Language and Language Teaching

Editors Rama Kant Agnihotri, Vidya Bhawan Society, Udaipur, India (Formerly at the University of Delhi) A. L. Khanna, ELT Consultant, Delhi, India (Formerly at the University of Delhi)

Associate Editors Rajesh Kumar, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India Suranjana Barua, Indian Institute of Information Technology, Guwahati (IIITG), Assam, India

Editorial Committee Rajni Dwivedi, Vidya Bhawan Society, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India Haobam Basantarani, Language Consultant, Delhi, India Praveen Singh, University of Delhi, Delhi, India Devaki Lakshminarayan, Azim Premji University, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India

Executive Committee H. K. Dewan, Azim Premji University, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India S. Giridhar, Azim Premji University, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India Partha Sarathi Misra, Azim Premji University, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India Ramgopal Vallath, Azim Premji University, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India Prasoon Kumar, Vidya Bhawan Education Resource Centre, Udaipur, India

International Review and Advisory Board

R. Amritavalli, English and Foreign Languages University, Minati Panda, Zakir Hussain Centre for Educational Studies, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India JNU, Delhi, India Rakesh Bhatt, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, D. P. Pattanayak, Founder Director, CIIL, Mysore, Illinois, USA Karnataka, India Tanmoy Bhattacharya, University of Delhi, Delhi, India Robert Phillipson, Copenhagen Business School, Denmark Jim Cummins, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada N. S. Prabhu, former Head of English Language, National Ganesh Devy, Dhirubhai Ambani Institute of Information and University of Singapore, Singapore. Communication Technology, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India Tariq Rahman, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan Kathleen Heugh, University of South Australia, Australia Anju Sahgal Gupta, Indira Gandhi National Open University, Ayesha Kidwai, Jawaharlal Nehru University, Delhi, India Delhi, India Stephen D. Krashen, University of Southern California, Itesh Sachdev, School of Oriental & African Studies, Los Angeles, California, USA University of London, UK Kay McCormick, University of Cape Town, Rajesh Sachdeva, formerly Acting Director, CIIL, Mysore, Cape Town, South Africa Karnataka, India Rajend Mesthrie, University of Cape Town, Sadhna Saxena, University of Delhi, Delhi, India Cape Town, South Africa Udaya Narayana Singh, Tagore Research Chair, Visva Bharati, K. P. Mohanan, IISER, Pune, Maharashtra, India Santiniketan, West Bengal, India Ajit Mohanty, formerly at the Zakir Hussain Centre for Educational Studies, JNU, Delhi, India M. L. Tickoo, formerly at the English and Foreign Languages University, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India Aditi Mukherjee, former Director, National Translation Mission, CIIL, Mysore, Karnataka, India Mahendra K. Verma, formerly at the University of York, UK

Copy Editor: Preeti Jhangiani; Cover and Layout: Rajesh Sen

Thanks are due to Arindam Chakraborty and Pankhuri Arora for their help in finalising this issue of LLT.

© 2017 Vidya Bhawan Society, Udaipur (Raj.) The views expressed in the contributions to LLT are those of the authors only. Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017

Contents

Articles Interview Teaching of Hmar Language with Special Praveen Singh talks to Professor Karuvannur Reference to Assam Puthanveettil Mohanan 55 Vanlal Tluonga Bapui 1 Landmark Significance of Feedback in the Between the Lines Teaching/Learning Process Rimli Bhattacharya 64 T. Shrimathy Venkatalakshmi and Chandreyee Sarkar Mitra 5 Book Reviews Investigating Tasks in Formal Language Translating Punjabi Poetry: An Approach Learning T. C. Ghai 10 Geetha Durairajan 73

An Exploration on Teaching 'Subject-Verb Second Language Learning in a Foreign Agreement with Respect to Gender' Inductively Language Environment: A Pragma-Discoursal in Telugu Account Pavithra Velpuri 16 Iqbal Judge 75

Facts versus Feelings: Teaching of Literature in Peer Interaction and Second Language Learning: Indian Classrooms Pedagogical Potential and Research Agenda Shefali Srivastava 22 R Amritavalli 78

Key Issues in the Teaching of English at the Classroom Activities Primary Level Game 1: Word Rummy A. L. Khanna 28 Game 2: Word Gradients or Shades of Meaning Game 3: Four Pictures One Word What is this Hindi Used in Textbooks? Nivedita Vijay Bedadur 82 Uma Sudhir 35 Report Silence as Discourse Marker in Multilingual Feedback Report on Language and Language Classrooms in India Teaching 86 Sanchita Verma 39

Forthcoming Events 92 Other Minds and Stories Jobin M. Kanjirakkat 47

Technology Innovations for Language Learning Jennifer Thomas 52

Editorial

Language and Language Teaching (LLT), as the name suggests, brings researchers working on language and people interested in the field of teaching language together. As the Feedback Report in this issue shows, teachers have consistently found materials published in this journal useful; at the same time researchers have tried their best to make their theoretical understanding of the intricacies of language accessible to teachers in the context of language teaching. This issue of LLT includes ten papers. The papers present an eclectic mix and teachers, teacher trainers as well as policy makers and those generally interested in language issues would all find something of interest to them. A general thread that binds the contributions to this issue together is the emphasis on the reader/ learner experience. It has been a conscious effort in this volume to include voices and perspectives that help the learning experience and to take into account the multilingual nature of classrooms. This issue also includes its regular features such as an interview with an eminent scholar in the field of the study of language and education. This time we have interviewed Professor K. P. Mohanan with whom Praveen Singh talks at length about issues that are strikingly relevant to teachers and researchers in the field of education. Mohanan candidly explains his concerns and understanding of wide range of issues such as teaching methods, role of the study of language in teaching, classroom practices, the teacher-training practices and, English in India and Education to name a few. The other regular feature of this journal has been a Landmark piece of fundamental importance to teachers and teacher educators. In this issue, we invited Dr. Rimli Bhattacharya to write the landmark paper. In her paper, Bhattacharya emphasizes on learning through exploration. Writers of textbooks would find this piece relevant and helpful. Drawing on insights from Sandesh - a monthly magazine founded by Upendrakisor Raychaudhuri – she questions the validity of disciplinary boundaries and vouches for a style of text that is both scientific and imaginative, factual and fictive at the same time. Literature and science, she contends, need not be two ends of a spectrum but can come together in a holistic and engaging way in a text which can thus do justice to the child's inquisitive mind. Bhattacharya ends her piece with a few suggestions that can be incorporated in pedagogy and provide for language to be more than just an instrumentalist concern in education. Amongst other pieces that concern the status of languages and their use in education, V.T. Bapui's paper deals with the Hmar language which belongs to the Tibeto-Burman family and is a part of the Lushai-Kuki-Chin group. It traces the history and development of the language while stressing on its teaching in Manipur, Mizoram, Meghalaya and Assam while also focusing on and recognizing the associated problems in its teaching. T. Shrimathy Venkatalakshmi and Chandreyee Sarkar Mitra talk about the role of feedback, assessment, and evaluation process in the process of learning. They show how information to students on their performance is the key factor that enhances their performance. They suggest constructive, prompt, and qualitative feedback to students could be one of the turning points in education. T. C. Ghai analyses an approach for translating (Punjabi) poetry. In line with contemporary readings in Translation Studies, Ghai – through his analysis of his own translations of Puran Singh Kanwar, Avatar Singh Sandhu (popularly known as Pash) and Lal Singh Dil – draws attention to the fact that the relation between a poem and its translation remains fluid. A translated text can therefore be literal, in spirit, an adaptation, a trans-creation or free and even become independent of the original - something that language teachers would do well to take cognizance of. Pavithra Velpuri explores her understanding of relationship between language, mind and society

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 with respect to pedagogical implications of linguistics. She tries to understand how children acquire tacit knowledge and proposes that such an understanding would be an asset that every teacher should leverage in classroom. She explores why the grammar class of a first language could not be made interesting and how grammar could be taught inductively. Also, teaching learners rules is less exciting than making them come up with rules based on what they know. In appropriating reader- response theories for the Indian classroom, Shefali Srivastava's paper makes a case for aesthetic stance in education as equally important as an 'efferent' stance. She claims that the goal of education is not to produce literate mechanized human resource but to develop thinking and feeling individuals with sound perceptions, analytical minds and human hearts. A democratic and free response-based classroom would go a long way in equipping learners to develop into free-thinking individuals. A.L. Khanna's article explores various issues essential for the effective teaching of English at the primary level: these include diverse social backgrounds of different learners of English; teachers' beliefs, practices, competence and availability; their competence in English and their use of multilingualism as a pedagogical tool; effective textbooks and teaching materials and, finally, appropriate evaluation and assessment techniques. Uma Sudhir expresses concern over the use of language in textbooks prepared by state governments in a short paper. Such use of language might make textbooks incomprehensible. In turn, the intended audience will not learn either words, or concepts. It is, therefore, recommended that the language used in textbooks must be the language that average citizen can follow. Sanchita Verma's paper draws on Conversation Analysis techniques to analyze silence as an important discourse marker in the multilingual Indian classroom. She notes that silence can be an effective marker in highlighting the successful use of multiple languages in the classroom environment and the academic performance of a child is best protected when she is encouraged to learn a new language with and in relation to her own language and when nothing is thrust on her. Jobin Kanjirakkat talks about the requirement of research into neurophysiology of language for uncovering mechanisms that underlie processes of encoding and decoding. In his paper he gives an account of social-psychological description of the nature of this relationship and offers a criticism of an influential contemporary approach such as mentalism. Analyzing examples from two well-known texts, he talks about communication and proposes that focus on narratives with respect to language helps us understand the ways in which we learn language. Jennifer Thomas underlines the requirement of the use of innovations in technology in teaching and learning. The issue also includes reviews of three books that focus on language and education. There are also three activities that are designed for improving vocabulary which teachers would find very useful.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 Teaching of Hmar Language with Special Reference to Assam

Vanlal Tluonga Bapui

Introduction Development of Hmar as a Language The Hmar language belongs to the Tibeto- The Hmar group of tribes speak several Burman family of languages and is a part of languages and dialects among themselves. the Lushai-Kuki-Chin group. It is a verb For the convenience of having a common final language. It was first reduced to language, the language of the Khawsak the written word in the Linguistic Survey of (Easterner) group was accepted by the tribes. India done by G.A. Grierson way back Although the other languages and dialects at the beginning of the last century. The language may be said to be in a developing are still widely spoken, only Khawsak is stage; it requires standardization in several used for literary and teaching purposes. areas. For a long time, from the 1920s until The Hmar people were first recognized as a independence, the Hmar language was tribal community in the North-Eastern written and taught by the tribal communities States of India. In 1956, the Government of largely for religious purposes and for literacy India also granted recognition to the tribe in their own language. Hymn books were by including it in the Scheduled Castes and among the earliest that could be mentioned Scheduled Tribes Lists (Modification), as a book. The New Testament of the Bible 1956 vide Ministry of Home Affairs Order No. S.R.O. 2477 dated 29 October 1956. in Hmar was published in 1947 and the Prior to this, they were known as Kuki or entire Bible in 1972. In fact, with the old Kuki, which is not actually a name of exception of a dictionary by Dr. Thanglung, any tribe but a term that was coined by a medical practitioner, there were very few others to refer to them. In all likelihood, the books on non-religious topics. A few people who assigned this name could not weekly, fortnightly, monthy and annual differentiate between the different tribes or news magazines were published but were their languages, and therefore gave them often discontinued due to various this name. In fact, anyone who enlisted in constraints. the armed forces, police force or petty government jobs was also known by that However, since the fifties and the sixties, a name. However, with the publication of the substantial number of books have been list, the different tribes came to be known published and the language has developed by their specific tribe names. into a modern Indian language.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 1 Teaching of Hmar Language in Manipur, is taking measures and preparing textbooks Mizoram and Meghalaya to introduce a course on the study of the Way back in 1928-1929, Dr. Thanglung Hmar language as an Elective and as a wrote a language primer known as the Bu Major subject in degree courses. Hmasa (First Primer) for Hmar language. The Governments of Mizoram and That primer is still in use in primary schools Meghalaya are also trying to introduce the in Manipur. The book was intended to help teaching of Hmar language at the primary the Hmar people to become literate in their level. However, till date not much has been own language and it did serve the purpose achieved in this regard. In both States the for which it was intended. Many Hmars Hmar tribe is recognized as a Scheduled became literate in their own language Tribe (Hills). because of this primer. Today, apart from the primer, there are a number of school Teaching of Hmar Language in Assam textbooks of Hmar that are used in the The Hmar people living in Assam secondary schools in Manipur for teaching unofficially adopted the textbooks written Hmar. In fact, some vernacular schools in in Manipur, and some schools in the Cachar, Assam have also adopted these Cachar District even started teaching the textbooks called “Readers” in upper language. Two vernacular Middle Schools primary schooling. (Upper Primary Stage) were established at In 1956, Hmar language was formally Hmarkhawlien and Diphucherra in Cachar. recognized by the Government of Manipur. where students were taught in Hmar upto In 1968, the Government of Manipur the Upper Primary level. granted permission to teach the language at The Government of Assam recognized the the primary level. In 1985, Hmar language Hmar language as a medium of instruction was elevated to the status of a modern vide their order conveyed in Memo No. Indian language (MIL), and was included EMI. 82/67/199 dated Shillong, 25 March in the High School Leaving Certificate 1969. However, the language was Examination as a half-paper; it carried fifty introduced as the medium of instruction in marks. As the upper primary schooling was the primary classes in the autonomous consolidated and textbooks for secondary district of north Cachar Hills only from the schooling were finalized, Hmar language academic session of 1984-1985.One gained the status of a full paper in the vernacular Middle School (Upper Primary) HSLC Examinations in the year 1997. was established in Saron. However, the From the year 2000, Hmar was included at Government did not recognize the school the higher secondary level and Manipur as the establishment of vernacular schools Central University granted permission for had been discontinued by the authorities. study of the language at the degree level. The school was recognized as a Middle Examinations in Hmar MIL were permitted English School where Hmar is taught as a from the year 2003. Currently the university language paper only.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 2 As the teaching of the Hmar language textbooks was permitted in a manner that advanced, the question of textbooks arose. could simplify the learning process. The textbooks developed and approved by However, the State Government could not the Government of Manipur could not be be blamed because they had to abide by the accepted by the Government of Assam, and national directives. Finally, the State for a good reason as well. Textbooks of Government decided to develop new Manipur had lessons pertaining to the local textbooks up to the Lower Primary level in history, geography, and biographies of local Hmar language as per the standards heroes and leaders. Therefore, new prescribed by the NCERT. The writing of textbooks from the Pre-Primary to the language textbooks for the Upper Primary Secondary stages had to be developed for the level is currently being developed. As a schools of Assam. The Hmar people result of various constraints, the Hmar themselves in Assam developed school people of Assam have decided to have textbooks that incorporated their local only one language paper at the Upper history, biography, etc., and even printed and Primary level. circulated most of these books on their own. The Government of Assam has also In the meantime, there was a change in the supplied all textbooks upto the Upper National Policy on Education (1986) which Primary level free of cost to all students. made it mandatory to develop textbooks as Textbooks developed under the guidance per the norms prepared by the NCERT. of the SCERT are printed as free textbooks Following this, the SCERT developed by the Government of Assam and primers and textbooks in Assamese, the distributed to the learners through Block major language of the state. Now, all other Development Offices. languages of the State had to adapt the Though the Hmar language is yet to be pattern of the newly developed textbooks. introduced as a medium of instruction at the That again posed another major problem; Upper Primary level, the Board of Secondary while the State language is an Indo-Aryan Education Assam has recognized and language, the Hmar language is a Tibeto- introduced it as a language paper in the High Burman. Moreover, the alphabets of School Leaving Certificate Examinations Assamese are similar to that of the official from the year 2007, vide No. SEBA/AB/ language Hindi, with all the sandhis, HMAR/2007/01 dated 23 August 2007. combined consonants, etc. The Hmar The Assam Higher Secondary Education language on the other hand has only 25 Council has allowed the introduction of the alphabets (both vowels and consonants) and Hmar language as a MIL paper in classes all Hmar sounds are represented by a XI and XII from the year 2008, vide combination of these consonants in a manner AHSEC/ACA/CURR. SYLL/01/96/94 that is different from that of Assamese. dated 3 January 2008. Consequent to this, Adapting from one to the other therefore Assam University, Silchar has recognized became a major problem. It would have the language as a MIL paper for the first been much easier if the writing of the Degree (TDC) from the year 2010, vide No.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 3 AUD-56/2009-10/2004 dated 23 July communities in the State who are facing the 2010. For all these classes, new textbooks same problems. At the same time, this have to be written according to the norms cannot go on indefinitely, and something laid down by the respective authorities of needs to be done about it. The teaching of education. the Hmar language will not be able to continue unless teachers are appointed by Problems Relating to the Teaching of the Government to teach the language at Hmar Language every stage. As of now, in the State of Assam alone, the language can be taught in As mentioned earlier, preparation of about 90 primary schools, 39 high schools textbooks is one of the major problems. and 15 higher secondary schools and Another major problem is that of colleges, which include Government and supporting the teachers. So far, only the non-Government schools and colleges. teachers of the Lower Primary levels are appointed and supported by the State Government. All other teachers of the Vanlal Tluonga Bapui is an independent language, from the Upper Primary level to researcher. He has made significant contributions to social work, mass education programs and in the Degree level are appointed and preparation of textbooks for Schools and College supported by the community through sheer levels. He can speak several tribal languages with determination. Had this not been the case, native like command. the teaching of the language would not [email protected] have progressed so far. However, this has now become a burden for the community. A proposal around the creation of posts of teachers at different levels of education has been submitted to the government, but so far not a single post has been sanctioned. The schools eagerly await the day when these posts will be created and sanctioned but nobody knows when that will happen. In the meantime, the teaching of the language is somehow going on. The teachers are working with negligible remunerations and making supreme sacrifices of their time and talents for the cause of the language. Despite everything however, we cannot blame the authorities for not sanctioning the posts of the teachers. The Hmars are a small minority of scheduled tribes. There are many larger scheduled tribes and

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 4 Significance of Feedback in the Teaching/Learning Process

T. Shrimathy Venkatalakshmi and Chandreyee Sarkar Mitra

Introduction although we cannot see learning as it This article focuses on the significance of happens, we can see the result of learning. feedback as a tool to enhance improvement We cannot see the process but we can see in the performance of the students. The the product. If someone tries to do evaluation of a student at school starts the something today and fails, and often after moment a performance in any form (both six attempts, the learner succeeds, it is safe oral and written) is made. This evaluation enough to say that the learner has learnt to comes through small classroom unit tests, do it. What the learner was unable to do quarterlies and half yearly- (different forms yesterday, is able to do now. The issue is not of formative assessments) or final how much has been learnt, but what should examinations – (summative assessments). matter most is that things are being learnt. Let us look at some of the issues as to why all In India, we refuse to accept that a learner students fail to excel in their performances actually learns making a slow progress. and how feedback from teachers can help A regular classroom is mostly occupied them to move towards a more desirable with a group of learners, and one teacher performance. teaching a group, and a particular lesson. All learners do not learn at the same time, they don't learn a thing at the same pace. Understanding the Learning Process – A Some learners learn faster, some learners Real Challenge learn slower. It is uneven. Teaching is The age old difficult concept of the proper uniform but learning is not uniform. understanding of the learning process continues to remain a mystery to teachers and educators. There often lies two Reflecting on Assessments problems with teaching, one is that we plan, It can therefore be justified that we have to observe and control the teaching but cannot wait for the product to evaluate the do the same with learning. This is partly performance. Here, by product we refer to because learning is not in our hands, it is not assessments. even perceptive. We as teachers do not According to Sally Brown (2005): know when it is happening. It applies “Assessment is probably the most specially to any language teaching because important thing we can do to help our here skills are being developed. However, students learn. We may not like it, but

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 5 students can and do ignore our teaching; Formative Assessments however, if they want to get a qualification, It is a well-accepted fact that in the field of they have to participate in the assessment teaching and learning, feedback is integral to processes we design and implement.” the learning process and is one of the main Therefore, it is important to see what the benefits that students get from assessments – assessment process will do to help rather more so formative assessments. Formative than impede learning. The two types of assessments help to identify the gaps in assessments in academics are the formative learning. Formative feedback can move on and the summative types. to address and help reduce these gaps in A Summative Assessment plays a critical learners even if it is not possible to close role in the data or information gathering them completely. process. It is the instrument that provides us Unfortunately, research carried out by Paul with the information of the final progress of Black and Dylan William (1998) shows that the learner at the end of a semester or an high-quality formative assessment is relatively academic year. Summative assessments are rare in classrooms, and that most teachers do the high-stakes tests that decide whether not know well how to engage in such the learner can be considered adequate to assessment. Their study further revealed that move to the next level of learning. Yes, the most classroom testing encourages rote and after effects are problematic because after superficial learning. Teachers, it turns out, the completion of the assessment and generally replicate standardized tests without evaluation process, some students are checking their suitability in their own rewarded with an 'A' or 'B' grade whereas assessment practices and therefore lack others are reminded over and over again sufficient information about their students. that they are 'D' or 'E' grade students. The response of teachers on students' work is Categorizing individuals is to persuade what we commonly term as 'feedback', some that they are good and desirable from 'correction' and at times 'grading'. the view point of the system and others that they are bad, and therefore unwanted. Defining Feedback and its Necessity in Summative assessment is the final the Teaching and Learning Process decoration and there is not much option to Feedback can be defined as the information improve on. However it has been observed to students on their performance and is the that teachers spend more time on designing key factor that enhances their performance. summative tests. Students can learn Ferris (1999) said, “there is mounting without grades but cannot learn without research evidence” that students benefit formative assessment and the feedback that from well done grammar correction. comes from it. A formative assessment Literature on feedback was full of hence, maybe considered as checkpoints confident assertions and assumptions that along the way. grammar correction was the most common

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 6 norm. Hattie and Timperley (2007) note students move to higher classes their that most improvement in student learning volume of writing too increases. Most of takes place when students get “information the assessments evaluate the writing skill feedback about a task and how to do it more of students. McNamara (2000) recalls “an effectively” and is clearly related to the image of an examination room, a test paper learning goals. Its role in the learning with questions, desperate scribbling process is to inform the student of where against the clock”. He has also shown how and how their learning and performance testing has come a long way from just can be improved. As Sue Swaffield (2008) waiting to penalize the learner for what he suggests, the idea of future performance is not able to do. It chooses to encourage for being affected by information about earlier what he/she has been able to do. performance is central to learning. Planned Unfortunately, in India it still continues to learning is a prerequisite for any teaching be a pitiful state wherein learners are model. Feedback should therefore be seen severely punished for minor errors or as a professional activity and should be failing to turn up in class without the done unfailingly by teachers for the homework. Newspapers in recent past have purpose of determining the alignment of been thronging with information on how learning results with their teaching young learners in primary and secondary methods. Teachers know as part of their classes have been physically abused by profession that they not only need to teach teachers for not submitting a desirable students but also test them on what has been performance in a task. In some cases, the taught and provide feedback on their performance. punishment has been so severe that it led to loss of sight or hearing in case of some students. It is true that most of these reports The Feedback Scenario in India of physical abuse is largely from schools Feedback methods certainly need to be located in rural areas. improved upon in India. Feedback is most With all this data at hand it therefore becomes of the time ineffective because it only important to consider how to engage students highlights the errors but fails to provide with formative assessments and feedback explanations following it. Mostly, teachers and the need to reflect how feedback can be sought to give evaluative (judgmental) feedback without a descriptive (explanatory) enhanced to move students to a higher level feedback on most formative assessments or of learning. written assignments of students. It may be Seventy-five percentage of all language considered alright when teachers sought the assessments and examinations in India test 'flick and tick' method in the primary and writing, it is important to provide feedback secondary classes where the teacher can on writing. Feedback on writing is therefore correct a wrong spelling or a single crucial in relation to the teaching and grammatical error in a sentence. But as learning of writing. Feedback in second

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 7 language writing focuses on almost all the teacher has 'marked' the books. Both aspects of language elements and skills 'flick and tick' and 'cover everything in red' related to writing such as grammar, marking were often accompanied by a vocabulary, content, coherence and cohesion numerical mark or grade and a comment at of ideas. Writing is an important skill and is the end of the work (Swaffield, 2008). It is a a means of developing ideas particularly very common practice that can be found in for engineering graduates because tertiary the assignments and assessment sheets of education in India is in English and students in India. therefore students whatever be their educational background are expected to Conclusion submit assignments and write assessments The sole search then depends on what can in English. The quantity of feedback on be done to make feedback effective. It is students' writing can be placed on a continuum practically not possible to craft lengthy ranging from language errors to more serious comments on each students' performance aspects of writing such as relevance of points owing to large class sizes. Any attempt to discussed and coherence. It is not just make it effective then would primarily grammar errors that teachers need to check but depend on the results of a diagnostic test also look at the content of writing. Although that would help to understand the gaps and grammatical errors can be a stumbling block address them accordingly. to understanding students' writing, but very The remark provided by the teacher to a often language teachers are content only student can have a long impact on the latter's correcting the grammar and offering psyche. Nothing could be more damaging and feedback on the same without looking at the life threatening in the life of a student as other aspects of writing which can enable negative or solely judgmental feedback. In the them to write texts rather than a bunch of twenty first century, as teachers it is therefore grammatically correct sentences. important to understand that each student in a This method of correction maybe considered class is different from the other in many ways negative because a student is obviously put and needs different kind of feedback. It is off when he/she finds his/her paper bleeding. therefore highly important for the teacher to Feedback in which a student does not only realize how the role of feedback can ensure receive 'flicks and ticks' for grammatical humanistic and ethical teaching. The teacher errors may be more constructive. 'Written with a more humane approach giving feedback', has in the past especially at the feedback to students on their performances in school level in India been mostly of the 'flick both classroom assignments and assessments and tick' type- flicking through the students' can help create an encouraging atmosphere in books to check that they have done the work, the classroom. This initiative by teachers will with occasional ticks as acknowledgment also ensure that the students learn from the and to provide evidence to the management, feedback given to them in both formative peer teachers, parents and the students that activities and assessments.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 8 The teacher needs to adhere to prompt Chandreyee Sarkar Mitra was a Teaching Fellow feedback on a particular task. However, the at Anna University, College of Engineering, Guindy, Campus, Chennai. Currently she is a full quantity of feedback certainly lies at the time Research Scholar at the Department of discretion of the teacher. Feedback guru, English, Anna University. Her areas of research and Susan Brookhart (2008) is of opinion that interest are formative assessment and teacher's there is no single 'right' way of providing feedback on student's performance. feedback. It is necessary for teachers to [email protected] develop a 'tool kit'. Good quality feedback is always more encouraging. As teachers we should focus to provide feedback on the performance and not the person.

