Chapter 4 – Sport Participation

View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE Sport Participation in Host provided by Serveur académique lausannois Countries before and after the Olympic Games: Do the Games Change Something?

Katia Engalycheva & Jean-Loup Chappelet

AISTS International Academy of Sports Science and Technology 89 Sport Participation in Host Countries before and after the Olympic Games: Do the Games Change Something?

‘People are designed to move’

Lisa MacCallum

90 AISTS International Academy of Sports Science and Technology Abstract

The Olympic Games are expensive Olympic Games to the host cities and for host cities and sometimes result in host countries.” While numerous studies financial deficits for host countries. In an have been conducted on the evaluation attempt to promote the Games, attract of the long-terms benefits from hosting more bidders and justify huge price tags, the Olympic Games, related to economic, the organisers highlight various benefits: transport, tourism, infrastructure impacts, boost for the country’s economy, few evaluations have been carried out to improved infrastructure, increased show the effects of the Olympic Games tourism, a national showcase, etc. A at the level (mass or elite) of sports sustainable sporting legacy is also now participation. Despite the claims about on the organisers’ agenda. the wider social impacts of the Olympics, there is a lack of serious post-event A wide-spread belief exists that mega- assessment. The purpose of this study events, such as the Olympic Games, is to measure, through the analysis of create community excitement and lead official statistics, the level of grassroots to a so-called “trickle down” effect where sport participation in recent Olympic people are inspired to become more host countries. Additionally, where active due to the successes of Olympic possible, the cities before and after the athletes and the staging of such a high- Olympic Games and try to determine if profile event. the Olympic Games inspire the general population to practise more sport. The One of the articles of the International findings of this research indicate little Olympic Committee (IOC) Charter evidence for a positive long-term sporting states that part of the role of the IOC is benefit from staging the Olympic Games. “to promote a positive legacy from the

AISTS International Academy of Sports Science and Technology 91 Sport Participation in Host Countries before and after the Olympic Games: Do the Games Change Something?

Introduction

One of the International Olympic the event. Roberts conducted a study Committee’s (IOC) missions is “Sport (Roberts, 1982) on the economic benefits for All” and advancement of sport in deriving from general physical activity. society. The Olympic Games, therefore, These benefits resulted in enhanced by definition, among other things, health, which was measured in terms are supposed to boost mass sports of a reduction in two major conditions: participation. This should be one of the heart disease and lower back pain. This positive Olympic “legacies”. in its turn, translated into savings to the health budget and industry savings from The Olympic Games are expensive reduced absenteeism and increased for host cities and sometimes result productivity. Following this logic, in financial deficits for host countries. even a small increase in mass sports Therefore, cities interested in hosting the participation could produce benefits of Games are now placing more and more several million dollars for the state. emphasis on the legacies that the event could leave for their citizens. Rule 2.14 There appears to be a commonly held of the Olympic Charter states that part perception, especially among politicians, of the role of the IOC is “to promote a that mass sports participation is positive legacy from the Olympic Games generated by elite sport and vice-versa. to the host cities and host countries.” One example is a claim from former Cities hosting the Olympic Games are Prime Minister of Norway, Kjell Magne under increasing pressure to account Bondevik, in an interview during the for public expenditure by creating 1998 Nagano Olympic Games (Hole positive legacies for the host country 1998, p. 54): ”Olympic gold puts and the population, for example, in Norway on the map and stimulates the terms of additional employment, more Norwegian people to be active on ice local business opportunities, education, and snow. There are many Bjørn Dæhlies know-how and others. A sustainable around. They would not be there if they sporting legacy is now also on the did not have an idol. Elite sport is good organisers’ agenda. To justify investment entertainment and good culture, and it is in staging this mega event to the general a positive relationship between elite sport audience, organisers and politicians try to and mass sport.” There is a hope that demonstrate long-term benefits beyond the Olympics would trigger “a virtuous increasing international prestige, such circuit”: sport for all feeds elite sport as grassroots sports participation and which, in turn, it is hoped, will inspire potential health benefits. more people to participate.

