RAJENG00941/20/1/2012-TC, Volume 1 Number 1 30 January 2013

English, Biannual, Udaipur Price: ` 150 Annual

Azim Premji University

(Original Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 ISSN: 2277-307X) Language and Language Teaching

Editors Rama Kant Agnihotri, Vidya Bhawan Society, Udaipur, India (Formerly at the University of Delhi) A. L. Khanna, ELT Consultant, Delhi, India (Formerly at the University of Delhi)

Editorial Committee Suranjana Barua, Tezpur University, Assam, India Haobam Basantarani, Language Consultant, Delhi, India Rajni Dwivedi, Vidya Bhawan Society, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India Praveen Singh, University of Delhi, Delhi, India Rajesh Kumar, IIT, Patna, Bihar, India Devaki Lakshminarayan, Azim Premji University, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India

Executive Committee H.K. Dewan, Vidya Bhawan Society, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India S. Giridhar, Azim Premji University, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India Partha Sarathi Misra, Azim Premji University, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India

International Review and Advisory Board

R. Amritavalli, English and Foreign Languages University, Minati Panda, Zakir Hussain Centre for Educational Studies, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India JNU, Delhi, India Rakesh Bhatt, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champagne, D.P. Pattanayak, Founder Director, CIIL, Mysore, Karnataka, Illinois, USA India Tanmoy Bhattacharya, University of Delhi, Delhi, India Robert Phillipson, Copenhagen Business School, Denmark Jim Cummins, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada N.S. Prabhu, Former Head of English Language, National Ganesh Devy, Dhirubhai Ambani Institute of Information and University of Singapore, Singapore. Communication Technology, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India Tariq Rahman, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan Kathleen Heugh, University of South Australia, Australia Anju Sahgal Gupta, Indira Gandhi National Open University, Ayesha Kidwai, Jawaharlal Nehru University, Delhi, India Delhi, India Stephen D. Krashen, University of Southern California, Los Itesh Sachdev, School of Oriental & African Studies, University Angeles, California, USA of London, UK Kay McCormick, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Rajesh Sachdeva, Former Director, CIIL, Mysore, Karnataka, Africa India Rajend Mesthrie, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Sadhna Saxena, University of Delhi, Delhi, India Africa Udaya Narayana Singh, Tagore Research Chair, Visva Bharati, K. P. Mohanan, IISER, Pune, Maharashtra, India Santiniketan, West Bengal, India Ajit Mohanty, formerly at the Zakir Hussain Centre for M.L. Tickoo, formerly at the English and Foreign Languages Educational Studies, JNU, Delhi, India University, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India Aditi Mukherjee, National Translation Mission, CIIL, Mysore, Mahendra K. Verma, University of York, York, UK Karnataka, India

Copy editor: Preeti Jhangiani; Cover: Aseem Ralhan; Layout: Rajesh Sen

Thanks are due to Preeti Misra and Namrita Batra for their help in finalizing this issue.

© 2012 Vidya Bhawan Society, Udaipur (Raj.) The views expressed in the articles in LLT are those of the authors only.

First issue being published under registration with the office of the Registrar of Newspapers for India Individual : ` 75; Institutional : ` 150 Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013

Contents

Articles Landmarks Multilinguality in Academic Institutes in India Chomsky’s Innateness Hypothesis: Implications for Language Learning and Teaching Nilu and Rajesh Kumar 1 Ayesha Kidwai Multilingual Education and Literacy: Research 57 from sub-Saharan Africa Kathleen Heugh 5 Book Reviews In a Multilingual Class Second Language Acquisition and Universal Grammar Rajni Dwivedi 10 Pritha Chandra 62 Role of L 1 in Foreign Language Learning Advanced English Grammar Classrooms: A Case Study of Learners of French Bidisha Som 64 Shambhavi Singh 12 Masti Ki Paathshala Language and Culture: About a Saora Class 1 Primer Parmanand Jha 65 Suggested Readings Mahendra Kumar Mishra 16 Thinking Culture in a Language Classroom: Vocabulary Teaching Gujarati as a Foreign Language Language Teaching Games and Contests Venu Mehta 21 Suranjana Barua 69 Writing in Classrooms: Missing Voices and Meri Badi Kitab Reflections Mukul Priyadarshini 70 Nidhi Kunwar 25 Continuing Professional Development: The Way Classroom Activities Forward for English Language Teachers Dominos Fun Kirti Kapur 29 Searching Spree Designing Second Language Curriculum Bhavna Tandon 71 S. C. Sood 33 Say only ‘yes’ or ‘no’ Teaching Learning Materials in a Multilingual Rajni Dwivedi 73 Education Programme Writing Poems Urmishree Bedamatta 38 Rhyme in line Do Language Codes Affect Multilingualism?: Manu Gulati 75 A Case Study of an Inclusive School Playing with Meaning Sneha Subramaniam 41 Devaki Lakshminarayan 77 Language across Curriculum: Principle to Practice Nisha Butoliya 45 Reports Fricatives and Affricates of English: A Case Study Workshop on Material Development of Assamese Learners Suneeta Mishra (The Sansarg Group) 78 Anima Baishya 49 Workshop on Language and Language Teaching Amresh Chandra 80 Interview Face to Face with Mr. Navnit Kumar Forthcoming Events Vijay Kumar 54 Haobam Basantarani 82 In the memory of Prof. Rajendra Singh

That many of us would witness the departure of Prof. Rajendra Singh so soon is still difficult to believe. He was a major linguist of the past few decades and his work in Phonology, Morphology and Sociolinguistics and in South Asian linguistics will always be remembered and valued forever. After getting his Ph D from Brown University, Dr. Singh joined the University of Montreal and made seminal contributions in Phonology and Morphology. Prof. Probal Dasgupta remarks: “His 1987 article ‘Well-formedness conditions and phonological theory’ (Wolfgang Dressler et al.[eds] Phonologica 1984, 273-285) was a much-cited landmark paper that helped change the course of phonology.” Similarly, his work on Whole Word Morphology provided a completely new paradigm for examining the formal relationships obtaining among words. In fact, similar things can be said about most of his interventions into the nature and structure of language and its relationship to mind and society. He was on the Advisory Board of LLT and was a very special person for the Vidya Bhawan Society (VBS), Udaipur. He promised to spend a few weeks every year at VBS, and shared its dream of building bridges between the academia and education professionals of all kinds. He helped us conceptualize and eventually conduct several of our international seminars; the proceedings of some of these seminars have been published and translated into Hindi. He conducted courses on some aspect of language every year to enrich the resources of the Vidya Bhawan Education Resource Centre. Some of these included lectures/ discussions/ workshops on ‘The Nature of Language’ (published in English and Hindi as separate monographs from VBS, Udaipur, 2008); a lecture series on the Greco-Roman tradition in language teaching (likely to be published soon); a course in academic writing etc. He often ‘blamed’ some of us for pulling him into the discourse on ‘Indian English’ (IE) but that intervention on his part resulted in a position on IE that became a major site for discussion across the world. The ‘Afterword’ to the 1994 Sage volume (R.K. Agnihotri & A. L. Khanna, [ed.] Second Language Acquisition) initiated that discourse and it reached its climax in the publication of Indian English: Towards a New Paradigm (R.K. Agnihotri and Rajendra Singh, [eds.] 2013 Orient BlackSwan, New Delhi). Those of us who were fortunate to share evenings with him at Udaipur remember him with great affection, respect and awe. Every time he concluded a discussion, we used to wonder how he could digest so much knowledge. Though he was always so humble and gentle in his academic discourse, he was never willing to surrender an inch unless there was a solid reason to do so. VBS salutes him and would always cherish memories of the precious moments he spent with the VBS faculty. Vidya Bhawan Society Multilinguality in Academic Institutes in India

Nilu and Rajesh Kumar

Introduction We know that every child is fluent in her first India is a land of many languages. According to language (Chomsky, 1965). A child grows up the 2001 census, there are twenty-two official with her/his first language, and brings it to school. However, when the child reaches a higher languages in India, and more than one thousand educational institution, she/he has to switch to six hundred regional dialects along with their English. A natural question arises at this point; varieties. In the villages, most children go to why are higher educational institutions restricted government schools for their primary and to English? If India is a land of multilingualism, secondary education. In the government schools, then the medium of instruction in academic the syllabus, examination, debates, speeches, institutes should also be multilingual. This paper official formalities, etc., are conducted in the examines the Indian scenario of education that local, regional or official language. English may offers a monolingual solution to a multilingual be one of the subjects, but it is not the language situation. The paper discusses multilinguality and of the functional domains in most cases. Soon the acquisition of English language in higher after the completion of formal secondary academic institutes with particular reference to education, some students get into institutes of IIT Patna. higher education such as the IITs, NITs, IIITs, IIMs, AIIMS, or other medical or engineering Multilingualism in India colleges and universities. When these students India is a land of multiple religions and socio- come to such institutions, everything feels alien cultural environments. In fact, most children in to them. Almost overnight, the language of all India are multilingual. Multilingualism in India is their functional domains becomes English. a way of life so taken for granted, that we English, which until now was restricted to being possibly cannot imagine another way of living one of the subjects, becomes the medium of socially. Not only do people speak different instruction. Discussions, speeches, debates, languages within and outside their homes assignments, examinations, official formalities because of social divisions, they also speak are all conducted in English. The drastic change different versions of the same language across in language from mother tongue to other tongue situations and with different social players. (English) becomes an impediment for the Chomsky (1986) argues that a child is born with students, and not just in terms of their education. the innate quality of acquiring/learning language. This change makes students suffer academically He further suggested that one of the as well as psychologically. Achievements and requirements for such an acquisition was input knowledge are lost in questions of language that from the society that was fuzzy in nature and require serious attention in academics. inadequate in quantity. It is reasonable to assume

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 1 from this hypothesis, that the output of the completely homogenous speech community, had acquisition may also result in a ‘fuzzy’ perfect command over its language, and was multilingualism. It is critical to note here that not affected by any grammatical irrelevant the acquired language is highly organized and factors, such as limitation of memory, distraction, rule-governed at all levels. Chomsky had shift of attention or error (momentary or described the concept of an ideal native speaker/ characteristic), in making practical use of her hearer. However, an ideal speaker/hearer does knowledge. By this definition of Chomsky, a not exist. The language in the real world cannot multilingual speaker was considered to be a non- be defined as ‘a language’. A person acquires ideal speaker. However, people live in and speaks many languages simultaneously. We heterogeneous speech communities where they take our language capacity to be monolingual, have an equally fluent command over many and consider multilingualism as an ability alien languages. Chomsky further talked about LAD to humans. On the one hand we are programmed (language acquisition device) according to which to learn our first language naturally and we have the acquisition of language takes place innately. to make an effort to learn any other language, But this acquisition device is not restricted to and on the other hand popular discourse in one language. A child gets exposed to a education that questions the learning ability of multilingual environment and has the capability children in a non-native/foreign language drives to acquire many languages at the same time. us to consider humans as essentially The whole language acquisition process is monolingual. We all possess the capacity designed to be multilingual; multilinguality is (Language Acquisition Device and Universal natural. The ideal speaker/hearer of Chomsky’s Grammar) to acquire and decipher different idea of language was simply a machine for the languages. However, this does not mean that scientific treatment of language. However, when we have direct access to languages. External we look at society today, the scenario looks very input of the specific language is needed to learn different, i.e., ‘language’ can only be defined as it; however, we learn and comprehend much multilingualism (Agnihotri, 2007, 2009). more than the input and this comes from a natural There are many factors that are responsible for ability for languages. As Jackendoff (1993) puts a multilingual society. A few obvious reasons it, “... language acquisition has to go far beyond are the necessity and co-existence of just memorizing and reshuffling inputs one has multiculturalism. Communication is essential for heard. Much of the organization has to come any society. When people move from one place from inside the brain” (p.101-111). The flexibility, to another, they need a local language. with which a child picks up different languages Multilingualism includes interdependence spoken in the neighborhood, somehow seems between speakers of two or more languages. to get lost, or wane as the child grows older. In India, it is generally found in states where Why can’t this adaptability in children to the natives do not share the predominant different languages be used as strength in language, e.g., Santhali is spoken in Jharkhand, teaching? where the predominant language is Hindi. People According to Chomsky (1965), linguistic theory who have an interest in a foreign language may should concern itself primarily with the also be multilingual. Sometimes people may find investigation of a speaker’s competence. He it necessary to acquire a second language for described competence as speaker’s/hearer’s practical purposes, such as business, information knowledge of her language. Chomsky’s ideal and entertainment. In countries such as India, speaker/hearer was someone who lived in a multilingualism also stems from education; we