References Black, P. & William, D. (1998) Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, (5) 1, pp 1-75. Brookhart, S.M. (2008). How to give Effective Feedback to Your Students. Virginia, ASCD. Brown, S. (2004-2005). The changing nature of assessment. Assessment for Learning. Learning and Teaching in Higher Education, 1, 81-89. Ferris, D. (1999). The case for Grammar Correction in L2 Writing Classes: A Response to Truscott (1996). Journal of Second Language Writing. 8.1: 1-11. Hattie, J., & Timperley, H. (2007). The power of Feedback. Review of Educational Research, 77(1), 81-112. McNamara, T. (2000) Language Testing. Oxford University Press. Oxford. Print. Swaffield, Sue. (2008) Unlocking Assessment. Understanding for Reflection and Application. New York. Routledge. Print.

Dr T. Shrimathy Venkatalakshmi is Professor in the Department of English at Anna University, College of Engineering, Guindy, Campus, Chennai. Her area of specialization is field of testing. [email protected]

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 9 Translating Punjabi Poetry: An Approach T. C. Ghai

I believe that through translations, Indian poem illustrates why I considered it worthy English is evolving into a confluent site for of translation: many disparate voices from scores of Indian Lines on my Palm languages, dialects and oral traditions. These enrich it, enlarge its perspective and give it a Bhrigu is dumbstruck – real flavour of India's rainforest diversity and make its readership hear voices that not only thrusting my eyes surprise and delight but also shock and into his disturb and bring within its earshot what is I laugh through them. unheard or ignored, or dismissed as too He starts! commonplace or dangerous. However, all The mad man might of this is insufficiently reflected in the suddenly charge domain of Indian-English Poetry. and strangle him It is within this framework that I will talk in broad daylight… about three Punjabi poets in this paper, whose poems I have translated. These poets, like many other regional language poets, He's the master of his art make us hear voices that question, reject, and has peered overturn and subvert many traditional and at the innumerable lines mainstream notions of State, nationalism, on my palm… religion, art, culture and society. One of them The first Punjabi poet I translated was spells suicide Puran Singh Kanwar (1942-1996), who was my colleague at a Delhi University and hundreds College, and a poet of unusual talent. His speak murder. first and only collection of poems Raatan Di Rut (1984), was characterized by poetry When I was born, around a “unique paradigm” in Punjabi. I people tell, translated his poems because I thought his my mother poetry, however unknown, deserved to be preserved and broadcast. It was published had laughed and laughed: in English as A Season of Nights (Kanwar, that laughter 2006), along with the Punjabi text. This was her death-knell.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 10 In my childhood The next two poets I translated were Avatar during his sleep Singh Sandhu (1950-1988), popularly I had slit open with a knife known as Pash, and Lal Singh Dil (1943- 2007). Both of them were revolutionary my father's jugular vein. poets—products of the Naxalite movement He has been asleep since then… in Punjab in the early seventies of the last I have let him sleep. century. Pash was perhaps the most dramatic At our mansion literary figure to emerge out of the nuptials are performed Naxalite movement. The movement failed, everyday. but it produced a number of poets who The family barber dresses me substantially altered the world view of in the bridegroom robes of the royal family. Punjabi poetry. Pash revolutionized the subject matter, the language, the idiom, the The palki-bearers imagery and the tone of Punjabi poetry. seat me in the palki Lal Singh Dil, along with another Dalit- and move in a trance Naxalite poet Sant Ram Udasi (1939-1986), as if snake-sniffed. brought to the centre of Punjabi poetry the issues of untouchability and caste Every night I sleep discrimination and laid the foundations of with the living corpse Dalit literature in Punjabi. of a new queen. Pash was an extremely popular poet. At dawn Hundreds of people, most of them students and young men, came to listen to his the priest recitations in kavi sammelans. The central calls… theme of his poetry was the overthrow of O prince what the Naxalites called and still call the wake up semi-feudal and neo-colonial state with its you have to be ready again comprador bourgeoisie dispensation, and for the nuptials… its replacement with an egalitarian communist dispensation. So Pash took on Kanwar's poetry explores the human the Indian State, with its mainstream view of nationalism centred around its pride in the subconscious with a ruthless honesty and constitution, the parliamentary system, the frankness that implicates the reader and elections, the national flag, free speech. No unsettles him. In each of his 34 poems, he surprise then that he faced imprisonment a explores a non-ordinary state of mind far number of times (on a false charge of murder removed from what we call the normal, once), and was subjected to police atrocities. which leaves the reader breathless with His life became further complicated because fear, admiration and amazement. he was an open and strident critic of the

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 11 Khalistan movement, at its peak in the almost totally colloquial and he does not 1980s, for which he paid with his life when hesitate to use slang. In fact, he seems to he was shot dead by Khalistani militants in consciously, almost willfully, reject the 1988. Although his poetry shows a embellishments of Punjabi poetic diction progressive change from a fire and brimstone revolutionary to a meditative one, and his as is clear from an excerpt from his poem “I disillusionment with the Naxalite movement Refuse” (Ghai, T.C. 2010: p. 131). itself, he remained a revolutionary till the Don't hope that I, a son of these fields, end of his life. He can be seen in the tradition shall talk of your chewed and spat-out of certain rebels in Punjab of which the clear tastes examples, apart from the Sikh Gurus, are My approach was to translate line by line, figures such as Banda Singh Bahadur and as far as possible, keeping in mind the Bhagat Singh. difference in the syntactical structures of I began translating Pash in 2007. I first read the two languages. To achieve a semblance Hindi and English translations of his poetry of an acceptable translation, I had to stretch and then read his original work. Pash's my resources of both the languages as well language posed many problems. Friends and as desperately forage through dictionaries. relatives helped where dictionaries failed. I Although Pash is often complex and also read his contemporaries, particularly the meditative, since he is a revolutionary poet leading revolutionary poets, Lal Singh Dil and speaks without any inhibitions, his and Sant Ram Udasi. I read most of the language is very close to prose, and the available literary criticism on Pash and rhythm in his poetry is spontaneous. It is the Naxalite poetry in Punjabi, Hindi and rhythm of the spoken word uttered by a English. I also read Pash's diaries and letters, revolutionary in many rhetorical shades. I and about the Naxalite movement in general have included here, some excerpts from his and particularly in Punjab, about the Sikh poems as translated by Ghai (2010) history and traditions, the Ghadar You go riding in a steel car Movement and Bhagat Singh to have a better I have a steel gun understanding of the poet. My own training I have eaten steel in English literature, my knowledge of European and Latin American literature and You only talk of steel a modest understanding of Marxism were (“Steel”, 2010, p. 46) useful in this regard. The next stage, after I had obtained a People turning Time's wheel reasonable understanding of the poet, was don't die of a fever to translate his poetry into English, a (“Turing Time’s Wheel”, 2010) language that is culturally so alien to Go and read the Frontier or the Tribune Punjabi and especially to the kind of Talk of Calcutta or Dacca language Pash used. Pash's language is (“Time's Not a Dog”, 2010, p. 60)

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 12 impossible dreams. One big, and possibly Listen, you who write letters to your crucial deficiency in my translations is that ladyloves I did all my work outside Punjab. I did not (“An Open Letter”, 2010, p. 68) even visit Pash's village or Punjab, or talk to people who had known him personally. You have always known the door How far this has affected my translations through which you could burst in for better or for worse, I cannot say. And now we shall show you the door In order to provide background information through which we shall dispatch you on the Naxalite ideology, the Naxalite (“Resolution”, 2010, p. 70) movement in Punjab, relevant literary We shall fight, comrade, for the unhappy background, biographical information and times my own assessment of his poetry I also wrote an introduction and appended at the (“We Shall Fight, Comrade”, 2010, p. 95) end, a glossary of terms, names of places, persons, customs, social practices and It is the tone and natural rhythm that are events relating to the Punjabi life, history more important in Pash, rather than any and culture that Pash refers to in his poetry. artificially imposed rhythm and metre. I This was to facilitate a better understanding thought it prudent to use English that was of Pash's poetry by readers outside Punjab. neither literary nor too colloquial. The first I had done something similar while would have made Pash look wooden and the translating Puran Singh Kanwar when I had latter made him talk too much like an written an introduction to his poetry, Englishman. So I tried to use the shortest and placing him within the framework of the the simplest (and as neutral as possible) European Surrealist Movement, since that words or phrases or collocations, and seemed the best way to approach his poetry avoided heavy literary or ponderous (which defies all commonsense and expressions or those with rich connotations. rationalist interpretations). However, I did My translations, therefore, are more prosaic not append any glossary because his poetry, than poetic. It was relatively easy to capture essentially an exploration of the human the tone of his poetry and often his rhythm. subconscious, uses images and symbols that However, the cultural nuances and are archetypal. The images and symbols connotations, the flavor and sounds of recurring in his poetry are those of birth and colloquial Punjabi, its slang and many death, father and mother, the earth, the sky other things have been lost in the and the sun, light and darkness, pure and translation. impure, repressed violence, delusions of My attempt has been to convey the heat and grandeur and depths of self-denigration. intensity of liquid steel that is the hallmark of Coming to Lal Singh Dil, I became familiar this revolutionary poet, his rebellious spirit with his poetry while translating Pash and and fearlessness with which he questions was intrigued by the sad fact that a poet everything, his explosive love of life, his should be forced to sell tea and wash tea cups

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 13 for a living. Translating Dil presented very A long train of people is on the move different challenges. The socio-economic carrying loads of insults environment in which Dil grew up was very casting long shadows different. Pash was the son of a middle class children riding the donkeys land-owning Jat farmer. Dil, on the other hand, belonged to the Ramdasia Chamar fathers holding their dogs community, and his father owned no land, mothers carrying cauldrons and throughout his life worked mostly as a on their backs wage labourer on others' land. His was a with their babies asleep inside family without any financial and intellectual A long train of people is on the move resources. Dil's boyhood and youth were blighted by caste humiliations at school and carrying on their shoulders the poles for college and in society. their huts Dil joined the Naxalite movement to overcome economic and social exclusion. Who are these hunger-driven Aryans! Like Pash, he suffered imprisonment and Whose land in Bharat police atrocities, although for him physical are they now planning to grab! torture was matched by psychological (“The Colour of the Evening”, my persecution that constantly reminded him of translation) his caste. After release from jail in 1972, Dil, with no support from any quarter, fled to Uttar Pradesh to escape police persecution I'm the spirit of a father and seek respite from caste humiliations; and trampled upon in the fields. once there, he converted to Islam. He spent The heart of a mother nearly ten years doing odd jobs no better robed in tatters. than those of a daily wager. Dil returned from UP in 1983 and lived to plough his (“Love's Self-Murder”, my translation) tragic and lonely furrow till his death in 2007. I followed a similar approach for Dil as I had To translate Dil, one needed a different done for Pash, selecting about 100 poems. I mindset. My understanding of the Naxalite read all of Dil's works including his movement in Punjab had to be supplemented autobiography, most of the commentaries with an understanding of the issue of caste and critical appraisals available on him, discrimination in all its ramifications and and talked to some people who were his friends or close to him. Watching a complexity. The world of Dil's poetry was documentary film by Ajay Bhardwaj on the the world of a totally marginalized humanity, marginalized traditions of Punjabi life ignored and forgotten and outside history: featuring Dil himself also gave me an Once again the grain winnowers walk off insight into Dil's character and poetry. Dil's an alien land language however posed some problems.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 14 Punjabi dictionaries have not always been as possible and let the poets speak for helpful because many turns of phrase in themselves, albeit in Indian English! It is Dil's colloquial language seldom find a for those engaged with teaching and place there. Talking to people who knew learning of translated texts to decide if the Dil helped. poet's voice in translation sounds like the Regarding the translations, my attempt has one in the original language. been, as in Pash, to remain faithful to Dil's content, images, tone and rhythm. I have References provided footnotes where necessary. I have Bhardwaj, Ajay. (2005). Kitte Mil Ve Mahi (Where also added a detailed introduction the Twain Shall Meet), https://www.you delineating his life, character and poetry. tube.com/watch?v=3rvCC9AJnhw excerpts Finally, I am quite conscious that my featuring Lal Singh Dil. translation of each poet is just one of so Ghai, T. C. (tr.). (2006). A season of nights: A many possible translations. The new collection of poems by P. S. Kanwar. Delhi: National Book Shop. discipline of Translation Studies recognizes Ghai, T. C. (tr.). (2010). Pash: A poet of impossible the impossibility of the perfect transposition dreams. Delhi: Shilalekh. of a poem from one language to another, Ghai, Trilok Chand. (2012). Lal Singh Dil, Five not only because of the linguistic, socio- poems, translated from Punjabi. In Modern cultural and temporal distances between Poetry in Translation, 3 (18) (pp. 50-56), the source and target languages, but also Transitions. because of the personality of the translator, Dugdale, Sasha, Costantine, David, & Costantine, his intention, his capabilities, and his own Helen (Ed.). (2016). Centres of cataclysm. self that always intrudes into a translation Oxford (UK): Modern Poetry in Translation in surreptitiously. Translation Studies has association with Bloodaxe Books. pp. 244-5. (Two poems of Lal Singh Dil translated by mapped and documented various forms a Trilok Chand Ghai). translation can assume and it is evident that the relation between the poem and its Trilok Chand Ghai is a retired Associate Professor translation remains fluid: a fact which from Delhi University. He has published fiction as language teachers would do well to draw well as poetry. He has translated Punjabi poets and the attention of learners to when engaging Munshi Premchand's short stories into English; and with a translated text. Depending upon the has produced English language teaching course intention and purpose of the translator, a books for Indian schools. He runs the blog: Interactions: http://ghai-tc.blogspot.in/ translation can assume many forms. It can be literal, or in spirit, or an adaptation, or a [email protected] trans-creation, or free, and even become independent of the original. The translator can become a creator in his own right, or become invisible. My translations, as shown above, are closer to the literal and I have tried to make the translator in me invisible, as far

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 15 An Exploration on Teaching 'Subject-Verb Agreement with Respect to Gender' Inductively in Telugu Pavithra Velpuri

Introduction Through this article, I have explored the Learning about language, mind and society syntactic structure of subject-verb awakened in me an interest in knowing agreement in Telugu. In Telugu, the more about the pedagogical implications of subject-verb agreement pattern for all linguistics. The Chomskyan idea that singular inanimate, non-human animate humans have a hypothetical language and human feminine subjects remains the acquisition device drew my attention and I same. On the other hand, for all singular wanted to understand more about how human masculine subjects, the verb gets children acquire tacit knowledge. Such an conjugated. For instance, let us consider understanding would be an asset that every the verb of the word “doing” (cheyadam). teacher should leverage. In the former case of subjects, the verb would be chesth-undi and in the latter, it In a language classroom, children find would become chesth-aadu. In the case of “Grammar” classes uninteresting and dry the task discussed earlier, only the gender as compared to a story or a poem. I wanted of the subject has been changed in the to understand why the grammar class of a sentences given to the child while plurality first language could not be made interesting and so I wanted to explore how has been kept unchanged. grammar could be taught inductively. Also, teaching learners what they already know Inductive and Deductive Approaches to in the form of rules is less exciting than Teaching Grammar making them come up with rules based on Teaching grammar inductively refers to the what they know. practice of giving enough exposure of an In this article, I will attempt to shed some aspect of a language to children to enable light on studies conducted in the field of them to generalize or discover the rules of first/second language acquisition and that aspect on their own. On the contrary, a inductive/deductive approach to teaching deductive approach to grammar deals with grammar. I have also explored the presenting to the students, a set of rules and possibility of teaching grammar inductively giving them exercises to familiarize in the child's first language (Telugu) themselves with those rules (Wagner, ms. through a small task. In the end, some p. 5). Inductive approach brings out the implications of such tasks in a language tacit knowledge a native speaker has classroom have been suggested. acquired and makes him/her acknowledge

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 16 the rule they already know, thereby making consciousness, the rules which have been the learner an active constructor of mastered (Zhou, 2008, p.4). Let us look at knowledge. A deductive approach would the differences in first and second language be helpful for those learners who need a contexts. Krashen (1982) points out the pattern or a structure to help them learn a distinction between the terms acquisition language (Wagner, ms. p. 5). and learning. He states that the term In the case of a deductive approach to acquisition should be used when a grammar, the children may learn the language is naturally acquired (as in the grammar of the language (competence) case of mother tongue). The term learning, without actually learning the language on the other hand, is relevant to learning a itself (performance aspects of speaking or second/foreign language (Wagner, 2017 writing). For instance, they may know that p.4). It may be tempting to conclude that an one needs to add the morpheme 's' to a verb inductive approach would sail smoother in in simple present form if the subject is a a first language acquisition context and a third person singular “Kamal runs fast”. deductive approach in second/foreign However, when they speak, they may end language classrooms, given the nature of up saying “Kamal run fast”. In other words, the approaches. However, there are studies there could be a mismatch between that indicate that inductive approaches competence and performance in a child's have been more effective than deductive language. Inductive approach consumes approaches even in English as Foreign time as different learners may take different Language (EFL) classrooms (Rokni, times to discover and generalize patterns. 2009). Also, some studies prove that To follow this approach in large classrooms integrating both the approaches would is therefore a challenging task. yield better results rather than choosing one over the other (Xin, 2012). Nevertheless, Both these approaches have shades of difference when teaching the first language the decision on which approach suits a or a second/foreign language. That brings classroom is best taken by a teacher who us to the question of the need for teaching knows of both the approaches as well as the first language grammar to native speakers learning styles of her/his students. of that language. This seems to have been answered by Chomsky (1972), “a person Task Conducted who knows a language has mastered a The task that I conducted was partly based system of rules that assigns sound and on Zhou's recommendation of how to teach meaning in a definite way for an infinite grammar inductively (Zhou, 2008, p.6). It class of sentences....Of course, the person comprised of making children listen to who knows the language has no thirteen erroneous sentences and asking consciousness of having mastered these them to correct the sentences if they felt rules or of putting them to use” (p.91). anything in the sentence did not seem right Formal grammar instruction in a student's to them. The sentences had inappropriate first language is an effort to bring to his/her subject-verb agreement with respect to the

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 17 gender of the subject. The subjects CBSE syllabus. According to the school's included masculine and feminine proper policy, their second language of instruction and common nouns and non-human was Telugu. The remaining two children animate and inanimate things. All the were also from a Telugu speaking family subjects were in singular form. The that resides in the UK. In their case, objective of the task was to see if the although Telugu was spoken at home, they children could: were more comfortable conversing in a) correct the sentences English. One of them belonged to Grade 4 b) provide a proper reasoning for the and the other to Grade 3. correction c) assess the rules of subject-verb Reflections on the Responses agreement for different kinds of In the sessions, there were a couple of singular subjects questions that the respondents found d) accommodate minor deviations from ambiguous. Four out of eight students gave the intermediate rule they derived (at an incorrect response to the first the end of the 5th sentence) and assess sentence—“Shankar intiki vellindi” the modified rule in the last sentence (Shankar (singular, male) ghar gayi (verb conjugation used for female) hai). The e) acknowledge the fact that the subject- expected response was that they would verb agreement pattern for all singular correct it to “Shankar intiki velladu”, inanimate, non-human animate and thereby displaying their knowledge of the human feminine subjects is the same rationale that Shankar being a boy called and only for masculine subjects does for such a correction. Other confusions (4 the verb agreement pattern change. or 5 out of 8 responses) around the rationale were in sentences where the subjects were Background of the Respondents tree, dog and monkey. The children who Since there was no opportunity to teach the had difficulty in articulating the rationale children in a formal setup and record the were able to make the verb agree with the findings, I conducted and recorded one-on- subject. However they had a problem in one sessions with eight children, and determining the gender of these subjects. documented the gist of their responses. Telugu, as a language assigns a neutral Given that the interaction was brief, I did gender to all non-living things and non- not make them frame the rules. Instead, I human living things. This was something helped them in figuring out the rule by that the children did not seem to be asking leading questions. Also, I asked comfortable with. Some of them said that a them to assess whether the rules were tree was a living thing which was neither a correct or incorrect. Of the eight children, boy nor a girl, and hence it required “di” at six were from Telugu-speaking homes and the end. Other children said that it had a belonged to Grade 5.Six of them were “di” because they spoke it that way; they studying in a school that followed the could not explain it any further. A couple of

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 18 interesting, rather funny responses on the observe that one of the NRI children could rationale for correcting the sentence “Dog not identify the errors in five out of thirteen is barking” are given as follows. The fifth sentences. This could be attributed to the fact child's response in particular gives an that given a choice, she chose to speak in insight into how stereotypes are formed in English and avoided speaking in Telugu. This children. indicates that English was her first language or After reading five sentences, six of the language of comfort over Telugu. participants belonging to the same school On the whole, seven out of eight were asked to observe the pattern or respondents were able to correctly assess commonality in the sentences. Most of the rules. When I summarized the rules, all them correctly pointed out that feminine seven children were able to correctly state subjects had masculine verb conjugations the conjugated verb for each kind of and vice versa. This showed that they were subject. However, given that the test was aware of the rule that human masculine and based on just thirteen sentences, its feminine subjects have different subject- reliability needs to be ascertained by verb agreement patterns. The second half conducting it on children belonging to of the sentences had a mix of subjects. At different age groups and backgrounds. the end of the thirteenth sentence, I summarized the subject-verb agreement Suggestions for Teachers rulesand asked them if they agreed with Similar tasks may be conducted in a me. Seven out of eight children were able to classroom using an inductive approach to modify the subject-verb agreement pattern make the children aware of various aspects for non-human living and non-living things of grammar in a language. In bigger with the rule they had come up with at the classrooms however, it will be a challenge end of the 5th sentence. It was interesting to to engage every student. In such cases,

Child 5: Kukka moruguthondi is Child 4: Kukka moruguthondi. correct. Interviewer: Why so? Interviewer: Why so? Child 4: Because, it is a dog, it should Child 5: Because, it is a girl. Girl dogs be followed by moruguthundi. If it was bark more. a boy barking, it would have been Interviewer: Is that so? moruguthunnadu. Child 5: (Nods in agreement) Interviewer: So, boy dogs don't bark is it? Child 5: No Conversation 1 Conversation 2