One suggestion is that the economic More recently, the UK government in value of the health benefits generated by 2010 published its legacy plan for the the hosting of the event may make up for 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games the public expenditure involved in staging which included commitments to bolster

92 AISTS International Academy of Sports Science and Technology community sport and to create a mass part of the Olympic programme. Apart participation sporting legacy. from this, as some academics note, there are changing structures of Despite the claims about the wider social engagement with sport, such as various impacts of the Olympics, there is a lack of convergences between sport and health serious post-event assessment. A wide- clubs, as well as issues of access and spread belief exists that mega-events, sports infrastructure. such as the Olympic Games, create community excitement and lead to a so- Professor Fred Coalter from the called “trickle down” effect where people University of Stirling (Coalter, 2004), are inspired to become more active due observed before London was awarded to the successes of Olympic athletes and the 2012 Olympics, that it was not clear the staging of such high-profile events. what “model of behaviour change” supported the claim that hosting the At the same time, a counter hypothesis 2012 Olympics would lead to an increase exists that sporting achievements at the in general sports participation. He posed Olympic Games may actually discourage the following questions: the average person from practising physical activity due to a perceived gap • Is it implying a media-led growth in between their level of ability and that of participation as a result of widespread an elite athlete. coverage of the Olympic Bid? • Is it presuming that elite role The purpose of this study is to measure, models will encourage widespread through the analysis of official sports participation? participation statistics, the level of grassroots sports participation in the • Is it assuming that the coverage of selected Olympic host countries and, individual sports will increase their where possible, cities before and after popularity (even though many Olympic the Olympic Games, and try to determine sports are highly technical and/or if the Olympic Games inspire the general minority activities? population to practise more sport. • Why is it assuming that persistently under-participating groups will be What is an Olympic legacy? According moved to participate and enable the to J. Mangan (Mangan 2008, p. 1869), a nation to get fitter and healthier? legacy can be understood to be “a long- • As the majority of spectators of any lasting effect of an event or process”. Olympics will view it via television, what In regard to sporting legacy, how is specific about the London Games in exactly can mass sports participation terms of participation? be measured? There are many “sports” and a lot of models of “participation”. The absence of an evaluation framework While Olympic sports cover a wide and the need to create a comparable range of disciplines, many popular benchmark across all future Olympic sports activities, for example, yoga, Games editions motivated the IOC to skateboarding, or free running are not

AISTS International Academy of Sports Science and Technology 93 Sport Participation in Host Countries before and after the Olympic Games: Do the Games Change Something?

establish the Olympic Games Impact The topic of the impact of the Olympic study (OGI). Its purpose is to measure the Games on physical activity levels has impact of the Olympic and Paralympic been researched but under-published. Games through a consistent and A study by Weed et al (2015) reports comparable reporting system. Launched 1778 titles on this topic identified by an only a few years ago, it hasn’t yet yielded electronic search. The studies below comprehensive results. It officially attempted to find a correlation between started with the Beijing 2008 Olympic a nation’s sporting success at the elite Games and was first fully applied at level and grassroots sport participation. Vancouver 2010. In accordance with These have been analysed and serve as the IOC Candidature Procedure and a foundation to interpret and understand Questionnaire document, the study the findings of this research. includes more than 150 indicators. For each indicator, a detailed description In 2004 a study on curling success and measurement methods and units and its impact on participation was have been determined. The period of carried out on behalf of SportScotland measurement stretches over 11 years, (SportScotland 2004), a national i.e. it starts two years before the election agency for the development of sport of the Host City and ends two years after in Scotland. In 2002, Scottish women the Olympic Games. One of the “social” curlers won Britain’s first Winter Olympic indicators includes “participation rates in gold medal since 1984. This gold was sport” which is suitable for this study. followed by a further gold in the Curling World Championships in Canada. Both Two opposite beliefs exist in the successful performances generated a academic literature surveyed: first, is lot of media coverage and public interest that mega-events, such as the Olympic in the sport across the United Kingdom Games, create community excitement and Scotland, in particular. The media and lead to a so-called “trickle down” coverage suggested that there had effect when people are inspired been a spike in interest and participation to become more active due to the in curling as a direct consequence successes of Olympic athletes and the of the success at the Winter Olympic staging of such high-profile events. The Games and World Championships. The other wide-spread belief, is that sporting research focused on examining whether achievements at the most high-profile these successes indeed had any effect sports event on the planet may actually on participation in curling in Scotland drive people away from sport due to through a survey of all curling clubs in a perceived gap between their level of Scotland and 47 interviews with curlers ability and that of an elite athlete. This new to the sport. The survey found that discouragement effect is related to the curling club membership had increased “coach-potato” effect where people by 3% in the season following success at spend too much time watching sport the Olympics and World Championships on television and too little time actually – an average of one new member per doing it. club. For those clubs that gained new