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 2 teach children different languages such as Although multilingualism has always been Sanskrit, Hindi, and English at school. Residents appreciated in the society, English seems to in border areas between two countries or states command a higher status. However, the with different languages are naturally dominance of English as a medium of instruction multilingual. In the Indian context, people may at IIT Patna results in students dropping out also learn different languages for religious from the course, and performing poorly. Students purposes. Thus, we can say that multilingualism living in a linguistically rich environment with is an outcome of various direct or indirect the knowledge of so many languages are factors. systemically forced to go through a situation that brings down their performance. Ironically, the same students are allowed to enter these very The IIT Patna study higher institutes of education even if they do To substantiate the discussion so far, we not speak English as the entrance examinations conducted a pilot study at IIT Patna. This case are available in Hindi. However, when it comes study highlights the multilingual scenario of to education, students do not have an option of higher education with the dominance of English education in anything other than English. among the Indian languages. The study revealed that there is a mismatch between the languages Conclusion spoken by the students, and the languages used In schools, students speaking different first for teaching in the institution. In fact, the study languages come together to study where they of multilingualism in IIT Patna is closely related interact with each other without any difficulties. to multilingualism in India. There are about Yet, they are assumed to have problems if the twenty languages spoken across IIT Patna; medium of instruction is multilingual. This is the these include Hindi, Rajasthani, Marathi, Punjabi, beginning of the neglect of multilinguality. In this Telugu, Kannada, English, Assamese, Manipuri, era of globalization, English is not just the Sanskrit, Bengali, Haryanavi, Bhojpuri, Tamil, language of the world, but also dominates all Malayalam, Braj, Maithili, Gujarati, Urdu, and Indian languages in terms of status and technical Magahi. Almost every student at the institute is information. However, multilingualism is not a multilingual. There is no student who speaks just threat or an alternative to English; it is simply a one language, or a ‘pure’ language. The solution to education. It is high time the educators knowledge of these languages is either through recognize the need for multilinguality as a acquisition, as first language; through contact resource (Agnihotri, 2007). with speakers of the language; or through formal Despite such strong motivating factors for learning. The percentage of students who speak learning multiple languages, our educational two languages, three languages, and four institutes continue to exist in a monolingual world. languages is 37 per cent, 54 per cent and 9 per One needs to ask a significant question: Is cent respectively. English is included in every multilingualism a barrier for education or an student’s language profile and is most frequently asset? In a time of domination of English and used by the students. An analysis of the data linguistic genocide (prohibition of the use of collected for this research suggests that students language of the groups in everyday interact between themselves and with outsiders conversation and school), even the theoretical in many different languages as per the functional recognition that multilingualism is an inevitable domains. aspect of human social fabric and accepting

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 3 it as an asset, is half the battle won (Agnihotri, Nilu is a research scholar in the Department of 2009). This thought itself has potential for a Humanities and Social Sciences at IIT Patna. She is radical change in the world order, by turning working towards her PhD in Linguistics. She has presented and published papers in applied and it into a more sensitive, just and equitable theoretical linguistics. society. Accepting multilingualism will imply [email protected] forgoing the populist rigid notion of ‘a language’ and recognizing that all languages are equally rule-governed, rich and complex Rajesh Kumar is an Assistant Professor in Department of Humanities and Social Sciences at at the level of sounds, words and sentences. IITM, Chennai. His areas of teaching and research It will also free us from the shackles of include Language in Education, Structure of linguistic stereotypes such as distinction Language, and Sociolinguistics. between language and dialects. There [email protected] appears to be a general belief that languages are pure, and dialects are their crude, unscientific versions. There was yet another belief that knowing many languages hampers cognitive development. Hence, we can say that Chomsky’s idea of ‘a language’ is helpful only for theoretical machinery, whereas language in society, i.e. multilingualism, is considered as a practical skill.

References Agnihotri, R. K. (2007). Towards a pedagogical paradigm rooted in multilinguality. International Journal of Multilingual Research, 1(2), 79-88. Agnihotri, R. K. (2009). Multilinguality and a new world order. In A.K. Mohanty, M. Panda, R. Phillipson and T. Skutnabb-Kangas (Eds.), Multilingual education for social justice: Globalizing the local (pp. 268-277). New Delhi: Orient Blackswan. Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Chomsky, N. (1986). Knowledge of language: Its nature, origin, and use. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers. Clyne, M. (1998). Multilingualism. In F. Coulmas (Ed.), The handbook of sociolinguistics (pp 300- 314). Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishing, Jackendoff, R. (1993). How children learn language? In Patterns in the mind: Language and human nature (pp. 101-111). New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 4 Multilingual Education and Literacy: Research from sub-Saharan Africa

Kathleen Heugh

Introduction which may be relevant for countries where Countries of the global south have long histories multilingualism and multilinguality (Agnihotri, of educating their children through local or 2007) are the norm, rather than the exception. regional languages which are used in the villages. Kenyan scholar Alamin Mazrui (2002) argues They also have a rich literary tradition of that solutions to the current failure of education scholarship, which pre-dates the colonial to meet the needs of school pupils in Africa intervention that invariably resulted in the include the dissemination of research regarding introduction of European languages, what works well and what does not work. He administrations and education systems. Today, further emphasizes the importance of with the rapid increase in the mobility of people, multidirectional exchange of information, and the spread of global technologies, European, research and experience, i.e., from Africa to North American and Australasian education the diaspora (South-South and South-North), systems are grappling with how to manage rather than the mono-directional North-South linguistic and cultural diversity in the best possible exchange which has undermined development manner. Books on bi-/multilingual education, in Africa since the nineteenth century. mainly from Western-Northern perspectives (Heller, 2008; García, 2009; Blackledge & ‘Invisible’ African education practices Creese, 2010), offer contributions on the utilization and the importance of inclusive We know that Africa has experienced at least approaches to education. However, these studies three well-defined periods of multilingual have limited traction in countries of the ‘South’ educational practice which pre-date colonial because they focus on the needs of linguistically intervention. These begin with the early Egyptian diverse students who are regarded as minority use of hieroglyphics, through the Coptic Christian students in a sub-set of majority mainstream use of Ge’ez, to the spread of education in systems. Despite increasing evidence of various African languages written in the Arabic substantial ‘South-led’ research (Agnihotri, script as evidenced in the manuscripts of 2007; Mohanty et al., 2009; Ouane & Glanz, Timbuktu in Mali. Scholarship in various 2010; Heugh & Skutnabb-Kangas, 2010), languages, which peaked in the twelfth century academic contributions of the ‘North’ continue in Mali, was ahead of the Italian Renaissance. to disregard what has already been practised Yet, the late nineteenth century European and learnt from valuable research in the ‘South’. partition of Africa ‘invisibilized’ (Skutnabb- In this article, I discuss some of the most recent, Kangas, 2000) African educational practices and large-scale research conducted on literacy and records of this period. European or North multilingual education systems in Africa; I American models of education, entirely out-of- believe they may offer comprehensive findings kilter with the continent, and designed for

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 5 societies in which there was a single dominant language education in Ethiopia have recently language, were superimposed on the diverse been debated in relation to multilingual education African communities. Such ill-fitting models, of initiatives in Latin and North America, India, which ‘outcomes-based’ or ‘constructivist’ Nepal, South-East Asia and Burkina Faso. curriculum is the most recent, have not only been Scholars from these settings have contributed costly and have incurred an Africa-wide debt, research and theory from the ‘peripheries to the but they have also underserved students for one centre(s)’ (Heugh & Skutnabb-Kangas, 2010). hundred and thirty years. The implications of the Ethiopian and other Nevertheless, recent African research (in liaison studies of this volume point towards: with development agencies such as UNESCO decentralization of education to regional and and the United Nations Development local authorities, local skills development and Programme-UNDP) has uncovered extensive community involvement in schools, provision of data in language and literacy education, which multilingual education, and improved rates of may be useful for theoretical developments in achievement. While this collection of studies international education and applied linguistics may surprise stakeholders who are accustomed where these engage with linguistic diversity to looking North or West, it is generating beyond Africa. international interest in what we do in the South. Part of international contemporary wisdom is that the longer children are in school, the more The Ethiopian study likely they are to access mainstream society and The Ethiopian study, which is backed with data the economy. It is believed that successful collected from urban, rural and pastoral students in mainstream state-provided education (nomadic) communities, demonstrates that it is are those who succeed in developing high level possible even in one of the poorest countries of literacy skills in the language(s) of the immediate the world, to accommodate low cost linguistic, community, which can later be transferred to ethnic and faith-based diversity across an entire high level literacy in a language of wider education system, and within a ten year communication such as English, French, Spanish, timeframe (Heugh et al., 2007). The Ethiopian Russian, Arabic or Mandarin. While research (federal) Ministry of Education adopted a new in Northern Europe and North America has education policy in 1994, which included eight pointed towards such findings in alternative-to- years of mother tongue education (MTE) along mainstream programmes (e.g., immersion with the teaching of Amharic as a national bilingual, two-way immersion), in neither setting second language, for all students whose mother have data been drawn from system-wide tongue was not Amharic (this covered two-thirds (mainstream) studies. of school students). In addition to this, the policy included the teaching of English as a Foreign Such data have however been gathered from Language from grade one, with a transition to studies conducted in African countries, English as a medium of instruction for secondary particularly in South Africa and Ethiopia, as well education (by grade nine). Like Afrikaans in as from other multi country studies covering South Africa, Amharic was used as a language Sub-Saharan Africa (Alidou et al 2006; Heugh of privileged political power and control in pre- et al., 2007; Reeves et al., 2008; Ouane & Glanz, 1990 Ethiopia. Since Ethiopia had not 2010, 2011). In addition to this, in an exchange succumbed to colonial rule, English had a limited of South-South research, the findings of a role prior to this point. Political and educational particularly interesting systemic study of changes in Ethiopia occurred along a similar

