. Many study participants indicated being worried about plant knowledge declining among younger generations, which is a common finding in ethnobotanical research (Martin 2004). These plants have heritage, exemplified by Carney’s (2003) publication on how Africans, when brought to the Americas under slavery, also brought over old world plants and plant uses to the Americas. Plants mentioned in Carney’s African ethnobotanical plant list that were also found in St. Eustatian gardens include fruit trees such as , Spondias mombin, and Tamarindus indica, medicinal plants such as Phyllanthus amarus, Momordica charantia, Moringa oleifera and Ricinus communis with other species

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(Ceiba petandra, Conocarpus erectus, guilfoylei) present in yards that are not identified as having a particular use. These findings suggest that gardens show potential contributions to the complex cultural history in the Caribbean.

Diverse gardeners create diverse gardenscapes St. Eustatian gardeners are in possession of what is termed Local Ecological Knowledge (LEK), experiential knowledge derived from lived interactions with the local environment, which when researched can provide meaningful data for informing conservation management (Turvey et al. 2014). The gardeners I interviewed knew how to get extra shade from the hot sun, which plants are easier to grow (i.e. native fruit trees) or more difficult to grow (i.e. plants of European origin) on the island, and how to effectively deal with pests. Moreover, the study suggests that local knowledge is adaptive to observed changes in environmental and socioeconomic conditions (Reyes-Garcia et al. 2014), which is important on St. Eustatius where gardeners report drought becoming more common. Gardenscape LEK might be especially important for the management of invasive species. Corallita (Antigonon leptopus) is the most invasive plant on St. Eustatius, which may cover as much as 30% of the island (Berkowitz 2014). Though the plant was present in eight gardens, the gardeners did not describe the plant as a major nuisance and had techniques for its management, such as continually digging out its roots, that kept it mostly under control. Tan Tan (Leucophala leucaena) and neem (Azadirachta indica), two other common invasive species on the island (van der Berg et al., 2012), were also present and valued in gardenscapes 8 and 6, respectively. LEK about invasive species control helps efforts to manage and restore gardenscapes and can also have wider implications for plant conservation on the island. The results of this study make it apparent that the plants that a gardener chooses to grow and the techniques that they use to manage their plants directly impact biodiversity levels in gardenscapes. Gardenscapes 2 and 8 had the most native plants (39% native and 72% native, respectively) (Figure 12). These gardens were also the most ‘messy’ with more weedy plants and a less manicured appearance. However, that messiness leads to less native plants being removed in the gardening process and more biomass remaining in the garden, which may indicate that the less traditionally aesthetically pleasing gardens are in fact the best for promoting native plant diversity. Native plants also tend to require less maintenance, as they are better adapted to the

48 local environment, and thus can often survive on less water and are more resistant to pests and diseases. The gardens with the lowest number of native species (gardenscapes 10 and 5, with 17% native plants and 16% native plants respectively) (Figure 12) were primarily used for growing vegetables, most of which are or originate elsewhere, or were primarily home to exotic ornamental plants (such as gardenscape 1, which had only 20% native plants, and gardenscape 13 which had 21% native plants). Overall, the gardens with the highest numbers of species (gardenscapes 2, 4, 6, and 9) had the most woody plants, followed by perennials, then by annuals. By having a mixture of plants these gardenscapes support many different kinds of diversity, have plants with more uses, and are overall more self-sustaining gardens, as woody plants and perennials need less care than annual plants. Once mature, plant material in diverse gardens can also be split or used to create new seedlings that can further add species density to the garden. Adding infrastructure to a gardenscape in the form of raised beds, also adds to overall garden diversity, as it adds additional area where plants can be planted. Planting plants in pots, or delineated beds also adds to diversity because plants tend to be smaller and more tightly packed in these planting methods, allowing for more overall plants, and plants in pots can be also be put on porches and patios, essentially expanding the size of the gardenscape. There are remarkable differences between gardenscapes, including what people are growing in them and how people place and value gardenscapes in their lives. As WinklerPrins (2002) says, “Gardens are an important place to ‘be’ and a place to do ‘work’ (p. 59)” in that they provide livelihood contributing activities and a preservation of identity. Not all gardeners grow the same things. Several older participants indicated growing food to be self-sufficient, supporting resiliency in changing environments (Barthel et al. 2010; Buchmann 2009) and providing a response to expensive or low-quality produce available in stores (Calvet-Mir et al. 2012). Four participants said that they grew their own food in order to be healthier, which may be a response to increasingly wide spread diseases such as high blood pressure, diabetes, and cancer on the island. Reyes-Garcia et al. (2010) assert that home garden characteristics reflect cultural gender roles and expectations, such as men’s gardens focusing more on edible species while women’s gardens focusing more on ornamental and medicinal plants. The five male gardeners in my study were primarily focused on either growing plants in ways that contributed to their livelihoods or provided for their families, while female gardeners had more diverse