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 19 dividing them into groups and assigning Conclusion group tasks would prove effective. This Designing small exercises to let children approach, as shown earlier, is not only discover patterns in a language will beneficial for first language classrooms, eventually teach them to frame rules on but also for foreign language classrooms. If their own and would lead to interesting Telugu language teachers were to follow ways of teaching grammar. In multilingual the inductive approach in their classrooms, classrooms, if the teacher plays the role of a it may be possible for a natural order to researcher and a linguist, the natural orders emerge in which children learn the rules of learning different aspects of languages instinctively (Wagner, p.5). For instance, can be recorded. Insights from such learners may learn the subject-verb observations would provide valuable agreement rules in order of plurality, inputs to curriculum makers (NCF,2005 gender, tense, etc. An area (say gender) in a p.27). Tasks facilitating the discovery of target language, say Hindi, could be patterns in language would help children complex for Telugu speakers to understand learn about the language and also learn the but not for Urdu speakers, owing to the language simultaneously. similarity in the language family Hindi and Urdu belong to. The assignment of References masculine/feminine gender for non-human Chomsky, Naom (1972). Language and mind, (3rd things in Hindi is a feature that does not exist ed.). New York, NY: Cambridge University in Telugu. So, this could be difficult for Press. Telugu speakers to master. But, for a Hindi Ke Zhou(2008).An inductive approach to English grammar teaching. Retrieved from speaker learning Telugu would not be as http://lc.hkbu.edu.hk/book/pdf/v12_01.pdf difficult. The reason being that in Telugu, all Rokni, Seyed (2009). A comparative study of the non-human things are assigned a neuter effect of explicit inductive and explicit- gender, removing the confusion of it being deductive grammar instruction in EFL feminine or masculine. Based on the rules contexts: A case study of Persian learners of English. Retrieved from http://www. language and features of the learners' native language inindia.com/nov2009/explicitimplicitrokni.pdf and the foreign language being acquired, Krashen, S. (1982). Second language acquisition there would be differences in the ease with theory: Principles and practice in second which a language is learnt. This in turn language acquisition. Retrieved from http:// would change the natural order of aspects www.sdkrashen.com/content/books/principles _and_practice.pdf acquired by each group of learners (based on NCERT (2006). Focus group on teaching of Indian their native language).This natural order can languages, Position Paper 1.3, New Delhi: be utilized in structuring classes where NCERT. Telugu is taught as a foreign language. For Wagner, J. (2017) Grammar acquisition and children to be able to learn foreign grammar pedagogy (ms). Retrieved from http:// ielanguages.com/documents/papers/SLA%20 effectively and quickly, they must know Grammar%20Acquisition%20and%20Pedago native grammar (Wagner, p.9). gy.pdf (20.04.2017)

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 20 Xin, Jiang (2012). The effect of integrating inductive approach and deductive approach with multimedia assistance into acquisition of subjunctive mood. Sino-US English Teaching,9(9).Retrieved from http://www. davidpublishing.com/davidpublishing/Upfile/ 11/2/2012/2012110203530069.pdf

Pavithra Velpuri is an alumnus of the M.A. (Elementary Education) programme at Tata Institute of Social Sciences. A software engineer by qualification, she moved to the education sector and has worn the hats of a teacher, trainer, curriculum maker and a content developer. Growing up in a multilingual home, the 'how' of language acquisition has always fascinated her. She wishes to explore the domain further and deepen her understanding. Currently, she works with a start-up in the early childhood education space. [email protected]

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 21 Facts versus Feelings: Teaching of Literature in Indian Classrooms

Shefali Srivastava

Introduction This preoccupation of scholars with According to Purves (1972), literature literature across centuries underscores its “comprises a body of texts which a reader, centrality in our lives. With the advent of or a group of readers, finds necessary to various kinds of media, literature has become read aesthetically”. He defines it as a very easily accessible. Also, with the passage category where “both scripted and of time, different genres and forms of writing improvised theatre, film, television, drama have emerged. The twentieth century itself and happenings” are subsumed. has been witness to the rise of various kinds of literature and we know that it is Before the advent of literacy, story telling definitely not the end of the journey. was the medium of entertainment and education. Through stories, people used to learn about faraway lands, values of life, Early Theories of Literary Criticism and in the process, develop an awareness New Criticism – the theory that governed the and understanding about people and life in teaching and learning of literature –believed general. With the advent of literacy, in the supremacy of the text. According to literature has been envisaged differently at New Critics, the meaning of the text resided different points of time. The Greeks in within the text; the reader therefore occupied classical times believed it to be an agency a subordinate role. Laying emphasis on for teaching moral values to the public. objectivity, the New Critics called for an Plato, in his seminal work The Republic, impersonal and “intrinsic” analysis of the considered poetry to be useless if it did not text, leaving out factors such as the author's serve a purpose. Neo-classicals such as biographical details, the socio-historical Pope and Johnson believed that literature milieu of the times and of course the reader, played a crucial role in forming public tastes. who was in the periphery or maybe even Victorian prudery tried to use literature for further. Literary work was believed to be teaching morals or defining the code of a standalone piece of art that carried meaning conduct for men and women in society, within itself. Within this paradigm, the although there were exceptions such analysis of the text demanded categorization as Emily Bronte. Walter Pater broke away of its genre, analysis of the structure of the from this mindset to celebrate the aesthetic literary work, verse forms, patterns of aspect of literature in the nineteenth imagery, metaphors, and so on. Russian century. Formalists were more concerned with the

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 22 application of linguistics to the study of aesthetic pole. The artistic referred to the literature. They held the view that literature text created by the author and the aesthetic transforms and intensifies ordinary language to the realization accomplished by the and valued literary form over content. reader. While welcoming the role of feelings while Reader-Response Theories reading a literary piece, Rosenblatt (1938) also acknowledged the role played by the In light of the new developments in the reader's age, experience, disposition, social field of philosophy and psychology, New and economic background, gender and Criticism was finally succeeded by reader- political and personal histories in interpreting response criticism. The pioneer of reader- response theories was Rosenblatt (1938) a text. According to him, readers did not exist who first turned the spotlight on the reader. in a vacuum and hence neither did their She emphasized the active role played by perceptions and interpretations of life or a the reader in the act of reading, where text. In propounding the concept of “stance”, meaning was “constructed” during a Rosenblatt (1980) argued that there are two “transaction” between the reader and the kinds of stances that a reader is likely to text, thereby highlighting that both the text take while reading a text, depending on the and the reader brought something to the purpose of reading—efferent and aesthetic. text which gives rise to meaning. Further, An efferent stance was usually taken where she acknowledged and celebrated the the purpose of reading was to take away presence of the feelings experienced by the information from a text. In contrast to the reader while reading a literary piece, which efferent stance was the aesthetic stance, was previously derided for being more of a where the attention was focussed more on “fallacy” that clouded the readers' the lived experience of the reader while judgement. Later, Fish (1970) also wrote reading the text, the quality of experience, that the objectivity of text was an illusion. the feelings evoked, and the thoughts and Celebrating “affective fallacy”, he argued in images populating the mind scape of the favour of creating a space for the readers' reader rather than the factual details personal and subjective responses. According extracted from the text. But Rosenblatt to Fish, meaning was constructed during the maintained that no reading of a literary readers' engagement with the text through piece is completely efferent or completely and during the act of reading. He negated the aesthetic; both stances exist along a existence of a “true” or “final” meaning, continuum. making room for multiple responses by In the context of the Indian classrooms various readers at different points of time, which this paper deals with, a problem with each response being equally valid. Iser arose when teachers selected and directly (1992), looked at the process of reading or indirectly promoted an efferent stance through the lens of phenomenology, through their questions, activities whereby he described a literary work as or their own response to a learner's having two poles—an artistic pole and an interpretation of the text. We shall now

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 23 examine implications of efferent and These questions suggest that the teacher aesthetic readings in the context of the does not recognize that while reading Indian classroom. Cinderella's story, something must have gone on inside the minds of young learners Situation in Indian Classrooms and they may have “felt” something. All the questions listed are designed to gauge the The teaching of literature in Indian classrooms is usually a teacher-dominated learners' comprehension of the factual phenomenon, where the teacher is perceived elements of the story. Sadly, this is how as the reservoir and hence the transmitter of reading comprehension questions are knowledge (Sah, 2009). When teaching usually framed at end of the chapter in literature in class, teachers either read the many textbooks, and these are followed as text aloud themselves or ask a student to do the Bible for teaching. The responses to a so; they keep supplying the meanings of subjective question designed to make difficult words and make it a point to correct learners think critically or from their heart faulty pronunciation (Sinha, 2009). It is also may be as varied as there are learners in the common for teachers to stop after every class. In such a situation, handling a wide sentence and explain it to the students variety of responses becomes very difficult without ever asking what they make of it. for the teacher who usually aims to arriving Then follows a series of questions and answers based on factual details from the at one common understanding of the text. text. For instance, if the teacher is doing As a consequence, learners never get a Cinderella's story with the young learners, voice in the classroom and they learn to the questions may read as follows: align their responses with that of the ·Who was Cinderella? teacher. ·How many sisters did she have? However, if we were to reconstruct this class according to the principles of reader- ·What household chores did Cinderella have to do? response theories, the class would look very different. To begin with, there would ·Who helped Cinderella go to the ball? definitely be more learner talk than teacher ·How did this person help Cinderella go talk. The noise level in the class may be a to the ball? little high as a consequence of group work. ·What did Cinderella leave at the ball? The learners would probably be engaged in ·By what time was she supposed to a discussion about the text with their peers come back from the ball? or involved in some other activity. The ·How did the prince find Cinderella? questions asked in such a class may be as ·Did the prince and Cinderella live follows: happily ever after? ·How did you feel when you read the ·How were Cinderella's stepmother and story? stepsisters punished for their ill-deeds? ·Which part of the story did you like ·What is the moral of the story? the most?

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 24 ·Create an alternative ending to the would be encouraged to make predictions, story. draw conclusions and infer the meanings of ·Which character in the story did difficult words from the context. Most you like the most and why? importantly, they would feel free to think ·Compare and contrast Cinderella and explore. However, unfortunately, with another character from a despite knowing about the constructivist different story. approach and its merits, we are still very behaviouristic in our practices. This not ·Write a letter to any character in the only inhibits learner response but also story. makes the class very insipid and boring for ·Draw your favourite scene from the the learner, who might even develop a story. lifelong aversion to literature. ·If you were to meet Cinderella in Further, teachers have a tendency to person, what questions would you moralize texts. Therefore, after reading a like to ask her? story, they often ask a question about the ·Placing Cinderella in today's moral of the story with complete disregard context, rewrite her story. for the joy of reading that the learners might ·Write a letter to your friend telling have felt (Kumar, 2004; Sah, 2009). him/her about Cinderella's story or anybody else who leads a similar The Way Ahead life. There are a lot of implications which can be ·If you were to become a Fairy drawn from this discussion around the Godmother/Godfather for a day, teaching of literature in Indian classrooms. whose life would you like to change Since the change in pedagogy can primarily and how? come from teachers, there is an urgent need ·Narrate the part you liked the most to orient teachers at pre-service and in- in the story to your partner. service levels towards reader-response All these questions are aimed at eliciting theories. Any desirable change in the system responses from learners that will help the needs to come from the grass roots level. It is teacher to understand their interpretation and only when the teachers are aware of a experience of the text, and their likes and particular approach will they be able to dislikes in terms of the characterization and follow it. portions of the text. In such a classroom, A response-based classroom has the comprehension questions would be potential to develop life skills such as designed to make connections between the critical thinking, problem solving and reader and the text and also establish inter empathy among its learners. Freedom of textual connections. Inferential or expression, a non-threatening atmosphere, extrapolatory questions would be asked acceptance from teachers and peers and instead of just factual questions. Learners stimulating classroom environment are

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 25 some of the factors that are conducive to the not only have the potential to make readers development of these life skills. When think but they also evoke their personal, learners are encouraged to express critical and heart-felt responses. themselves freely and the classroom is a democratic space, free from value Conclusion judgements of authoritarian teachers and peers, they will become more active Though reader-response theories originally “participants” in the classroom processes. dealt with the teaching of literature, today their implications are many and they have Taking a macro perspective, such a afar-reaching impact. The goal of pedagogy can also play a crucial role in education is not to produce literate improving enrolment and retention in mechanized human resource. It is to schools where students often dropout due to teacher apathy and a hostile classroom develop thinking and feeling individuals environment, both of which can be key with sound perceptions, analytical minds factors in drawing children away from and human hearts. A democratic and free school. Further, we need to modify our response-based classroom can help us assessments which currently focus on fact- achieve this goal to some extent. based questions, thereby promoting efferent reading of literature. If response- References based tasks/questions are included in our Fish, S.E. (1992). Literature in the reader: Affective assessments, they will most likely have a stylistics. In J.P. Tomkins (Ed.),Reader- backwash effect on classroom teaching Response Criticism: From formalism to post- which will further create spaces for structuralism(pp. 70-100). Baltimore: The learners' self-expression and improve their John Hopkins University Press. performance. Iser, W. (1992). The reading process: A phenomenological approach. In J.P. Tomkins Talking about the teaching of language in (Ed.), Reader-Response Criticism: From the early years, Sinha (2000) focuses on the formalism to post-structuralism (pp. 50-69). role of materials and delineates the Baltimore: The John Hopkins University Press. artificiality of texts which, due to their Kumar, K. (2004). What is worth teaching? over-reliance on graphophonics, have no (3rded.). New Delhi: Orient Longman. coherence or meaning. Burdened with Purves, A.C. (1972). How Porcupines make love. materials which can neither be understood Lexington: Xerox College Publishing. nor enjoyed, learners lose interest in Rosenblatt, L.M. (1938). Literature as exploration. reading and hence, do not feel motivated New York, NY: D. Appleton-Century Company. enough to come to school. There is an Rosenblatt, L.M. (1980). What facts does this poem urgent need to develop materials which not teach you? Language Arts, 57(4), 385-394. only focus on whole language, but which Sah, S. (2009). Reading Hindi literature in include interesting and enjoyable texts elementary school context (Unpublished such as stories, poems, drama, etc. Such M.Phil. dissertation). Central Institute of texts (and of course their follow-up tasks) Education, University of Delhi. Delhi.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 26 Sinha, S. (2000). Acquiring literacy in Indian schools. Seminar, 493, 38-42. Sinha, S. (2009). Rosenblatt's theory of reading: Exploring literature. Education Dialogue, 6(2), 223-238.

Shefali Srivastava is Assistant Professor at Institute of Home Economics. Her areas of interest include early literacy, multilingual education and English language teaching. [email protected]

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 27 Key Issues in the Teaching of English at the Primary Level A. L. Khanna

Introduction inclusive socially and linguistically, The importance of English is now widely the current status of English stems recognized, not only in India but also from its overwhelming presence on across the globe. Although languages such the world stage and the reflection of as Chinese, Hindi and Swahili are spoken this in the national arena. by a much larger number of people, it seems that entry into the world of higher knowledge The National Knowledge Commission and social mobility is possible only with (NKC), Government of India, in its English. It has therefore become imperative recommendations on school education to know the language. However, it is equally submitted to the Prime Minister of India on clear that English cannot flourish at the cost 4th February, 2008 recognized of other languages; linguistic and cultural diversity is as important to humans as bio- the significance of English not only diversity. We must therefore think of as a medium of instruction but teaching English in a multilingual context. also as a determinant of access. English today has acquired a global status An understanding of and command and is seen as a language of opportunities. over the English language is most This view is very emphatically articulated important determinant of access in Teaching of English, National Focus to higher education, employment Group: Position paper vol. 1.4. (NCERT possibilities and social opportunities. 2006: p.1) as follows: School-leavers who are not adequately trained in English as a language are English is in India today a symbol always at a handicap in the world of of people's aspirations for quality in higher education…. And those who education and a fuller participation do not know English well enough find in national and international life. it exceedingly difficult to compete for Its colonial origins now forgotten a place in our premier educational or irrelevant, its initial role institutions. This disadvantage is in independent India, tailored to accentuated further in the world of higher education (as a “library work, not only in professional language”, a “window on the occupations but also in white-collar world”), now felt to be insufficiently occupations overall. (p. 48)

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 28 NKC further recommends that the teaching these learners have a very strong of English as a language should be motivation to learn English because they have been made to believe by their parents or the members of their community that ...introduced, along with the first English is the key to get them out of their language (either the mother tongue or existence of misery and backwardness. the regional language) of the child, They are therefore more motivated to learn starting from class 1. This phase of English rather than their mother tongue(s) language learning should focus on or the language(s) used by their peers. using both languages to create meaningful learning experiences for Thus, when we talk of intervention in the the child without disproportionate teaching of English, we need to first emphasis on grammar and rules. identify the kind of learners we are talking (p. 49) about. What learners need to learn at one end of the continuum may have no relevance for learners at the other end of the As a follow up to this recommendation of continuum, though eventually both groups NKC, the governments of several states and will be equipped to work in any place, be it union territories have resolved to introduce a call centre, a corporate office, the army or English as a compulsory subject from class a university. 1. The following issues, however, need to be addressed for effective progress in the The Teacher teaching of English at the primary level. The second important issue is concerned with the teachers' beliefs, practices, Learners' Social Milieu competence and availability. We have We need to take cognizance of the variety noticed that except in some urban elite of social backgrounds different learners of schools, teachers of English have very little English come from. One type of speaker training in the teaching of English. Even comes from what is almost a native-like those who claim to have received training situation, where English is spoken at home in the teaching of English have been fed by everyone. The family socializes with obsolete ideas about how languages are people who share the same linguistic learnt and taught. They therefore continue experience and use their mother tongue to believe that the learner is a passive sparingly. Learners coming from such a recipient of knowledge and his/her prior social milieu though rare, are at one end of knowledge has no role to play in the the continuum of learners of English. On learning of a new language(s). If the learner the other end of the continuum, there are tries to make use of his/her mother tongue learners who have absolutely no access to in articulating his feelings, ideas and English both at home and outside. emotions, he is immediately snubbed. The Whatever English they learn is at school learner is treated like an island in and there also, it is used occasionally. But himself/herself, having nothing to gain

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 29 from the community to which he/she teachers are helped to gain atleast a belongs. This sort of attitude of the teacher minimal level of proficiency in English to is symptomatic of the malady that the carry out the responsibilities assigned to teacher training is currently inflicted with. them. One of the ways in which this sort Unless these teachers are retrained in of mass teacher competence building the new knowledge with regard to how programme can be carried out is to deploy languages are learnt, they will continue to the breed of retired English teachers from pose an obstacle to the new paradigm of schools, colleges and universities who are language teaching which lays emphasis on really proficient in English. NKC suggests: collaborative learning, learner autonomy, comprehensive evaluation, concept In order to meet the requirement for attainment in mother tongue, promoting a large pool of English language bilingualism and metalinguistic awareness, teachers, graduates with high shift from information to knowledge proficiency in English and good construction, critical pedagogy, etc. communication skills should be The new breed of teachers need to be inducted without formal teacher educated about the new paradigm and its training qualifications. They should classroom implications in terms of its be selected through an appropriate methodology, materials and attitude procedure developed by National towards the learner. Secondly, the State Testing Service and then given a must make it mandatory that at least one short-term orientation. The nearly fully trained teacher in the new paradigm is made available even in the remotest four million school teachers all over primary school, who can educate other the country, regardless of their teachers engaged in teaching English and subjects' expertise, especially other languages. This will have a cascading teachers at the primary level should effect on teacher training in our schools. be trained to improve their proficiency in English through Another very important issue connected vacation training programmes or with teachers is their lack of competency in other short term courses. Most English. It is sad, although a well known fact, that a large number of teachers who teacher training programmes are not are responsible for teaching English lack based on a real assessment of needs proficiency in those very skills of English of teachers. Thus, the entire teacher- which they are expected to build among training system catering to pre- their students. Since the states have already service and in-service training that decided to introduce English from class 1 exists today, including training for without building essential infrastructure language teaching, needs to be for its effective implementation, it is the thoroughly reviewed, recognizing duty of the State to organize workshops in the centrality of language in competence building in English in which curriculum. (p. 49-50)

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 30 The same sentiment and concern has been As a pedagogy, multilingualism has also voiced by the National Focus Group in their been emphasized in Teaching of Indian recommendations, in which they Languages, a position paper of the National emphasize that “All teachers should have Focus Group which asserts: the skills to teach English in ways appropriate to their situation and levels, …language-teaching methods can based on how languages are taught.” be suitable sites for utilizing the Unless such steps are taken immediately, multiplicity of languages available any effort and money spent in the direction in the classroom. A sensitive of teaching English will be a colossal waste analysis of multilinguality obtaining of national resource. As a result of this in the classroom in collaboration training, the teacher will also learn to with children will help in creating respect the languages of the children and metalinguistic awareness among allow the usage of these along with the teacher and the taught. (p. 23) English. In the initial stages of learning English, when the learner is more fluent in This position has been reiterated by his first language, he could be allowed to Agnihotri in several national and use his first language whenever he is at loss international conferences and publications for a word in English. This freedom to use (Agnihotri, 1995, 1997, 2000, 2007). In his first language along with English will one of his papers (Agnihotri, 2007) he give him confidence and also motivate him remarks: to learn English without any fear or anxiety. As the learner acquires better control over English, he could on his own switch to Multilinguality will have to become English without suppressing or feeling a basis for all future curriculum, ashamed of his first language. This state of syllabi, text books, and classroom mind is a necessary condition, in the transaction planning, initiating the opinion of many first and second language implementation of a sociopolitical researchers (Krashen, 1987, 1988 among vision that will be governed by the many others), for optimal learning of any values of equity, justice, social language. This will have another very sensitivity, peace, and collective important fall out. It will lay a very sound responsibility in a more meaningful foundation for producing multilingual users way than empty rhetoric. (p. 3) which, undoubtedly, is one of the goals of language education today anywhere in the Textbooks world. The National Focus Group states in Most of the textbooks that are available in its recommendations, “Multilinguality the market have been written with the should be the aim in English medium as well assumption that learning takes place in a as regional medium schools” (Teaching of linear order, and learning a second English 1, p. 30). language means mastering the structure of

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 31 that language first, which in the opinion of language learning, the learner experiences most textbook writers and teachers can be language in different situations, the second done by teaching the alphabet and grammar language learner should also be exposed to of that language before the learner learns to a variety of interesting materials through use it. Consequently, most of the English the use of audio-visual materials, TV, radio school textbooks begin with the teaching of programmes, etc. He/she could also listen the alphabet and structures such as “What is to stories, poems and rhymes, speeches and this?”, “This is…”. debates, see plays/short skits, etc. This sort Current research in first and second of exposure increases the learner's potential language learning has amply shown that for learning the language in actual use and second language learning does not take this helps him acquire the idiom of the language route. Learners are believed to have a and its prosodic features. universal order of learning, and therefore it Several NGOs working for elementary does not matter in which order the teacher education in different parts of the country or the textbook presents a grammatical or have produced interesting and innovative linguistic category. That does not mean that materials for children in the age group 3-12 the teacher or the textbook has no place in years. For instance, Spark India, CIEFL the teaching/learning of a language. It (Hyderabad) produced a 'Spark Big Book' simply suggests that both the teacher and which tells a story titled “A Pot of Light”, the textbook have the role of facilitating the for children between three and six years process of learning, which can be done not (The Hindu, 6 February 2003). The story is by forcing a rigid order in the presentation beautifully illustrated and is meant to be of language items, but by providing read out to children while showing them the interesting and cognitively challenging corresponding pictures. Spark India has inputs that the learner can relate to. Text also produced audio-visual materials that books should therefore not only provide can be used by primary school teachers for space to the learner for his/her creativity, teaching stories, poems and doing other but also allow the learner to bring to the activities. As noted in the above newspaper learning situation his/her prior experience article, storytelling helps children to as well as the experience that he/she is rapidly progress from monosyllabic replies gaining simultaneously in other languages to speaking whole sentences and then and subject classes. This sort of learning writing their own stories. It is however across the curriculum will go a long way in unfortunate that most teachers are not making the learner grow holistically. interested in teaching English through stories. Even when they do it, they simply Other Teaching Materials read them out like any other text, and not It is very important to realize that the like stories. Some researchers have noted learner is exposed to the target language in that storytelling helps to increase the all its varieties to get him/her sensitized to it language learning ability of children as in the first language. Just as in first coming from the middle and lower middle

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 32 class backgrounds, who do not speak level is the issue of evaluation of the English at home. learner. At present, most schools in the In earlier stages of learning a language, we country evaluate their students three to four also need to present content in a way that is times in a year, in addition to an annual less dependent on language. Among other evaluation. This is done in the name of techniques used by teachers to make input continuous evaluation. Those schools or comprehensible is the technique of graphic teachers use grades rather than marks for organizers which relies very little on scoring their children round the year, and language to convey information. According yet do not have much clue as to what the to Carrier (2005), graphic organizers are children really know. What this year-round very powerful tools to use with learners exercise tells the teacher, the parent and the because as Swain (1985) adds: education department is rather what the learner does not know. Researchers all over …they display information with the world have opined that this method of pictures, labels, or short phrases, evaluation is not appropriate for recording thereby reducing the language load. the progress of the learner at any point of Also, they are much less visually time in a year. They have even suggested intimidating than full text. Graphic alternative ways of recording learner organizers can be used to present progress such as qualitative measures, major concepts and relationships including maintaining a portfolio of the between them, comparison and learner and also taking the learner into contrasts, processes, cause and confidence while evaluating the progress effect, and attributes, to name just a he/she has made in relation to his/her few of their uses. They also help earlier stage. This sort of evaluation is ELLs focus on key vocabulary, believed to help the learner look at his/her instead of having to search for it learning more creatively and critically, and in an overwhelming amount of text. not get into the rat race of competing with Graphic organizers have the added others and losing track of himself/herself in advantage of serving as prewriting the process. The objective of self organizers and unit study guides. assessment is to empower the learner to ELLs need to be fully involved undertake self-evaluation with the teacher participants in their learning, which as a facilitator in the evaluation process. includes demonstrating what they The teacher also needs to be equipped with know. In other words, ELLs need to the techniques of assessment and the produce comprehensible output. (p. 7) parameters for evaluation along with the tools to be used for the same. Only then will Evaluation/Assessment a complete understanding of what the Another very important issue that needs to learner has learnt in different domains be be handled with urgency at the primary known. Thus, there is a need is to identify