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 6 timeline to those in South Africa during the it to different degrees. Systemic assessment in 1990s, with interesting comparisons over the last grade four and grade eight in the years 2000, two decades. By 2010, MTE had been 2004 and 2008 have provided the largest implemented for at least six years of primary multilingual education datasets, across the education in eight out of eleven Ethiopian world. These datasets illustrate the relation regions, and for eight years in four out of these between the medium of instruction and student (accompanied by language development in 32 achievement across each of the language languages). The uptake of this policy in an education models (zero MTE; 4 years of MTE; environment where only Amharic, Afan Oromo, 6 years of MTE; a mix of 6 and 8 years of and a little English had been used as languages MTE—certain subjects in MT/MT for 6 years of education prior to this point is phenomenal, and another language for 8 years; and 8 years given the minimal resources at the disposal of of MTE). The findings are historically and the federal and regional governments. chronologically important. During the data collection phase of the study on Firstly, the data show that students with eight the medium of instruction in Ethiopian primary years of MTE outperform those with fewer than schools in 2006, what was particularly striking eight years of MTE. Students with a mix of six for the researchers was the availability and daily to eight years of MTE outperform those with use of locally produced textbooks and learning six years of MTE, and students with six years materials in languages of the local community. of MTE outperform those with four years of What was even more remarkable was that, in MTE. This data correlates with the earlier data contrast with the results of the field research on African studies which indicates that students conducted in the schools in South Africa, these demonstrate higher levels of achievement with books were used in class and taken home for six years of MTE under ideal (well-resourced, homework tasks on a daily basis. In South experimental) conditions (Bamgbose, 2000), and Africa, where commercial publishers produce with eight years of less well-resourced expensive school textbooks, these are usually conditions (Alidou et al., 2006; Ouane & Glanz, locked away in cupboards, seldom given in the 2010). hands of students, and rarely allowed home Secondly, the data suggest that students who (Reeves et al., 2008). While there have been learn three languages in the school system considerable challenges within the Ethiopian (including at least two scripts/orthographic education system, and it has serious flaws and systems) have higher levels of academic risks, including a recent change in publishing achievement than those who learn only two policy, South Africa has a great deal to learn languages. about effective education reform from this resource-poor country. So do other countries Thirdly, students’ achievement in science from the South and North, where youth whose declines sharply with fewer than eight years of languages and cultures receive less MTE. acknowledgement either exit school Fourthly, students who have at least six years prematurely, or face social alienation. of MTE before they switch to English medium, The Ethiopian case offers a microcosm of each do best in mathematics. of the language education models currently Fifthly, where there is a higher concentration of implemented across Africa and in other diverse rural and small urban centres, students exhibit settings. While there is a single federal language higher levels of achievement than students in education policy, the regions have implemented the more urbanized contexts. These findings

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 7 correlate with higher community participation and science. This has occurred subsequent to in schools and education in the rural and small the roll-out of the English language improvement towns. Despite frequent misconceptions about programme across several regions, and a switch the low levels of involvement and interest of to English medium, especially in mathematics nomadic communities in education, the Ethiopian and science (see Coleman, 2011 for critiques of study revealed that even in pastoral societies, over-dependency on English in developing communities hold strong and informed views on countries.) education and the role of languages in education. There is yet another critical phenomenon in Lessons from the Ethiopian study relation to the data emerging from the Ethiopian The Ethiopian case offers international study. While the MT/home language policy was educational theory not only large datasets which implemented and given strong federal validate contemporary theory of bi/multilingual government backing between 1994 and 2002, a education, but also four valuable lessons. change in the education minister was • The first lesson is that it is possible, even accompanied by a change in focus towards a with minimal expenditure, to develop, and greater prioritization of English throughout the implement multilingual education in education system from 2003. A new set of plans resource-poor countries. was put in place to increase the role of English • which emphasized the teaching of English in The second lesson is that high cost intervention provided by experts from other primary schools. By 2004, an English language countries (in this instance, a cascade model consultant from the United Kingdom was for English language improvement) does not brought in to develop an in-service teacher always show positive returns on investment. education programme to improve teachers’ In fact, in this case, the evidence points to proficiency in English. This diverted 42 per cent lower levels of student achievement. of the teacher education budget towards a • cascade model English language improvement The third lesson contributes to new theory from 2005, involving one hundred and twenty that students who learn three languages have higher levels of academic achievement hours of intensive contact time for English than those who learn two languages, language tuition and eighty hours of distance particularly in mathematics and science. education. Within two years all primary school teachers in the country had participated in this • The fourth lesson indicates that students programme. The data collected in 2006 elicited with longer MTE followed by a transition disturbing information about this programme and to English have higher achievement levels, its efficacy. The report (Heugh et al., 2007) and particularly in mathematics and science. the volume (Heugh & Skutnabb-Kangas, 2010), The last two points counter earlier unsupported reveal the impact and ‘washback effect’ of claims that the learning of more than one greater prioritization of English on the language detracts from students’ potential achievement of students in the system at the achievement in mathematics and science. time. Despite the enormous cost of providing Finally, Alamin Mazrui (2002) recommends that in-service teacher education in English across in order to transform the education system in the system, student achievement in the 2000 and Africa, more attention ought to be directed 2004 assessments showed significant decline towards what can be learned from within the subsequent to the focus on English in the 2008 continent and from South-South exchanges of systemic assessment, particularly in mathematics expertise, rather than looking towards models

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 8 outside Africa. In fact, a lot can be learned from Heller. M. (Ed.) (2008). Bilingualism: A social Ethiopia, and from a thorough investigation of approach. Basingstoke: Palgrave. education on the African continent through Mazrui, A. M. (2002). The English language in African different historical periods dating as far back as education: Dependency and decolonization. In J. W. ancient Egypt. Similarly, exchange of research Tollefson (Ed.), Language policies in education: experience between South Asia and Africa Critical issues (pp. 267-282). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence would also offer insights to European, North Erlbaum. American and Australasian investigations on Mohanty, A., Panda, M., Phillipson, R. & Skutnabb- how best to include linguistic and cultural diversity Kangas, T. (Eds.). (2009). Multilingual education in the curricula of Northern systems of for social justice: Globalizing the local. New Delhi: education, both in respect of indigenous and Orient Blackswan. migrant minority education. Ouane, A. & Glanz, C. (2010). Why and how Africa should invest in African languages and multilingual education: An evidence- and practice-based policy References and advocacy brief. Paris: UNESCO. Retrieved from Agnihotri, R. K. (2007). Towards a pedagogical http://www.scribd.com/doc/53342036/Why-and- paradigm rooted in multilinguality. International How-Africa-Should-Invest-in-African-Languages- and-Multilingual-Education-9789282011713 Journal of Multilingual Research, 1(2), 79-88. Ouane, A. & Glanz, C. (Eds.) (2011). Optimising Alidou, H., Boly, A., Brock-Utne, B., Diallo, Y. S., learning, education and publishing in Africa: The Heugh, K. & Wolff, H. E. (2006). Optimizing learning language factor. A review and analysis of theory and and education in Africa - the language factor: A practice in mother-tongue and bilingual education stock-taking research on mother tongue and bilingual in Sub-Saharan Africa. Hamburg and Tunis education in Sub-Saharan Africa. Working Papers. Belvédère: UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning Retrieved from http://www.adeanet.org/adeaPortal/ (UIL) and the Association for the Development of adea/biennial-2006/doc/document/B3_1_ Education in Africa (ADEA)/African Development MTBLE_en.pdf Bank. Retrieved from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ Bamgbose, A. (2000). Language and exclusion. images/0021/002126/212602e.pdf Hamburg: Lit Verlag. Reeves, C., Heugh, K., Prinsloo, C.H., Macdonald, Blackledge, A. & Creese, A. (2010). C., Netshitangani, T., Alidou, H., Diedericks, G. & Multilingualism: A critical perspective. London & Herbst, D. (2008). Evaluation of literacy teaching in NewYork: Continuum. primary schools of Limpopo province. Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC), Education, Coleman, H. (Ed.) (2011). Dreams and realities: Science and Skills Development (ESSD) and Developing countries and the English language. Department of Language Education, University of London: British Council. Limpopo. Retrieved from http://www.hsrc.ac.za/ García, O. (2009). Bilingual education in the 21st research/output/outputDocuments /5715_Reeves_ century: A global perspective. Oxford: Wiley- Evaluationo fliteracy.pdf Blackwell. Skutnabb-Kangas, T. (2000). Linguistic genocide in Heugh, K. & Skutnabb-Kangas, T. (2010). education: Or worldwide diversity and human Multilingual education works: From the periphery rights? Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. to the centre. New Delhi: Orient Blackswan. Heugh, K., Benson, C., Bogale, B. & Yohannes, M. Kathleen Heugh works at the Research Centre for A. G. (2007). Study on medium of instruction in Languages and Cultures, University of South primary schools in Ethiopia: Final report. Retrieved Australia and is interested in multilingual education from http://www.hsrc.ac.za/research/output/ research and policy issues. outputDocuments/4379_Heugh_Studyonmediumo [email protected] finstruction.pdf.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 9 In a Multilingual Class

Rajni Dwivedi

I was assigned the task of teaching grade three vanished as they were not able to understand children in a government school. Most of the some of the key words in the story, and were children were from lower middle class therefore neither able to make sense of the story background, and were first generation learners. nor make any connections. It was therefore While the mother tongue of these children was natural that they had lost interest. Chhattisgarhi, some of them could speak and I asked a few of them—who seemed to understand Hindi (a few common words and understand—to translate the story in their own sentences in kamchalau Hindi, not textbook language for the others. They were surprised. Hindi). I did not know a single word of They could not believe that a teacher was asking Chhattisgarhi. I present below a brief account them to translate the story in their language. of some of my initial interventions in the teaching Some of the children looked at me in confusion, of Hindi to these children. others were feeling shy to come forward, some One day, I decided to tell the children a story as were smiling at me, and some may even have we were not able to make much headway with been thinking what a stupid task I was assigning reading the textbook. When I asked the children them. if they would like to hear a story, all of them I then requested a grade five child to translate showed a keen interest and enthusiasm. I the story for the class. He asked me if I really prepared a story, and the next day I began wanted him to translate it. He reconfirmed thrice narrating it to the children. But within a few to reassure himself, and then with a shy smile minutes (I was not able to finish even one-fourth on his face, he started translating. of the story), I realized that the engagement and There was pin-drop silence in the class. interest level in the story had dipped significantly; Everyone was listening with rapt attention. After as many as 80 per cent of the children were not the story was over, I asked the children some listening and were engaged in some other work questions, and they were able to answer them. (copying something from a book, playing with a I was quite satisfied. The class did not end that bottle or a pen, talking, etc.) I told them to stop day, in fact the real classroom transaction started whatever they were doing, and then asked them from that day; a lot of children gradually started why they were not listening. I did not get any talking to me in the language(s) they knew. answer. Just to check, I asked a few questions, At times, when I was not able to understand (kahani mein kaun kaun hai?; ped kahan what they were trying to say, they tried to hai?). Once again, I did not receive an answer. communicate with the help of gestures, or by Some more questions later, I realized that most making pictures, or by asking another child who of the children had not been able to comprehend they felt could help. The reverse was also the story. Their enthusiasm and interest had happening; they unhesitatingly started asking me

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 10 to re-explain things if they did not understand classes that I had taught. Had the children been what I was trying to say. engaged at all, and had they comprehended They also started sharing their fights, jokes, anything? Why had the children been so hesitant songs, experiences of home, functions, field, and to use their mother tongue? It also made me the work that they did, in the class. The children think about the kind of changes I should make not only started speaking up, but they also started in the way I facilitated the classroom, and what taking part in the class activities. I also noticed I could learn from the children. I also realized a change in the behaviour of the children who that given the opportunity, the children could put were initially not listening to me; gradually they in a lot more effort to understand what was going started helping me. They started participating on, and also follow the teacher and the learning in group activities and helping other children, and route proposed by her/him. More importantly, stopped going out from the classroom whenever they could make the teacher understand what they wanted to. they wanted to convey and thus ensure that the classroom transactions become more meaningful. The entire interaction became very meaningful for all of us. We were all learning from each Finally, I realized what the term ‘engagement’ other, not just about the words of each other’s implies, and how an unfamiliar language could language and the way the verbs, plurals, etc., hamper children’s contribution in the class; while worked, but also about how we did different the use of their own language could increase things, how we said things, and how we related their participation. Giving a voice to all the to things. In short, we learnt a little bit about languages of children in the class could be a each other’s culture. The conversations brought really challenging task as it involves a lot of effort out the diversity in how people address each on the part of the teacher, but the gains are other, how they celebrate festivals, what kind immense and more than worthy of the effort. of work their families are involved in, how it is done, what it requires, etc. There were Rajni Dwivedi works at the Vidya Bhawan Education conversations around each of them, and the Resource Centre, Udaipur. Her primary interest is in recognition that each of them was worthwhile making innovative interventions at the elementary and contributed in a meaningful manner. We also school level in the area of language. talked about different languages, identity issues, [email protected] dignity of the individual and culture and its relationship to language. This experience of a multilingual class gave me an insight into a lot of important issues related to language and communication. I could appreciate what it took to break through the boundaries of ‘a language’; although language by itself was not the only tool, but it certainly played a crucial role as it was not only connected to aforesaid values, but also with meaning- making, thinking, sharing, and communicating ideas. The whole experience made me very reflective about what may have happened in the earlier