49 gardens, were indeed the primary knowledge holders of medicinal knowledge, and talked more than men about the aesthetic values of their plants. Gardenscapes can also play a very important emotional and symbolic role in people’s lives as well, as gardens can be a way for people (especially migrants) to retain their cultural identity (Kimber 2004). People in the Caribbean have a long history of migration, including forced migration for slavery, but my research participants, half of whom migrated to St. Eustatius, highlight their own dynamics. Accordingly, many of the plants in their gardens come from all over the Caribbean and surrounding regions. Both plants and migrants find a place in the garden where they can themselves, evidenced by the fact that the non-native St. Eustatians that I talked to had no less plant or gardening knowledge than native St. Eustatians. Gardens can also provide a way for people to modify and add to their cultural knowledge and identity, as evidenced by the American woman and the Dutch woman who both undertook extensive learning about how to grow plants on St. Eustatius upon moving there, primarily from local people, and now have very productive gardens and intimate knowledge about plants on the island. Finally, gardens contribute meaningfulness to ‘a sense of place,’ through the transformation of the garden space, the use of derived products, and a connection to the wider gardening community (Dunlap et al. 2013). The work that gardeners on St. Eustatius had to do to create their gardenscape was in most cases very significant, and they are attached to their spaces that they have so significantly transformed. Zimmerer (2001) talks about recognizing landscapes as basic to environmental knowledge, being the place where local knowledge is integrated with resource management and scientific knowledge. Gardenscapes provide a perfect small-scale example. People were proud of their gardens, the plants, and the products they made from their garden, telling me how effective their health remedies were, giving me fruits and vegetables from their gardens to taste, and taking time out of their schedules to tell me about their gardens even though most were very busy people. Though many people talked about the exchange of plant material on the island, the snowball sampling technique to find other research participants wasn’t as effective as I hoped. Community connections among gardeners could be strengthened on St. Eustatius.

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Engaging Communities in Ecological Restoration The high plant diversity and complex ecological structures represented by the sampled gardenscapes, and the ways that people introduce and manage plants, support their recognition as good examples of successful ecological restoration processes. Allison (2012) highlights the importance of effectively using highly domesticated habitats in a restoration context,(which he estimates occupy anywhere from 16 to 36 percent of an urban area) as one of the top priorities for restoration in the next hundred years. Gardenscapes provide an important way to encourage community involvement in conservation on St. Eustatius. Preserving biodiversity is as much about the people as it is about the ecosystems, and needs to more deeply consider local decision- making about resource use and management (Mascia et al. 2003). Though the St. Eustatius National Parks foundation (STENAPA) manages St. Eustatius’s National Parks and Botanical Garden, which promote the conservation of flora and fauna on the island, STENAPA need not be and should not be the sole beacon of conservation on the island. Gardenscapes on St. Eustatius have the potential to protect and enrich land, but only if local people are recognized for their individual contributions and specifically targeted to become more involved in garden management. The participatory research methods in this study highlights the power of sharing knowledge through collaborative research, and also shows the wealth of gardening and plant knowledge held by the community. The study exemplifies the important work of starting dialogues about gardening on the island and recording data that provides an opportunity for shared learning about gardenscapes. Integrating cultural diversity knowledge into the conservation planning process is of utmost importance in order to conserve for local people instead of in spite of them (Nabhan et al. 2016). Adaptive co-management that aims to incorporate ecological knowledge and management of ecosystems on a variety of scales and amongst diverse actors (Olsson et al., 2004) can guide the management of gardentscapes as a collaborative process between the gardeners and conservation agencies. However, at this stage I would anticipate many of the challenges outlined by Thomas-Hope and Spence (2006) for this type of participatory planning, including a lack of confidence, leadership and organizational framework within the community and the need for the benefits of this diversity being exhibited to policy makers in order to change their ways of thinking. Leaders in the community such as the participant from Gardenscape 16, who ran the community garden project through his position within the agriculture department on the island, may be ideal people to start this integration of

51 gardenscapes into community conservation planning. Participatory research by design should address reciprocity (Schensul et al. 2015). For this study, I intend to return my results to St. Eustatius in the form of a document that summarizes the results of this research and promotes further gardening on the island, with the intent to emphasize just how important gardens are to biodiversity. Botanical gardens can also be an important resource for knowledge and networking amongst gardeners and for promoting local plants and gardening in a community (Maunder et al., 2008). While there is a botanical garden on the island that is managed by STENAPA, the site has languished from a lack of management and resources. I strongly believe that a community effort to revitalize the garden as a space promoting conversations about all gardens could stimulate more interest on the island and better empower gardeners to network and share their experiences. If gardening is seen as a conservation priority, then outside support for gardens can increase increase a gardener’s capital and be reinvested in their garden to make it more floristically diverse and productive. For example, gardenscapes can provide a ‘safe’ place to cultivate otherwise threatened or rare plants. Posthouwer et al. (2016) classifies Eugenia ligustrina, Pilocereus royenii, and Hylocereus trigonus as rare plants on St. Eustatius, all of which were observed in gardenscapes. However, using home gardens as spaces for conservation must be in support of nature conservation, as Posthouwer et al. (2016) also note that Hylocereus trigonus is sometimes collected from National Parks and planted in gardens, which reduces it capacity to grow in the wild. To conclude, I draw from the ‘conservation and control’ thesis as presented by Robbins (2012), which says that control of resources and landscapes has been taken from local producers due to efforts to preserve nature and community, which has disabled local livelihood systems, and socio-political organization. Particularly relevant to this study are the ideas that this ‘wilderness’ being protected by conservation is a social construct, and that conservation territories such as national parks are inadequate to meet the goals for preservation of biota or livelihoods (Robbins 2012). Biodiversity protection needs smaller areas of conservation such as gardenscapes, which can help preserve biota and provide for livelihoods. They can be seen as a different but equally important kind of restored ‘nature’ as protected areas, given that they both started from the same degraded baseline, but have since gone through different paths toward regrowth. By taking an ethnobiological approach to this study, I was able to effectively integrate

52 biocultural conservation as a priority, particularly through participatory research, gaining what Wolverton et al. (2014) call ‘local subtle ecologies’ about human relationships with biota. In the case of St. Eustatian gardenscapes this means that plant diversity can’t be understood without first recognizing who is managing this diversity and for what means, and better acknowledging the important knowledge and understanding that local people hold about their local landscapes.