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 33 broad concepts/indicators of progress that Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence: can serve as reference points to assess Some roles of comprehensible input and comprehensible output in its development. students' learning at the primary stage, In S. Gass & C. Madden (Eds.), Input in based on the NCF 2005. These would second language acquisition (pp. 235-253). serve as a broad feedback mechanism Rowley, MA: Newbury House. around the quality of systemic functioning, National Council of Educational Research and responsiveness and accountability. Training. (2006). Teaching of English, National Focus Group Position Paper, Vol. I.4. New Delhi: NCERT. References National Council of Educational Research and Agnihotri, R. K. (1995). Multilingualism as a Training. (2006). Teaching of Indian classroom resource. In K. Heugh, A. Languages. National Focus Group Position Sieruhm & P. Pluddemann (Eds.), Paper, Vol. 1.3. New Delhi: NCERT. Multilingual education for South Africa (pp. The Hindu Feb 6, 2003. 'A Pot of Light: a story from 3-7). Johannesborh, Germany: Heinemann. India.' Agnihotri, R. K. (1997). Multilingualism, colonialism and translation. In S. Ramakrishna Dr. A. L. Khanna was Formerly Reader (English) (Ed.), Translation and multilingualism: at Rajdhani College, University of Delhi. Post-colonial contexts (pp. 34-46). Delhi: [email protected] Pencraft International. Agnihotri, R. K. (2000). Teacher's space in the classroom. In R. Mathew, R. L. Eapen, & J. Tharu (Ed.) The language curriculum: Dynamics of change, vol. 1, (pp. 157-161). Hyderabad: Orient Longman. Agnihotri, R. K. (2007). Towards a pedagogical paradigm rooted in multilinguality. International Multilingual Research Journal, 1(2), 1-10. Carrier, Karren A. (2005). Key issues for teaching English learners in academic classrooms. Middle School Journal (J1), v37 n2 p4-9 Krashen, Stephen D. (1987). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall International. Krashen, Stephen D. (1988). Second language acquisition and second language learning. NJ: Prentice-Hall International, 1988. National Knowledge Commission. (2007). Recommendations on school education. New Delhi: Government of India.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 34 What is this Hindi Used in Textbooks? Uma Sudhir

Introduction formal. I still remember stumbling over the I would like to share some of my word 'kvathnank' [which is ccvccvcc (?) – experiences of working with both students not that consonant clusters don't occur all and teachers; trying to convey some basic the time in all languages, but this word has concepts in Science. And this write-up is not just formidable, but rare combinations mainly about the kind of language we use to of consonants which makes it difficult for a teach Science. I am sure the same problems tongue to get around it] for boiling point. will crop up when it comes to teaching The multiple consonant clusters defeated Maths and Social Science too, but I cannot me each time, and I wondered – why can't speak about them from first-hand one use 'ubalne ka taapman' in classes VI experience. And specifically, this write-up and VII and introduce the exact term is about the use of Hindi because my work has been in Hindi-speaking areas. Probably somewhere down the line? similar problems are being discussed across India, but once again, what I have to The Language Used in Textbooks share concerns the use or misuse of Hindi. As mentioned earlier, it is not just the technical words that are difficult, the Popular Writing in Hindi vs. Textbooks sentences in general use words which are Let me start by telling you about how I not commonly used. And this makes it difficult for the students to read the text and started reading articles in Hindi. Being a make sense of it. South-Indian, and having studied in English medium schools, my exposure to technical terminology in any other Some examples from the Chhattisgarh language was nil till I joined Eklavya. The Class VI textbook (2013): transition to Hindi was facilitated to a great 1.urja ki punah prapti hetu extent by Eklavya's publications because aapko bhojan ki the language they use is user-friendly. And aavashyakta hoti hai. 1st Chapter: (You need food to once then came textbooks – eek! Not only did again get energy.) they use technical terms even where 2. jeevan ke liye jal familiar and simpler words were available, anivaarya hai. the style of writing was also very stilted and (Water is essential for life.)

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 35 How will the Students ever Manage to 1.hast chalit apkendrak Learn anything? machine (caption for One wonders at this because policy figure) (Manual centrifuge) documents have always stressed the use of 2. filter mein ceramic ke the mother tongue: language which is bane ek sarandra patra familiar. NCF 2005 in the section on th 4 Chapter: (candle) se jal ko pravahit language says (page 36): karte hain. Languages also provide a bank of (Water is passed through a memories and symbols inherited porous vessel (candle) from one's fellow speakers and made of ceramic in the created in one's own lifetime. They filter.) are also the medium through which most knowledge is constructed, and bhautik parivartano mein hence they are closely tied to the ushma ka ya toh avshoshan thoughts and identity of the hota hai ya utsarjan. th individual. In fact, they are so 5 Chapter: (Heat is either absorbed or closely bound with identity that to released in physical deny or wipe out a child's mother changes.) tongue(s) is to interfere with the sense of self. sarvpratham cylinder ke sabse chote bhag dwara Imagine the kind of violence being done to darshaye jane wale ayatan these students! More so given that most th 6 Chapter: ko gyat kijiye. students are speakers of Chhattisgarhi, and (Firstly find out the many other languages like Halbi, Baighani, volume indicated by the Bhulia, Kalanga, Surgujia, etc., not 'manak smallest division of the Hindi'. cylinder.) Even the attempt to get the students used to aap payenge ki sthir technical terminology in Hindi by avastha mein vastuon ki introducing it in middle school does not sthiti mein samay ke saath seem to have succeeded since I have had th koi parivartan nahi hota. 10 Chapter: college teachers tell me that their students (You will find that a body at rest shows no change in write the answers in Hindi but use the position with time.) English technical terms. For example, they will not use the term 'prakash sansleshan' swasthya kuch antarik tatha but photosynthesis. bahya karakon se prabhavit hota hai. th 13 Chapter: (Health is affected by some Discrimination amongst Dialects with internal and external Manak Hindi Coming Out on Top factors.) As my exposure to Hindi increased, I began to understand the difference, the textbooks

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 36 abhor the use of anything other than what is etc. could be removed. But all this died out deemed to be pure Hindi, what I have come suddenly when one teacher got up and to call 'shuddh shakahari Hindi'. So go to declared – 'agar woh shuddh hai toh woh any Hindi-speaking state and read the pani nahi hai, woh jal hai'!!!! So ‘jal' has the newspapers, you will find words like same 'sanctitiy' as the formula 'H2O' for 'koshish', but will you find it in their water! textbooks? No chance! because 'koshish' is deemed to be 'Urdu' not 'Hindi'. So the Technical Jargon is Always vocabulary that comes naturally to the Problematic people in the given area is not acceptable to the people who pass textbooks and hence I was quite amused to learn that native determine how they get written. speakers of English face a similar problem. I once hosted a Portugese post-doctoral student who had gone to Language does Decide our Thoughts! England for her PhD after doing her How this alienates people and makes them masters in Portugal. She told me that think that things discussed in textbooks are she did not have problems with the removed from daily life comes through in scientific terms in English since they one of my favourite anecdotes of how are mainly derived from Greek and words have the power to fashion what we Latin roots (like scientific terms in think. Let us take water. Anywhere you go, Hindi are derived from Sanskrit roots) people ask you (with different degrees of which was close to her mother-tongue. respect imbibed into the sentence) – 'pani And she said that the English students piyoge?' But the word that is consistently found these same technical terms used in textbooks (once again, I would like strange and unweildy. For me, all to reiterate that I am talking only about English words are 'foreign' words and Science textbooks, I do not know if the had to be learned, and the fact that situation is the same or different in other Science used words derived from Latin subjects) is 'jal'. We were in this workshop and Greek was only interesting to the for teachers where we were talking about extent that they gave clues to their pure substances and mixtures (an important pronunciation (for example, 'chiral' is distinction for us chemists) and we wanted from Greek, so the initial sound is the to discuss whether water is a pure 'hard' k, not ch!). substance. The teachers came to a general consensus that water usually has oxygen Keeping it (Language) Simple Essential and other gases dissolved in it along with for Learning sundry salts and (horrors!) micro- We are trying to teach difficult and counter- organisms. So we asked 'lekin kya pani intuitive concepts to children when we shuddh roop mein mil sakta hai?' This led to teach Science, then why do we insist on intense discussion on how salts, oxygen, making it even more difficult for children

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 37 by using words they never ever use outside Conclusion of the classroom? I studied all of this in I firmly believe that the more variety of English and I had to only struggle with the topics you read up on, the more words you concepts because I read extensively, so the are exposed to, and learn to use. So language did not cause any problems. But I obviously, you learn new words and how to can figure out that even the English use them in the Science class too. But if the versions of the textbooks would be textbook is incomprehensible, then you difficult. This is for a rather strange reason. will not learn either, neither words, nor With NCF 2005 and all the work that went concepts. We should strive for the kind of into it, there were strange gaps in writing that popular Science-writing goes communication. Not just between subjects, in for, explaining in words an average but also between people working on the citizen can follow. Maybe then all our same subject for different classes (that is children will excel in Science and other another story). But the fact that different subjects too. subject people were working in different ivory towers meant that the people deciding the standards for languages were References not talking to the people working on Maths, Vigyan evam Praudhyogiki, kaksha VI, SCERT, Science and Social Science. So take the Chhattisgarh. textbooks for any class, the language in the National Council of Educational Research and English and Hindi textbooks requires a Training (2005). National Curriculum Framework (NCF 2005). New Delhi: NCERT. totally different level of competence from that used (and expected of) in the Maths, Uma Sudhir is part of the Eklavya Science team Science and Social Science textbooks. which is working on curriculum and material Of course, one does not become competent development. in a language only by studying the prescribed [email protected] language textbooks. As the NCF 2005 goes on to state on page 38: 'Language education is not confined to the language classroom. A Science, Social Science or Mathematics class is ipso facto a language class. Learning the subject means learning the terminology, understanding the concepts, and being able to discuss and write about them critically.' But one has to construct any concept in one's own mind first, associating the 'right' word with it can come later. And this construction of knowledge can only be hindered if the students are not even able to comprehend what is going on.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 38 Silence as Discourse Marker in Multilingual Classrooms in India

Sanchita Verma

Introduction variables to study the relation between the Silence is a complex phenomenon and various aspects of multilingualism and interpreting it even in a trivial conversation their social and communicative functions. exposes us to an entirely new dimension of Theoretical paradigms of language use and language study. It is therefore surprising the stipulated medium of instruction in that silence, which forms an essential part Indian classrooms, as laid out in state of spoken communication, has been language policies, have also been relatively under-researched in the domain considered and questioned in this study. of linguistic studies. Language and silence An examination of the multilingual and are in fact so dependent on each other that multicultural Indian classroom in this study silence can be thought of as a complement shows that the main cause that contributes to speech. Speech cannot find an identity towards a culture of silence in such a without silence, and silence cannot find an classroom is ...the lack of insight as far as identity without speech. Moreover, silence determining the language of instruction is in communication is not silent; it concerned. Be it Hindi or English, the communicates specific messages. Such a medium of instruction in school is multifaceted and ambiguous phenomenon sometimes entirely different from the is an exciting challenge to study. language spoken by the children in In everyday conversation, silence occurs in their homes and their neighbourhood. a complex and structured form and its This analysis of silence in the Indian interpretation exposes us to an insightful primary school classroom thus reveals the and revealing world of talk-in-interaction. structuring of social roles from childhood More importantly, the discourse of silence onwards, and points towards a larger can also be studied in multilingual critique of the language policy as well as its contexts. In this study, I will concentrate implementation within basic educational on silence in primary school classrooms institutions. in India, which are almost always In the present study, the paradigm of multilingual. Since this is a new approach language use and the medium of instruction to studying the sociolinguistics of an Indian in some Indian classrooms has been classroom, this study (which is an questioned and examined. The data for the extension of my Ph.D. thesis) can be study has been collected from Kendriya classified as an exploratory work. Here, Vidyalayas in Delhi where majority of the different forms of silence have been used as children are Hindi speakers, whereas the

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 39 medium of instruction is predominantly methods are revised and modified to cater English. In this case, English is not likely to to the dynamic field of conversation be the first language (L1) but for a very analysis (Nakane, 2007). I have also small percentage of students, may be the somewhat modified the participant second language (L2). structure of the research design to suit my In this study, I will focus on talk-in- data, and have not allotted any length of interaction between the participants—the time to the gaps, laps and pauses (which is teacher and the students—in a natural and usually done in CA), owing to problems non-obtrusive real world social setting of a with the quality of the “noisy” primary multicultural Indian classroom. I have school data I was dealing with. I have applied the method of conversation therefore used and relied on my own analysis to analyse the data, and this is an ethnographic method for investigating the supplementary field notes and observations micro-details of the structure and process on the actual occurrence of the variables. of social interaction. Mapping silence, Before going further, it is imperative to which has thus far gone entirely unnoticed explain the participant structure of the in the very vibrant, noisy, dynamic, layered classroom conversations I have used as and often ambiguous space of the data. The orientation of a verbal participation multilingual Indian primary school depends on how a communicative interaction classroom has proven to be a highly is organized and how much contribution is productive exercise in this ongoing expected to be allocated to the interlocutors. research work, yielding many rewarding In this study, structurally speaking, there research insights. My attempt here is to are two main participants, the teacher and explore the different forms of silence by the students, and the conversation between positioning them as variables in the data, them always privileges the teacher as and understanding the functions of silence having the authority to speak, nominate and in the process. elicit responses. However, very often the entire class, functioning as the second interlocutor speaks in chorus, and there is a Theoretical Paradigm great deal of noise and chaos as far as their The methodology adopted in this work is talk-in-interaction goes. Therefore, the both ethnographic and interpretative in quantitative dominance in terms of speech nature which, when combined with appears to belong to the teacher rather than qualitative and analytic methods, provides the students. a holistic picture of first language classrooms in India. In ethnomethodological Conversation Analysis of Audio Recorded studies, the field is fertile and ever- Data of Classroom Interactions changing, with new forms of recording and The variables that I have chosen to test the recoding being developed; therefore there audio recorded data are: pause, gap, is no one method which will give optimum lapse/lull, silent response, repair (Goffman results on investigation and the existing 1971, 1972, 1983; Sacks et al., 1974;

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 40 Sacks, 1987), intentionality of silence chaotic. There is a lot of noise and the (Kurzon, 1997), and underelaboration students take time to settle down. In [9], it (Nakane, 2007). In the next sections, a can be seen that the teacher is so irritated detailed analysis of two excerpts each of with the noise and chaos of the class that the classroom interaction in English and she issues a warning to maintain a pin-drop Hindi have been presented. The first is a silence and also warns of some punishment transcription of a lecture from an English if the class does not obey her. This is how a class in which the story of Bamboo Curry is class usually starts: with shouting, noise taught using the text. It must be pointed out and total disruption for the first few that the teacher here uses Hindi quite minutes. After this issuance of warning to liberally in excerpts 1 and 2. The names of be silent, some discipline is seen to be the students have been changed to protect maintained. their identity. Excerpt 2/I Analysis Teacher: So, have already Classroom Interaction I: English class completed this. [13] Excerpt 1/I Yesterday I gave you Teacher: We have already dictation. [14] completed this chapter. [1] Copies are neat. [15] Student: Yes ma'am. [2] Now we are starting with Teacher: And take out the lesson this chapter “Bamboo “Bamboo Curry” now. [3] Curry”. [16] Take out. [4] Today is first and we are aap kitaab nikaal lijiye. taking this lesson Bamboo (You take out the book.) [5] Curry before the school nikaal liya? (You took it out?) [6] starts for the summer vacation. [17] kitaab nikaal lijiye. (Take the book out.) [7] All right. [18] theek. (Okay.) [8] Page thirty. [19] Pin drop silence. [9] Yes, khade ho jaao. (Yes, stand up.) [20] This is the last time I am warning you, otherwise I will punish you And before that I will give now. [10] you summer vacation Once I have given you chance, homework also. [21] second time I will punish you. So, the name of the lesson [11] is “Bamboo Curry”. [22] This excerpt represents the first five Has everybody… anybody minutes of the class, which is usually very seen the bamboo? [23]

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 41 kisi ne bamboo dekha hai? indistinct...constant (Has anybody seen a murmuring] [41] bamboo?) [24] Students: Yes ma'am. [25] In this excerpt, it is clear that the students Teacher: accha one minute. (Okay, are responsive when the teacher asks them one minute.) [26] to bid for the floor [23] [24] [27] [28], but bolo kahan dekha hai ye? an overall silence is palpable. In [29], an (Tell me, where have you underelaborated response is seen, as a seen?) [27] correct response would possibly have made the teacher to ask another question. Unable haan ji? (Yes?) [28] to get a proper response, the teacher asks [Student answers in low the students to speak loudly [30], but still voice] [29] the response is not audible [31]. In [32] and Teacher: Loudly. [30] [33], the teacher gives a clue to the students Student: [Indistinct voice] [31] to elicit a response from them, or more Teacher: gaon me dekha hai? (Have plausibly, repeats an indistinct answer from one you seen it in the village?) of the students who takes the floor [31]. The [32] students immediately pick up the clue and gaon me kahan dekha hai? repair their answer [34]. Enthused by the (Where have you seen it in response in [36], the teacher goes on to ask another question, expecting that someone the village?) [33] would bid and claim the floor, but [41] Student: Ma'am *** me hamara shows that no one takes the responsibility gaaon hai. (Ma'am, we of answering the question. One reason for have village in ***) [34] this could be that the students fear that if Teacher: accha, gaaon me kya kis they reply once, the teacher might ask them tarah se use hua hai another question, or worse, ask them to bamboo? (Okay, how is reply in English (as has been the case many bamboo used in the times before). village?) [35] Following is an excerpt from the Hindi Student: ghar banana ke liye. (To class in which the teacher is teaching build homes.) [36] grammar. Teacher: ghar banana ke liye use hua? (Is it used to build Classroom Interaction II: Hindi Class homes?) [37] Excerpt 1/II accha. (Okay.) [38] Teacher: jo shabd kisi vyakti ya Anybody else? [39] insan ki visheshta batate Yes? [40] hain use visheshan kahte [Student answers. Voice hain … (Words that

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 42 describe the qualities of “lal phool mat todo”...(Do any person or human are not pluck the red flower…) called adjectives…) [1] [7] Students: use visheshan kahte hain Students: phool –phool… … (they are called (flower…flower…) [8] adjectives…) [2] Teacher: han thik hai aj Hindi me Teacher: kitne bacchon ko samajh puri class phool bol rahi aya hai visheshan? (how hai … (Yes that is right. many children understood The entire class is saying what adjectives are?) [3] “flower” in Hindi …) [9] ab aap ke samne book khuli ye phool shabd hai sangya hogi, usme underline kijiye … (The word “flower” is a … (now underline in your noun…) [10] book open in front of you) Students: lal visheshan (Red is an [4] adjective) [11] In this sequence of events, the usual energy Teacher: bagh ke andar safed phool with which a lecture begins is palpable. bhi hai … (The garden has Also, there is a lot of noise and murmuring. a white flower too…) [12] In fact, the first few minutes of the peela phool bhi hai recording are almost impossible to hear and …(There is a yellow transcribe. Finally, the teacher takes the flower as well…) [13] floor and starts teaching the chapter and the neela hai lekin aapko students start participating from the second instruction diya gaya hai turn onwards. They are absolutely alert and lal phool mat todo … responsive and almost repeat along with (There is a blue one too, the teacher [2]. but you have been given instructions not to pluck Excerpt 2/II the red flower only…) [24] Teacher: ab mai puchhu to tumhe ye kiski visheshta bata batana hai kaun sa shabd raha hai? (What does it sangya hai aur describe?) [15] kaun sa viseshan … ( Now phool ki … (of the when I ask, you have to flower…) [16] identify the nouns and the ye hai visheshan … (This adjectives…) [5] is an adjective…) [17] yahan pahla vakya maine ab apko samajh aya? (Did likha … (I have written the you understand now?) [18] first sentence here…) [6] kitne bachhon ko samajh

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 43 aya? (How many children is a little shy and is taking her time to adjust have understood?) [19] to the new surroundings of the school. The ab hum ye dekhenge … teacher makes an extra effort to ensure that (We will see…) [20] Tanya is able to understand the lessons. In fact she almost interrupts the class in puri class ko samajh aya? between the lecture to ask Tanya a question (Has the entire class [23] and encourages her to claim the floor. understood?) [21] Tanya immediately comes up with a reply, achchha…. (ok…) [22] even though it is somewhat guarded, and in ek minute Tanya aap a low voice. khade ho jayiye … (Now, These are the representative data of the Tanya, you stand up…) analysis which was done for thirty hours of [23] the audio recorded classroom interactions. batao isme beta phool kya On the basis of this analysis, certain themes hai? (Tell me what is the have emerged. These themes are flower in this sentence, summarized as follows: child?) [24] sangya hai ya visheshan Recurrent Features hai? (Is it a noun or an English classrooms adjective?) [25] The general trend which dominates in the Students: madam sangya…(Ma'am English class is that students do not noun…) [26] volunteer to read from the text (as part of the classroom activities), or show the In this sequence, when the teacher explains interest and commitment that they show in nouns and adjectives and gives a sentence a Hindi class. The overall occurrence of to the children to identify the nouns and bidding and claiming the floor in the class adjectives in it, the students do not even is low. In an English class, the teacher wait for the teacher to ask the question [7]. ensures full participation of the students They are ready with their reply and start through nomination, as volunteering is shouting out the answers in chorus the rarely observed. When a student is moment question is asked [8]. Again, when nominated, she/he does not use this as an the teacher is explaining a concept [10], the opportunity to exhibit her knowledge or students almost jump onto the next topic freely participate in the classroom with their response [11]. This is when the interaction. Rather students employ teacher has not even explained the next different skills to get away from speaking topic and hence not asked the question. The in the class. The data is densely scattered participation from the students' side is with under elaborated responses as they robust and the entire class shouts the do participate if they are nominated, to save answers in chorus whenever a response is their face, but they resist giving proper elicited. Tanya [23] is a new student, so she answers so as to escape further questioning

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 44 by the teacher. They know that giving Hindi classrooms proper responses would lead to more The most distinctive feature of the Hindi questions and they do not want to do that classroom is its sheer volubility. Student lest the teacher nominates them again. participation in the classroom proceedings Some of the enterprising students attempt is robust and wholesome. They are to answer in English, but they have to abort enthusiastic and loud. They do not wait for the sentence for lack of adequate registers their turn to make their bid and want to while the others abandon the effort to be claim the floor right away. The teacher active and attentive in class. The data from frequently issues mild warnings to the English classroom is scattered, with maintain order and silence in the class. pauses, gaps and lapses. These three Individual nomination does not work here variables form a chain in their participation as they are ready with their reply in chorus, as on nomination or at the time of turn- as soon as the question is asked. In one taking, a long pause becomes a gap and a instance, the teacher had not even finished gap becomes a lapse. In terms of volubility explaining the topic, and the students were and class participation, the English ready with their answers. They had anticipated the questions from the text. class presents a dark and slow picture. During the Hindi classroom transaction, The other kinds of silence found in the selected variables such as pause and gaps English class are intentional and or missing a turn and lapse are rarely unintentional silence. Intentional silence observed. Under-elaborated response was found only when the student wanted to and unintentional silence are sometimes steer away from an embarrassing situation present, but this is found only in those to save her face. Unintentional silence and chapters in the text where the students are underelaboration is somehow connected, not able to connect with the cultural as in both the cases, due to unavailability of background of the story. When it is proper and adequate L2 registers, the explained properly, they are immediately student has to abandon or abort a sentence. able to make connections. However, one of the most encouraging aspects here is the students' ability to repair Conclusion their answers. They show tremendous In the present work, I have made an attempt understanding when the teacher drops a clue (including, prompts like repeating their to examine the discourse of silence through answers) and they immediately repair their the narrative of education and classroom answers. They not only exhibit self-repair interactions. The aim was to understand the but they also repair others' responses and different forms and functions of silence in a sometimes the entire class drops clues to primary school classroom as this is one of help repair the answer of a student. So here, the basic arenas for language development. repair emerges as the most productive tool in This work contends that if the medium of the classroom interaction. instruction for a child is not in her home or

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 45 neighbourhood languages, she may not Nakane, I. (2007). Silence in intercultural only lag behind in cognitive development, communication. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. but also becomes silent in the class. Sacks, H. Schegloff, E. & Jefferson, G. (1974). A Therefore, it highlights the gaps in the simplest systematics for the organization of educational policy, planning and turn-taking for conversation. Language, 50(4), implementation or we can say theory and 696-735. practice through empirical analysis of the Sacks, H. (1987). On the preferences for agreement classroom interaction between teachers and and continuity in sequences in conversation. In G. Button & J. R. E. Lee (Eds.), Talk and social students. organisation 54-69. Cleavedon: Multilingual A classroom is not a place to be silent, so Matters. the child learns different strategies to negotiate nomination or turn-taking and the Sanchita Verma is an independent researcher resultant structured silence emanating from based in Delhi. Her interest areas include first and the classroom interactions. Empirical second language acquisition, language education in multilingual contexts, pedagogy, education policy analysis of data supports the fact that the and planning. academic performance of a child is best [email protected] protected when she/he is encouraged to learn a new language with and in relation to her own language and nothing is thrust on her. This study also emphasizes the fact that a child comes to school with a flourishing linguistic competence in more than one language, but when the lecture in the classroom does not relate to her/his language, and she/he is not free to use her own language, then it brings about a culture of silence in the classroom.