94 AISTS International Academy of Sports Science and Technology members, the number ranged from 1 Norwegian biathlon may be explained up to 14 new members. In addition, the by a detour via other interrelated factors study tried to establish reasons for any such as economy and strategies. It is not change in participation. In the survey of believed that elite sport creates mass new curlers, respondents were asked sport per se. Elite sport may – indirectly to provide reasons encouraging them to – generate mass sport, but it depends take up curling. These were: watching on the economy of the sport governing curling on television (38%) and the recent body and priorities made by its decision success (36%). Only 4%, however, makers.” In this particular study, an indicated that the success in curling was increased balance between the elite the main reason for taking up this sport. sport and mass sport partly depends on The study also concluded that the ice the priorities of the NBA. rinks and clubs that benefited the most from the success were those that had In 2010, a study on the influence of the initiatives or promotions in operation. Olympic Games on Canadians was This statement is in accordance conducted (Halim, Boettger, Najera with the general conclusions of this 2010). The effect of the Olympics on research paper. trends in sport participation rates in Canadians, aged of 12- 65 and over In 2010, a case study of Norwegian before, during and after the 2006 Torino biathlons was undertaken to examine Olympics and 2008 Beijing Olympics, the relationship between elite and mass was examined. Two sports for each sport (Hanstad, Skille 2010). Is there Olympics were chosen: curling and any correlation between Norwegian elite cross-country skiing for Winter Olympics biathlon performances and the number and tennis and rowing for the Summer of participants in the Norwegian Biathlon Olympics. The results demonstrated that Association (NBA)? Through the analysis the Olympic Games had an effect on of the annual reports from the NBA, sport participation rates for Canadians, market research reports, interviews with and did have an effect on the number key personnel of the NBA as well as elite of participants in a given sport. Every athletes and grassroots volunteers, the sport showed an increase in the authors conclude that there appears to number of people, up to several more be a correlation between international thousand, taking part after the Games, elite performances by Norwegian even if individual age groups showed a biathletes and the number of participants decrease. The authors noted, however, in the NBA. More specifically the report that the research was hampered by the states: “That may be identified as lack of data on participation rates several indicators of a relationship between elite years before the Games. and mass sport, but at the same time, it is pointed out that elite performances While it is difficult to measure the cannot be taken as a sole contributor for impact of the Olympic Games at the growth at the lower level. The relationship grassroots level, it may be a good idea to between elite sport and mass sport in narrow down the research and choose

AISTS International Academy of Sports Science and Technology 95 Sport Participation in Host Countries before and after the Olympic Games: Do the Games Change Something?