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Appendix 1. List of Flora Found in St. Eustatian Gardenscapes lupulina Lindl. (hop-headed barleria) - shrub, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB141. Blechum pyramidatum (Lam.) Urb. - herb, native. = Ruellia blechum L. pictum (L.) Griffith (caricature plant) - shrub, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. Hemigraphis sp. Nees - herb, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. carnea Lindl. - shrub, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB134 Pseuderanthemum carruthersii (Seem.) Guillaumin - shrub, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB101, BB126 Ruellia tuberosa L. (fever root) - herb, native. Ecosystem services: ornamental.

Amaranthaceae Amaranthus dubius C. Martius (callaloo) - herb, native. Food: makes a good side dish. Chenopodium ambrosioides L. (wormbush) - herb, native. Health remedies: can be used to make a tea to get rid of worms; used for weight loss. Spinacia oleracea L. (spinach) - herb, non-native (introduced). Food: edible leaves.

Amaryllidaceae Allium ampeloprasum L. (leek) - herb, non-native (introduced). Food: edible stalks. Allium cepa L. (onion) - herb, non-native (introduced). Food: edible . Allium sativum L. (garlic) - herb, non-native (introduced). Food: edible bulbs. Health remedies: treatment for diabetes; treatment for blood pressure; treatment for sores. Alllium schoenosprasum L. (chives) - herb, non-native (introduced). Food: edible stalks. Crinum augustum Roxb. ex Ker Gawl. (Queen Emma lily) - herb, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. puniceum (Lam.) Voss - herb, non-native (naturalized). Ecosystem services: ornamental. Hymenocallis caribea L. - herb. (spider lily) herb, native. Ecosystem services: ornamental.

Anacardiaceae Anacardium occidentale L. (cashew) - tree, native. Food: edible fruit; edible nuts. Ecosystem services: ornamental. Mangifera indica L. (mango) - tree, non-native (naturalized). Food: edible fruit; fruit can be used to make juice; fruit can be used to make jam. Ecosystem services: ornamental; fairly drought resistant. Spondias dulcis Parkinson (golden apple) - tree, non-native (introduced). Food: edible fruit. Ecosystem services: ornamental. Spondias mombin L. (yellow plum) - tree, native. Food: edible fruit. Ecosystem services: ornamental. Spondias purpurea L. (red plum, purple mombin, Spanish plum) - tree, native. Food: edible fruit. Ecosystem services: ornamental.

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Annonaceae Annona montana MacFad. (guttersop) - tree, native. Food: edible fruit. BB118 Annona muricata L. (soursop) - tree, native. Food: edible fruit; adds fiber to your diet. Ecosystem services: fairly drought resistant. Health remedies: leaves used to make a tea to treat fever. Annona reticulata L. (custard apple) - tree, native. Food: edible fruit. BB127 Annona squamosa L. (sugar apple) - tree, native. Food: edible fruit. Health remedies: leaves used to make a tea to treat fever. Cananga odorata (Lam.) Hook. f. & Thomson - tree, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB119

Apiaceae Anethum graveolens L. (dill) - herb, non-native (introduced). Food: edible herb. Apium graveolens L. (celery) - herb, non-native (introduced). Food: edible stalks; edible leaves. Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Nyman ex A.W. Hill (parsley) - herb, non-native (introduced). Food: edible herb.

Apocynaceae Allamanda blanchetti A. DC. (purple allamanda) - scandent shrub, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. Allamanda cathartica L. (yellow allamanda) - scandent shrub, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. Calotropis procera (Aiton) W.T. Aiton - shrub, non-native (naturalized). Ecosystem services: ornamental. Cascabela thevetia (L.) Lippold (be still tree) - tree, native. Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB138 Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don (poorman’s rose, periwinkle) - herb, non-native (naturalized). Health remedies: use white flowers to make a bitter tea to treat high blood pressure (drink every two days); tea can also be used to treat diabetes. Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB062 Cryptostegia grandiflora R. Br. (rubber vine) - scandent shrub, non-native (invasive). Ecosystem services: ornamental. Hoya australis R.Br. ex Trail - herb, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. Nerium oleander L. (oleander) - shrub, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. alba L. (white frangipani) - tree, native. Ecosystem services: ornamental. Plumeria rubra L. (frangipani) - tree, native. Ecosystem services: ornamental. Plumeria pudica Jacq. - shrub, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB023 Tabernaemontana divaricata (L.) R.Br. ex Roem. & Schult. (jasmine) - shrub, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB025

Araceae ‘Amazonica’ (elephant ear) - herb, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. Alocasia clypeolata A. Hay - herb, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental.