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 11 Role of L1 in Foreign Language Learning Classrooms: A Case Study of Learners of French

Shambhavi Singh

Introduction them with the linguistic or extra linguistic features Research into the role of using learners’ first of the FL. But not many teachers are convinced language (L1) in a foreign language (FL) about this, therefore the L1 awareness of learners remains unused or underused. classroom has been a subject of much debate. On the one hand, there are researchers such as In the light of the above discussion, this paper Prodromou (2000), who claim that a learner’s reports the findings of a study which aimed at mother tongue is a ‘skeleton in the closet’; on improving the writing skills of French (as a FL) language learners by using their L1 the other hand, there are others such as systematically and judiciously. Gabrielatos (2001), who find L1 to be a ‘bone of contention’ in the second language (L2) or FL learning. But in a country such as India, Use of L1 in the FL classroom which has an unavoidably multilingual and Proponents of exclusive use of the target multicultural societal set-up, use of the learners’ language (TL) (Ellis, 1986; Krashen, 1981) in L1 in an FL classroom can help the teacher FL classroom consider learners’ L1 as a source preserve learner identity, and simultaneously of interference in FL acquisition. But as rightly promote language learning. This is especially pointed out by Macaro (2005), till date no study relevant given the strong support in favour of has been able to prove conclusively that multilingualism by several researchers (Jessner, exclusive use of TL leads to improved learning. On the contrary, there are studies and theories 2008; Agnihotri, 2009) in the last decade, and which confirm that L1 can be used as an the emphasis on using learners’ L1 in L2 and effective pedagogical tool in the FL classroom. FL classrooms in the national educational The proponents of multilingual theory claim that documents such as the National Curriculum a multilingual class is expected to promote not Framework 2005 and its Position Papers on only healthy interaction, but also greater language (NCERT). Hence, although tolerance of unfamiliar cultures and languages. multilingualism has been accepted as an In addition, multicompetence (Cook, 1991) has advantage, it is not yet a part of common FL been proved as a facilitator of cognitive flexibility teaching practice in India. (Agnihotri, 2007) and positive transfer of At the university level, most students often learn competence among languages (Kecskes, 1999). Since multilingualism is a widespread reality in foreign languages as their third (L3) or fourth the Indian linguistic map, use of the learners’ language (L4). It has been proven that effective L1 in an FL classroom can be no less than a learning entails proceeding from familiar to new boon, as their previous experiences as language items. Hence, FL teachers could utilize the learners can be utilized in the target language students’ knowledge of their L1 to familiarize classroom.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 12 Cook (2005), talks about two languages in the Procedure for data collection: Data collection same mind, and emphasizes the systematic and began with the observation of five classes in deliberate use of L1 to promote L2 learning French writing. These were followed by pre- through incorporation of methods which allow tests in Hindi and French, and then by an the use of both languages. Similarly, Butzkamm intervention and a post-test in French writing (2003), asserts that selective use of L1 helps in skills. A detailed descriptive account of learners’ maintaining a relaxed atmosphere, and reducing responses to the intervention was maintained. affective filters such as stress and frustration. Finally, the learners were asked to share their The present study is also grounded in the experiences of the intervention in a group sociocultural theory which postulates that L1 interview. works as a mediating tool, enabling learners to have access to things which they cannot achieve Results and discussion through exclusive TL use in a collaborative task (de la Colina & Garcia Mayo, 2009). Therefore, Classroom observation: The researcher when a task is challenging and complex in the observed that the teacher used Hindi for target language, learners turn to their L1 to translating new words and expressions, and perform the tasks (Swain & Lapkin, 2005). learners used it for answering questions and participating in group work. Furthermore, the main focus of the writing course was not only Hypothesis and research questions teaching writing skills, but also improving the This study is based on the assumption that comprehension of written texts. Learners were tactical use of learners’ L1 awareness facilitates allowed to use their L1. The class followed a successful learning of writing skills in French. free writing approach rather than a guided one. It attempts to answer the following questions: Pre-tests in Hindi and French: Pre-tests both • Can learners’ L1 awareness be used to in Hindi and French were administered in order develop their writing skills in French? to determine the ability of the learners to • How effective is the above approach? perform writing tasks in L1 and L3. The CEFR (Common European Framework of Reference) B1 level assessment grid for writing was used Methodology to score the answer scripts. To maintain Participants: A case study approach was objectivity, the scripts were evaluated by the followed for developing the design of the study. researcher as well as a French teacher. The sample for the study consists of a homogeneous group of six learners pursuing a For the pre-test in Hindi, questions were taken Bachelor’s degree in French (II year) at EFL from a CBSE intermediate board examination, University, Hyderabad. They belonged to the and the scripts were assessed by the researcher age group 19-22 years, and shared the same as well as a Hindi teacher using a CEFR B1 L1—Hindi. These learners studied English as level writing assessment grid. Due to space L2, and were studying French as L3. constraint, the citations from the participant’s scripts could not be included in this paper. Tools for data collection: By minutely analyzing the Hindi pre-test scripts, • Classroom observation schedule it was ascertained that the learners did not face • Pre- and post- tests any problems in writing an essay; the average • Semi-structured interview schedule. score was around 85 per cent. However,

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 13 analysis of the French essay revealed that the to determine whether each paragraph learners faced difficulties not only in following consisted of a main idea and supporting the morphosyntactic and grammatical rules, but details; and that ideas were linked. also in structuring and organizing the essay. • Stage 2: A comparative inter-paragraph Hence, this study focuses only on the structure, analysis of the students’ writings was done organization and revision of writing for a to determine whether there was an beginner level, as suggested by Brown & introductory paragraph, a main body and a Abeywickrama (2010). conclusion; and that paragraphs were linked. Intervention: During the five day intervention, a process-genre approach was used to teach writing as it is considered as the golden mean of three approaches, namely process, product and genre. The content of the intervention and the type of tasks used were based on the analyses of the pre-test and classroom observations, and the socio-cultural background of the learners. The objective of the intervention was to use L1 to teach writing skills in French as a FL, wherever necessary. The use of L1 during the intervention was not pre-determined as there is no theory or research that touches upon about The regression in the performance of A6 can the exact situations for using L1. However, the be attributed to physical or psychological factors learners’ pre-test scripts gave an indication of such as fatigue, anxiety, illness, etc. (Brown & where they needed help. Abeywickrama, 2010). In this study, the learners’ L1 awareness was used during the intervention for: Conclusion • Structuring and organizing the essay The findings of the study confirm that L1 is an • Brainstorming effective pedagogical tool that can be consciously exploited by making explicit • Learning connectors references to the learners’ L1 knowledge, in • Revision order to accelerate the learning process in an • Giving instructions. FL classroom. Also, the interview with the learners confirmed that their language of thought is Hindi (L1), and that it facilitates the Comparative analysis of the pre- and post- understanding of new things. Similarly, L1 tests in French awareness should also be used to reduce the After the intervention, a post-test was conducted cognitive burden, which in turn may give rise to in French, and analyzed to measure the impact a high affective filter. In other words, it is a of the intervention. This analysis was done in constructive way of making the most of what two stages: FL learners already know in terms of ideas, • Stage 1: A comparative intra-paragraph concepts, and linguistic and extra linguistic analysis of the students’ writings was done knowledge. Utilization of L1 may lead to

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 14 successful learning as it enables us “to learn a Cook, V.J. (1991b). The development of multi- new language without at the same time returning competence. Proceedings of the 5th Symposium on to infancy and learning to categorize the world the Description and/or Comparison of English and all over again” (Butzkamm & Caldwell, 2009, Greek, Thessaloniki, March 27-29, 394-404. p.72). Cook, V. (2005). Basing teaching on the L2 user. In E. Future studies can perhaps focus on the use of Llurda (Ed.), Non-native language teachers: Perceptions, challenges and contributions to the L1 in relation to different aspects of writing in profession (pp. 47–61). New York: Springer. detail. Also, studies may be taken up with experimental and controlled groups so that the Ellis, R. (1986). Understanding second language findings can be generalized for a larger acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. population. Gabrielatos, C. (2001). L1 use in ELT: Not a skeleton but a bone of contention. A response to Prodromou. Bridges, 6, 33-35. References Jessner, U. (2008). A DST model of multilingualism Agnihotri, R. K. (2007a). Identity and multilinguality: and the role of metalinguistic awareness. The Modern The case of India. In A. B. M. Tsui & J.W. Tollefson Language Journal, 92, 270-283. (Eds.), Language policy, culture, and identity in Kecskes, I. (1999). Situation-bound utterances from Asian contexts (pp. 185-204). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence an interlanguage perspective. In J. Verschueren (Ed.), Erlbaum Associates. Pragmatics in 1998, Selected papers from the 6th International Pragmatics Conference Vol. 2 (pp. 299- Agnihotri, R. K. (2007b). Pedagogical paradigm 310). Antwerp: International Pragmatics Association. rooted in multilinguality. International Multilingual Research Journal, 1(2), 79-88. Krashen, S. (1981). Second language acquisition and second language learning. New York: Agnihotri, R. K. (2009). Multilinguality and a new Pergamon. world order. In A. K. Mohanty, M. Panda, R. Macaro, E. (2005). Codeswitching in the L2 classroom: Phillipson & T. Skutnabb-Kangas (Eds.), A communication and learning strategy. In E. Llurda Multilingual education for social justice: (Ed.), Non-Native language teachers: Perceptions, Globalizing the local (pp. 268-277). New Delhi: Orient challenges and contributions to the profession (pp. Blackswan. 63–84). New York: Springer. Alegria de la Colina, A., & Del Pilar Garcia Mayo, M. Prodromou, L. (2000). Using the L1 in the classroom: (2009). Oral interaction in task-based EFL learning: From mother tongue to other tongue. TESOL Greece The use of the L1 as a cognitive tool. IRAL, 47(3/4), Newsletter, 67, 7-12. 325- 345. Swain, M. & Lapkin, S. (2005). The evolving Brown, H. D. & Abeywickrama, P. (2010). Language sociopolitical context of immersion education in Assessment: Principles and classroom practices Canada: Some implications for program development. (2nd ed.). White Plains, NY: Pearson Education, Inc. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 15(2), 169-186. Butzkamm, W. (2003). We only learn language once. The role of the mother tongue in FL classrooms: Death of a dogma. Language Learning Journal, Shambhavi Singh is an M. Phil. (French) student at 28(1), 29–39. the English and Foreign Languages University, Hyderabad. Butzkamm, W. & Caldwell, J. (2009). The bilingual [email protected] reform: A paradigm shift in foreign language teaching. Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag. Cook, V.J. (1991a). The poverty-of-the-stimulus argument and multi-competence. Second Language Research, 7(2), 103-117.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 15 Language and Culture: About a Saora Class One Primer