References Goffman, E. (1971). Relations in public: Microstudies of the public order. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Goffman, E. (1972) Alienation from interaction. In J. Laver & S. Hutcheson (Eds.), Communication in face to face interaction. 319-346. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. Goffman, E. (1983). The interaction order. American Sociological Review, 48, 1-17. Kurzon, D. (1997). Discourse of silence. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 46 Other Minds and Stories

Jobin M. Kanjirakkat

Introduction through a brief examination of a highly Something very intriguing about the use of effective work of fiction (Achebe, 1995), language is the fact that thoughts in the which may also be read as a work of speaker's mind are converted into a sequence translation. I will further suggest that the of symbols and the sequence of symbols requirement of formalism—so essential to received by the receiver's sense organs are “internalist” approaches—poses a problem converted back into thoughts. Although this when we try to build up a picture of phenomenon may be hard to understand, it is language and thought. This will be presumably not a mystery. Sufficient followed by a conclusion which includes a research into the neurophysiology of brief look at how this view of the language should uncover the mechanisms relationship between language and thought that underlie these processes of encoding bears on language teaching. and decoding. However, here I will try to give a social-psychological description of Understanding Other Minds the nature of this relationship and offer a criticism of an influential contemporary The theoretical approach of generative approach, mentalism (Berwick and grammar proposed and developed by Noam Chomsky, 2016) to understanding language Chomsky and his followers over the last sixty and mind. years makes certain assumptions regarding In this paper, I would like to ask how these the connection between language and systems relate to communication. In the thought. A major assumption underlying this context of communication, it is important approach is that language is a property of the for a listener to get a rough idea of what the human mind and hence, it is a window into speaker has in mind. The direction I take thought. This relationship between language will be along the following lines. Firstly, I and an individual human being's thought will provide a description for this essential makes this mode of inquiry an internalist component of linguistic communication, one. Further, as part of this internalist namely explicate what I mean by inquiry, formal descriptions need to be understanding other minds. Then I will provided for the structures of linguistic units discuss the idea of narratives to show how such as phrases and sentences. propositional thought is less explanatory According to recent formulations of than narratives in understanding the act of generative grammar, a single operation is communication. I will illustrate this point sufficient for building the syntactic

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 47 structure of human language. This context consisting of two individuals X and operation is called “Merge”. “Merge”is Y. When X uses an expression not known to defined as the operation that “takes any two Y, then Y has to either guess its meaning syntactic elements and combines them into from the context, or find out from X or look a new, larger hierarchically structured up a dictionary. In any case, for expression” (Berwick & Chomsky, 2016, communication to happen, it is important p. 10). Basic formal semantics posits that for Y to have a working sense of what X has the meaning of linguistic expressions gets in mind. formed incrementally as the syntactic structure gets built up, a principle known as In other words, the idea of “shared compositionality. The unit of meaning cognoscitive powers” is not very clear. If corresponding to a sentence is a the cognitive content (mental constructs, proposition, whose truth-value can be propositions, etc.) associated with a word is determined. This picture is more or less a purely individual matter, how is it that compatible with the philosophy underlying two or more individuals come to share the generative grammar, according to which same content with respect to a word? linguistic structures correspond to units of David Bleich (1988), offers an answer to thought. The correspondence between this question when he takes a detailed look language and thought implies that the basic at the idea that language is fundamentally syntactic operation of “merge”is ultimately social. When two individuals are involved a property of thought. However, a major in an act of communication, according to shortcoming of this view of linguistic Bleich, they acknowledge that they matter meaning based on such a formal and to each other and have a responsibility to internalist approach is that it is agnostic understand and to be intelligible to each about how one person understands other (p. 67). If social relationship is another's thoughts in the context of inseparable from linguistic communication, communication. There has to be something having a shared cognitive content for an above and beyond compositionality that expression would be a simple consequence. contributes to meaning, and beyond the However, studies in pragmatics have made factors having to do with a shared context; it clear that there is more to meaning than this has to do with understanding what the compositionality or the parallelism speaker has in mind. between syntax and semantics. Beyond pragmatic principles such as implicatures, I For language to work in contexts of would like to propose that there is a communication, it is important for the narrative component to meaning. This does participants to have common meanings for not obviate the idea that propositions are linguistic expressions. This arises, according units of thought and as a result, are integral to Chomsky and Berwick (2016), from to how we understand language. Instead, it “shared cognoscitive powers” that lets supplements that view by focusing on human beings form common “mental Bleich's point that meaning-making is a constructs”, “presuppositions”, and so on reciprocal and dynamic activity based on (p. 86). Imagine a simple communicative social relationships (Bleich, 1988). Thus,

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 48 meaning arises out of narratives shared by ways, and of the bird eneke-nti-oba participants in a conversation. I will who challenged the whole world to a illustrate this point with the help of parables wrestling contest and was finally and myths shared by a community, as thrown by the cat. He remembered the depicted in a work of fiction. story she often told of the quarrel between Earth and Sky long ago, and Narratives and Thought how Sky withheld rain for seven years, There are many interesting examples of until crops withered and the dead could non-propositional thought in Chinua not be buried because the hoes broke Achebe's novel Things Fall Apart (1958), on the stony Earth. At last Vulture was which was written in English and which sent to plead with Sky, and to soften his deals with what happened to the land, heart with a song of the suffering of the culture and livelihood of the Igbo sons of men. Whenever Nwoye's community in Nigeria just before and mother sang this song he felt carried during the early days of western away to the distant scene in the sky colonization. An important component of where Vulture, Earth's emissary, sang the characters' communication are the stories for mercy. At last Sky was moved to known by most members of the community pity, and he gave to Vulture rain and explanations of truths about life. Interestingly, many of the stories involve wrapped in leaves of coco-yam. But as animals. Such stories and explanations are he flew home his long talon pierced the important to the way in which members of leaves and the rain fell as it had never the community think about and understand fallen before. And so heavily did it rain their world. Translating such thoughts to on Vulture that he did not return to propositions might be missing an important deliver his message but flew to a point about how human beings think. This distant land, from where he had espied can be exemplified using two examples. a fire. And when he got there he found The first one is a description of stories that it was a man making a sacrifice. He Nwoye, one of the children in the novel, warmed himself in the fire and ate the hears from his parents: entrails. (p. 17) So Okonkwo encouraged the boys to sit with him in his obi, and he told them Notice that the story told by Nwoye's stories of the land—masculine stories mother shows deep emotional content and of violence and bloodshed. Nwoye a world view that shows close connections knew that it was right to be masculine between human and non-human nature. and to be violent, but somehow he still Stories like this suggest that thoughts relate preferred the stories that his mother to imaginative accounts and descriptions used to tell, and which she no doubt that help people understand the world still told to her younger children— around them. I would agree with the view stories of the tortoise and his wily that language is a window into thought, but

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 49 I disagree with the view that meaning is the other, respectively show that the computed by determining truth-values of members of the community share propositions, which seems to me to be a narratives that form an important part of result of a formalistic requirement. The their thinking. Notice that anybody can interesting fact is that the members of a understand how these shared narratives community share thoughts that result from within a community contribute to the way the common stories and myths that formed they think. So it is important to attend to the their world view. fact that the point of these examples is not The second story has to do with convincing to suggest linguistic relativism, according the main character, who is ordered to move to which features of particular languages to his mother's land for a few years as a shape the way the world is viewed and punishment for a crime he had committed. understood (Whorf, 1956, p.213). However, I do want to indicate that the The excerpt given here is the advice given conception of thoughts as propositions by a male elder of his mother's family: with truth-values might arise from a very specific world view based on verification Why is Okonkwo with us today? This of linguistic statements. is not his clan. We are only his mother's Apart from the fact that literature is also a kinsmen. He does not belong here. He type of communication, there is another is an exile, condemned for seven years reason why literary texts are ideal for to live in a strange land. And so he is illustrating a view of language which gives bowed with grief. But there is just one emphasis on narratives. A process similar question I would like to ask him. Can to the encoding and decoding described at you tell me, Okonkwo, why it is that the outset seems to be at work when we, as one of the commonest names we give readers, are deeply affected by literature. our children is Nneka, or "Mother is Readers often remark how deeply they are Supreme?" We all know that a man is moved by certain works of fiction and the head of the family and his wives do poetry. Formally, this emotional-aesthetic his bidding. A child belongs to its effect must have a component that works father and his family and not to its by compositionality, for the desired effect mother and her family. A man belongs is produced by the combination of to his fatherland and not to his linguistic units. (An interesting discussion motherland. And yet we say Nneka of the aesthetic effect of literary work –'Mother is Supreme.' Why is that? occurs in Pollock (2010)). The similarity in (p.44) the nature of this effect to meaning stretches beyond compositionality to These two passages, about the relationship understanding the author's mind, which between human and non-human nature on includes the affective devices the author the one hand and human relationships on has used.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 50 Translation further, one might suggest that the reason The act of translation is not a mere act of why fiction is an effective tool for language translating words and following the teaching is a result of this. Further, grammatical rules of the target language. narratives take on a special prominence Unless the translator has a sense of the because of the fact that human beings use culture and myths of the source language, language as a mediator between the outer the translation will be inadequate. Given world and the inner domain of ideas. A that Chinua Achebe is an Igbo speaker who chose to write in English, it is possible to special focus on narratives with respect to imagine Things Fall Apart as a work of language helps us understand the ways in translation. The author's deep understanding which we relate to the world, as illustrated of the source language and culture would by the passages from Things Fall Apart. explain the power of the novel. Although not narrated in the language of the region in References which the novel is set and in which the conversations in the novel could plausibly Achebe, C. (1995). Things Fall Apart. New York, have taken place, the novel is successful in NY: Everyman's Library Alfred A. Knopf, Everyman's Library Knopf. communicating the shared stories that Berwick, R. & Chomsky, N. (2016). Why only us: are unique to that culture and offer Language and evolution. Cambridge, MA: entertainment and wisdom to its members. MIT Press. The effective transmission of culturally Bleich, D. (1988). The double perspective: specific stories in Things Fall Apart Language, literacy, and social relations. New illustrates an aspect of translation that goes York: Oxford University Press. beyond the mechanical acts of finding Pollock, S. (2010). What was Bhatòtòa Nay?aka roughly equivalent words in the target saying? The hermeneutical transformation of language and applying the grammatical Indian aesthetics. In S. Pollock (Ed.),Epic and rules. I wish to point out that the idea of a argument in Sanskrit literary history: Essays in deep cultural sensibility is applicable to honor of Robert P. Goldman (pp. 143-184). normal linguistic communication just as it is New Delhi: Manohar. to the domain of translation. Whorf, B.L. (1956). Language, thought, and reality. Cambridge: MIT Press.

Conclusion Jobin M. Kanjirakkat is a postdoctoral fellow at The key idea in this paper that dealt with a University of King's College and Dalhousie spectrum of concepts such as grammar, University, Halifax, Canada. He works on the project “Cosmopolitanism and the Local in Science meaning, truth-values, fiction and and Nature: East and West”. translation was the importance of narratives [email protected] with respect to the mapping between language and thought. This is a fact that is not sufficiently appreciated by linguists of an internalist orientation. Taking a step

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 51 Technology Innovations for Language Learning

Jennifer Thomas

The Austrian-British philosopher, Ludwig English (Dutta and Bala 2012). Classroom Wittgenstein said, “The limits of my pedagogy leaves a lot to be desired, with the language are the limits of my world” main focus often being on questions and (1961). As human beings, language is answers (Noronha et al 2015, and Dutta and something that we constantly use to Bala 2012). According to Dutta and Bala symbolize; we symbolize our feelings, our (2012), “mostly the teacher asked the needs and our thoughts. In other words, the questions, students were not motivated to language we use is deeply enmeshed within ask question [sic], this deprives the students the social context of its use. But how often of practice for communication, command do we turn our language classrooms into and confidence. Across all the states, just 5 to spaces of vivacious talk and self- 10% of students asked questions.” expression? Ironically, the breakdown in communication seems most severe in the second language Talk in the Classroom classroom. Students learning English as a second language have few or no In a comparative education study across opportunities to use it in informal situations. Russia, India, England, France and This is what Cummins calls Basic America, Robin Alexander (2001) found that on an average, “teachers everywhere Interpersonal Communication Skills spoke not only much more frequently than (BICS). This is the language we use in their pupils but also for longer ….” He also social situations and is a stepping stone to found that Indian students “were more Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency monosyllabic in their utterances than those (CALP) which is essential for students to elsewhere.” Alexander observed that in succeed academically in school. Large India, in most cases the teacher spoke to the class sizes aside, the “textbook trap” that entire class and the nature of this talk was most teachers fall into, impedes teachers largely instructional, explanatory or from enabling any kind of meaningful interrogative. There were few instances of language use by children in the classroom, especially spoken English. informal talk in the classroom. Subsequent NCERT studies corroborate these findings, and highlight the lacunae in the current Technology and Language Learning pedagogy of English in schools. Children The last few decades of education do not get opportunities to speak or listen to technology in India have largely restricted

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 52 innovations to glamourizing ways of geared to provide English learning “transmitting” information to students. In experiences to students, the Connected fact, EduSat technology became an added Learning Initiative (CLIx) is one such appendage to the teacher who was already instance of using thoughtful education transferring knowledge to students in the technology to deliver a meaning-focused classroom. The focus since then has been on English course material to high school digitizing content for easy dissemination and students. Every lab session provides consumption in classroom. A recent report learners with opportunities to listen to on teaching and technology by British conversational English, followed by Council and Central Square Foundation activities that make use of interactive (Motteram 2017) corroborates this view. digital tools to improve their listening and They found that teaching with visuals and speaking skills. The production tasks videos was the most popular mode of using typically use audio or pictorial triggers to technology in the classroom. One encourage meaningful usage of English in purported reason teachers gave for this was authentic contexts. Being mindful of their impression that children were able to collaborative learning principles, the understand and retain information better. course is designed to enable students to However, there is little evidence to suggest work in pairs at a computer terminal rather that it effectively changes the nature of than individually. Teacher guidance and learning among children. feedback on tasks are however essential to keep them motivated. The Computer Lab: An Alternative Most students are excited to be able to Space of Language Learning access spoken English material as very As language teachers, many of us feel that little English is otherwise available in their the computer lab is beyond the purview of environment. In our observations, we have our classrooms. We look at the computer often seen students listen to audio clips lab as “another” space—a space to teach more than once while simultaneously digital literacy skills, computer programs following the subtitles or reading the and even computer languages, but never transcripts. Students appreciate the same the languages we speak. In fact, computer language subtitling feature as it allows labs hold the promise of rich language them to better understand what is being learning experiences for students when spoken. teachers identify and use technology What is most interesting to observe is the resources that allow students to be active kind of talk that opens up around the agents of learning. listening and speaking tasks. Students talk The audio output and recording functionality to each other to try and understand the is a simple feature of computer technology audio stories or conversations better. They that can be exploited to give students an discuss strategies to create conversations, immersive language experience. Currently recollect words, phrase sentences and then

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 53 record themselves. In most cases, the talk content is putting students on a path of around the task is usually in the local learning how to learn. language. However, it is interesting to note Let's move away from using technology to that in 100 per cent of the cases the final disseminate information and let us use it product, whether a story or a conversation, instead to create safe learning spaces is in the target language. By not curtailing buzzing with talk. the number of attempts for a task, the design of the course fosters a safe space for References learners to play with the language. For Alexander, R. (2001). Culture & Pedagogy: instance, students use the recording feature International Comparisons in Primary not only to speak but also to playback and Education. London: Wiley-Blackwell. listen to their audio recordings. Students Dutta, U. & Bala, N. (2012). Teaching of English at describe this as a strategy to correct Primary Level in Government Schools. New themselves and re-record conversations to Delhi: NCERT & EdCIL their satisfaction. Noronha, S., De Souza, N & Ferus-Comelo, A. (2015). Child Literacy in Goa: A Need for The course scaffolds language learning by Stronger Foundations. Goa: Sethu and giving simple feedback to learners on tasks Bookworm. they attempt. Speaking tasks give learners Motteram,G. (Ed.). (2017). Teaching and opportunity to first listen to model Technology: Case Studies from India. New conversations, pick words from a word Delhi: British Council & Central Square Foundation. cloud and then record their own Papert, S. (1980). Mindstorms: Children, conversations. As they progress through Computers and Powerful Ideas. New York: the sessions, students slowly begin to take Basic Books Inc. charge of their own learning, and embark Wittgenstein, L. (1961) Tractatus Logico on a path of autonomous learning. In his Philosophicus, trans D.F. Pears and B.F. McGuinnes. London: Routledge & Keagan book, Mindstorms, Papert (1980) notes, Paul. The presence of computers begins to go beyond first impact when it alters Jennifer Thomas is currently working on the the nature of the learning process; for Connected Learning Initiative (CLIx), a example, if it shifts the balance collaborative project of the Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Mumbai with MIT, Cambridge, supported between transfer of knowledge to by the Tata Trusts. students (whether via book, teacher, [email protected] or tutorial is irrelevant) and the production of knowledge by students. In other words what we are beginning to see in CLIx classrooms is how simple technological innovations combined with a thoughtful learning design and appropriate

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 54 Interview Praveen Singh (PS) talks to Professor Karuvannur Puthanveettil Mohanan (KPM)

Prof. K P Mohanan did his Ph. D in Linguistics from MIT in 1982. He has taught at various Universities including University of Texas at Austin, Stanford University and National University of Singapore. Currently he is the Visiting Faculty at IISER, Pune. His interests lie in Theoretical linguistics, Epistemology of academic inquiries, Critical thinking and inquiry in education, Integrative education and research. He has made significant contributions in the field of Phonology, Morphology and Syntax and has several research papers and books to his credit. He is best known for his book The Theory of Lexical Phonology. [email protected]

PS: Could you, very briefly, tell us about taught me Linguistics the traditional way, I yourself, your entry into the world of came to develop an interest in Linguistics. language and Linguistics, how it came to be a part of you? PS: You said nobody was there to teach you Linguistics. You learnt it like an apprentice KPM: Well, my undergraduate degree was at a potter's. in Physics. And I hated Physics. So, when I was supposed to be studying Physics, KPM: Yeah, that is the way MIT works. We I would read a lot of English literature. started doing research in the very first year I barely scraped through my undergrad with experienced researchers and if at all degree. Then my father thought that I should there was any classroom activity, it was like do a degree in English literature. I thought a debate between the teacher and the that was good, but when I joined the Masters student. MIT expects students to show that program in English literature, I discovered the teachers are wrong. I am talking about that I hated that. At that time I started the MIT many years ago, in the late 70s. studying philosophy and psychology. And after my Masters in English literature I bumped into Linguistics accidently. And PS: How did you find the education system one of the inspirations was N. S. Prabhu. I in US different from the education system discovered that this is a very exciting subject. in India? And I started studying it on my own. I went to EFLU (which was earlier called CIEFL) KPM: The education system that was and started pursuing Linguistics, ended up practised in India during those days at MIT. At MIT nobody tried to teach me expected a good student to read a lot and linguistics. I did linguistics the way repeat whatever the authorities had said. students in a pottery workshop work as This is what I used to do before I went to apprentices to experienced potters, and MIT. When I went to MIT I found that learnt how to do linguistics. Since nobody everything I 'knew' about Linguistics was

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 55 no longer important, and I discovered it KPM: Absolutely. Before I went to MIT, as was extremely hard for me to keep pace I said earlier, I went to CIEFL and did my with even what was happening in the diploma in English language teaching. I classroom. Once I had a problem in wrote a series of correspondence course phonology, and I went to Morris Halle to lessons for CIEFL: Twenty lessons in consult him. He listened to the problem and Linguistics, and twenty lessons in said it was a good problem, and asked me Grammar. I wrote the ultimate truth. Do what the solution was. I said that I didn't you know how I discovered the ultimate know the solution. He said he didn't have truth? From books! And my job as a teacher solutions to all the problems of the world. was to simplify things, make them more He told me, “Go and find a solution, and we interesting and teach the ultimate truths to will have an intelligent discussion.” I was the student. I was, in a sense, indoctrinating first shocked when he told me that he didn't my students. I was very popular because know the solution to the problem. I I was good at exposition, simple wondered, how could the foremost explanations and all that stuff. The lessons phonologist say that he didn't know that I had written were extremely popular something. How can a god say he is and continued to be used long after I had ignorant. That was a shock. And then this left CIEFL. I look back with horror at what god said that what he couldn't solve, he I did to my students. I didn't know anything wanted a first year graduate student to better so that's what I did. At MIT in my solve. You know, I had gone to MIT to sit at first year, I took a course that Ken Hale and the feet of great masters and learn from Wayne O' Neil taught on Linguistics them. I was shocked to hear the master education. And the basic idea that Ken Hale saying, “Go away and figure it out on your and Wayne O' Neil suggested was that, own”. Since he ordered me to find a instead of handing down readymade solution, I had to obey. I found a solution, knowledge of Linguistics to students, you and then we developed it into a paper. That can design the course in such a way that was a cultural shock. I discovered that they construct Linguistics. graduate students' job was to think The idea was that, it is not the content independently, and this is important knowledge of Linguistics that is important because Morris specifically told me that but the ways of thinking that are my job as a student was to demonstrate that characteristic of Linguistics as a science. he was wrong, Chomsky was wrong, etc., So what students learn would be the to develop Linguistics further. That looked methods of scientific inquiry. They said difficult to accept at first. this could also be done in high school. And my response, I must confess, was, “This is PS: You said you were already teaching completely insane…” I thought that was even before going to MIT. Did you change impossible. Ken didn't push it. He simply your teaching style after having received said, “Why don't you try it out and find these cultural shocks? out?” And even though I thought this was

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 56 just insane, I decided to try it out because experience language around them, you Ken was saying it and I had trust in Ken. don't teach children a language. In the way, Tara and I taught a one week course in for example, you put a seed in the ground phonetics, following Ken's ideas. The and water it and the seed develops into a course was meant for language teachers in tree. Boston. And, to our pleasant surprise, it The same way, the grammar grows in the was almost like a shock. We discovered that mind of the child. And for children, you students learnt Phonetics that could not don't have to teach them, they pick it up on have been learnt in a regular traditional their own. This also applies to writing course over a year. It was extraordinarily actually. So, our daughter learnt how to successful. Besides learning the content, read when she was about three years old. the students learnt it with considerable We didn't teach her the letters of the understanding. alphabet, and we did not teach her any spelling either. We read to her and she was PS: From your experience as a teacher and simply looking at the book, and she later your experience at MIT, were there associated it with the stuff she heard. By the any insights that you found really crucial, time she was three, she was a reasonably which changed the way you looked at good reader. She read stories and she learnt children or adults learning their first spelling. She learnt letters like a, b, c and d language and later, the second language? long after she became a fluent reader. She discovered that letters existed. I still remember, we were standing in front of the KPM: The only change that I can Botanical Gardens in Singapore, waiting remember is the change from total passive for a cab and she looked at the sign board acceptance of indoctrination by authorities and she suddenly discovered, she went to it which was the state before I went to MIT, to and she pointed out the letter A. And then thinking about these issues on my own another letter, then another letter A, that's without respect for authorities. And my when she discovered these recurrent things primary interest during those days was with writing. And she learnt alphabet at that Theoretical Linguistics and not language point. The same thing would apply to teaching per se. But, of course, you can't second language learning in schools as help glancing sideways at language well. Teaching concepts like nouns and teaching occasionally. I am not going to verbs and adjectives and so on is largely a defend these views but since you asked me waste of time. If we expose children to the this, I will give you my personal subjective use of language, that's all there is. opinions. I am not talking as a researcher, This is exactly what Chomsky would also because I haven't done any research in say. There is a famous article 'Listener second language learning and so on. I find article' that Chomsky wrote in 1968 or so, that within the Chomskian view of when people asked him for advice on language learning, where children simply language teaching, he said, “If you are a

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 57 language teacher, don't come to me.” teacher teaching English to kids who do not Modern Linguistics is kind of useless (for have English, or are you talking about the language teaching). This is like saying, you Hindi language teacher teaching kids who don't ask a relativity theorist or a quantum already speak Hindi fairly fluently? These mechanics person, how to play basketball. are two different things. That's a different game. Not even Newtonian mechanics. The interests are completely different. The kinds of things PS: Would you take different positions on that theoretical linguists are interested in the two? are of no use to the language teacher because they cannot be taught. And the KPM: Yeah, because the teacher of Hindi, kinds of things that the language teacher is who is teaching Hindi to fluent speakers of interested in, for example, what is the past Hindi can use Hindi as a terrain to build a tense of [go], the linguist has no interest in capacity for scientific theory construction that. Why should anybody bother about or scientific inquiry, in general. But, if the that stuff? The irregular things are what the same teacher goes to Kerala, where there language teacher is interested in. The are many villages where they have no Hindi universals are what the linguist is interested at all and the teacher's goal is to teach some in. They have completely different interests. Hindi. For that purpose, Linguistics is useless. For the first purpose, Linguistics is eminently suitable. It's fantastic stuff PS: OK, but do you think that there is some because theory construction in Linguistics is understanding of Linguistics that might be possible in a classroom. Theory construction of help to the language teacher? in Physics is extremely difficult because you can't collect the data for Physics in the KPM: Not the Linguistics of the kind that classroom. In Linguistics, you can get the theoretical linguists are pursuing. The kind data from the students. Not only that, but of stuff that the undergrad students of also variable data. So lab experiments and Linguistics get in their first semester of theory construction, all of that can be done Linguistics is enough. It's not heavy in the same space. And I think that way, structure, theory or anything like that. Just Linguistics is unique. So, I would say, it is common sense stuff. That would be useful. probably the best terrain for learning how But there is nothing beyond that. to construct scientific theories... Next to that, I would say, Biology is good. PS: Do you think that language can be used to develop the capacity for scientific PS: Now, getting back to the case where inquiry? you have a Hindi language teacher trying to teach Hindi to a class that does not know KPM: When you say language teacher, are Hindi. Do you think that there also you talking about an English language knowledge of linguistics can be helpful?