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Alocasia cuprea K. Koch (elephant ear) - herb, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. Aglaonema crispum (Pitcher & Manda) Nicolson - herb, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott (dasheen) - herb, non-native (introduced). Food: edible roots. Ecosystem services: ornamental. Dieffenbachia sp. (dumbcane) - herb, native. Ecosystem services: ornamental. Epipremnum aureum (Linden & André) G.S. Bunting - herb (vine), non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. Monstera deliciosa Liebm. - herb, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. domesticum G.S. Bunting - herb, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. Philodendron giganteum Schott (elephant ear) - herb, native. Ecosystem services: ornamental. Spathiphyllum sp. - herb, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental.

Araliaceae Polyscias fruticosa (L.) Harms (ming aralia) - shrub, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB026 Polyscias guilfoylei (W. Bull) L.H. Bailey - shrub, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB031, BB076 Schefflera sp. - shrub, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. Tetrapanax papyrifer (Hook.) K. Koch - shrub, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental.

Araucariaceae Araucaria excelsa (Salisb.) Franco (Norfolk Island pine) - tree, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB137 = Araucaria heterophylla (Salisb.) Franco

Arecaceae merrillii (Becc.) Becc. ( palm) - tree, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. Caryota mitis Lour. (fishtail palm) - tree, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. Chamaedorea sp. - tree, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. barbadensis (Lodd. ex Mart.) Becc. - tree, native. Ecosystem services: ornamental. Cocos nucifera L. (coconut) - tree, non-native (introduced). Health remedies: jelly is good for kidney and bladder; drink oil for colon. Food: milk can be put in tea and porridge; can make oil from it; water makes a cooling drink. Material services: can use as a roof on structures for shade. Ecosystem services: palm leaves are good for shade; palm leaves can be put around plants to keep in moisture; ornamental. Dypsis lutescens (H. Wendl.) Beentje & Dransf. - tree, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. Howea forsteriana (C. Moore & F. Muell.) Becc. - tree, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. Livstonia chinensis (Jacq.) R. Br. ex Mart. - tree, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental.

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Phoenix dactylifera L. (date palm) - tree, non-native (introduced). Food: Edible fruit. Ecosystem services: ornamental.

Asparagaceae Agave americana L. (century plant) - herb, non-native (naturalized). Ecosystem services: ornamental. Agave angustifolia Haw. (agave) - herb, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. = Agave vivipara L. Asparagus officinalis L. (asparagus) - herb, non-native (introduced). Food: edible stalks. Asparagus setaceus (Kunth) Jessop (asparagus fern) - herb, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. Cordyline fruticosa (L.) A.Chev. (ti plant) - herb, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. Dracaena deremensis Engl. - herb, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. = Dracaena fragrans (L.) Ker Gawl. Dracaena marginata Lam. - tree, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. = Dracaena reflexa var. angustifolia Baker Dracaena reflexa Lam. (song of India) - tree, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. Sansevieria cylindrica Bojer - herb, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. Sansevieria hyacinthoides (L.) Druce (mother in law’s tongue) - herb, non-native (invasive). Ecosystem services: ornamental. Yucca aloifolia L. (Spanish bayonet, yucca) - herb, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental.

Asphodelaceae Aloe cameronii Hemsl. - herb, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f. (aloe) - herb, non-native (naturalized). Health remedies: treatment for diabetes (to treat put aloe in water and swallow two pieces); put on fire and combine with epsom salt or cornmeal tie on foot to cure tetanus if a nail or poisonous kasha plant is stepped on (draws everything out). Material uses: fodder for animals. Ecosystem services: ornamental; hummingbirds like flowers, which usually come out in February.

Asteraceae Articum lappa L. - herb, non-native (introduced). Health remedies: helps with diabetes; helps with blood pressure. Lactuca sativa var. longifolia Lam. (romaine lettuce) - herb, non-native (introduced). Food: edible leaves. Parthenium hysterophorus L. - herb, non-native (naturalized). BB102. tenuifolia Millsp. - herb, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. = Tagetes erecta L. Taraxacum officinale F.H. Wigg (dandelion) - herb, non-native (introduced). Health remedies: used to make a treatment for prostate problems. Zinnia sp. (zinnia) - herb, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental.

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Bignoniaceae Catalpa sp. - tree, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. Crescentia cujete L. (calabash) - tree, native. Material uses: fruits used to make bowls and cups. BB143. Tabebuia heterophylla (DC.) Britton (pink poui, white cedar) - tree, native. Ecosystem services: ornamental. capensis (Thunb.) Lindl. (firecracker) – shrub (scandent), non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB121, BB125 Tecoma stans (L.) Kunth - shrub, native. Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB133

Bixaceae Bixa orellana L. (lipstick plant) - shrub, native. Other: Native Caribs used powder from red seeds to decorate their skin; repels mosquitos. Food: Spanish people on St. Eustatius use it to flavor their cooking. Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB145

Boraginaceae Cordia sebestena L. (Geiger tree) - tree, native. Ecosystem services: ornamental. Heliotropium angiospermum Murray (eyebright) - herb, native. Health remedies: good for eyes. BB045

Brassicaceae Brassica chinensis L. (pak choy) - herb, non-native (introduced). Food: edible leaves. = Brassica rapa var. chinensis (L.) Kitam. Brassica oleracea L. (cabbage, collard greens, broccoli) - herb, non-native (introduced). Food: edible leaves.

Bromeliaceae Ananas comosus (L.) Merrill (pineapple) - herb, non-native (introduced). Food: edible fruit. spectabilis (T. Moore) L.B. Smith (painted fingernail plant, lipstick bromeliad) - herb, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental.