a different “target” for assessment. A some mixed accounts. One observation study in New Zealand (Hindson, Gidlow, is that a clear strategic plan in place prior Peebles 1994) measured the impact of to the Games, contributes to maximising the Olympics on sports clubs, especially the opportunities presented by the those for Olympic sports. A postal survey Olympics (e.g. curling clubs in Scotland of 35 New Zealand sports clubs and that had promotional programmes six National Sporting Associations was benefited from the Games versus a conducted in the period following the failure of the New Zealand sports clubs 1992 Albertville Olympic Games and to take advantage of the situation). Not Barcelona Olympic Games. The purpose all the findings in the academic literature was to examine the influence of these are consistent with the results of this mega-events on club membership. Yet, research paper but, nevertheless, they only six of the clubs had an increase in provide a general picture helping to membership inquiries, and only three identify some correlations and trends as experienced an increase in competitive well as success factors. This is confirmed membership. Here the “tickle down” by a recent and quite exhaustive literature effect was not observed. The authors of review already mentioned by Weed et al the report point out a few reasons which (2015). In this review, the 1,778 relevant could have explained a failure of the sources identified were reduced to 112 clubs to take advantage of the publicity sources. 21 of these sources were further of the Olympics. For example, there was investigated and are summarised in the a lack of innovative marketing, only four article (table 2, p. 205). They all conclude clubs used the Games as promotion there is a lack of demonstrative (or trickle tool; sports clubs simply relied on an down) effect of major sports events anticipated “trickle down” effect and including the Olympics. The authors didn’t have a specific strategy in place note that the Games can have specific to promote the sport in the run up to the impacts on sports participation frequency Games. and re-engagement, especially if they are properly leveraged before and after the To sum up, it should be noted that the Olympics. This is an idea which was first findings in the academic literature present developed by Chalip (2004). somewhat contradictory views, with

96 AISTS International Academy of Sports Science and Technology Research Methodology Challenges The research was hampered for several Reliable and accurate information on reasons: overall levels of physical activity in a given country is of vital importance. The • There is an obvious lack of official selected method for gathering data on statistics on this topic. Few sports participation rates was through government organisations keep a obtaining country-wide and, where record of this type of data over a long possible, city-wide, official statistics. period of time. Those who do are Australia was the only country that not willing to necessarily share it. For had information on individual sporting example, in the course of this research activities. The sample countries personal contact was made with (Australia, US, Greece and UK) were the relevant Ministries of Sport and selected on the basis of availability of electronic enquiries were sent asking official statistics. To ensure the validity for the official statistics. Although the and credibility of results, only statistics Greek Ministry of Culture and Sport, from official sources were sought: sports responsible for this information, government organisations, and Eurostat. confirmed its availability, it failed to The majority of surveys examined provide it despite numerous follow-ups. during this research included statistically • The national surveys analysed in this significant samples. The questions posed study have different designs and, in the surveys were in line with the topic therefore, are not comparable with of this research. In order to identify any each other. Even surveys conducted potential trends, the sports participation within one country, namely Australia, rates were examined a few years before had different methodologies, which and after the Olympic Games took place. made it difficult to track trends. The following data sources have been • The definition of sports participation used during this research: websites of the is not consistent across the sample relevant Ministries of Sport, government countries. sport organisations and agencies, Olympic • The “sport and physical activities” Museum library, Olympic Studies Centre social indicator, which is part of the archives, websites of National Statistics OGI study, was only available for the Bureaus, European Commission, Eurostat London pre-Games period (for the – statistical office of the European Union Summer Olympics). (EU), École Polytechnique Fédérale de • The surveys had different Lausanne (EPFL) library database, Google methodologies and the results, Scholar, IOC website, the official reports therefore, are open to misinterpretation. of the Sydney 2000, Salt Lake City 2002, Athens 2004 and London 2012 Olympic Games (pre-Games period), academic journals, published books, publications by academics specialising in the topic.

AISTS International Academy of Sports Science and Technology 97 Sport Participation in Host Countries before and after the Olympic Games: Do the Games Change Something?