Mahendra Kumar Mishra

Introduction For this project, about 30 schools were taken This article reflects on the process1 of producing up on pilot basis where there were only Saora a class one primer for the Saora children, and children. Teachers from the Saora community its subsequent field trial. The socio-cultural were identified and trained to write bilingual context of the child is seen as the foundation of primers. Community tales and songs were learning. In the primer, Saora folklore was used collected from the Saora villages. The Saora as the content, and Saora language as the teachers, along with resource persons2, medium of learning, thus ensuring an inbuilt conducted workshops on preparation of bilingual context drawn from the children’s environment. primers in Saora and Oriya. Our work showed that it was possible for a child to learn two or more languages at the same time The primer for class one was culturally if her own language is actively used in the identifiable by the children and teachers. The learning process; it also seemed possible to book was entitled Erai Erai (Come Come), since engage children in analytical activities which it opened with a Saora poem that meant ‘Come enhance their logical and cognitive abilities. come children, let’s play’. This book took shape in a workshop (see endnote ‘1’) that focused Schools in the Saora context: Issues and on the preparation of materials which recognized challenges the linguistic potential of children and valued their Saora is a scheduled tribe from the Gajapati cultural practices as a resource. The primer district of Odisha, India. The tribal population comprised 34 lessons that were based on cultural constitutes 50 per cent of the total population of themes provided by Saora resource persons. Gajapati. They speak Saora, a language These included home, garden, village, mountain, belonging to the southern Mundari language fruits, folktales about birds and animals, group. Out of 895 villages with schools, in 440 cultivation, hunting, market, and many more villages Saora speaking children constitute over themes that represented the experiential 90 per cent of the population. While 332 schools knowledge of the Saora children and have 90-99 per cent Saora speakers, the rest of community. the 118 villages are completely (100 per cent) inhabited by the Saoras. Children in these The experience was a departure from the villages have little exposure to Oriya, the school conservative pedagogical texts and practices. language.Therefore, teaching and learning It was a space where the content and process, become a major challenge in these villages since context and language were from the Saora there is a wide gap between the language of community. A new discourse of indigenous the teachers, the children and that of the knowledge had been created for the Saora textbooks. children. The thirty-four lessons of Erai Erai,

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 16 composed and illustrated in collaboration with Using local myths the Saora teachers, perhaps for the first time Out of the thirty-four lessons, an aetiological privileged the linguistic and cultural practices of myth, kadan da kaka (the Heron and the Crow) the children in the formal domain of school. This was used in one of the lessons of the primer. acknowledged the existence of the historically This Saora tale tries to explain how the heron denied language and content of Saora and the crow were born. I have attempted to knowledge system by the dominant school and reproduce the classroom transaction of this tale, social system. For the Saora teachers and as observed by me during the field testing of children, it was indeed a new dawn. the class one primer. The tale is as follows Saora 3 English Oriya Aboi aaniblin baagu anti In a tree, two birds were living. Gotie gachhare duiti chadhei daakunlinji rahuthile. Badina aaninji rudilinji One day they had a quarrel. Dine semane kali kale. Arudilinji aasele jaitaa As they quarrelled, they fell Kali kari semane tale padigale. galuliji down. Aboi dukriboi daakuli There was an old woman. Jane budhi thila. Anin bindiaan bindiaanlin After she had finished cooking, Se randhi sari,paunsaku gote kumaabaan aaboi mungbaa she stored the ash in one place. jagare rakhila. daakuitin. Aasaajan baraan aaboi She stored the charcoal in Angara ku au gotie jagare mungbaa daakuitin another place. rakhila. Aayinte aawamti kumablingan One of the birds fell into the Gotie chadhei paunsa upare lagtule, ani paludun deyle. ash and became a heron. padila o baga hela.

Butinte aashaajan asailingan The other bird fell into the Anya chadhei ti angara upare laagtulli aani yegaadun charcoal and became a crow. padila au kau hela. deyle.

The field testing of Erai Erai took place over Children’s construction of texts out of text seven days across twenty-four pilot schools in The Saora children reacted enthusiastically to the Nuagada block. The textbook writers the text, and there was a distinct sense of demonstrated all thirty-four lessons in these ownership. They provided refreshing schools and gathered the responses of the perceptions of the tale and the pictures. They children. even formed new tales out of the picture, which, I went to the village of Titising to observe the until now, had been inconceivable for a teacher. field testing. Philip Mandala, the Saora teacher A child looked at the picture of the text book narrated the tale to the children, and the children and said, “That tree in which the birds hang about grasped the tale in one go. Next, he showed the has a hollow. A snake lives there. When the children pictures depicting the story and asked birds are away, the snake will go to the nest and them some questions based on the story. The eat the eggs.” (Of course this was text was not children exhibited very diverse reactions to the from the textbook.) pictures. The pictures of the story were speaking I noted that the children knew about snakes much more than the written text. eating eggs from the nests of birds, and did not

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 17 hesitate to talk about it if an appropriate context In this case, they connected their previous was provided. However, what was particularly experience with the pictures given in the book. striking was that the high levels of silence that Needless to say, the whole class participated one usually associated with formal schooling in animatedly in the discussion between the teacher the early classes was completely absent. and children conducted in Saora as the children Another child looked at the picture and did not feel oppressed by a language they did remarked, “The hut is under the tree, and not know. The primacy of using languages that because the hearth is outside the hut, the hut children were familiar with was firmly will catch fire.” established. The teacher asked, “Why will that happen?” The child replied, “The old woman will cook food Teachers’ language pedagogy and go for her bath to a brook nearby. While In the workshop, there were several sessions in she is away, the hut will catch fire. The woman which participants focused on the analysis of will have no house when she comes back from the patterns that had evolved from related words her bath.” and sentences. The bilingual words and the These two creative events narrated by the Saora grammatical patterns that were deconstructed children were clearly experiential, and had been from the text were easily accessible to the school derived from their cultural context. The snake teachers and children; even the non-Saora eating the eggs of the birds, or huts getting burnt teachers were able to handle them. in fires, are events which originated in the Some words from the tale: From Saora to imagination of the Saora children looking at the English situation in the picture. Their priority, after aboi - one, bagu - two, anin - she/he, anib - looking at the picture, was not the text that the tree, badina - one day, aninji ( plural), dukri - teacher had narrated, but a recollection from old woman, bandin - oven, kuma - ash, assaj - their memory. This in turn helped the teacher charcoal, dakuitin - stored. construct new knowledge from their past events. Once the grammatical markers were brought The teacher (Philip Mandal), puzzled by the to the notice of the children, they were able to responses of the children, was not ready to grasp them easily. Some grammatical patterns accept the new narratives of the children. learnt from the text: However, on being prompted that children learn 1. ‘ji’ is used as plural after the verb in past from the known to the unknown, and the fact tense. that they were right when they spoke about the bird, the tree and the fire, he got an insight into Rudilin + ji = Kali + kale (quarrelled) the fact that children had the ability to create Dakulin + ji = rahu + thile (living) (in the new texts from a given text. Philip’s eyes were case of singular it is dakulin , for plural it is bright with a sense of wonder and he confessed, dakulinji) “I thought that children got distracted from the Galu + li + ji = padi + gale (fell down, main text.’’ plural) galuli (singular) Therefore, allowed to construct from their Once they had learnt the principle of using ‘ji’ knowledge, children could create a text within in Saora for past tense, the Saora children a text. Their language of thought helped them learned the Oriya verbs very easily by following discover their own experience, based on which the Saora verbs for past tense. They inferred they constructed new knowledge of their own. that the equivalent of ‘ji’ in Saora is ‘le’ in Oriya.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 18 The verbs were hence transferred • They could understand the different forms spontaneously from Saora to Oriya in the mind of related words from their language; of the child. They understood that ‘ji’ was used • They could understand the Oriya words in in the plural form and it corresponds to objects. the picture, and also learnt their spoken and written forms; 2. Similarly, another principle of grammar was • They were able to read, comprehend, and explored by the children. They understood write a few words in both languages; that the Saora suffix ‘aan’ became ‘ku’ in • They were able to explore the principles of Oriya, and that ‘lingan’ meant ‘re’ in Oriya, grammar in both languages and arrive at and that it corresponds to location in space. the conclusion that a language is governed Kumab + aan = paunsha + ku (to ash) by rules. They also recognized that Saora was in no way inferior to Oriya; Assaj+ aan = angara + ku (to charcoal) • The teachers participated actively in the Kumaab + lingan = pausnha + re (on the preparation of the material. ash) Enam Gomanga, an experienced Saora teacher Assaj+ lingan = (angara + re) on the drew a picture of a bird eating an apple. This charcoal picture was shown to a child. The child The grammatical principles were compared with recognized the bird, but the fruit was not familiar the Oriya sentences in the given Saora tale. The to her. The child uttered the word Antidan Saora children had the content and the language (bird), and then stopped. I asked Enam to change to learn a new language through a few words, the picture and draw a mango instead of an i.e., association of words and objects in both apple. Now the new picture was shown to the languages. Thus, the text, context and texture child. Under the picture, there was a sentence. were analysed to unfold new processes of We wanted to see how a child was able to read out a text just by looking at a picture. The idea learning. was to help the child to develop confidence in Once this lesson was taught: picture-reading, which could subsequently • Children could read Saora words that were become guessed picture-sentence reading in any known to them; other language.

Situation I: Non-contextual Situation 2: Contextual Antidan jaan jumte. Antidan uda jaan jumte. The bird is eating the fruit. The bird is eating mango fruit.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 19 In situation I, the text was presented to the child Conclusion and she was expected to read the sentence. Respecting diversity means accepting the In situation II, the child framed a new sentence healthy democracy in a society where co- using the word uda (mango), which although existence of man, animal and environment is not given in the text, was read confidently by maintained. The globe is sustained through the child. This was not word reading, but picture cultural diversities. Perhaps the most reading with understanding. constructive way of engaging children in These pictures were not created by teachers, language and knowledge construction is to give but by artists who were not familiar with the place to their linguistic and cultural practices in children’s visual culture. In Saora villages, the class. people are familiar with mangoes but not with apples. 1 I have been interested in the cultural and linguistic practices of various tribal communities of Odisha, Observations India. A series of workshops were held during the late 1990s by several educationists, sociolinguists When the Saora villagers and parents visited and psychologists including Prof Rama Kant the school, to their surprise they heard the Agnihotri and Dr Minati Panda. I was deeply teachers narrating stories in their spoken influenced by the work and perspectives of Prof language. They could not believe that their Agnihotri and Dr Panda, which encouraged me to language could be taught in school. For the part focus on the potential of the child and his/her of the children, since they could easily grasp cultural and linguistic repertoire. It also became what was being taught, they did not remain clear to me that the most meaningful materials for absent from school. The classroom became children must be in their own language, and culturally responsive, and the teachers were folklore could best be produced in collaboration happy to see that each and every child was with the teachers who were going to teach those participating in the class. books. It was against this background that a workshop was held in Gumma, near Parlakhemundi The Saora children were talking to the Saora in Odisha. teachers in the classroom; they were asking 2 Prof Rama Kant Agnihotri tried to analyse questions, giving answers, taking part in Saora grammar in Guma Block. Prof Agnihotri discussions and thinking about the text from a participated in 5 workshops in Odisha during 1998- metacognitive point of view. They were exploring 1999. their own experiences individually as well as in 3 The story teller was Sri Ghasi Sabar, a teacher small groups, focusing on the events in the story. and a cultural resource person from Rayagada It was possible for them to articulate their real district,engaged in writing the Saora primer. life experiences as well as their imagined tales and fantasies. When a tale is written down and made into a Mahendra Kumar Mishra is a folklorist and a text for the children, it is accepted as a part of National Consultant on Multilingual Education. He is working as the State Head, Programme and recognized curricular text. This reminds us about Research Team, Education, ICICI Foundation for the power equation between oral and written Inclusive Growth, Chhattishgarh, India. texts in our society. The whole process provides an agency to the teacher which is completely [email protected] absent from the superposed normative textbooks. For the children, the teachers and the parents, there was clearly an assertion of self-identity in this whole process.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 20 Thinking Culture in a Language Classroom: Teaching Gujarati as a Foreign Language