Burseraceae Bursera simaruba (L.) Sarg. (tourist tree, gum tree) - tree, native. Ecosystem services: ornamental.

Cactaceae repandus (L.) Mill. - shrub, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. Consolea rubescens (Salm-Dyck. ex DC.) Lem. - shrub, native. Ecosystem services: ornamental. Hylocereus trigonus (Haw.) Saff. - herb (vine), native. Ecosystem services: ornamental. cochenillifera L. Mill. (Curaçao prickle) - shrub, non-native (introduced). Health remedies: tie on stomach to reduce pain. Food: take small pads, clean off spines, cut up and eat like string beans; makes a cooling drink. = Nopalea cochenillifera (L.) Salm-Dyck Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Miller - shrub, non-native (naturalized). Ecosystem services: ornamental. Pereskia bleo (Kunth) DC. (Chinese rose) - shrub, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental.

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Pilosocereus royenii (L.) Byles & Rowley - tree, native. Ecosystem services: ornamental.

Calophyllaceae Mammea americana L. (mammee) - tree, native. Food: edible fruit. Ecosystem services: ornamental.

Capparaceae Capparis cynophallophora Jacq. - shrub, native. Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB070 = Quadrella cynophallophora (Jacq.) Hutch. Capparis flexuosa (L.) L. (iguana tree) - scandent shrub, native. Ecosystem services: ornamental; popular habitat for iguanas. BB140 = flexuosa (L.) J. Presl Capparis indica (L.) Druce - shrub, native. Ecosystem services: ornamental. = Quadrella indica (L.) Iltis & Cornejo

Caricaceae Carica papaya L. (papaya, pawpaw) - tree, native. Food: edible fruit.

Casuarinaceae L. - tree, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB142

Chrysobalanaceae Chrysobalanus icaco L. (fat pork, coco plum) - shrub, native. Food: edible fruit. Ecosystem services: ornamental.

Combretaceae Conocarpus erectus L. var. erectus, (buttonwood) - tree, native. Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB021 Terminalia catappa L. (tropical ) - tree, non-native (introduced). Food: edible fruit. Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB136 Quisqualis indica L. (Rangoon creeper) - scandent shrub, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB148 = indicum (L.) Jongkind

Commelinaceae Commelina erecta L. - herb, native. Tradescantia pallida (Rose) Hunt (purple heart) - herb, non-native (naturalized). Ecosystem services: ornamental. Tradescantia spathacea Sw. (lady in a boat, oyster plant) – herb, non-native (naturalized). Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB144

Convolvulaceae Ipomea sp. (potato vine) - herb (vine), non-native (introduced). Food: makes a good green salad. Ipomea batatas (L.) Lam. (sweet potato) - herb (vine), non-native (introduced). Food: edible roots. Merremia quinquefolia (L.) H. Hallier f. - herb (vine), native. BB104

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Costaceae Costus pulverulentus C. Presl. (spiral ginger) - herb, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental.

Crassulaceae Bryophyllum diagremontianum (Raym.-Hamet & H. Perrier) A. Berger (mother of millions) - herb, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB068 = Kalanchoe diagremontiana Raym.-Hamet & H. Perrier Bryophyllum delagoense (Eckl. & Zeyh.) Druce - herb, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. = Kalanchoe delagoense Eckl. & Zeyh. Kalanchoe gastonis-bonnieri Raym.-Hamet & H. Perrier - herb, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. Kalanchoe luciae Raym.-Hamet - herb, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pers. (love bush, of life) - herb, non-native (naturalized). BB054

Cucurbitaceae Citrullis lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. & Nakai (watermelon) - herb, non-native (introduced). Food: edible fruit. Cucumis melo L. (cantaloupe) - scandent herb, non-native (introduced). Food: edible fruit. Cucurbita moschata Duchesne (squash) - scandent herb, non-native (introduced). Food: edible fruit. Cucurbita pepo L. (pumpkin) - scandent herb, non-native (introduced). Food: edible fruit. Momordica charantia L. (bittermelon, lizard food, maiden apple) - herb (vine), non-native (naturalized). Food: edible fruit (peel and cook). Health remedies: makes tea that can cause abortions. BB109

Cycadaceae Cycas revoluta Thunb. (sago palm) - tree, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental.

Cyperaceae Cyperus alternifolius Rottb. (umbrella plant) - herb, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB072 = Cyperus involucratus Rottb.

Davalliaceae Nephrolepsis sp. - herb, non-native (naturalized).

Euphorbiacaeae Acalypha wilkesiana Müll. Arg. - shrub, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB063 = Acalypha amentacea var. wilkesiana (Muell. Arg.) Fosberg Codiaeum variegatium (L.) Adr. Juss. (croton) - shrub, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB027, BB069 Croton betulinus Vahl - shrub, native. BB098 Croton flavens L. - shrub, native. Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB022 lactea Haw. - shrub, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental.