Results 2000 Sydney Olympic Games conducted by the Australian Sports Commission and the state and Australia appears to be the only territory departments on sport country in the sample which has easily and recreation. available physical activity data at both country and city (Sydney) level. The first evaluation was carried out as A range of government, industry and part of Active Australia and National other organisations collected statistical Physical Activity Surveys. It shows the information on Australia’s sporting percentage of people achieving at least activities prior to and after the Sydney 150 minutes per week of moderate 2000 Olympics. While various nation- or vigorous activity or walking. All wide surveys on sport participation exist, activity outside the workplace was however, their results are not directly covered, including household chores. comparable. The analysis of the data Methodology: is rendered difficult by the fact that no two physical activity evaluations were • Survey method: random sample conducted using the same methodology, population telephone interview so it is not possible to determine trends • Age-range of sample: adults aged in participation greater than three years 18-75 at a time. • Sample size: 2500 responders in For the purposes of this study, the 1997 and 3,000 in 1999 and 2000. following data sources have been This report indicates that there were selected: declines in physical activity between 1997 1. “Trends in population levels of and 1999 for adult Australians and no reported physical activity in Australia, change in physical activity participation 1997, 1999 and 2000” by A. between 1999 and 2000. This suggests Bauman, I. Ford and T. Armstrong. that the Olympics had little impact upon physical activity participation overall 2. The Exercise, Recreation and across the adult population. Although, Sport Survey (ERASS), 2001-1005, since the Olympics took place between

Gender Physical Physical Physical Activity 1997 Activity 1999 Activity 2000 Men 63.4% 59.6% 57.6% Women 61.1% 53.8% 56.0% Total 62.2% 56.6% 56.8%

Table 1 Levels of Physical Activity: Australia, 1997, 1999, 2000

98 AISTS International Academy of Sports Science and Technology Change 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Olympic Sport 2001–2005 (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) Swimming 16.0 14.9 15.3 16.5 14.4 -1.6 Athletics 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.7 0.5 -0.2 Tennis 9.2 8.2 9.0 8.4 7.8 -1.4 Basketball 3.5 4.0 3.6 3.2 3.5 0.0 Gymnastics 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.0 Cycling 9.5 9.3 9.4 10.5 10.3 +0.8 Canoeing/ 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.9 0.9 +0.2 Kayaking Running 7.2 7.6 7.6 8.3 7.7 +0.5

Table 2 Individual Activities. Trends: 2001-2005, Australia six and nine weeks prior to the survey, Table 2 contains data on some of the this provided an opportunity for people Olympic disciplines in the ERASS survey. to react to the Olympics and try physical The trends in participation are somewhat activity in response to it. Overall 4% of uncertain, given the increase in some Australian adults increased their activity of the activities but decline in others. It since the Olympics. According to the is interesting to observe that swimming, report “This proportion was not large one of Australia’s most popular sports, enough to influence physical activity demonstrated a decline. Overall, of participation overall, and indicates that the 21 Olympic sports included in the the Olympics were not likely to have full ERASS study, ten increased their specifically resulted in increases in participation or did not decline over the physical activity participation in the five-year period. whole community.” The data in the Table 3 indicates little The ERASS survey presents information difference between Sydney and national regarding the level of participation figures, though some of the sports, such in physical activity and frequency of as swimming and tennis, demonstrated participation over the last 12 months a greater decline in comparison with preceding the interview. Methodology: the national figures. No explanation for this was produced. A report containing • Survey method: random sample the results of the examination of the population telephone interview effects of the Sydney Olympics on mass • Age-range of sample: adults aged 15- sports participation (Veal, Frawley 2009), 65 and over concluded that: “The aggregate scores • Sample size: 13,000 show very little difference between the

AISTS International Academy of Sports Science and Technology 99 Sport Participation in Host Countries before and after the Olympic Games: Do the Games Change Something?

Change National 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 Olympic Sport 2001– 2001– (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) 2005 (%) 2005 (%) Swimming 21.0 18.8 19.6 20.2 17.5 -3.5 -1.6 Athletics 0.5 0.9 0.6 0.5 0.4 -0.1 -0.2 Tennis 11.8 9.4 11.0 10.4 9.6 -2.2 -1.4 Basketball 2.6 3.8 3.6 2.7 3.3 +0.7 0.0 Gymnastics 0.5 0.4 0.1 0.5 0.4 -0.1 0.0 Cycling 8.0 8.6 7.3 9.3 8.2 +0.2 +0.8 Canoeing/Kayaking 0.5 1.4 0.6 0.8 1.3 +0.8 +0.2 Running 8.3 8.9 8.4 10.8 8.6 +0.3 +0.5