Venu Mehta

Introduction and background confidence to learners to produce a language. It becomes indeed a pleasant experience for the The task of teaching vocabulary is challenging learners of a foreign language to be in an for most language teachers, for FL teachers it atmosphere where the culture of the target is especially challenging . The teacher needs to language is present, or has been incorporated in be very innovative to design a lesson where the teaching. This article attempts to demonstrate learning the vocabulary becomes an interesting the significance and function of cultural activity in the classroom. The teacher also needs elements/artifacts in teaching a foreign to ensure that the new words are taught in the language. It is an account of a promising practice appropriate context ensure maximum retention. where the cultural associations of the target language have been attached to language The classroom structure and the learners learning. It is an academic reflection, and At this point, it will be helpful to define classroom recounts the experiences of a teacher who structure and learners in order to understand teaches Gujarati as a foreign language at an this study. For the purposes of this paper, learners 1 American university . The article gives a detailed are defined as having beginners’ level familiarity description of an active classroom where with Gujarati, and having an awareness of the Gujarati vocabulary is taught by integrating Gujarati culture when they first come to the cultural elements/artifacts. In the classroom, beginners Gujarati class. The process of culture is the main focus of curriculum, hence teaching-learning focuses on communicative influencing the content and image of the teaching approach, therefore the classroom activities are material. For the purposes of this paper, Gujarati highly dependent on hands-on activities by the will be the target language for those whose learners. native language is English. The goal of the article is to demonstrate to foreign language teachers how they can incorporate the teaching of cultural Culture in language learning: From theory elements/artifacts into their foreign language to practice classrooms. Austrian-British philosopher, Ludwig Wittgenstein, who worked on the philosophy of language stated, “If we spoke a different Vocabulary in a FL classroom language, we would perceive a somewhat Vocabulary is an essential component for different world.” Wittgenstein indicates a successful communication in a foreign language definite relationship between language and (FL) classroom. When it comes to learning a culture-society. Culture is often considered as foreign language, it becomes even more critical. mere information conveyed by the language, and Awareness of words seems to give enough not as a feature of language; cultural awareness

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 21 therefore becomes an educational objective in Rangoli and Toran: Cultural artifacts/ itself, separate from language. If, however, elements as a tool and authentic material language is seen as a social practice, culture It is now an acknowledged fact that the study becomes the very core of language teaching. of different cultures aids us to know about Cultural awareness must then be viewed both as enabling language proficiency, and as being different people, and is necessary in order to the outcome of reflection on language understand and respect other peoples and their proficiency (Kramsch, 1993, p. 8). Language is ways of life. It also makes us aware of the considered as a human institution. Lado (1964) similarities and differences in the lives of various posits, “language does not develop in a vacuum. cultural groups. If we provide our learners with It is a part of the culture of a people” (p. 23). It just a list of facts of history or geography, and a is clear that language is undoubtedly a social list of lexical items, we will not have provided phenomenon. It is not possible to break apart them with an intimate view of what life is really the relationship between culture, society and like in the target culture and language. language. Lado (1964) further states, “as the After discussing the relevance and the impact chief instrument of communication, language attaches specific words and phrases to the most of integrating culture into the teaching of a frequent cultural meaning” (p. 23). Thus, the foreign language, I would like to put down the beliefs, rituals, customs, thoughts, mannerisms, style and method of integrating culture. The and arts of any society or culture are reflected practice of integrating the culture of Gujarat for in and transmitted through its language. In fact, example, should not be limited to simply the linguistic development of human beings is describing its cultural background, but to actually mostly a social and cultural process. Conversely, making use of the cultural elements/artifacts of socio-cultural patterns are reflected in language Gujarat as tools and authentic materials in the and in all major aspects of language such as classroom to teach new words. vocabulary, pronunciations, and variations in sentence structures. Involvement of socio- I designed a lesson to teach shape and colour cultural theory suggests that human mental vocabulary, where I used a Rangoli and a Toran activity emerges specifically as a result of the as cultural elements/artifacts. Rangoli—a folk internalization of social relationships, culturally and traditional art form of Gujarati culture— is organized activity and symbolic artifacts a decorative design made on the floors of living (Vygotsky, 1986; Lantolf & Thorne, 2006). In rooms and courtyards during Hindu festivals. this regard, the integration of cultural artifacts/ They are meant to be sacred welcoming areas elements may facilitate and ensure a more for Hindu deities and guests. In Gujarati, Toran cognitive way to foreign language learning as it is the name given to a sacred or honorific allows learners to experience a more motivating gateway. It is typically a projecting cross-piece environment. Another important relevance of that rests on two uprights or posts. In Gujarati incorporating cultural elements/artifacts is the culture, Toran may also refer to a decorative consideration of an ‘affective filter’; Krashen door hanging, Both, Rangoli and Toran feature (1981) remarks, “… people acquire a second vivid colours and shapes. language only if they obtain comprehensible input and if their affective filters are low enough to Instead of simply describing the shapes and allow the input” (p. 84). This suggests that colours used in making a Rangoli or a Toran, I integration of cultural elements/artifacts helps went one step ahead. I asked the students to in lowering the affective filter, and provides make their own Rangoli and Toran to learn the ‘comprehensible input’ in learning a foreign colour and shape vocabulary in Gujarati. For this language. purpose, I did the following:

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 22 1. I showed the learners various designs of Observations and discussion Torans and Rangolis, and made them aware The whole exercise was successful in two ways. of the importance of these two cultural Firstly, the learners became aware of the cultural elements/artifacts. I also familiarized them significance of Torans and Rangolis in the with the significance and symbol of different Gujarati tradition and art. Secondly, learning colours and shapes in the Gujarati culture became very live and interactive by using and and tradition. making Torans and Rangolis in a hands-on 2. The process of showing involved two steps: activity. The experience of interacting with Displaying a picture of a Toran and a shapes and colours while creating the Toran and Rangoli; and presenting a PowerPoint Rangoli demonstrated learning. It was also Version in which all the shapes and colours observed that such a method of teaching turned were animated to create a complete design cultural elements/artifacts into authentic of a Toran and a Rangoli. The learners were materials. then asked to identify the different colours and shapes. Conclusion 3. I asked the learners to make their own Toran Understanding of the target culture helps to and Rangoli. For this I gave them various motivate learners to learn the language. The colors (special sand colours ) to make a close association of culture and language will Rangoli on the floor. I also gave them papers be truly successful only if cultural artifacts and of different colours to cut into different elements are incorporated as tools and authentic shapes to make a Toran. materials in the narration of theoretical matters. 4. I gave each student a unique design The positive impact of such an exercise enables instruction detailing the colours and shapes learners’ involvement, ignites interest, and makes learners active participants in the process they had to use in the making of the Toran of learning. Hence, learning activities which and Rangoli so each learner had an focus on active learning are best practiced in a exclusive pattern. The learners therefore culturally enabled environment. had ample opportunity to explore various shapes and colours. 1 5. As soon as the learners were ready with I worked as a foreign language teacher, teaching their artifacts, I asked them to identify the Gujarati as a Fulbright FLTA for the year 2010-11 at colours and shapes of the Torans and Indiana University, Bloomington, USA. Rangolis made by the other learners. Therefore, once again they got a chance to References work with the shape and colour vocabulary. Kramsch, Claire (1993). Context and culture in 6. This learning was then followed by teaching language teaching (pp. 8). Oxford: Oxford University them to make simple sentences using colour Press. and shape vocabulary. This included asking Krashen, S. (1981). Second language acquisition questions such as “which colour is this?”; and second language learning (pp. 84). Oxford: or “which shape is this?”; and then Pergamon Press. answering them.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 23 Lado, R. (1964). Language teaching: A scientific Venu Mehta is Assistant Professor at the Department approach. New York: McGraw-Hill. of Communication Skills, Charotar University of Science and Technology (CHARUSAT), Gujarat. Lantolf, J., & Thorne, S. L. (2006). Sociocultural [email protected] theory and the genesis of second language development. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Vygotsk, L. S. (1986). Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.

Images of Rangoli and Toran used for demonstration

1. Source: Stock pictures taken from the internet

2. Source: PowerPoint animation image sample

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 24 Writing in Classrooms: Missing Voices and Reflections

Nidhi Kunwar

Introduction teachers must be meaningful, and must Writing is a medium to express our thoughts, emphasize on the quality of the content. ideas and views. It is a kind of communication Exclusive focus on mechanics and criticism from in which a writer must be able to convey her/ insensitive audience can end students’ desire to his views to the readers. We write because we write (Calkins, 1986; Atwell, 1987; Kumar, want to share and discuss. 1996). However, the shape which writing takes in our Clearly, there exists a gap between recent classrooms is in stark contrast to these ideas. research on writing, and our writing pedagogy. We equate writing with ‘copying’ and We still design our classes on the basis of drill, ‘handwriting’. In a typical Indian classroom, one practice and reinforcement. Expression, can find students religiously writing on topics reflection and discussion are currently not valued such as ‘Ideal Student’, ‘Visit to Delhi’, ‘Our in our writing classes. As a result, writing has Dear Chacha Nehru’ and ‘Benefits of become a difficult task for teachers as well as Libraries’. Students copy content from different students since everyone prefers to evade it. The guidebooks and spend hours producing beautiful present paper is written with the aim of exploring handwriting and error-free work. Teachers issues related to writing, and generating encourage children to use help material and reflections on the status of writing. produce perfect writing in the first attempt. Writing, thus, gets reduced to a purely mechanical skill where there is no place for Writing in classrooms expression. We demand ‘perfection in the first Currently, the writing scenario in our classes is attempt’ at any cost. Failure in achieving these quite dismal. Writing and expression are standards results in criticism, lower marks and considered as completely opposite fields. In the sometimes even punishment. following analysis, the status of writing is Research in the field, however, present writing explored from different perspectives to present in a different perspective. Studies indicate that a holistic picture of the existing state of affairs writing becomes meaningful with the presence in our schools. of ‘voice’ (Graves, 1983). Two components are Faulty teacher training courses: Teacher extremely necessary for meaningful writing— training courses are expected to train teachers desire to convey and sense of audience (Kumar, in foundational as well as pedagogy courses. It 1996). Thus, students must be encouraged to is believed that such training courses will create develop their writing pieces on the basis of these teachers who are well acquainted in the fields two factors. Teachers also play an extremely of philosophy, psychology, sociology as well as important role in developing students’ interest pedagogy. However, the reality appears to be towards writing. The feedback provided by sharply different. Decade old syllabi are

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 25 transacted to teacher trainees without any Assumptions of students: As already pointed out, reflection or revision, and the pedagogy courses teachers encourage students to copy and they that are transacted to students do not include create students who also end up equating writing any of the latest research. The teaching of with copying and handwriting. Kunwar (2003) ‘writing’ is not an exception in this regard. studied students’ responses to writing and good Teacher training programmes do not teach the writers. On being queried regarding their idea of pedagogy of writing in detail. Questions such a good writer, most students believed that qualities as ‘what are the recent researches in the field of a good writer included beautiful handwriting, of writing’, ‘what are the implications of recent perfect grammar, correct spellings and neat work. research for classroom teaching?’ and ‘how to Some students even suggested using gel pens for approach writing as a process and not as a beautiful handwriting, ensuring that all letters are product?’ are not discussed with the teacher of the same size, and copying perfectly from the trainees. In fact, the entire energy of aspiring board. Sadly, none of the responses spoke about teachers is used on creating fancy teaching aids the quality of content; for most students writing based on the ideas of drill and practice. well was connected only with punctuation, Unequipped with the knowledge of literacy grammar and handwriting. pedagogy, teachers go on to create classes that Nature of writing work: Writing is generally are based on traditional and outdated theories. viewed as copying in our classes. It does not Assumptions of teachers: Teachers are the provide any space for students’ expression or most important part of our entire education views. A study of students’ school writing system. Their perceptions, ideas, views, visions conducted by Kunwar (2003) revealed that most and thoughts greatly influence the students and of the content was related to conventional and the teaching pedagogy itself. If teachers have traditional topics. Moreover, the content was knowledge of recent writing research, then they Sanskritized and the language lacked spontaneity can plan their lessons in a progressive way; but and looked rather contrived. There was also a if teachers’ knowledge is based on outdated similarity between the school writing samples theories, their planning may replicate the same. and guidebooks. The teachers’ feedback was A teacher, who feels that writing is handwriting, limited to correction of wrong spellings; there will create classes dominated by drills for was no productive feedback to students on the handwriting tasks; but a teacher who feels that content of their writing. writing is expression, will design classes that values content over mechanics. The limited Reasons to reflect knowledge of ‘writing’ that informs in-service and pre-service training programmes creates It is clear from the analysis that writing is taught teachers who do not know how to use writing as a mechanical skill in our schools. The as a medium of expression. They equate writing pedagogical practices used in schools do not with ‘handwriting’ and ‘copying’, and this is also teach students to use writing in a functional or reflected in their pedagogy. Jyoti (2004), found creative manner. When students are unable to that teachers are not aware of the various forms use writing as a medium of expression, we blame of writing such as journal, narrative, poetic, etc. it on the ‘poor background’ of students and try They accept writing as a means of to evade the situation. Although students’ communication but they completely neglect its background is an important factor in school creative aspect. Hence, students also learn to performance, the time spent with the teacher is equate writing with copying. far more significant. Does the current pedagogy