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Euphorbia leucocephala Lotsy (Christmas bush) - shrub, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB024 Euphorbia milii Des Moul. (crown of thorns) - scandent shrub, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. Euphorbia prostrata Aiton (chickweed) - herb, native. Euphorbia pulcherrima Willd. ex Klotzsch (poinsettia) - shrub, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. Euphorbia tithymaloides L. subsp. tithymaloides (slipper plant) - shrub, native. Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB072, BB074 Jatropha gossypiifolia L. (pondu, bellyache bush) - herb, native. Health remedies: small white plants can be boiled for tea to stop cuts from bleeding; red and white plants both good for mosquito bites; BB057 Jatropha multifida L. (coral plant) - shrub, native. Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB060 esculenta Crantz (cassava) - shrub, non-native (introduced). Food: edible roots. Ricinus communis L. (castor oil plant) - shrub, non-native (introduced). Health remedies: used to ‘clean out’ after having a baby; used to help a baby come out quicker during birth. Material uses: can be used on hair. Ecosystem services: ornamental.

Fabaceae Abrus precatorius L. (jumbie bead) - herb (vine), non-native (naturalized). Caesalpinia pulcherrima (L.) Sw. (pride of Barbados) - shrub, native. Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB064 Cajanus cajan (L.) Huth (pigeon pea) - shrub, non-native (naturalized). Food: edible fruit. Ecosystem services: used as a windbreak. Centrosema virginianum (L.) Bentham - herb (vine), native. Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB107 Clitoria ternatea L. - herb (vine), non-native (naturalized). Ecosystem services: ornamental. Delonix regia (Bojer ex Hook.) Raf. (flamboyant, July tree, ponciana) - tree, non-native (introduced). Symbolic: Flowering tree branches are tied to fences and doorways to celebrate St. Eustatius’s Independence Day. Ecosystem services: ornamental. Gliricida sepium (Jacq.) Kunth (coughbush, quick stick) - tree, non-native (naturalized). Health remedies: used to make tea for cough. Material uses: good for making fences. Ecosystem services: ornamental; used to be used to shade coffee plants; can break off a stick and plant it and it will grow quickly. BB147 Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit subsp. leucocephela (tan tan) - tree, non-native (invasive). Mimosa pudica L. var. pudica (shame lady) - herb, native. Phaseolus vulgaris L. (bean) - herb, non-native (introduced). Food: edible fruit. Rhynchosia minima (L.) DC (horse rubdown) - herb (vine), non-native (naturalized). Health remedies: can be used to make a tea to treat dengue. Senna alata (L.) Roxb (ringworm bush) - shrub, native. Ecosystem services: ornamental. Senna bicapsularis (L.) Roxb. - (money bush) shrub, native. Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB097 Senna occidentalis (L.) Link (stinking weed, bitter root) - herb, native. Health remedies: roots can be dried to make a powder that is then mixed into half a glass of water to treat prostate

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problems; leaves draw down swelling; treatment for menstrual pain. Food: seeds can be ground to make ‘coffee’. BB105 Tamarindus indica L. (tamarind) - tree, non-native (naturalized). Food: fruits used to make juice. Health remedies: leaves used to make a tea to treat fever. Ecosystem services: ornamental. Vachellia sp. (kasha) - shrub, native. Ecosystem services: branches can be put over pumpkins and other vegetables so that chickens won’t eat them.

Heliconiaceae Heliconia psittacorum L.f. - herb, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. Heliconia rostrata Ruiz & Pav. (lobster claw) - herb, non-native (introduced). Symbolic services: can cut off flowers to use as decoration (will stay good out of water for days). Ecosystem services: ornamental.

Lamiaceae Mentha sp. (mint) - herb, non-native (introduced). Food: edible herb. Mentha x piperita L. (peppermint) - herb, non- native (introduced). Food: edible herb. Ocimum americanum L. (basil) - herb, non-native (introduced). Food: edible herb. = Ocimum tenuifolium L. Ocimum x africanum Lour. (lemon basil) - herb, non-native (introduced). Food: edible herb. Origanum majorana L. (marjoram) - herb, non-native (introduced). Food: edible herb. Origanum vulgare L. (oregano) - herb, non-native (introduced). Food: edible herb. Plectranthus amboinicus (Lour.) Sprengel (stinging thyme, Spanish thyme) - herb, non-native (introduced). Food: good for flavoring meat, soups, salads. Ecosystem services: ornamental. Plectranthus caninus Roth. (paracetamol) - herb, non-native (introduced). Health remedies: used to make tea to relieve pain. Food: can be used in salads. Ecosystem services: ornamental. Plectranthus scutellarioides (L.) R. Br. (coleus) - herb, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB066 Rosmarinus officinalis L. (rosemary) - herb, non-native (introduced). Health remedies: helps with memory. Food: edible herb. Ecosystem services: ornamental. Solenostemon sp. (coleus) - herb, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. Volkameria aculeata L. (hague bush, prickly myrtle) - shrub, native. Food: grind to make a bitter green juice. Health remedies: Used to treat a cough (“ripens up” phlegm); used to treat a cold. Ecosystem services: ornamental.

Lauraceae Persea americana Miller (avocado) - tree, non-native (introduced). Food: edible fruit. Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB129

Lythraceae Lagerstroemia indica L. (crepe myrtle) - shrub, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB117 Punica granatum L. (pomegranate) - shrub, non-native (introduced). Food: edible fruit. Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB061

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Malpighiaceae Heteropterys purpurea (L.) Kunth - herb (vine), native. Ecosystem services: ornamental. Malpighia emarginata Sessé & Moc. ex DC. (Barbados cherry) - shrub, native. Food: Edible fruit. Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB131

Malvaceae Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench (okra) - herb, non-native (introduced). Food: edible fruit. Ceiba petrandra (L.) Gaertner (silk cotton tree) - tree, native. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. (hibiscus) - shrub, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. Hibiscus sabdariffa L. (sorrel) - shrub, non-native (introduced). Food: fruits used to make a Christmas-time drink called sorrel. Ecosystem services: ornamental. Pachira aquatica Aubl. (French nut) - tree, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. Sida rhombifolia L. - shrub, native. BB058 Thespesia populnea (L.) Sol. ex Corrêa (seaside mahoe) (L.) Sol. ex Corr. Ser. - tree, native. Ecosystem services: ornamental.