Table 3 Individual Activities. Trends: 2001-2005: Sydney

Sydney and national figures, suggesting cups or championships since 2002, as a lack of a strong Sydney-specific well as numerous other sporting and “Olympic boost” to participation. It non-sporting events. The Games also has not been possible to draw firm saw an increase in sports participation conclusions regarding the effect of from young people, with sports like the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games on bobsleigh, skeleton, snowboard and grassroots sports participation.” freestyle and mogul skiing seeing an upsurge in interest.” Yet no evidence to 2002 Salt Lake City back up the last statement was found. Olympic Games The official sports participation statistics The IOC’s legacies fact sheet of January for the USA and Salt Lake City in 2010 says that: “To ensure a legacy from particular was gathered by the US Centre the Games, the Utah Sports Commission for Disease and Prevention, Department was set up in order to develop both of Health and Human Services. public recreational and elite sport in the Methodology: State. Utah has hosted over 50 world

Year Recommended (%) Insufficient (%) Inactive (%) 2001 45.3 38.6 16.0 2003 45.9 38.5 15.6 2005 48.1 37.3 14.2

Table 4 Physical Activity Statistics: USA national average Note: Data were adjusted for non-responses and weighted to the population of the geographic area.

100 AISTS International Academy of Sports Science and Technology Year Recommended (%) Insufficient (%) Inactive (%) 2001 52.5 39.0 8.5 2003 53.7 33.1 8.6 2005 52.1 35.3 7.7

Table 5 Physical Activity Statistics: Salt Lake City Metropolitan Area

• Survey method: a telephone interview conclusions, as can be seen from the • Age-range of sample: adults aged > Table 4, there is a very slight increase in 18 years physical activity levels at the national level from 2001 to 2003 and then a further • Sample size: at least 500 responders. 2,2% spike two years later. Inactivity Recommended physical activity = levels, accordingly, show a decline over reported moderate-intensity activities in a a five-year period. Table 5 shows a usual week (i.e., brisk walking, bicycling, minor increase from 2001 to 2003 but vacuuming, gardening, or anything else a decline in a long-term perspective. It that causes small increases in breathing is, therefore, reasonable to surmise that or heart rate) for ≥ 30 minutes per day, while the 2002 Winter Games had a ≥ 5 days per week or vigorous-intensity positive impact on the physical activity activities in a usual week (i.e. running, levels country-wise, it didn’t influence the aerobics, heavy yard work, or anything sporting behaviour of Salt Lake City’s else that causes large increases in residents. breathing or heart rate) for ≥ 20 minutes per day, ≥ 3 days per week or both. This 2004 Athens Olympic Games can be accomplished through lifestyle The data for the Greece case study was activities (i.e., household, transportation, extracted from the EU Eurobarometer or leisure-time activities). on Sport, a survey across EU member states. Insufficient physical activity = more than 10 minutes total per week of Methodology: moderate or vigorous-intensity lifestyle activities (i.e. household, transportation, • Survey method: a face-to-face or leisure-time activity), but less than the interview in a person’s home recommended level of activity. • Age-range of sample: aged 15 and over Inactivity = less than 10 minutes total per week of moderate or vigorous- • Sample size: in 2004–8, 674, 230; in intensity lifestyle activities (i.e., household, 2009–8, 693, 566 transportation, or leisure-time activity). The findings indicate a short-term impact Although the sample size may not seem on sports participation rates right after significant enough to make far-reaching the end of the Olympics but from a

AISTS International Academy of Sports Science and Technology 101 Sport Participation in Host Countries before and after the Olympic Games: Do the Games Change Something?