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 58 KPM: No. There, linguistics is going to be I have also seen kids, for example kids in a hindrance. Instead, all that you need to do Hyderabad in CIEFL, who spoke about six is give the kind of experience that children/ languages by the time they were about first language speakers of English/Hindi, or three. Nobody taught them. They picked up any other language for that matter, have. languages from their surroundings. So, the Nobody should teach them Hindi. Children question really is — can we give (to absorb it from the environment through children) that kind of an environment, not in meaningful language use. So, what the Hindi a city like Hyderabad where it is easy but in a teacher has to do is to provide environment rural setting, let's say a village in Kerala in which children have to use the language where you find a monolingual community? meaningfully. And, they pick it up. What can the teacher do? Yes. The teacher can expose the kids to, for example, English videos, and if they just watch the videos PS: How do you see a language teacher where the story is interesting, kids will pick tackling situations where you may have 25- up English. And then, the teacher reads out 30 or sometimes even 40-50 kids speaking the stories to the kids. But there should not anywhere between 5 to 15 languages in simply be the audio but also the text that they classrooms and English is a foreign can see. Assume, for example, there is text language for all those children. So, what coming up on the TV screen, and the teacher can a language teacher do in such cases? is reading it out, or may be the person who is creating the video is also reading it out. So KPM: Let me tell you how I picked up kids hear the words, sentences, also see the English. I didn't pick up any English from written text. And kids will learn to read school or college. I went to a Malayalam before they learn the alphabet. Kids are medium school. I couldn't speak a word of interested in stories. That's how our daughter English. I couldn't read English. I couldn't learnt to read, because we would read the write English. And after I finished my high story half way through, and then stop and school, my father gave me Glimpses of leave the book there, and then say we don't World History and asked me to read it. I want to read it now, we'll read it tomorrow. struggled with it. I had to look up all the She wanted to get the story. And, when we words. In one page I had at least twenty went away, she started reading it because she words that I didn't know. I consulted the wanted to. It was meaningful for her. But if dictionary and learnt the stuff. I learnt to you teach kids letters a, b, c and standing speak English in my second year of the lines and sloping lines, or if you teach some Bachelor's degree. I couldn't speak English phonics, it is completely meaningless for till then. I learnt English through English them. They are not going to learn. movies. I can't recall anything that I learnt about English — whether it is English PS: What you are saying is that there is no reading or writing, or accent — from any need to teach a language. Language will teacher or from any textbook. happen automatically.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 59 KPM: Most importantly, you have to more interesting for both the sets of engage in activities which are of interest to learners in separate classes? kids. But it is different when you are twenty years old and you want to go to Germany or KPM: For the younger kids who are not to some other place. Tara learnt Spanish interested in learning a language but they that way. We had to go to Argentina where are interested in doing various things, they speak only Spanish. So, when you are playing games and so on. They might be thirty or forty or fifty [years old], those interested, for example in singing songs, things don't happen. You know that you they might be interested in play acting in want to learn Spanish because you want to their mother tongue or in English. They go to Argentina. So, she learnt Spanish by would love to do that. They would like to going to Duolingo which is like a hear stories. This is what the group called combination of English and Spanish. 'Karadi tales' used to do. They would sing Again, they were using the same principles. songs and tell stories. [For example,] Usha They use, for example, translation for that Uthup comes and sings English songs, and matter. So, Grammar Translation Method is kids learn to sing in English and they get the pretty good. pronunciation; they get the words. But they think they are learning how to sing. I can PS: After the 1980s people have mostly sing Hindi songs and I don't know the looked down upon the Grammar meaning of any of them. The sounds just Translation Method or any such attempt on come to me. Of course, if I am also using the part of the teacher in classrooms and [speaking?] Hindi, those words would here you are saying that it is good. This is a come to me. It will assist me later. The same new take on GT method. way kids will learn to sing. They would learn to start acting in plays and then you ask them to write the plays or modify the KPM: I am not recommending Grammar plays. Translation Method where Grammar is taught for its own sake, instead only for Let's say for example, there is a short play occasional tips here and there. Oh, okay! of two pages. Kids memorize the lines and That's very different. Only when an adult then you tell them, what if you want to needs it and also a self-conscious learner change the story? You write the play or who is learning the grammar and has the modify it. They wouldn't even realize they question: Hey! Why does this language are learning English. They would think have strange things that my mother tongue they are writing plays. But they would be learning how to write. The same is true with doesn't have? stories. They want to know the stories and we ask them to write stories. But it has to be PS: Are there ways in which the language things that they want to do and they find teacher, whether she is teaching small kids meaningful. Very little in language or adults, can somehow make the classes textbooks that we use today are of any

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 60 interest to children. It is not something that textbook is decided, final examinations are they want to read but something that the decided, even the kinds of questions that teacher wants to do. So, the teacher has to the teachers have to ask will be decided by shift, saying, what is it that children would the principal. If you have to keep the job, like to do independently of language where you have to obey these masters. Then there I can keep language in the background. are the parents who will say, “Have you They wouldn't even know they are learning prepared our children for the exams?” If a language, and make them learn that. you don't do that, your job is threatened. So, Language comes in sideways; language is the teacher is simply a robot with very little not the object. choice. So, teacher-training programmes, instead of empowering teachers how not to PS: What could a language teacher do do their jobs like robots, teach some where there is no chalk and no board? irrelevant stuff like psychology of learning, Piaget's theory and behaviourist theory and constructivism and so on, a whole bunch of KPM: Story-telling, singing, play-acting, stuff that is completely irrelevant to the all these are still possible. teacher's job. Waste of time. If you want to change the quality of PS: Can you suggest things that should be education, it is not just the teacher, the made an essential part of the teacher- victim, the robot that you need to change. training programmes that are carried out in You need to first train the board members. this country? Ideally you should change them, and give training courses to education ministers. KPM: Abolish all teacher-training But I assume that education ministers are programmes, that's the very first step not 'educatable' nor will they be interested because I have not seen a single teacher- so leave that out. The next level would be training programme that is relevant to the people who are, you know, in MHRD, teachers. Let me explain why this is so. In other officials, and so on. They too will not the current system of education, let me come to any training programme, so forget stick to school education, class I to class X. that. Then there are the board members. So Someone in the board, some CBSE or some provide training programmes for NCERT state board decides what the syllabus is, folks and CBSE folks and State Board folks they prescribe the textbooks, they decide and so on. But we face the same problem. everything including final examination and They too won't come. Okay so give up on then the rest of the decisions are made by all that stuff. Then there is the school the principal of the school, not by the management and the school administration. teachers. The teachers have no choice in Not many school managements and school any of these texts. What is the teacher's job? administrations will be willing to come to To use the textbooks to do something in the these programmes. But some rare cases classroom. The syllabus is decided, the might. Find them.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 61 PS: So what do you think is wrong with our programme teach teachers how to coach real classroom practices, the teacher- effectively and efficiently?” Coaching, training practices and the administrative what the coaching factories do, every guidelines? teacher is required to do that. Do any of the teacher-training programmes do that? Not that I know of, because they think it is KPM: You see, teacher training is a beneath their dignity to do it. Practical professional programme. Any professional reality is that this is part of the teacher's programme has to be based on some function. In fact, in many schools that's the expectation, realistic expectation of the only function, nothing else. So, skip all the future function of the person you are psychology of learning and constructivism training. That means you have to ask and all that, it's totally irrelevant stuff. yourself: what is it that the teacher has to do in the school? Teachers cannot create Take for example, NCF 2005. They have a materials. They cannot design their own huge bunch of words about constructivism. assessment. Most of these things are done by I was in NCERT as an external member for somebody else. The primary preoccupation some time and I asked many of them what for the teacher is covering the portion. The constructivism meant. Nobody had a clue. teachers that I have interacted with say, we It's just a word. The question that I asked can't deal with any of this fancy stuff. We was this – Imagine a classroom which is have to cover the portion. Okay, given that constructivist but they don't subscribe to scenario, what can a teacher do? If the other things such as experiential learning, teacher doesn't cover the portion she loses interactive learning, activity based learning, her job. So, where should education reform task based learning, project based learning, begin? Not with the teacher, not with the problem based learning, inquiry based student, these are both victims. Students learning, peer learning, and so on. One have no choice. Teachers have no choice. teacher subscribes to everything but not Who are the people who have the power to constructivism, and another teacher change the system? Those people are not subscribes to constructivism but not the going to change it. That's why I said the other things. Is there a difference between mid-level: the school administration and the two teachers? Nobody has an answer. the school management. They have some They don't know what the word means. options, though not a great deal. Because They just use those words. Show me any even they have to go by what the board says person who wrote the constructivism stuff in the final examination. If they don't help in the NCF 2005 who really understands the kids do well in the final examination, what the word implies, except for about, I there won't be students. And many schools would say, 3 or 4 people and I have specific have to make sure that kids do well in IIT- people in mind. I have read some of their JEE. Both of these are detrimental to work. The rest of the people have no clue. I students' growth. The necessary evil. So, let have also asked, “Can you distinguish me ask, “Does any teacher-training between a constructivist textbook and a

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 62 non-constructivist textbook? Can you internationally English is the most dominant distinguish between”, this is more language. So monolingual speakers of important, “a constructivist examination English can manage but monolingual question and a non-constructivist speakers of even French and German will examination question?” The students learn find it hard because they may have to go to what is needed for the examination, right? English-speaking countries. It just happens If they cannot design constructivist that economically the most dominant examination questions, none of this has any language is English. It may happen in 20 use. It's simply rhetorical buzzword. Now, years or 30 years that Chinese is the it is possible to define constructivism in language, that language in the sense that it a certain way such that you design [China] becomes the richest country and constructivist examination questions such where knowledge is constructed in which that constructivism spreads to schools. You case all of us would have to learn Chinese. don't need to do anything, all that you have to This is simply socio-economic. So the do is to design constructivist examination reason for learning English is simply socio- questions. Teachers will be constructivist economic-cum-academic and that's how automatically, because parents will force we have to teach English — as a way of them, school principals will force them. You accessing knowledge. don't need training, they will learn or they will come and beg you to teach them how to PS: Thank you, sir. It was great talking to do that stuff. All that you need to do is to you. change the examination. But who in our country is going to do that? Praveen Singh is a trained English language teacher. His interests include the structure of PS: There is a popular view that English English and theories of word formation. connects people in different parts of this [email protected] country. How do you think this view should be reflected in the pedagogy? Is that even needed?

KPM: If you ask the question why we need English in India, the main answer is we need English as a window to knowledge. If I want to learn mathematics or understand quantum mechanics I have to read English. So minimally English allows us to access knowledge that is constructed in the world. Some knowledge is also constructed in French or German and so on but

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 63 Landmark Between the Lines

Rimli Bhattacharya

Entering terra incognita cultures? And how often do we find reading Language is an unknown land of tricky material that allows us to do so? delights. Words are used not only to mean I wonder how many of these issues merit a this or that, but also to suggest multiple mention in our conceptualization of significations. To obscure as much as they textbooks and indeed in the teaching- reveal. To evoke as much as to state and learning process as a whole. On the contrary, demonstrate. To be ambivalent and increasingly—and this is happening at a multivalent. However hard humans have global level—there is a tendency to think of tried over the centuries to tailor language to language in a purely instrumentalist way. the demands of different disciplines (the Answers must be written within “x” number broadest one being “the arts” and the of words, shrinking to the point, where Ph.D. “sciences”), there are writers who delight entrance examinations in (once) premier in crossing borders. universities are being held through They do so by using humour to speak of multiple choice questions. Learning how to violence, without taking away from the question and what to question are basic horrors or effect of violence; by provoking survival skills in a global age of big data readers to question the “authority” of the and misinformation. know-it-all omniscient author; by In this paper, I will draw on some short texts “explaining” or revealing the mysteries of which seem to fit the bill with regard to the nature without taking away the quality of many questions raised here, although the the marvellous; by fabricating tantalizing texts were written for children about a titles…and so on. If the language of science century ago! and technology has to be precise and objective, does it necessarily mean that the Introducing Sandesh language of literature is wishy-washy, vague and generally dreamy? Is subjective Diving into the digitized archives of a such a bad word? Does imagination have children's magazine of about a hundred years nothing to do with understanding facts? ago is fun, even addictive. I share some of Are not facts liable to change? Can playing my findings from Sandesh, a monthly with language actually hone critical skills, magazine founded by Upendrakisor cut across disciplines, move across Raychaudhuri (1863-1915), who was also a

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 64 pioneer in printing technology. Sandesh, nonsense poem. Many of the texts with its pun on news and the Bengali misthi mentioned loss of life, depicted violent or mithai, with full-page colour illustrations deaths, even providing graphic details of of very high quality, was meant for children, cause and effect, whether in “raw nature” or although adults also figured as its avid in the workings of technology in nature. readers! The first issue came out in April-May Little was censored. If the successes of 1913; Upendrakisor died in December 1915. technology imparts to its readers a sense of In its first phase, the publication ended with his being a witness to new wonders, there was son Sukumar Ray's death in September 1923. also the flip side of technology—what we Sandesh would be revived in only 1961 by euphemistically call “collateral damage” Sukumar's son, Satyajit Ray. As the firm was today. The implication was that called “U Ray & Sons”, I shall hereafter understanding or harnessing the mysteries of refer to Upendrakisor as UR and Sukumar science to construct a highly industrialized as SR.1 economy—constituting the British Empire, in this case—also entailed that the UR represented a challenge to the frontiers powers unleashed and put to use in more of technology by developing as a colonial “efficient” ways were always in a state of British subject, as a swadeshi, the most experimentation. Technology was not the subtle and sophisticated range of printing new god which never failed. Perhaps, the in Calcutta. More significantly, he same questioning spirit can be used to challenged notions of children as passive analyse what goes by the general name of readers. “development” in our times. Great care was taken with the format, layout and illustration for each piece in Sandesh. Narrative Modes UR crafted a meld of word and image that was an equally sophisticated mode of The articles in Sandesh aimed at a bringing to his juvenile readership, news of domestication of the latest technology not the world. He focused particularly on the only by imparting its “secrets” and latest marvels of technology in the realm of “incertitudes” to colonial children, but also by making the subject more accessible transport (submarines and monorails), various through a particular mode and medium of versions of air travel (balloons and colloquial Bangla. UR created comfortable aeroplanes), the latest in arms and ballistics -sounding neologisms: for example, the (cannons and guns), as well as the printing submarine was called, “duburi jahaj”— press. World War 1 figured explicitly in many literally, the diving ship or the diver-ship, of these lucidly written articles. thereby humanizing the machine. As a children's periodical, eclecticism was There were several narrative modes in which encouraged. A precise description of the UR illustrated the role of technology. A trajectory of a bullet within the body of a familiar trope (one we are increasingly soldier might have been followed by a suspicious of), was that of “mastering boisterous retelling of a Puranic tale or a nature”—a piece featuring windmills and

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 65 fighter planes was called “Prakritir Posh Snake) or even in a descriptive piece on a Mana”/ Taming Nature. He also illustrated place or a man-made object (“Alokmancha”/ how technology captured and brought to life Lighthouse). In the last text, the lighthouse for ordinary people the marvels of nature in becomes a beacon of dharma or true distant lands—human beings using the conduct arising from belief in the cinematograph in the Polar region. “Supreme Father” through the stormy However, it was the third approach that was waters of life. This is more in tune with unique by all standards. Not only did it stand what Richard Noakes (2004) has the test of time, it has sadly, become the test perceptively termed a “theology of nature” of our times: that even the latest technology in his study of Victorian periodicals for is not immune to failure. “Duburi jahaj”/ children, particularly those run by Submarine, carried the excitement of missionary/ evangelizing societies: undersea scouting, details on how a “Scientific subjects [were] used in a periscope works. But there was a sombre variety of ways, from supporting a note, as when the narrator gave instances of theology of nature and providing the torpedoes destroying a submarine. He even basis for rational amusement, to asked the young readers to imagine a furnishing material for inculcating situation where humans were trapped mental discipline and satisfying (forever) in the inside of a malfunctioning children's taste for facts.”2 submarine. He ended though, with an The most popular of these was the Boy's illustration of specially pressurised diving Own Paper (hereafter BOP), to which suits which would allow humans to escape. SR and UR had access. The BOP was a penny weekly, launched by the Religious The Lighthouse and Migratory Birds Tract Society (1879) in England with Sandesh's focus (by way of text, image and special attention paid to the seductive layout) on the marvels of nature alongside powers of fiction in helping readers absorb the latest in technology was an intertwined information—whether on historical or legacy from earlier children's periodicals scientific or nature-related subjects. in Bangla, such as Sakha (1883), Sathi Sandesh marked a departure from these (1895) and Mukul (1895). Young UR had earlier efforts, indigenous and foreign; contributed as illustrator and writer to these firstly, in the range of narrative “tones” periodicals. Sakha was radical for its time, deployed in the meld of “scientific” and as it carried articles on controversial social “fictive” pieces. I mean “tone” as both questions such as child marriage. With speech and mode of address, an idiolect— regard to science however, it strove to marking registers of belief, or suspension reconcile science with the construction of of belief. UR's project was driven by the need moral character and an abiding faith in the to overcome a colonized subjectivity, creator –“Our Father” (Parampita). Every thereby enabling a juvenile readership to piece in Sakha had an exemplary quality, think through various modes of liberation. whether it was in the genre of a biography Secondly, as mentioned earlier, success is (David Hare) or natural history (“Sarpa”/ never absolute. The article on the lighthouse

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 66 in Sandesh (Alok stambha/ Pillar of Light), Flocks of birds are sitting, nesting, enthusiastically speaks of the life-saving alighting on and flying over an island near quality of the lighthouse for ships at sea, but Africa—one of their “resting places” on a it does not leave out the unintended perils. long migratory route! The caption to this The lighthouse, later called simply, “bati- vibrant illustration was formatted with ghar”, kills hundreds of migratory birds care. A rough translation follows: (prabashi pakhi) who are disoriented and The scene of an island near Africa. Thousands driven off course by its brilliant light, finally of birds come to roost and rest here, after dashing themselves to death against the glass they have crossed the seas. For almost panes. eleven months of the year, there are no UR's article carried a detailed photo of the living creatures here; at the end of lamp in the lighthouse with a human figure the winter, for about a month, the alongside, suggesting the scale, and an cacophony of birds deafen the explanatory text on the system of its ears—people aboard ships can rotation, refraction, the use of mirrors and hear the sound from two miles away! so on. But his concern for the birds and their The concise caption (43 words in Bangla) flight route is evident in the full-page pushes the reader/viewer to make illustration by UR reproduced below. connections between distance and sound, land and ocean, people and birds, travel and rest, inhabited and uninhabited spaces. It is a classic example of how information can be combined with humour, objective detail with a personal comment, leaving so much still to the imagination! Yet, there is hope that in time, science will come up with a safeguard against unintended consequences. Already, we are told, there are perches being placed on many such lighthouses so the birds may find a resting place before they set off again on their long flight. But again, the task of setting up the perches needs “careful calculation”: “If too close to the light, birds do not like to perch on them, and if too far, they do not see the perches”. UR sounds a cautionary, though optimistic note, in relation to the “marvels” of technology. The unfinished agenda of technology (vis- à-vis discoveries in science), the need to Image courtesy CSSSC (Centre for Studies in Social Sciences, Calcutta) Archives constantly search for better methods and

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 67 modes, to continuously calibrate results and Bangla (sadhu bhasha). (Soon after, many measure consequences was characteristic writers, including Rabindranath Tagore, of Sandesh. It reflected the constant shifted to chalit bhasha, closer to the spoken experimentation with photography, printing language.) Information is indeginised; and publishing that went on in the family Latinate and /or Sanskritic constructions are 3 concern. assiduously avoided. So, 'differently abled' would not be 'translated' as divyangan. Intriguing Strategies Although in the first person, the writer is UR develops an entirely new mode of emphatically not the omniscient narrator address, conceptualising his readers as who knows all. Rather, the tone keeps actively engaged in the reading-viewing changing, with different registers ranging process. He also works on the 'dosage': that from the sure to the skeptical, to a frank is, he does not wish to dilute the process of ‘confession’ of “I really don't know…” or, understanding or dumb down the data. At “Well, it could be this or that”; or, “I have the same time, there is enough variation in heard it said by a grandpa” type. the pace, focus and tone in each of the pieces Sometimes, UR simply presented two to retain the reader's interest. The immediate versions and left it for the reader to decide. attempt is to provide analogies from the Some pieces showed a certain philosophical known, familiar and everyday, to the acceptance of varied responses; people unknown, obscure and even 'unimaginable'. were reluctant to change their minds even The general, the rule, the abstract is brought when the facts were before them. In “Nuton within the cognizance of the young reader's Batsar”/ New Year, UR explained the world not only through analogy, but by difference between ancient Indian bringing the 'now' of the reader into the text: astrologers and contemporary almanacs or the narrative is self-referential both for the panjikas. He ended on resigned note: reader and the writer of Sandesh—thus “However that may be, when that calculation is not to be; what will it gain to demystifying the making of the magazine. be lamenting about it?”, followed by an So, the description of a printing press moves ironic twist: “May your hundred years pass into the actual copy of Sandesh that young in supreme happiness as per the readers are holding and reading from. Rarely conventional mode of calculation.” is there a 'conclusive' closure: rather, the idea is to embed questions and inspire a critical The reader was often alerted by a note of scepticism when the writer was not willing approach. This delicate balancing of to vouch for the authenticity of a printed information and interrogation, tempered by text, as in “Kumirer galpa”/ The Story of a humour, is achieved in a number of ways, Crocodile where the writer says “I've read summarised below: in a book about an amusing way of hunting By creating a lively conversational direct crocodiles. It is a story from America, but I approach that privileged colloquial speech cannot say if it is true or false.” (“Ekta even when the piece was written in formal pustake ek mojar rakamer kumir shikarer

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 68 katha parechhi. Eta America desh' er galpa well nurture completely different belief kintu satya kina boltey parina.”) [emphasis systems; not to mention the license of added]. The critical use of the word “but” childhood where the imagination holds (kintu) in this sentence is fairly common. sway. The comparative approach in this text, Some of the stylistic and lexical devices are juxtaposing facts about crocodiles in the in the manner of the Russian skaz, a Sunderbans in Bengal with a region of narrative form in which the first person America (North), suggested to the reader narrator appears as the naïve teller, about scientific disciplines being the great deliberately mystifying by professing equalizer. That is, potentially, any one may ignorance. This opens up unexpected observe and write about natural history in spaces for irony, often at the reader's any part of the world. It was the observer's expense; but encourages speculating and powers of discrimination—the ability to generating new texts. separate the true from the false, to verify Sometimes, the failure to understand and so on, that gave him authority, not his something fully as a child is brought out by race or religion. the adult narrator, usually in a tolerant kind There are several ways in which pure of way. An example is, “Pada aar Chhuti”/ information is made tolerable, and possibly Studies and Holidays, which incidentally memorable: (a) the semi-skeptical tone, refers to the Franco-Prussian war to speak mentioned earlier; (b) direct address to about the laws of Western perspective! readers imagined as thinking subjects: for There is one picture about that war that example,'bhabia dekho' (think about it)… I remember very well. The Prussian 'dhare nao', (consider or suppose); and, (c) soldiers were far away, at a distance, anticipating intelligent questions from the that was why they had been drawn on a readers: 'tomra hoito bolbe' (you might small scale. But when we saw those say), in an article on how rocks are formed. pictures we didn't quite think of it that The articles show a consistent attempt to way; we thought that in reality the interrogate—to separate myth from history, French were huge and the Prussians scientific observation from unexamined tiny. For a long time thereafter we were beliefs; but equally, provide links between puzzled, wondering how on earth did the above. They suggest that these are not those tiny Prussians beat the huge entirely discrete modes of knowing or Frenchmen! representing. Folk memory, mythology, In Sandesh, the reader was invited to hearsay and the latest scientifically proven discuss the subject under consideration: the information may well coexist—as they do first person narrator shared his own on the pages of Sandesh. It is critical to ambivalence about almost everything, discern between them, to enjoy them in including about the wonders of science. On different ways. Upendrakisor underlines the whole, UR and SR stayed away from his present (early 20th century) as a time of the sentimental and the nostalgic in transition where different generations may showcasing nature as the legitimate object