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 26 allow teachers to create a meaningful writing Possibilities and alternatives environment and learning experiences for There is an urgent need to bring about changes students? The focus shifts even further towards in the system. The shortcomings and the flaws ‘pedagogy’ when we realize that the standards should not be allowed to continue, as they will of writing across all types of schools, whether damage the entire education system. Thus, on government or private, are similar. This indicate the basis of the above reflection, I have that it is not the background of students that is the sole factor responsible for students’ failure, shortlisted the following suggestions for the pedagogy followed in schools is also an effecting improvements in the system. important factor. (Kumar, 1992; Sinha, 2000). • Pedagogy of reading and writing need to It must be acknowledged that pedagogy of become the core components of every reading and writing is a serious area of teacher training course, whether in-service reflection and demands several improvements. or pre-service. Knowledge of the latest A student’s success at school depends on research findings will equip teachers to mastering these literacy skills. Now the question design their classes more effectively. is: What should be the beginning point for • The syllabus on the pedagogy of literacy bringing a change? Students define ‘writing’ in skills needs to include detailed units on terms of what they are taught by their teachers, teaching ‘writing’. The syllabus should and teachers for their part are simply utilizing provide teachers with the required the pedagogy style that they have learnt during their training period. This highlights the major theoretical framework so that writing is not fault of our teacher education courses. It must reduced to the level of drill and practice. be accepted that there is a huge gap between The syllabus needs to include components what we teach in basic theoretical courses and such as developmental stages of writing, what we transact in pedagogy papers to our importance of voice, role of teacher teachers. We educate our teachers about feedback, process writing, language ‘constructivism’ and ‘active nature’ of children, experience approach, importance of but our pedagogical theories do not teach them ownership, role of errors, and assessment how to fit practical teaching into that framework. of writing. The teachers must understand In the foundation papers, teachers learn that the the importance of ‘content’ over student is not tabula rasa or a ‘blank slate’; ‘mechanics’. but their lesson plans are full of worksheets and • It is however not enough to just train the aids for drill, practice and reinforcement. teachers, it is also necessary to provide the In the Indian context, the pedagogy of reading required support system for making writing and writing is practically non-existent since most meaningful for students. As reading and of the training programmes do not have any writing are connected, classrooms need to courses on the teaching of these literacy skills. be organized in a way that provides scope Ironically, the components that we are neglecting in our courses form a core part of students’ for reading and writing. Provision of a success in schooling. A teacher unequipped with print-rich environment through class the knowledge of pedagogy of literacy skills libraries, space for students to write freely, cannot enable his/her students to utilize these creation of message corners—these are skills in a functional way. The ignorance of some of the opportunities which can teachers can be really damaging for the entire encourage students to engage with writing education system. in a functional manner.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 27 • ‘Assessment’ comprises one of the major Kumar, Krishna (1996). The child’s language and phases of the learning process. If the teacher. New Delhi: National Book Trust. assessment procedures are traditional, Kunwar, Nidhi (2003). Using process writing for teaching is also forced to become traditional; improving writing skills of students (Unpublished but if assessment procedures are Master’s Thesis). University of Delhi. Delhi. constructive and involve scope for thinking Sinha, Shobha (2000). Acquiring literacy in the and reflection, teaching also takes a similar schools. Seminar, 493, 38-42. shape. This implies that assessment should be developmental in nature, and include Nidhi Kunwar is Assistant Professor, Department of methods such as portfolio assessment, Elementary Education, Mata Sundri College for journal entries, writing workshops, and self- Women, University of Delhi. Her specialization is assessment. If assessment techniques are Language Education. progressive, teachers will also have the [email protected] freedom to create meaningful learning opportunities for their students.

These recommendations have been made bearing in mind the current status of writing in our classrooms. If we wish to create meaningful writing classes, it is critical to equip our teachers with the knowledge of pedagogy of writing. Teachers also need to be aware of the latest research trends and their implications in the classroom. It is only by understanding the basics of literacy instruction that our teachers can do justice to the potential of writing, and develop students into ‘writers’ who can write with voice and reflections.

References Atwell, Nancie (1987). In the middle: Writing, reading and learning with adolescents. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Educational Books. Calkins, Lucy M. (1986). The art of teaching writing. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Educational Books. Graves, Donald H. (1983). Writing: Teachers and children at work. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann Educational Books. Jyoti (2004). Teachers’ assumptions about the nature of writing (Unpublished Master’s Thesis). University of Delhi. Delhi. Kumar, Krishna (1992). What is worth teaching? New Delhi: Orient Longman.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 28 Continuing Professional Development: The Way Forward for English Language Teachers

Kirti Kapur

Introduction in the field of language education, which may Continuing Professional Development (CPD) be adopted or adapted by teachers and teacher centres on the idea that an individual aims to trainers. augment her/his professional skills and knowledge beyond the training received at the CPD for teachers onset of their career, or as part of the CPD should not be treated as an event, but qualifications required to carry out a job. Over should be considered as a process that includes the course of any career, it would be reasonable knowledge development and change in attitudes, to expect that there are opportunities available skills, disposition, and practice. Also, CPD does for informal and formal engagements that assist not comprise only of knowledge transfer from individuals in the renewal of their technical skills field experts, but has ample scope for experiential and enhancement of thinking. In the case of learning, involving participants as active teaching in India, after pre-service training, there learners, and facilitating peer group based review are few opportunities for in-service of practices. According to Harwell et al. (2001), development. This is because in-service training “professional development for practising is dependent on external factors such as teachers must combine the expertise of institutional support, employer’s initiative, policy researchers and the knowledge of practising measures, etc. As a result, opportunities for teachers in a collaborative effort to inform growth and learning often rest with the individual instructional decision making if educators want teacher, and individual learning can be incidental, to create learning environments conducive to or evolutionary, or in some cases, planned. It effective learning among students” (p. 260). can also be isolated and slow. Moreover, CPD Bryant et al. (2001), have also stated that “time as a lifelong career development strategy should be more than just aiming for career progression must be allocated for teachers to share their or incidental learning because of personal own personal knowledge about their students interest. “[CPD] is the process by which, alone and teaching and to receive guidance from and with others, teachers review, renew and experts on topics” (p. 251). extend their commitment as change agents to Teachers also need to understand the social, the moral purposes of teaching...” (Day, 1999, professional and administrative contexts in which p.4). they work. In a school, CPD can function as a The paper will discuss the principles of CPD catalyst for change in school-related practices. and the importance of evolving CPD from being Conscious analysis of, and engagement with the an individual and unguided initiative to a specific contexts in which they teach will further collaborative process. It will also suggest some the professional development of teachers as well means of professional development for teachers as the growth of their learners. Julian Edge

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 29 (1999) defines this as the “professional body Bolitho (1993) believe language acquisition is perspective” wherein teachers “…try to set up important “to develop their sensitivity towards standards and criteria according to which their language, as part of a strategy aimed at individuals can register themselves as enhancing classroom teaching and learning.” professionals and demonstrate their commitment CPD programmes may therefore address to their continuing development.” Evaluating concepts such as: oneself vis-à-vis personal goals as well as • Self-improvement: Improving their own institutional and community goals can provide a skills in order to be role models for learners framework for constructive feedback, and in terms of listening, speaking, reading and appraisals can be in the form of self-appraisals, writing; peer appraisal, and feedback from students and • Pedagogy of language education: concerned authorities. Emphasizing that language teaching and CPD therefore includes “private, unaided learning cannot be mechanical and learning…informal learning opportunities introducing new methods and approaches; and…more formal learning opportunities • Constructivism: Facilitating learners’ available through internally and externally construction of own knowledge through generated in-service education and training participatory activities; activities” (Day, 1999). • Critical thinking skills: Integrating peace, values, special needs, gender, environment, CPD for English language teachers culture, inclusiveness and vocational skills As established above, teacher education needs in language teaching-learning; to be ongoing, onsite, as well as preparatory. In • Use of grammar and vocabulary in context; the context of language education, the emphasis • Multilingualism as a resource: Approaching of CPD initiatives should be on teacher language education holistically in that proficiency or familiarity with the language, as languages supplement and complement one the teacher is often a role model. It will also be another; a means to cultivate teacher awareness or sensitivity to language learning. (Position Paper • Methodologies of teaching English/Second on Teaching of English, 2006) Teachers should language: The different methods and a critique thereof; in fact be given opportunities to develop their competencies and proficiency in the language • Materials development and curricular they teach. Self-reflection is therefore a vital renewal: Becoming materials developers component of such programmes wherein the themselves and proactively using locally teachers can themselves work towards available authentic texts; identifying and addressing gaps in knowledge • Assessment and evaluation: Linking and practice. Opportunities for reaffirmation of continuous and comprehensive evaluation their own experiences will also boost their to everyday classroom practices and confidence and have a positive impact on the learning outcomes; teaching-learning process. • Teacher as a researcher: Conducting action According to Krishnan & Pandit (2003), research for identifying and addressing “Teacher proficiency in English is linked to the problems in language learning through audits teacher’s sense of satisfaction, indeed to his/ of their own practices with the aim of her willingness to teach English.” Wright & improving effectiveness.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 30 According to Darling-Hammond & McLaughlin Teachers may also: (1996), “Effective professional development • record and reflect on their own practices involves teachers both as learners and as by writing a daily journal; teachers and allows them to struggle with the • uncertainties that accompany each role…It must read and explore about areas of teaching be connected to and derived from teachers’ that interest them; work with their students.” • observes colleagues’ or seniors’ classes; • enroll in training programmes; and Individual ownership/initiative • discuss observations with groups. CPD necessitates a self-development perspective on the part of the teachers. Often, Institutional support constraints such as demanding schedules, lack Often, teacher orientation programmes are time- of motivation and support from authorities as bound and budget-driven. Moreover, the well as additional expenses can deter individuals. However, teachers must recognize that CPD is organizing bodies (State, NGOs, Teachers’ a journey, and it is important for teachers to associations) often have narrow/specific and remain learners themselves if they aspire to therefore non-representative agendas which develop the qualities required in their careers. may not cater to the needs of all teachers. Above all, teachers should learn from their Consequently, it is critical that managing bodies learners and recognize the value of reflecting foster CPD in their schools. Schools should on their own performance. Richard Whiteside emerge as spaces where collaborative (2012) sums this succinctly when he says, communities are established and which engage “…we teachers should endeavour to provide the with the shared aspirations and values of all best education we can to our students...to members. Lack of information and access consider our situation and try to identify what impact participation by teachers, and these can exactly ‘best-practice’ is for us in our context.” be addressed by ensuring relevance to teachers’ For this, regular analysis, and consultation with needs and contexts. Further, investments also peers and colleagues are a must. need to be made in the development of teachers’ Here, ICT can play an important role in ensuring materials such as teachers’ packages, that individuals can transcend institutional and handbooks, manuals and journals so that they geographical barriers to interact with their peers can be self-reliant when it comes to updating and domain experts. Online discussion forums, themselves. Rather than imposing a uniform SIGs, archives and blogs are rich sources of plan, CPD systems should be able to facilitate information and best practices. At the same time, personalization of the CPD process. Offering a face to face interactions, be they peer to peer range of options will stimulate teacher initiative, or individual to expert, can enable participants experimentation and agency. to enhance their spoken skills as well as learn At the same time, thought must be given to: from others. Writing articles for journals based • defining goals and standards of CPD for on their classroom experiences is another way of facilitating peer review and feedback. teachers; Attending seminars and conferences also boosts • identifying the strategies and practices that confidence and enhances one’s knowledge base. will support them;