Figure 1 Level of Physical Activity: Greece, 2003, 2004, 2009 Question: How often do you exercise or play sport?

long-term perspective – five years after a broader picture before attributing the staging of the event – the number a growth in physical activity levels to of participants declined significantly, the Olympics. Namely, it should be whilst the percentage of respondents remembered that Greece won the Euro who never practice sport witnessed 2004 Football Championship which an upward trend. In 2009 Greece had caused sporting excitement among the highest number of respondents in Greeks and might have inspired them to the EU who said they never played any be more active, which the Eurobarometer sport. This figure classified Greece as 2004 results indicate. The European one of the most sedentary countries in Parliament also proclaimed 2004 the the EU. Precautions need to be taken, European Year of Education through however, when comparing physical Sport. A range of sports initiatives aimed activity trends chronologically, as a at raising awareness of physical activity number of other external factors might and involved active sports participation have played a positive or negative role in took place in Greece. Pappous (2011) sports participation figures. Athanasios notes that the long-term sporting legacy Pappous, in a chapter analysing sports was not a priority for the organisers of the participation statistics in Greece before 2004 Athens Games. Their main concern and after the Athens 2004 Olympics was to ensure the security of the 2004 (Pappous 2011), suggests looking at Olympics. The 2004 Games were the

102 AISTS International Academy of Sports Science and Technology first to take place after the September into concrete steps. In the London 11th 2001 terrorist attacks in the US and Olympics legacy plan called “Before, all the attention of the organisers was during and after: making the most of the paid to enforcing the necessary security London 2012 Games” the DCMS made measures. As a result, the security a commitment, among other promises, costs of the 2004 Olympics were three “to make the UK a world-leading sporting times the amount of money and security nation” via: personnel that was used for the 2000 Sydney Olympics. • Inspiring young people through sport: offer all 5 to 16 year-olds in England 2012 London Olympic Games five hours of high-quality sport a week and all 16 to 19 year-olds three hours a The UK Department for Culture, Media week by 2012. and Sport (DCMS) defined the London • Getting people more active: help Games legacy in the following way: at least two million more people in “The legacy of the London 2012 Games England be more active by 2012. refers to the imprint they will leave. It is, therefore, not just what happens after • Elite achievement: aim for 4th in the the Games, but what we do before and Olympic medal table and at least 2nd during them to inspire individuals and in the Paralympic medal in 2012. organisations to strive for their best, to try new activities, forge new links or develop In 2005, Sport England, the government new skills. The Olympic and Paralympic sport agency, launched its first Active Games have a unique power to inspire all People Survey designed to measure of us as individuals, to motivate everyone sports participation levels across to set themselves a personal London England. Overall eight Active People 2012 challenge.” This statement of a Surveys have been carried out with the rather general nature gets transformed more recent in October 2014.

One APS1 APS7 APS8 session a 2005–2006 2012–2013 2013–2014 week1 % n* % n* % n* Statistically significant change from APS 1 NS SEC1-2 40.1 4,462,100 42.9 5,898,300 42.7 6,098,400 Increase NS SEC3 32.3 1,244,000 35.2 1,974,300 33.9 1,976,800 Increase NS SEC4 32.4 920,200 34.3 1,418,400 32.4 1,393,200 No change NS SEC5-8 26.9 3,450,200 29.0 4,756,100 25.9 4,380,400 Decrease

Table 6: Active People Survey England 2005-2014 1At least 4 sessions of at least moderate intensity for at least 30 minutes in the previous 28 days

AISTS International Academy of Sports Science and Technology 103 Sport Participation in Host Countries before and after the Olympic Games: Do the Games Change Something?

NS-SEC is the National Statistics Socio- Methodology: economic Classification. It is derived by combining information on occupation • Survey method: telephone interview and employment status, notably: • Age-range of sample: adults aged 14 and over • Higher managerial and professional • Sample size for England: 363,724 occupations; between October 2005 and October • Lower managerial and professional 2006; 165,000 between October 2012 occupations; and October 2013; 166,000 between • Intermediate occupations; October 2013 and October 2014. • Small employers and own account As Table 6 illustrates, over the course workers; of almost ten years there has been a • Lower supervisory and technical slight increase in participation numbers occupations; from higher socio-economic groups. • Semi-routine occupations; By contrast, the participation rates have • Routine occupations; decreased across the lowest socio- economic groups. The UK Government • Never worked and long-term has launched in August 2015 a unemployed; nationwide survey to improve inhabitants’ • Full time students and Occupations sports participation, especially amongst not stated or inadequately described. poorer people, in order to redefine the financing strategy of national sport governing bodies