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 69 of study in childhood. This sharing of a 6. Possible solution: yes, but still childhood illusion/ignorance with a young evolving… reader marked a break with the earlier periodicals. It was a direct comment on the Consider too, the range of illustrations stages of perception, without following a integrated into the article: Piaget-like grid of progress. 1. An actual sketch of a lighthouse atop a rocky height surrounded by water; Where do we go from here? 2. An illustrative “close-up” of details of We had glimpses of how narratives of the lamp enabling an actualization of “information” may be inflected with the written text, with the figure of the (infected with!) a humorous, even whimsical lighthouse keeper indicating the scale; tone. How, it is possible to present rigorous research with an interrogative note, 3. The apparently digressive “inset”: an destabilizing the authority of the omniscient island of birds (somewhere not seen, or objective narrator of science or the shipboard of people)…. technology! The implications are many for And do not forget the evocative caption our contemporary scenario, at varied levels below the illustration! of pedagogy and practices. We might find ways of “hooking” readers Texts Outside the Textbook into information-heavy texts, for creating rigorously researched texts that are also Our present is immersed in unthinking open-ended, for creating and initiating new moments of saturation, or, should I say, modes of reading, and not the least, in the long moments where we are pushed not to way we think about illustrations in relation think. A blitzkrieg of images bombards us to written text. Consider the simple yet across micro and macro screens. Every versatile structure of the “Bati-ghar”/ The word and every letter is sought to be Lighthouse in Sandesh: substituted by already composed icons, 1. The focus: the special lamp inside the purportedly operating within a single lighthouse; field of global recognition; effortlessly 2. The larger context: the dangers at sea reproduced across digital domains, losing for sea-faring vessels, especially on all significance in infinite and limited dark and stormy nights (touch of the replay. It appears that we have nothing to do imagination here); until they are replaced by a fresh set of 3. The changes: leading to the latest icons/emoticons—again, by anonymous technology in lighting and construction; agents of backroom boards. A make believe 4. The evaluation: the pros and cons of the of participation with a single click, a zap new system/invention; and a swipe. 5. The negative fallout: the unintended/ The instant coverage of violent acts— unthought of effects—the death of presented as narrative, or in random migratory birds; isolated or morphed images, captioned or

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 70 peppered with sound bytes, with contesting in the text? How does it move beyond claims of sources/sites—does not admit of the text? a space for reflection. 2. Descriptive texts about new discoveries Our grids and our capsules in pedagogy are and inventions. Children can read up increasingly being pushed into this direction. on, or be told by their teacher about a The greater common good is taken to mean new scientific discovery (a new planet) the lowest common denominator, as though, or a new invention (a machine that…) that which is ambivalent, or even unpleasant and then write small texts that not only at first sight, is to be instantly censored or list its new exciting features but, also trolled. For this state of affairs the modes of include possible or potential problems, mass communication and the imperatives of speculate on the future impact of such a passive consumption are unambiguously product over the next five-ten years. responsible. The monopoly owners of 3. Working with linguistic features of channels and broadband, of signals and description, commentary and virtual worlds, are the game changers of the speculation. This could be an exercise day. in using conjunctions and prepositions Conceptualizing the “child's perspective” is in relation to a range of verbs. difficult, if not impossible. While this may 4. Comparative approaches: highlighting still be feasible in anthropological or analogies; marking out differences; ethnographic studies, it can only be by an act researching the nature and possible of imagination… dhare nao/ suppose… as causes for differences, implications. UR says. It means a sophisticated These are only a few insights of language— deployment of a range of linguistic tools that image found in these articles from Sandesh such perspectives— and not exclusively that that await refashioning by the apprentice of a “child”— find place in literature and elsewhere, or in what has been seen as its scholar, the veteran teacher, the masterful other—“science”. writer, and also by children, and so made meaningful for a new century of challenges. Possible pedagogic exercises to create such literature: 1. Image and caption writing. Ask groups Acknowledgements of children to cut out any image or a This paper is part of a larger study undertaken sequence of images from a magazine or during my tenure as Visiting Professor (2014-2016) newspaper that they find relevant to a at the Centre for Studies in the Social Sciences, Calcutta. Most of the research was conducted at the particular text in the textbook. Ask Archives, CSSSC; and also at the Sadharon Brahmo them to write a caption (within a word Samaj Library, Kolkata. A version of this paper was limit) that does more than describe that presented in a lecture entitled 'Child Marriages and particular image. In what ways is the Submarines: Tones and Half-tones' at Azim Premji selected image linked to the arguments University,11 September 2014.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 71 References Ghosh, Siddhartha, Kaler Shahar Kolkata, Calcutta: Ananda Publishers Ltd., 1991. Noakes, Richard. 'The Boy's Own Paper and Late- Victorian juvenile magazines'. In Cantor, G. et al, Science in the Nineteenth Century Periodical. Reading the Magazine of Nature. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004, pp. 151-171. Raychaudhuri, Upendrakisor. 'Prakritir Poshmana', Sandesh, 1st year, Sravan 1320 BS, No. 4 , pp. 121-125. ______'Nuton Batsar', Sandesh, 2nd year, Baisakh 1321 BS, No. 1, pp. 4-6. ______'Kumirer Galpa', Sandesh, 2nd year, Jyeshtha 1321 BS, No. 2, pp. 49-50. ______'Duburi Jahaj', Sandesh, 2nd year, Sravan 1321 BS, No. 4, pp. 116-121. ______'Barafer deshe Cinematograph', Sandesh, 2nd year, Bhadra 1321 BS, No. 5, pp. 137-139. ______'Alok Stambha', Sandesh, 3rd year, Jyeshtha 1322 BS, No. 2, pp. 59-61. ______'Pada aar Chhuti', Sandesh, 3rd year, Ashad 1322 BS, No. 3, pp. 87-89.

Rimli Bhattacharya teaches at the University of Delhi. [email protected]

Endnotes 1 Of Sukumar Ray's probable 166 articles written for Sandesh, 136 are science-related. 2 Richard Noakes, 'The Boy's Own Paper and Late- Victorian juvenile magazines', p. 156. 3 Siddhartha Ghosh, Kaler Shahar Kolkata, Calcutta: Ananda Publishers Ltd., 1991, pp. 128-36.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 72 Book Reviews

Investigating Tasks in following a syllabus based entirely on Formal Language tasks”. In that project, however, according Learning to him, the teacher's 'sense of plausibility' Clevedon Hall: was the basis on which tasks were selected Multilingual Matters and used in the classroom. Grading and (267 pages) sequencing of tasks was based on the Marie del Pilar Garcia teachers' judgement about the challenge it Mayo (Ed.) (2007). would pose to students. The original set of tasks, that was the complete resource book Series Editor: David of tasks, was designed with the existing Singleton syllabus (at that point it was the structural ISBN: 1-85359-926-3 (Pbk) syllabus) in mind but one has to accept that Reviewed by: Geetha Durairajan the actual tasks that were used in any particular class was learner capability and Tasks have been used in English teacher choice oriented. classrooms in some parts of the world for From a research perspective, Robinson more than twenty five years. But as points out that this is not enough and that a teachers in schools and colleges in most rationale is needed for task categorization SAARC countries we use them only once in a task-based syllabus/curriculum. The in a while, to get students to engage with rest of the chapter provides the criteria for texts in an authentic manner or write such task classification and discusses how something that is genuine and closer to these tasks can be used in class, along with what they would do with such language in the constraints in using them. This serves as their lives. Most teachers, particularly in an excellent framework for the remaining the Indian context, would state that they chapters. spend a lot of their time teaching prescribed Each of the other chapters focuses on content. different features of task categorization. A relevant question for us teachers is raised Pedagogic tasks have been classified in the by Robinson in the first chapter of this literature by focusing either on cognitive book. He asks whether it is possible for a complexity, or nature of interactiveness or whole syllabus to be covered only through difficulty level of the task for the learner. tasks. His answer is a resounding yes, with The nature of planning time that students a reference to an Indian project. “The get to finish a task, the nature of Bangalore Project described by Prabhu, collaboration between students and the (1987) was the first large scale attempt to support provided by more abled peers are operationialise an answer to this question some other features used for classification.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 73 Each of these features have been question: What will the practicing teacher researched and presented by a range of get out of this book? Are there clear authors, across three continents, in the takeaways or do they have to be gleaned? remaining chapters of the book. The editor The answer is a tentative yes, for the must have strived hard to collect and takeaways are there, and can be identified, present articles in such a comprehensive but only after careful reading, searching manner. The areas covered within task and collating. In the twenty first century, based research and the levels of proficiency there is a huge demand for pedagogic are matched by the research methods classroom tasks. There is also immense employed which spans both paradigms, the pressure on teachers to take up projects and empirical and the ethnographic. Some to grow and develop professionally. Such chapters are also devoted to tasks that can books, (edited volumes that present a range be used to enable only lexical growth, or of research work done in a particular examine the link between vocabulary and area) are a good beginning and should reading. help teachers with their professional There are many takeaways in this book for development. These books begin very well researchers interested in the area. A by setting the scene. They ought to end, budding researcher will get a very good however, with one afterword chapter, a sense of the various aspects related to task pedagogic post script of useful ideas for based teaching and the literature reviews in practice and suggestions for small projects. the individual articles will furnish a wide If teachers would like to improve range of references. It is easily possible to themselves, and that is what we teacher get a very good sense of what can be educators want them to do, it is unfair to researched from these articles. Researchers expect them to read and understand such can easily decide to replicate a study in a research based articles which are not different context, (as a small project) or written in the 'I have tried this, it works, you adapt or modify an existing design for a too try it out' format and then, also identify larger piece of work. Most of the writers the tasks/experiments that are likely to be who have contributed to this volume have useful. Books such as these, with a wealth taken great pains to explicitly describe their of information could also provide an research methods. Care has also been appendix at the end of the book, with the taken, in some articles, to provide the tasks, tasks used in the articles, classified rubrics and checklists that have been used according to proficiency levels and as research instruments in an appendix. language skills. A little scaffolding could If I had to teach a doctoral course for also be provided in this appendix in the students working in this area, I would use form of sample texts, instructions for using this book as a base for a course in Research the tasks, and some guidance on possible Methodology. At the same time, while I am modifications. aware that this book was not written for the In his blurb on the book, Professor Michael practicing teacher, I am forced to ask the Long says that the book has contributed to

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 74 'pedagogic task design”. For this to become In keeping with the title, six out of the nine a reality, teachers also need to be factored in papers comprise studies conducted on L1 as readers. users of Cantonese and Vietnamese, ranging from Form 3 level (age 12) to Geetha Durairajan is Professor in Department of University. The subject of the seventh Materials Development, Testing and Evaluation at paper however, is L1 users of Spanish, the English and Foreign Languages University, Mandarin and Swedish. The eighth and Hyderabad. Her research interests include ninth papers are more general in scope, pedagogic evaluation and language education in being discussions on the design principle multilingual contexts. and message “undercoding” strategies that [email protected] come into play in the composition tasks of high-intermediate level EFL learners. The Second Language pedagogical implications that emerge from Learning in a Foreign the findings of the research undertaken Language Environment: have been further discussed in each paper. A Pragma-Discoursal In the first paper, the author focuses on the Account use of indefinite reference framing in Bangalore: Terra Firma. narrative prose pieces. The hypothesis for (264 pages). this is that while ESL learners can Asha Tickoo (2016). successfully frame direct reference, they ISBN 978 81 920475 9 1 are unable to effectively execute indirect Reviewed by: Iqbal Judge reference based on shared knowledge and economy principles. This hypothesis is based on an analysis of prose essays of 60 This erudite book opens with a deceptively Cantonese speaking freshmen studying simple introduction in which the author humanities at a university in Hong Kong. puts forth the prospect of treating prose Most of these students studied English as a compositions as “unique modes of foreign language from age 3 or 4 to age 12, packaging” which present differences in following which they received almost all of information structure/design that resultantly their education in English. They were produce varied pragma-discoursal effects. In asked to summarize The Dream, a short this compilation of nine well-researched story by Somerset Maugham. Tickoo papers published in international journals studied the learners' attempts at first-time from 2001 onwards, Asha Tickoo, explores reference with regard to the principal a gamut of composing skills such as protagonist of Maugham's story. The indefinite reference framing, marking of findings showed that in the presentation of temporal passage and the structure of new referents, 87 per cent were judged to be enumeration, that often present a challenge “unacceptable” by users of standard to the EFL learner. academic English. Tickoo suggests that

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 75 classroom instruction should draw favourite park”, etc. The learners' use of attention to the difference between focal “then/after that” has been analysed for its and non-focal indefinite specific referring appropriateness of use. The propositional, expressions, as well as features of saliency. semantic, syntactic and lexico-syntactic In her second paper, Tickoo posits that for constraints on English enumeration that Cantonese ESL learners, the acquisition of emerge from the analysis point to the need past tense is at variance from the for an overt, explicit instruction on the two universalist hypothesis which states that modes of information incrementation. past tense is acquired in developmental Carrying forward the analysis of written stages, with event-like verbs marked for discourse and inter-sentential relations tense acquired before the correct usage of further, Tickoo investigates learners' use of less event-like verbs. As with the first the encapsulating sentence and the paper, this too presents a carefully detailed, prospected sentence in her fifth paper. microscopic analysis of students' writings. Explicating the difference between the two She suggests the transference from with the help of lucid examples, she points Chinese, in which the perfective participle out how the encapsulating sentence retains “le” is used to signal foregrounded the ideational component of its preceding situations in a narrative as a possible reason text, while the prospected sentence for the grounding-sensitive selective increments the text without retaining the marking of the English past tense by these preceding ideational component. It is the students. Hence, for the ESOL teacher the encapsulating sentence which presents a message is that the learners' L1 should not greater challenge to the learner, for s/he has be ignored when attempting to understand to know how to effectively split the their needs. ideational whole into units that are The use of “then/after that” and the informationally appropriate for evoking a structure of enumeration are subjected to preceding text using suitable lexicalization. similar meticulous observation and Tickoo presents evidence of the problems analysis in the following two papers. While that learners experience in the fragmentation in the former paper, Tickoo considers of ideational information through examples Vietnamese learners enrolled in a pre- of “preferred textualisation” to illustrate the academic writing program in a US difference between the two texts. She community college, in the latter paper she reasons that learners experience difficulty looks at English major students studying at in framing appropriate encapsulating a university in Hong Kong. In both groups sentences. This is because having however, learners have had many years of “properly mastered” incrementation by the “passive” exposure to English through prospected sentence, the overt retention of lectures and textbooks at school. The topic a preceding text becomes problematic for of the writings given are simple and them, being diametrically opposed to the personal such as “my first date”, “my earlier learnt discoursal behaviour.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 76 In her sixth paper, Tickoo investigates user of Spanish. Her findings show that variable temporal passage in storytelling. while students may succeed in conforming She compares the data culled from the to the macro-design features, their use of analysis of the prose essays of 60 Cantonese the individual, micro-developmental speaking freshmen studying humanities at a features is less effective. Thus, this is an university in Hong Kong from the first paper area that requires targeted pedagogic and a detailed analysis of Maugham's intervention and support. original story with some extracts from In her last paper, Tickoo demonstrates the Hardy's Tess of the D'urbervilles. According use of “undercoding” as a viable and to her, it is the presence of the pattern of comparatively less challenging strategy alternating peaks and troughs formed by a used by EFL learners in effecting succession of foregrounded event clauses information packaging conventions, and backgrounded non-event clauses that particularly in the context of the features gives a narrative the recognizable quality of discussed in the preceding papers. In fact, a story, distinct from the mere re-telling Tickoo suggests that FL learners apply this found in students' writings. Tickoo's strategy when framing indefinite reference findings shed light on the rhetorical by marking inter-sentential relations and structure of the story genre, though she is signalling genre much more than proficient careful to admit that her database is rather users of the language would do. limited and needs to be investigated in Overall, the book is remarkable for its more detail and depth before definite scientific, in-depth analyses and scholarly conclusions can be drawn. references to related research. It moves far In the seventh paper, Tickoo examines ahead of the more common “error analysis” variance from established norms of micro– that language teachers would be familiar developmental features of “narratives in with. Though its sustained use of support of end-state statements” of EFL “technical” terminology and exploration of students. Such narratives outline successive the more adventurous, uncharted seas of chronologically sequenced events from the language acquisition might be challenging past right up to the present. Being for the uninitiated, it is valuable for its extensively used in report and research insights. It also serves as a benchmark for writing, such narratives are of importance good research, standing out luminously to ESL learners who are pursuing academic distinct from the damaging plethora of cut- goals. copy-paste that often plagues academia Building up from the theoretical today. underpinnings of oral narratives given Iqbal Judge, currently Head, PG Department of by sociolinguists Labov and Waletzky, English, PG Government College for Girls, Tickoo delineates the macro-design and Chandigarh. Her interests include classroom developmental design features of narrative- methodology, materials development and in-support of an end-state statement through assessment. She is also keenly interested in gender a short sample essay. She further compares studies, theatre and fine arts. it with a similar attempt at writing by an L1 [email protected]

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 77 Peer Interaction and Therefore interaction hypothesis is to input Second Language hypothesis of SLA what the “motherese” Learning: view of child language acquisition is to the Pedagogical Potential Chomskyan view of it. The Chomskyan and Research Agenda view is that a biological faculty unfolds Language Learning inevitably and unconsciously in an appropriate linguistic environment. The and Language “motherese” view is that a child's Teaching Monograph caretakers modify their input to the child in Series, Volume 45. ways that facilitate language acquisition. Amsterdam/ That hypothesis of a straightforward Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing correlation between maternal input and Company. (395 pages). child language acquisition has been argued Masatoshi Sato and Susan Ballinger to be untenable (Newport, Gleitman & (Eds.) (2016). Gleitman, 1977; Gleitman, Newport & ISBN (Paperback): 9789027213334 Gleitman, 1984). ISBN (hardbound): 9789027213327 In contrast, the interaction hypothesis (and Reviewed by: R. Amritavalli its extension, the “output” hypothesis of Swain, 1985, 1995), have found wide acceptance in second language research, Michael Long's “Input, interaction and perhaps due to the formal classroom setting second language acquisition” was published in which much of SLA occurs. The socio- in 1981; Krashen's input hypothesis in 1982 cognitive character of learning in such and 1985. According to the input hypothesis, settings was what interested Vygotsky. The the learner's mental grammar determines Vygotskian search for socio-cognitive both comprehensibility and the next (i+1) activities to promote cognition is extended stage of input relevant to acquisition. and applied to language, foregrounding its Long, while acknowledging the role of “external” or communicative function, and input, argued in favour of the facilitative role blurring the Chomskyan distinction of interaction in SLA. According to him, between conscious and unconscious learner interaction drives conversational and knowledge (e.g. knowledge of physics versus knowledge of language). Corrective linguistic modifications that make input feedback is of “particular importance for comprehensible. As learners “negotiate” acquisition” (Long, 2015, p. 53), as is the with native speakers for meaning, input may “noticing” of formal aspects of language, get modified, manifesting for example as “nothing in the target language is available “foreigner talk”. Moreover, it is during for intake into a language learner's existing interaction and corrective feedback that system unless it is consciously noticed,” learners may “notice” lexical or syntactic (Gass, 1991 as cited in Mackey, 1999, p. aspects of the language. 561).

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 78 Long's hypothesis emerged from Hatch's Teachers may find chapter two and (1978) discourse analysis of native – non- chapters four to ten of special interest with native speaker interaction, and extended to regard to the methodology of teaching. learner-teacher interaction. These chapters are based on the premise In their Introduction, the editors of this that interaction and communicative book assert that peer interaction between activities promote language acquisition. In L2 learners has not received much these studies, the authors investigate not just attention, even though studies on the acquisition, but interaction as well, for e.g. subject have been in existence since the “whether learners can be explicitly taught to early 1980s (albeit mainly in adult ESL be better interactors and feedback providers” contexts in North America, New Zealand, (Chapter 2, p. 64). Other studies include how and Australia). This book is therefore “the two low-proficiency learners engage in first collection of empirical studies” to small groups at various proficiency levels focus on peer interaction. The editors argue (Chapter 4), differences in peer interaction in favour of a synthesis of research based patterns in proficiency-homogeneous and on the social and cognitive paradigms. The proficiency-heterogeneous groups (Chapter thirteen empirical studies that comprise 5), and characteristics of learner interaction this book are mostly classroom-based and in face-to-face and computer-mediated originate from the Basque country, Chile, contexts (Chapter 6). In Chapter 8, the Japan, Spain, and Thailand on the one hand, author addresses how learners attend to and Australia, Canada and the United linguistic form in these two modes, and in States on the other. They have been Chapter 10, there is a comparison of the arranged into three sections of five, six and collaborative writing in these two modes. two chapters each, addressing respectively Chapters 7 and 3, cover a study of an EFL (i) interactional patterns and learner class in a Thai university and a Grade 10 characteristics, (ii) task types and class in Chile. These are of special interest interactional modalities, and (iii) learning to India because of the ecological relevance settings. of their settings. In these chapters, the The introduction recapitulates available authors report a collaborative writing task research on these variables and the and an intervention to promote past tense uniqueness of peer interaction by positing usage respectively. This mention of a that proficient peers may provide input as grammatical item serves as an occasion to rich or complex as native speakers. Also, a ask the question lurking at the back of our higher level of comfort in interaction minds—what is the nature of linguistic encourages feedback and self-correction in knowledge that is offered or acquired in the learners, making this a versatile these studies? What happens when the peer pedagogical tool. The author concludes the input offered is incorrect? introduction by outlining the teacher's role To address these concerns, Chapter 3 offers in promoting and scaffolding peer only the promissory note that “productive interaction. knowledge of the past tense” exhibits

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 79 greater gains in the lower proficiency what he uses it FOR (i.e. what grammatical group, stating that its “primary focus is on hypotheses he constructs from the data the interaction data” (p. 100). Chapter 1, presented)” (1984, p. 76). Moreover, “the which also addresses the second question, character of the learning is not a is an insightful account of the “silent straightforward function of the linguistic learner” in a group activity, whose environment” (p. 44). Just like the finding language gains compare well with those of that silent learners also learn, it reminds us the “contributors” and “triggers” (learners of the abstract, mind-internal nature of who set off “language related episodes” or language learning. LREs through their queries or errors). The Evidently, language is itemized in these LREs, which could be grammatical, or studies (and more generally in this lexical, together with CF (corrective paradigm) as instances of vocabulary and feedback), comprise the central unit of grammar (“past tense”). Chapter 11 may analysis in these studies. Chapter 1 further be of particular interest to the reader with reports lexical LREs that instantiate its metalinguistic task—construction of Spanish words prompted by picture cues: the grammar of the Spanish pronoun se, words for objects and persons (boat, cruise, based on three 90-minute presentations of fortune teller), as also actions (predict, the target item in a narrative context. With meet, take). It would be of interest to check this, the book comes full circle, from whether the “unresolved” or “incorrectly communicative through structural to resolved” LRE's pertain more to verbs than grammar-translation approaches to nouns, given that predicates pose an language teaching. It is indeed salutary acquisitional challenge that nouns do not to remember that some SLA has (Gentner, 2006; Snedeker & Gleitman, successfully occurred through each of 2004). Interestingly, the percentage for these methodological eras. The true learning or consolidation of wrong input strength of the interaction paradigm may (e.g. to rain instead of to cry) is lower than lie, then, in its innovative approach to that for correct input; and the percentage classroom activity, which learners may find for “missed opportunities” for wrong input more engaging and authentic than a (where the input is ignored) is twice as teacher-fronted class. much for incorrect as for correct input (50 Chapter 12 includes a sociocultural study per cent to 24 per cent, p. 44)! This in a multilingual environment. It brings remarkable learner ability to privilege together English and Spanish learners in an correct input over incorrect input calls to alternative space, an idea that has the mind Gleitman, Newport and Gleitman's potential to address concerns around (1984) observation that “the child is privileging English and English language selective in WHAT he uses from the learning in our country. In Chapter 13, there environment provided; he is selective is a unique, thought-provoking inquiry into about WHEN in the course of acquisition the learning opportunities (if any) provided he chooses to use it; and he is selective in by a partner-reading task between learners