Marantaceae Calathea sp. - herb, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental.

Meliaceae Azadirachta indica A. Juss. (neem) - tree, non-native (invasive). Health remedies: can be used to treat diabetes; can be used to treat blood pressure; rub leaves on jackee (wasp) stings to reduce welts. Ecosystem services: ornamental; boil leaves to make a tea that can be sprayed on trees and shrubs to get rid of/prevent pests like lice and ants (however if the tea is too strong it can burn the leaves). Melia azedarach L. (lilac) - tree, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental.

Moraceae Artocarpus altilis (Parkinson) Fosb. (breadfruit) - tree, non-native (introduced). Food: good source of starch; edible fruits. Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. (jackfruit) - tree, non-native (introduced). Food: edible fruit. Ficus benjamina L. - tree, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. Ficus sp. - tree, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental.

Moringaceae Moringa oleifera Lam. (moringo) - tree, non-native (naturalized). Health remedies: can be used to make tea for weight loss; most widely acclaimed health remedy plant on St. Eustatius (can use all parts). Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB146

Musaceae Musa sp. (banana, plantain) - herb, non-native (introduced). Food: edible fruit.

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Myrtaceae Callistemon citrinus (Curtis) Skeels (bottlebrush) - shrub, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. Eugenia ligustrina (Sw.) Willd. (blackberry) - tree, native. Food: edible fruit. Eugenia uniflora L. (Suriname cherry) - tree, non-native (naturalized). Food: edible fruit. Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB050 floribunda (West ex Willd.) O. Berg (guavaberry) - tree, native. Food: edible fruit. Ecosystem services: white flowers attract bees; ornamental. Pimenta racemosa (Miller) J. Moore (cinnamon) - tree, native. Health remedies: can take a piece and chew it to help go to sleep; can makes tinctures with it for pain (put 2-3 drops on tongue). Food: edible fruit; edible bark; edible leaves. Ecosystem services: ornamental. Psidium guajava L. (guava) - tree, non-native (naturalized). Food: edible fruit; fruit can be used to make jam; fruit can be used to make juice. Ecosystem Services: fairly drought resistant; ornamental. Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels (blackberry, jamon, java plum) - tree, non-native (introduced). Food: leave to ferment for wine. Ecosystem services: ornamental; used as a windbreak. Syzygium malaccense (L.) Merr. & L.M. Perry (Malay apple, rose apple) - tree, non-native (introduced). Food: edible fruit. Ecosystem services: ornamental. Syzygium samarangense (Blume) Merr. & L.M.Perry (wax apple) - tree, non-native (introduced). Food: edible fruit. Ecosystem services: ornamental.

Nyctaginaceae coccinea Miller - herb, native. BB103 Boerhavia erecta L. - herb, native. BB047, BB051 Bougainvillea sp. (bougainvillea) – shrub (scandent), non-native (introduced). Food: edible flowers (but not much flavor). Ecosystem services: ornamental. Guapira fragrans (Dum.-Cours.) Little (loblolly) - tree, native. Mirabilis jalapa L. (four o’clock flower) - herb, non-native (naturalized). Ecosystem services: ornamental; fragrant flowers. Pisonia subcordata Sw. (mampoo) - tree, native. Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB015.

Oleaceae Jasminum sambac (L.) Soland. (jasmine) - shrub, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB056. Olea europaea L. (olive) - tree, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB055.

Oxalidaceae Averrhoa carambola L. (five finger, starfruit) - tree, non-native (introduced). Food: edible fruit. Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB120

Pandanaceae Pandanus baptistii Misonne (pandanus) - tree, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental.

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Papaveraceae Argemone mexicana L. (thistle) - herb, non-native (naturalized).

Passifloraceae Passiflora sp. (passionfruit) - herb (vine), non-native (introduced). Food: edible fruit; makes a sour juice. Ecosystem services: ornamental; if grown on an arbor and with enough rain it will always be green and you can use space underneath as a greenhouse. Turnera ulmifolia L. (West Indian holly) - shrub, native. Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB059

Phyllanthaceae Phyllanthus acidus (L.) Skeels (gooseberry) - tree, non-native (introduced). Food: juice can be made from the fruits. Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB028 Phyllanthus amarus Schum. & Thonn. (seed under leaf) - herb, native. Health remedies: used to treat diabetes. BB046

Phytolaccaceae Petiveria alliacea L. (strong man bush) - herb, native.

Plantaginaceae equisetiformis Schlecht. & Cham. (firecracker) - shrub, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental.

Plumbaginaceae Plumbago auriculata Lam. (plumbago) - shrub, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB071 Plumbago scandens L. - herb, native. Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB106

Poaceae Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf (lemongrass) - herb, non-native (introduced). Food: makes good tea. Health remedies: tea helps reduce fever. Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. - herb, non-native (naturalized). Megathyrsus maximus (Jacq.) B.K. Simon & S.W.L. Jacobs (Guinea grass) - herb, non-native (introduced). setaceum (Forssk.) Chiov. - herb, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB135 = setaceus (Forssk.) Morrone Saccharum sp. (sugarcane) - herb, non-native (introduced). Food: source of sugar.