104 AISTS International Academy of Sports Science and Technology Discussion

In sum, the analysis of the official • The physical activity results for England statistics on sports participation in the indicate little change and even a selected countries and cities has led to decrease over a ten-year period. The the following results: full effect of the London 2012 Games is still to be assessed. • Australia’s data doesn’t provide It should be remembered that no evidence of a positive impact on city before London had purposefully participation. The trends in individual incorporated sports participation legacy sporting activities are inconclusive, plans into its programme. As was given the increase in some of the mentioned earlier, Athens, for example, activities but decline in others. No was too focused on introducing the Sydney-specific effect from the necessary security measures to avoid 2000 Games on grassroots sports terrorist attacks and simply didn’t list participation in the host city was seen. increased sports participation as a • It is reasonable to surmise that while priority. In this regard, London had much the 2002 Winter Games had a positive more time and opportunity to establish impact on physical activity levels the sports legacy plan and monitor country-wise, they didn’t influence its execution than any other city in the Salt Lake City’s populations’ sports sample. Even advance planning by the behaviour. Of course, the US is a British government, however, hasn’t yet large country and many other factors produced the desired outcomes. might have played a role in sports participation at country level. In conclusion, the results of this research • The Athens 2004 Olympics had a do not support the commonly held belief short-term impact on physical activity that the Olympics always inspires the levels right after the end of the Games general population to become more but from a long-term perspective – five active. Some of the ideas expressed in years after the staging of the event – the literature about elite sport indirectly the number of participants declined generating mass sport, provided significantly. At the same time, the there are other contributing factors in percentage of respondents who never place, make sense. Yet, it is difficult practised sport witnessed an upward to provide an exact explanation for trend during the five-year period. people’s behaviour without sufficient and substantial evidence.

AISTS International Academy of Sports Science and Technology 105 Sport Participation in Host Countries before and after the Olympic Games: Do the Games Change Something?

• There is no single common definition of Conclusions and what sustainable sports legacy is. This Recommendations notion and the legacy’s success criteria may vary from country to country. • A thorough examination of the statistics • If effective, the IOC’s OGI study, which and literature on the topic allowed for also includes a “sports and physical identification of some tentative, yet not activities” indicator, would serve as a fully consistent sports participation solid foundation for future research in patterns. The results appear to be this area. somewhat contradictory, with some • A range of stakeholders would of the countries demonstrating a slight benefit from the accurate data on increase in physical activity levels sports participation rates: the IOC, following the end of the Olympics general population, organisers, (USA) (Greece showed an increase sports clubs, etc. in sports participation during the pre- Games period), but a decline (Greece) • The academic literature and the from a long-term perspective. The findings of this research suggest that findings of this research indicate little a sustainable sporting legacy is not an evidence for positive, stable long-term automatic consequence of the Olympic sports participation benefits from Games and calls for a well thought- staging the Olympic Games. out and strategic policy plan engaging all the target groups. Leveraging • The lack of empirical evidence on strategies are necessary but not often increased mass sports participation put in place. in a host country due to the Olympic Games, calls for further and more • As also noted in the academic in-depth research in this area. This literature and confirmed in the course information could be useful for future of this study, it is doubtful whether the bid cities to reinforce the sporting Olympic Games could be the main legacy message. driver and the sole contributor leading to an increase in participation levels • Understanding and interpreting long- in a host country. It appears to be a term participation trends requires a much more complex process affected close monitoring for several years by many external factors: accessible prior to and after the Olympics. equipment and infrastructure, • The same sports participation educated coaches, a well functioning parameters (i.e. what exactly sports structure of local sports clubs, participation is) should be applied fitness centres, special initiatives across the board to make the and incentives undertaken by the comparison accurate. government on a broader scale, etc.

106 AISTS International Academy of Sports Science and Technology References Publications:

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AISTS International Academy of Sports Science and Technology 107 Sport Participation in Host Countries before and after the Olympic Games: Do the Games Change Something?

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