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 80 having different skill levels (two adolescent Newport, E., Gleitman, H. & Gleitman, L. (1977). females, an Amharic newcomer with prior Mother, I'd rather do it myself: some effects and schooling and beginning-level oral non-effects of maternal speech style. In C. E. English, and a Somali with strong English Snow & C. A. Ferguson (Eds.), Talking to skills but low literacy and no prior children: Language input and acquisition. New schooling). Here the focus is on peer York, NY: CUP. interaction during “the routine classroom Snedeker, J. & Gleitman, L. (2004). Why it is hard to label our concepts. In G. Hall & S. Waxman, literacy activity of reading a book aloud (Eds.), Weaving a lexicon. Cambridge, MA: together”. MIT Press. The book concludes with an epilogue that Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence: has a useful discussion on the scaffolding Some roles of comprehensible input and and social significance of peer interaction. comprehensible output in its development. In S. Gass & C. Madden (Eds.), Input in second language acquisition (pp. 235-253). Rowley, References MA: Newbury House. Gentner, D. (2006). Why verbs are hard to learn. In Swain, M. 1995. Three functions of output in second K. Hirsh-Pasek & R. Golinkoff (Eds.), Action language learning. In G. Cook & B. meets word: How children learn verbs (pp 544- Seidlhofer (Eds.), Principle and practice in 564). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. applied linguistics: Studies in honour of H. G. Gleitman, L., Newport, E. & Gleitman, H. (1984). Widdowson (pp. 125-144). Oxford: Oxford The current status of the motherese hypothesis. University Press. Journal of Child Language, 11, 43-79. Hatch, E. (1978). Acquisition of syntax in a second R. Amritavalli is a linguist interested in syntax, first and second language acquisition, and cognitive language. In J. Richards (Ed.), Understanding psychology. She is a Professor at the English and second and foreign language learning (pp. 34- Foreign Languages University, Hyderabad. 70). Rowley, MA: Newbury House. [email protected] Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon. Krashen, S. (1985). The Input Hypothesis: Issues and implications. London, UK: Longman. Long, M. (1981). Input, interaction and second language acquisition. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 379, 259-278. Long. M. (2015). Second language acquisition and task-based language teaching. Oxford: Wiley- Blackwell. Mackey, A. (1999). Input, interaction, and second language development: An empirical study of question formation in ESL. Studies in Second Language Acquisition (SSLA) 21, 557-587.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 81 Classroom Activities

Game 1: Word Rummy The Game Begins Objectives: Step 1: Divide the children into groups of ·To practice sentence formation in five Seat each group around a table. English Step 2: Shuffle the cards well and place one ·To develop the skill of constructing a deck of cards face down on the table. story using a few sentences Step 3: Ask one member of the group to Level: Grades V to VII deal seven cards to each member of the group. The deck as specified above has at Materials: Two small stories. Each story least 60 cards has 30 words. One deck of playing card size cardboards for each group. Each group will Step 4: Explain the following rules to the get 60 cards. (360 for a class of 30 groups participants. of students), pens, scissors a. The participants must not show the cards to each other. Time needed: One-and-half-hours b. They should play in turns, taking one Procedure card at a time from the deck of cards in Before the game, the facilitator has to: the centre. Step 1: Select two very short stories or edit c. The participants have to try and create them (to about 25 words per story). at least one sentence using the words on Step 2: Prepare playing card size rectangles the cards in their hand. They replace the with one side blank from reusable card card they have taken face down near the sheets. The facilitator will need at least 60 pack. The participants must use the of these per group. So you have to prepare word on the card and replace the card six decks for a class of 30 students (5 they do not need (i.e. the word they do students per group x 6 groups = 30 students. not need). They have to include the word they have taken in the sentences 6 decks of 60 cards = 360 cards per class). in their hand. Step 3: Cut out the words of the stories and d. The sentence may be changed if paste them on the cards. Each card must another member of the group comes up have only one word. Five such identical with a better sentence. decks have to be created for a class of 30 e. The members must discuss their learners. sentences in the group to ensure that Step 4: After writing one word from the they are correct. story on every card use the leftover blank f. Participants are not allowed to pick up a cards in each deck to write the punctuation discarded card. This is the one that was marks. Keep two joker cards in each deck. put face down near the deck.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 82 g. Lastly, it is important to remember that Debrief: This game can be used in various this is a game of cooperation, not of ways. It could simply be used to discuss competition. problems with sentence formation or it Step 5: Whenever a member of the group could be used for revision of the makes part of a sentence he/ she has to put it understanding of stories the students have down or keep it separately. She has to try to already read (as this activity involves a complete the sentence in the next round. reconstruction of the story). The stories The cards need to be put down so that the may be taken from the text book. To group evaluates whether the sentence is reconstruct the stories using a limited set of correctly made. words is a very high level cognitive skill. It could also be used for creating new stories (Remember this is a game of cooperation, if with limited materials. you put down the sentences you have made, the group members can help you to correct The students will enjoy recreating a story them or use the leftover cards in your hand) they already know. Many versions of the story may emerge causing much Step 6: The game ends when a member enjoyment. makes a sentence or two sentences using all the cards in his/her hand. He/she shouts“rummy”. Step 7: All the sentences, whether complete or incomplete have to be used to compose a story. Step 8: The members have to try and use all the leftover cards. If they are unable to do so, they forfeit one mark for each leftover card. Step 9: If the group is unable to finish the Game 2: Word Gradients or Shades of story using the words on the cards, they Meaning may use other words. However, the Objective: facilitator or the groups themselves can To build an understanding of shades of limit the number of words the members can meaning in synonymous adjectives use apart from the ones they have to make Level: Grades V to VII the game interesting. Materials: 60 square sheets of sticky Step 10: The facilitator must ensure that the notes/paper slips for writing words for 6 sentences used to create the story are groups for a class of 30 students, (if you use correct. He/she may help them to complete paper slips then you will need glue), a 24 their tasks. inch x 5-inch-long cardboard sheet for each Step 11: Once the stories are ready, the group. groups present them in front of the class. There may be discussions around the stories. Time needed: 1 hour

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 83 Procedure with the arranged slips while the other Step1: Brainstorm with the class to come up three explain the rationale behind the with adjectives related to feelings–angry, arrangement. happy, sad, tired, afraid, etc. Step 10: Initiate a discussion around the Step 2: Write them on the board. arrangement of the words, for example, Is livid stronger than mad or is upset weaker Step 3: Divide the students into groups of than annoyed? five. Step 11: For homework, ask the groups to Step 4: Ask the group to choose one write a story where they use at least five of adjective from the board. Each participant the words discussed in the class in an will write more synonyms of the adjectives appropriate manner. they have chosen, e.g. angry, irritated, upset. They may use a dictionary or a Step 12: Read the best stories chosen by the thesaurus. Give them ten minutes. Then the groups in class, follow it up with a discussion group collates the adjectives written on how the words have been used. discussing whether they are synonyms or Debrief: When children write descriptions, not. They may consult a dictionary. They they often use the same word many times. It must write atleast 10 synonyms of an is important for children to understand the adjective as a group. Remember only ten use of the appropriate word and the shade synonyms of an adjective per group! E.g. of meaning that it conveys. angry, irritated, upset, anxious, uneasy, furious, irate… Game 3: Four Pictures One Word Step 5: Give 10 slips to each group and ask Objective: them to write down the adjectives on the slips. Ask them to put the slips in an To develop vocabulary by understanding envelope. polysemy Step 6: Ask the groups to exchange the Material: 50 slips of paper, gum, pictures envelopes. and a rectangular card board Step 7: The groups now have to arrange the Time: 1 hour adjectives they have received from the Procedure: other group according to degree of intensity Step 1: Create a list of 50 words from the of the emotion, e.g. livid, mad, annoyed, lessons in the text book which students are irritated, upset. studying in the class, or from any other Step 8: Ask each group to stick the slips on a book. Each word should have at least four long rectangular cardboard in order of meanings, two literal and two figurative. increasing intensity. Step 2: Search for pictures which represent Step 9: Get each group to present its the different meanings of each word. arrangement of semantic gradients or Step 3: Cut the four pictures related to the shades of meaning to the whole class, with four meanings of words and paste them on two members holding up the cardboard one sheet.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 84 Step 4: Underneath the pictures write the number of letters and draw the number of blanks for the letters. Step 5: Display it on the notice boards around the class room. Step 6: Give a demonstration of predicting the word from the pictures by holding up one of the sheets and asking the children what one of the pictures represents (use a simpler word for demonstration. Begin the demonstration with the picture which shows literal meaning of the word for example drum – that make a noise, ear drum and then do on to drum roll) Step 7: Ask students to go around with a notebook in hand noting down the words which they think represent all four pictures. Step 8: Go around and help the students. Do not give the answers, help them by asking relevant questions. Step 9: When the students finish ask them to write their names and pin their papers with the answers on a bulletin board Step 10: Then write the answers on the board. Let the students correct their own papers and verify. Step 11: Discuss why almost all the students did not guess certain words. The reasons may be because of unfamiliarity of context, picture unclear etc. Discuss how familiarity of context is very important. We cannot learn words in isolation. We remember them in association with their context. Nivedita Vijay Bedadur is Assistant Professor at Azim Premji University, Bengaluru. She has taught English in Kendriya Vidyalayas in India and Nepal. Presently, she is engaged in designing courses for teacher educators. [email protected]

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 85 Report Feedback Report on Language and Language Teaching

Since its inception in 2011, LLT has Ravinarayan Chakrakodi, Ms. Nivedita V. brought out 10 issues, two every year. The Bedadur, Dr. Sonika Kaushik, Dr. Kalpana editorial committee felt that it was time to Bora Barman, Ms. Rajni Dwivedi and Dr. get LLT assessed in terms of the degree to Sabina Pillai. which it had been able to meet its primary The reviewers appreciated the fact that LLT objective of establishing “a dialogue addresses a wide readership and covers a between theory and practice so that vast variety of themes relating to language practice contributes to theory as much as and language teaching in diverse theory informs practice”. circumstances. They also recognized that The purpose of LLT was to make new ideas the articles used jargon free language and and insights from research on language and reported on pedagogical practices and their its pedagogy accessible to practitioners, critiques, link between theory and practice, while at the same time inform theorists new ideas from research in language about the constraints around implementation teaching, issues relating to disabled of new ideas. Since its primary readers learners, hands on classroom language are practising language teachers and activities/games and book reviews of researchers, for this assessment purpose, recent books on language and language one copy of all the back issues was sent to teaching. Here are some extracts from their select school, college and university feedback: teachers requesting them to critically ·“The journal has a range of articles evaluate them and tell us whether LLT had addressing different aspects of the been able to fulfil its objective. They were pedagogy of language, from primary also requested to let us know about the classes to the under-graduate level. areas where we had erred, and the Most articles are brief and written in changes/improvements we needed to accessible language. And they do introduce in order to make LLT more include critiques of common classroom intelligible to teachers with a moderate practices along with suggestions for proficiency level in English. When asked alternative practices” (LLT 1: Prachi by reviewers whether there was a word Kalra). limit, they were told to express their views ·“The language used in these articles is freely, without any constraint of word limit. The reviewers who participated in this free of theoretical jargon and therefore process included: Dr. Veena Kapur, Ms. is easily comprehensible to practicing Prachi Kalra, Professor Iqbal Judge, Ms. teachers.…Most of the articles try to Snehlata Gupta, Dr. Chhaya Sawhney, Mr. link theories of language teaching, not

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 86 just English language teaching, to pattern of a certain kind….The range of classroom practices” (LLT 2: themes and languages is impressive” Ravinarayan Chakrakodi). (LLT 5: Sonika Kaushik). ·LLT “has enough meat to offer to in- ·LLT provides “new ideas and insights service/pre-service teachers and from research on language and teacher educators as it includes not only pedagogy…. Most of the articles are a range of articles, book reviews and based on a reflective, critical analysis of suggested readings but also classroom actual classroom situations in India and activities…. This particular issue has a the approach adopted by the writers is common theme of multilingualism either that of applying pedagogical running through seven out of thirteen techniques to overcome problems being articles. All these articles demonstrate faced, or of improving the quality of why and how the use of mother tongue teaching by adopting innovative in the early years, or exposure strategies. In most of the articles the to multiple languages can foster theoretical underpinnings of the cognitive growth and high academic suggested methods are elucidated…. achievement… Overall, LLT is a great Almost all articles maintain a good resource that offers insights and balance between theory and practice, learning, hands on activities and seeking to inform rather than weigh pedagogical strategies from actual down the teacher with academic jargon. classrooms and contexts that the target Though none of the articles could be audience would immensely benefit said to be path-breaking or new, yet from” (LLT 3: Chhaya Sawhney). they serve to re-call the teachers' ·“It is a unique journal as it seeks to draw attention to good practices that a vast range of practitioners into the sometimes are forgotten in the discourse on issues related to language pressures of day-to-day teaching…. and the teaching of language in diverse The section on classroom activities contexts. The articles are mostly of would be particularly useful for the accessible length written in fairly easily teacher who wishes to cut through the comprehensible language” (LLT 4: theorizing and wants merely a simple Snehlata Gupta). prescription slip to follow…. The book review sections are also informative, ·“Language and Language Teaching is especially as the books reviewed are perhaps the only journal in India generally recently published” (LLT 7: devoted completely to language and its Iqbal Judge). pedagogy….The journal also helps us ·“The journal is a good one as it covers a to see where we stand internationally in range of issues…. Ranging over a wide our understanding of issues related to variety of topics, including book language teaching. All the issues put reviews, the Language and Language together will definitely indicate a Teaching journal addresses a number of

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 87 relevant questions in the field of Kalra was very critical when she said that language and its teaching. Its relevance some of the articles included a whole range in providing a platform for deliberations of pedagogy-related concepts and ideas on these issues cannot be argued without a reasonable explanation for them. with…. In LLT, Issue 8…, the focus is According to her, such articles should focus on the teaching of language in the on fewer ideas to make the papers more classroom especially in a multilingual readable. environment” (LLT 8: Kalpana Bora Chakrakodi drew attention to a serious Burman). drawback in the journal when he remarked: ·“Congratulations on a comprehensive “Original studies on language learning and issue on the subject of disabled learners teaching seem to be very few in the 10 and the challenges thereof….The issues that have been published so far.” He papers by some scholars are insightful reminded the editors about the need for an as they are a direct outcome of their editorial in each issue and suggested that classroom interventions, hence of the editors needed to exercise more immense value to scholars and rigorous scrutiny before accepting articles practitioners and kudos to the content” for publication. According to him, some (LLT 10: Sabina Pillai). articles made tall claims and sweeping ·“The articles have been selected very statements with regards to certain concepts, carefully.…They discuss the idea of but failed to explore them in depth. He disability, how it is represented in society suggested that the editors inform the and analyse the same with examples; contributors about the impact of the journal there are real classroom experiences that and the data bases where it was indexed. He throw light on the challenges faced by further suggested that the editors should students and teachers, what can be done make LLT a multilingual journal by in the classroom and what should be the including research that is being done and role of the teacher” (LLT 10: Rajni reported in Indian languages. Dwivedi). Sawhney opined that the articles that did As mentioned earlier, the reviewers also not offer any concrete suggestions and made some suggestions for improving LLT. could not be substantiated by facts should Some of the suggestions are given here as be left out. She further recommended that follows: greater weightage be given to articles that Among other things, Kalra, in commenting reflect practice rather than theory. She on a particular paper suggested that theory commented that since most of the articles and practice should be organically linked published in LLT had been written either by and the theory section should be shorter researchers or consultants who had very than the practice section in order to reach little hands on experience of classroom out to teachers. Nivedita, in her feedback teaching, more practising teachers needed on LLT 6, commented on the difficulty to write for LLT. experienced in using a theoretical paper in a Commenting on classroom activities, classroom transaction or a workshop. Kaushik observed: “It will help the readers

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 88 if the activities are presented as part of a readership. For example, one of the issues larger plan of teaching. A better alternative was centred around the theme of disability to classroom activities could be offering to the exclusion of any other topic/theme. coherent language lesson plans which That can lead to limited interest and include an activity or two. This could also readership. She further suggested that a include suggesting better use of textbooks “Readers' Page” carrying the readers' and different ways of using children's comments and observations be included to literature for language teaching.” make the journal more interactive and less Barman pointed out that there should be remote. more articles on how to improve the Many contributors including Pillai and teaching of languages at a higher level; this Dwivedi recommended that an issue included remedial measures that should not carry more than one teachers/parents need to undertake. She contribution by the same author. suggested that since most articles were Nivedita suggested that LLT should also written by English teaching people/faculty, include short conceptual pieces of one to LLT should include articles focussing on two pages with examples to explain the the difficulties faced by non-English concepts. teaching people in higher classes. Kalra and Prachi pointed out to the need for Kapur expressed the need for more articles pictures of pedagogical strategies as well as in which the focus was on how practice writing samples of children to make theory contributes to theory. The contribution of more accessible. the practitioner was vital, since real life classrooms are the crucibles where theory Prachi recommended that a section on is transacted. How theory and content is children literature be included. transacted by the practitioner itself informs Chakrakodi expressed the need for a theory and highlights the limitations of separate section, “Research Reports”, research. A mechanism should be in place where action research studies carried out by that ensures that the practitioner teachers and teacher educators could be appreciates the importance of their published. He further recommended that contribution. the journal incorporate studies on research Pointing to the need for an editorial, Pillai methodologies, data collection methods, observed that LLT does not connect with statistical tools and research findings. the reader due to the absence of a voice that Snehlata suggested that there should be speaks to the reader on behalf of LLT. It more articles that address the most seems like an impersonal vehicle carrying problematic everyday practices and myths sundry voices without a link to the big picture. Pillai further added that while and false beliefs about language and adhering to a theme is worthwhile, every language learning in classrooms today. issue could also carry a general menu of According to her, such articles should be papers to ensure wider interest and strongly grounded in research and theory,

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 89 with implications for instruction clearly About the Reviewers spelt out. She further recommended that a Dr. Veena Kapur, Associate Professor, mechanism for feedback on articles and University of Delhi, has been teaching for over other submissions be included in the thirty-five years. Her areas of special interest journal to make it more interactive. She are language teaching, women's studies, advocated the creation of an online forum alternative pedagogies as well as the use of where teachers and other readers could technology in education. Dr. Kapur is presently engage in discussions or conversation working with national research and educational around the articles in any given issue. bodies as a resource person. Commenting on the book reviews, Kaushik [email protected] suggested that books in Indian languages, Ms. Prachi Kalra teaches in the Department of both for children and on children also be Elementary Education at Gargi College, reviewed in the journal. In addition, University of Delhi. She teaches courses in the materials developed under various pedagogy of language. Her main interests are programmes and by organizations and children's literature and storytelling. Currently, private publishers can also be reviewed. she is doing a PhD on how stories can enable This includes manuals, graded series, critical pedagogy in the elementary classroom. cards, charts, vocabulary development [email protected] games, worksheets and other such material. Professor Iqbal Judge, currently Head, PG A lot of materials and methods are available Department of English, PG Government and very often teachers and teacher College for Girls, Chandigarh, has been educators do not understand the underlying teaching for 36 years. Her core interests include assumptions behind a given “kit” or “set”. ELT, particularly classroom methodology, Barman commented, given that NE states materials development and assessment. She is are not only multilingual but are exposed to also keenly interested in gender studies, theatre English very early in life (even before and fine arts. school), LLT should also include articles on [email protected] the NE states. She added that in Meghalaya, Ms. Snehlata Gupta has been teaching Mizoram and Nagaland, Nagamese is English under the Directorate of Education, spoken, which includes English words. Government of Delhi for more than twenty How does one teach English in such an years. Her areas of interest include literature for environment? children and young adults; reading, writing and The editors express their gratitude to the the teaching-learning of English as a second reviewers for expressing their appreciation language, especially in students from for the journal and their suggestions underserved communities. At present she is towards improving the journal. The editors working on a PhD at the Faculty of Education, will take care to incorporate them in the University of Delhi. forthcoming issues. [email protected]

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 90 Dr. Chhaya Sawhney teaches Linguistics to Guwahati. Her areas of academic interest the students of Elementary Education at Gargi include Indian Writing in English, Women's College, University of Delhi. Her interests Literature and Postcolonial Literature. include teacher education, and interacting with [email protected] and learning from her students about their Ms. Rajni Dwivedi has worked with various internship experiences at school. states for developing curricula and textbooks [email protected] up to elementary classes. She has developed Mr. Ravinarayan Chakrakodi is a member of materials for capacity building of pre-service the faculty at the Regional Institute of English and in-service teachers in several states. South India, Bengaluru. He has an MA in Currently, she is doing translations and TESOL from the University of Lancaster, UK. developing/editing materials for teachers and He is involved in in-service teacher education teacher educators. programmes, curriculum design and materials [email protected] production. He has worked as a member of the Dr. Sabina Pillai is an Associate Professor of D El Ed curriculum renewal committee for English at a Delhi University college. Her English, Government of Karnataka and as a research interests include Literary Theory, Chairperson of the Textbook Committee for feminist literature, ELT and applied linguistics. English. [email protected] [email protected] Ms. Nivedita V. Bedadur teaches at the University Resource Centre of Azim Premji University, Bangalore. She has 29 years of experience in English Language Teaching and teacher training in India and Nepal. She is currently designing courses for teachers and teacher educators in the area of literacy, language teaching and educational psychology. [email protected] Dr. Sonika Kaushik is a senior consultant in the Early Literacy Programme of NCERT. Her areas of interest include development of reading and writing in the early years and children's literature. She has taught in primary schools and teacher education programmes and has a doctoral degree in early literacy. [email protected] Dr. Kalpana Bora Barman teaches English at a College in Guwahati, Assam. She did her PhD from the Indian Institute of Technology,

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 91 Forthcoming Events

Language Learning and Teaching '17: conference-on-teaching-education-and- Second International Conference on learning-ictel-06-07-september-2017-bali- Education and Language indonesia-about-40 Dates: 20-21 October 2017 Organization: DAKAM 24th International Conference on Deadline for abstract submission: 14 July Teaching, Education and Learning 2017 (ICTEL) Conference information page link: Dates: 12-13 September 2017 http://www.dakamconferences.org/langua Location: London, UK ge-learning Organization: ADTEL Imperial College London The INTESDA 3rd International Deadline for abstract submission: 10 Conference on the Globalization of September 2017 Second Language Acquisition and Conference information page link: Teacher Education - GSLATE 2017 http://adtelweb.org/24th-international- Dates: 30-31 October 2017 conference-on-teaching-education-and- Organization: INTESDA learning-ictel-12-13-sept-2017-london- Deadline for abstract submission: 28 July uk-about-41 2017 Conference information page link: 26th International Conference on http://intesda.org/globalization-second- Teaching, Education and Learning language-acquisition-teacher-education/ (ICTEL) Dates: 8-9 November 2017 3rd International Conference on Location: Nanyang Technological Teaching, Education and Learning University, Nanyang Executive Centre, (ICTEL) Singapore. Dates: 6-7 September 2017 Organization: ADTEL (Association for Organization: ADTEL (Association for Development of Teaching, Education and Development of Teaching, Education and Learning) Learning) Deadline for abstract submission: 7 November 2017 Location: Bali, Indonesia Conference information page link: Deadline for abstract submission: 4 https://adtelweb.org/26th-international- September 2017 conference-on-teaching-education-and- Conference information page link: learning-ictel-08-09-nov-2017-singapore- http://adtelweb.org/23rd-international- about-43

Language and Language Teaching Volume 6 Number 2 Issue 12 July 2017 92 CALL FOR PAPERS

Language and Language Teaching (LLT) is a peer The upper word limit (including the references -reviewed journal. It focuses on the theory and and a short bio-note of 30 words) for each of the practice of language teaching and learning, different sections in LLT is: particularly in multilingual situations. Article (Paper): 2000 to 2200 words (extended to Papers are invited for the forthcoming issue of 3000 if it also includes some theoretical LLT 13, which is a Special Issue on Language in discussion) Literature and Literature Teaching. The papers may address any aspect of language in literature Interview: 2500-3000 words from older, modern or contemporary periods Landmark: 2500-3000 words (with regard to features such as those of Book Review: 1000-1500 words phonology, syntax, semantics or pragmatic and Classroom Activity: 750 words discourse levels – not necessarily inclusive of all the levels) with particular focus on the challenges Report: 1000 words and opportunities that literature provides for the learning and teaching of language. The focus may Papers must be submitted as word document in be on any aspect of teaching: materials, MS Office 7. Please send the fonts along with the evaluation, course design, teacher training, or paper if any special fonts are used. For images, new technology. Papers which consider please send jpeg files. multilingual environments where translation and cultural elements play an important role in the Last date for submission of articles: October 30. classroom, are specially welcome. Literature Articles may be submitted online simultaneously teaching activities focusing on different to [email protected] languages are also invited. Reports of recent [email protected] workshops/conferences are also welcome. [email protected] Papers MUST be written in a style that is easily [email protected] accessible to school teachers, who are the primary target of this journal. The references must be complete in ALL respects and must follow the Copyright for the individual contribution rests with the APA style sheet. The paper must be original and author. However, LLT should be informed and should not have been submitted for publication acknowledged as the original source of publication. anywhere else. A statement to this effect must be LLT retains the right to republish any of the sent along with the paper. Authors are also contributions in its future publications or to make it requested to send a list of 3-4 suggested readings available in electronic form or translation. related to their paper.