Polygonaceae Antigonon leptopus Hook. & Arn. (corallita) - herb (vine), non-native (invasive). Material uses: in the past, pits for making charcoal would be covered with corallita to keep heat in. Coccoloba swartzii Meisn. - tree, native. Coccoloba uvifera (L.) L. (sea grape) - tree, native. Ecosystem services: ornamental.

Polypodiaceae

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Campyloneurum phyllitidis (L.) C. Presl - herb, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB067 Platycerium bifurcatum (Cav.) C. Chr. (staghorn fern) - herb, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental.

Portulacaceae oleracea L. - herb, native. fruticosum (L.) Juss. - herb, native. BB044

Rhamnaceae lupuloides (L.) Urban (whiteroot) - herb (vine), native. Health remedies: general health remedy. BB099 Ziziphus mauritania Lam. (Indian plum, pomserat) - tree, non-native (naturalized). Food: edible fruit. Ecosystem services: ornamental.

Roseaceae Fragaria ananassa Duchesne ex Rozier (strawberry) - herb, non-native (introduced). Food: edible fruit. Rosa sp. (rose) - shrub, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental.

Rubiaceae Gardenia sp. (gardenia) - shrub, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. Ixora coccinea L. (jungle flame ixora, burning love) - shrub, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. Morinda citrifolia L. (noni) - tree, native. Food: edible fruit. Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB128 Randia aculeata L. (Christmas tree) - shrub, native. Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB100

Rutaceae Citrus x aurantiifolia (Christm.) Swingle (lime) - tree, non-native (introduced). Food: edible fruit. Health remedies: drinking juice helps cure typhoid; drinking juice helps get rid of diabetes. Citrus x paradisi Macfad. (grapefruit) - tree, non-native (introduced). Food: edible fruit. Citrus reticulata Blanco (tangerine) - tree, non-native (introduced). Food: edible fruit. Citrus x sinensis (L.) Osbeck (orange) - tree, non-native (introduced). Food: edible fruit.

Sapindaceae Blighia sapida Koenig (ackee) - tree, non-native (introduced). Material uses: throw seeds in water and fish come up (makes them easier to catch). Food: edible fruit. Ecosystem services: ornamental. Cardiospermum microcarpum Kunth (wild parsley) - herb (vine), native. = Cardiospermum halicacabum L. var. microcarpum (Kunth) Blume Meliococcus bijugatus Jacq. (genip) - tree, non-native (introduced). Food: edible fruit. Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB139

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Sapotaceae Manilkara zapota (L.) P. Royen (sapodilla, mispel) - tree, non-native (introduced). Food: edible fruit. Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB130 Pouteria campechiana (Kunth) Baehni (eggfruit) - tree, non-native (introduced). Food: edible fruit. Ecosystem services: ornamental.

Solanaceae Brunfelsia americana L. (lady of the night) - shrub, native. Ecosystem services: ornamental. Capsicum annuum L. (pepper) - herb, non-native (introduced). Food: edible fruit. Solanum americanum Miller - herb, native. Food: edible. BB108 Solanum lycopersicum L. (tomato) - shrub, non-native (introduced). Food: edible fruit. Solanum melongena L. (eggplant) - herb, non-native (introduced). Food: edible fruit. Solanum nigrum L. (huckleberry) - herb, non-native (introduced). Food: edible fruit. Health remedies: can be used to make a tea to treat diabetes.

Strelitziaceae Strelitzia sp. (bird of paradise) - herb, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental.

Verbenaceae camara L. - shrub, native. Health remedies: Put on face and tie up to treat mumps. Ecosystem services: ornamental. Lantana involucrata L. (wild lantana) - shrub, native. Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB049 Lantana sp. (wild oregano) - herb, non-native (introduced). BB048 Lippia alba (Miller) N. E. Br. (Curacao sage, bush tea) - shrub, native. Food: leaves can be used to make tea. Ecosystem services: ornamental. volubilis L. (purple wreath, sandpaper vine) - herb (vine), native. Ecosystem services: ornamental. Phyla nodiflora (L.) Greene (man bettah man) - herb, native. Material uses: used as a fish poison. Health remedies: can be used to make tea to stop diarrhea; roots can be chewed to stop pain; used to treat menstrual pain. Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl (rat’s tail, worry wine) - herb, native. Health remedies: can be used to make bush tea. BB052, BB053

Zamiaceae Zamia furfuracea Aiton (cardboard palm) - tree, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental.

Zingiberaceae Alpinia purpurata (Vieill.) K. Schum. (red ginger) - herb, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. BB029 Alpinia zerumbet (Pers.) B. L. Burtt & R. M. Sm. (shell ginger) - herb, non-native (introduced). Ecosystem services: ornamental. Zingiber officinale Roscoe (ginger) - herb, non-native (introduced). Food: edible roots.

Zygophyllaceae Guaiacum officinale L. (lignum vitae) - tree, native. Ecosystem services: ornamental.

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Appendix 2: Research Approval from Miami University’s Institutional Review Board

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Appendix 3: Participant Consent Form

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Appendix Four: Approval for Transport of Plant Samples from St. Eustatius

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Appendix 5: Permit for Import of Plant Materials from St. Eustatius

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