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 31 • developing tools to monitor and assess CPD Evans, L. (2008). Professionalism, professionality and initiatives; the development of education professionals. British Journal of Educational Studies, 56, 20-38. • promoting teacher autonomy and Harwell, S. H. et al. (2001). Technology integration responsibility. and the classroom learning environment: Research Demonstrating commitment to the continuing for action. Learning Environments Research, 4, 260. development of employees by facilitating a Krishnan, M. & Pandit, M. (2003). English at the discussion on these aspects will boost the primary level: Coping with disparities. The Hindu standards of the institution by creating a accessed from http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/edu/ competent, adaptable workforce. Also, 2003/05/13/stories/2003051300050200.htm on 16 Dec, “people’s professionalism may be considered to 2012 at 18:53 hours, IST be enhanced” (Evans, 2008), which will have a National Council of Educational Research and direct positive impact on the learners. Training [NCERT], 2005. National focus group on teaching English, Position Paper, 1.4, pp. 3. Whitseside, Richard (2012, March 30). Teacher Conclusion development: Walking your own path [Web log Developing teachers’ resources and proficiency post]. Retrieved from http://www.tesoltraining. co.uk accessed on 16 Dec, 2012 at 19:17 hours, IST in a language facilitates innovation, and increases teacher proficiency. CPD is a planned Wright, T. & Bolitho, R. (1993). Language Education: A missing link in language teacher education. ELT and systematic activity, and the space and the Journal, 47(4), 302. ability to reflect on methodology, content and approach will help teachers to develop a deeper understanding of language learning and make Kirti Kapur works in the Department of Education the English classroom a vibrant centre for in Languages at the National Council of Educational knowledge acquisition and development. After Research and Training, New Delhi, India. She has a total of 24 years of teaching experience in the areas all, change in education depends on what of English Language and Literature. At NCERT, she teachers do and think. designs curriculum and syllabi, develops text books, conducts teacher trainings and research and provides consultancy to national and international References institutions. Bryant, D.P. et al. (2001). The effects of professional [email protected] development for middle schools general and special education teachers on implementation of reading strategies in inclusive content area classes. Learning Disability Quarterly, 24, 251. Darling-Hammond, L & McLaughlin, M W. (1996). Policies that support professional development in an era of reform. In M.W. McLaughlin and I. Oberman (Eds.), Teacher Learning: New Policies, New Practices (pp. 202-218). New York: Teachers College Press, Columbia University. Day, C. (1999). Developing teachers (pp. 4). London: Routledge Falmer. Edge, J. (1999). Managing professionalization or “Hey, that’s my development!”. IATEFL Issues, 149, 14-16.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 32 Designing Second Language Curriculum

S. C. Sood

Introduction Curriculum philosophy (rationale for Through this article, I have attempted to study teaching L2) the designing of a second language (L2) An important aspect for consideration is the curriculum. The aim is not to suggest a new rationale for teaching L2, and the nature and theory of L2 curriculum, but to describe in simple background of the learners. The designer should non-technical language the existing theory and be clear about the justification for teaching the its essential components. I will also explore how second language, e.g. teaching of English in India the various components of the theory have been in the post-independence period has a history used to design an L2 syllabus. The overall aim is to describe the theory and its practice over which has a bearing on syllabus designing. the years for the benefit of non-specialist Learners’ profile and learning infrastructure: teachers assigned the role of teaching L2. Another important factor that needs to be A second language (L2) curriculum designer evaluated is the profile of the learner. This should begin with the question: Is he/she includes information such as identifying who the designing a new syllabus or revising an existing learners are, their socio-economic background, one? In the case of a new syllabus, the designer age, motivation, emotional state, aptitude and should decide the three components of previous experience in L2 learning, attitude curriculum theory, as propounded by Taylor & towards the target language and its speakers, Richards (1979). These comprise: learning strategies, learning environment at • Curriculum philosophy (in this case, it could home, personality, entry behaviour, needs, goals be rationale for teaching L2); and expectations. It is also useful to know the • Conceptualization, of: (a) goals; (b) means teacher’s profile, instructional time available, of attaining the goals; and (c) testing of class size, and learning infrastructure such as learners; learning/teaching aids, technology and resources. • Management and implementation, involving: (a) development; (b) implementation; and Conceptualization of the three components (c) curriculum evaluation. 1. Goals and objectives In the case of revision of an existing curriculum, The goals and objectives of the curriculum are the exercise could start with a critical analysis formulated based on the needs of the learners. of the existing syllabus in the light of the three The needs are identified using various research components. It may also be useful to study tools: Surveys, questionnaires, interviews, polls, previous revisions, if any, to see how the syllabus and so on. The identification of needs is essential has evolved. for drawing up a syllabus, selecting and grading

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 33 the content for teaching, and for working out b1. Structural approach: This approach to instructional strategies. However, learners’ language learning evolved under the influence perception of their own needs have been of structural linguistics. Language was defined questioned on various grounds because in reality, as a structure comprising phonemes (sounds), it is the institutions and their representatives who morphemes (words) and syntax. Classroom determine the language needs of the learners teaching was influenced by Skinner’s on the basis of their experience. behaviourist theory of learning in which learning There are however some prominent studies of a language was looked upon as learning a new such ‘needs analyses’. For learning English, for behaviour for which the learner needed example, there are: Threshold Level by van Ek motivation, repetition and reward. Structural (1975), published for the Council of Europe, and approach is still followed in some classrooms. Functional and Notional Needs described by Wilkins in Notional Syllabuses, 1976. Munby Since language is infinite, the principles of (1978) suggests needs analyses in terms of the teaching suggest that we select some items for settings in which learners will use the target teaching, grade them, and then present them to language for specific purposes, e.g. Hindi for the learner in meaningful contexts. So, at each Science and Technology, English for Academic stage of learning, specific structures were Purposes, and so on. selected along with certain vocabulary items and the learner was exposed to them. Therefore, 2. Means of attaining goals/objectives the classroom practice was mimic, memorize, repeat, and drill, until the structure became a Teachers have used different methods and habit with the learner, e.g. the teacher holds a instructional materials at different times to help learners learn the target language. These can pen in her uplifted hand and says: be discussed under two heads: (i) Pre-scientific, Yeh pen hai (This is a pen). and (ii) Scientific. and the students repeat: Yeh pen hai (This is a pen). a. Pre-scientific: Grammar-translation method The sentence was repeated and drilled a number We are all familiar with this once widely-used of times. method. In fact, it was not a method in the true sense of the word, as it was not based on a Errors were strictly avoided, and the emphasis theory of language or language learning. That was on grammatical competence. It was is why it was called ‘pre-scientific’. Moreover, expected that this repetition would help learners its purpose was not to teach language; grammar- learn structures and consequently the language. translation was simply a way of translating classics from one language into another. b2. Communicative approach: This approach was ushered in by socio-linguists. They talked b. Scientific: The scientific approach to language of language not as an abstract system but as a learning takes the theory of language and tool for communication in society, in meaningful learning into consideration. The analysis of situations. They also redefined language language has given us two ways of looking at it—language as a structure of structures, and competence as communicative competence, language as a tool for communication. Hence, which meant (1) accuracy/grammatical in the history of language teaching, we have two competence, and (2) fluency, i.e. familiarity with types of approaches—structural and the rules of usage, which included social communicative. appropriateness. There can be many types of

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 34 communicative syllabus based on the situation. syllabus (integration of structures and functions) Possible themes include: is the right solution. However, to implement an • functions and notions, e.g. thanking, integrated syllabus, materials need to be selected apologizing, seeking help, giving help and graded to suit the learner’s needs, • coordinated with the class below and above, and Situations, e.g. at the railway station. correlated horizontally with different texts and • Topics, e.g. weather, shopping skills. • Authentic tasks and activities, • Role play and simulation, Testing: Syllabuses must also provide for testing/ • Analyses of discourse structure - evaluation of learners to assess whether the conversational analysis and discourse stated objectives were achieved. What should analyses–to help learners learn the be tested (content or skills); how and when strategies of how the target language is used should the assessment be done (internal or to make meaning. external assessment and what is the weightage The goal of all these syllabuses is to help learners of each component); will the evaluation be focus on communication rather than the form continuous (formative) or end-programme or structure of the language. It is not unusual to (summative); who will test; how will learners select subjects such as Social Sciences, History, be scored; how will objectivity and uniformity Economics or Commerce; or themes such as be ensured–these are questions that need to be population, environment, Aids; or genres such answered before implementing a testing process. as prose, poetry, fiction, drama, etc., for helping Impact of Information and Communication learners practice language forms and functions. Technology (ICT) During the last two decades, many researchers 3. Classroom procedures (Kern 2006, Nguyen 2008) have written about Communicative syllabuses consider language as the use of ICT in second language teaching and a tool for communication, and language learning its impact on what Richards (1990) terms as as a cognitive activity. This perspective has a ‘design’ and ‘procedure’. This includes the strong bearing on the role of materials, the nature and types of teaching-learning materials; teachers and the learners, and the syllabus the roles of teachers, learners, and instructional designer outlines these details. In this method, tasks and activities; and the nature and kinds of learners are seen as active participants in the teaching-learning practices and behaviours. The process of language learning rather than just a use of ICT in second language instruction is an passive receptacle. The role of the teacher is emerging but fast-developing field, and its complex, and much of his/her effort goes into advantages and drawbacks ought to be kept in providing the right learning environment, mind by language syllabus designers. selecting the right task/activity, creating an appropriate setting, and supervising the learning process. Since interaction is an integral part of Management, implementation and feedback communication, the class is arranged in pairs or This is an important process of any project and groups. L2 syllabus designing is not an exception. There are three steps under this head: (a) Project Integrated syllabuses: It is believed currently, development, (b) Implementation, and (c) that for effective language teaching, integrated Evaluation.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 35 (a) Project development the above three areas or will there be one group One of the criteria for the success of a project each for these areas? Since not all the teachers is that it should follow a ‘bottom up’ movement can be involved, a selection from the ‘community in all aspects, in this case syllabus, materials and group’ has to be made. Who will be selected methods, testing, and teacher training. Initiation and how? What would be the role of the local for language syllabus revision must come from pre-service and in-service teacher training the local authorities after a wider consultation institutes in the initiation, designing and with all stake-holders. They themselves must implementation of the project? Since the new redefine their needs from time to time and see curriculum must be understood by classroom what is wrong with their existing situation, and teachers, their willing participation in seek a solution either on their own or in understanding the change must be ensured. All collaboration with other agencies – local or these points are important, and need to be foreign. heeded when taking up a curriculum project.1 The nature and role of local agency is crucial. Is this the right agency for initiating and (c) Feedback and evaluation completing this project or are their other local This step is vital to assess the new curriculum, bodies concerned with this area? Does this local and to find out the extent to which it has achieved agency have the necessary expertise to assist the stated goals. Monitoring and feedback may the ‘community’–the teachers—or will it seek be ‘formative’ (assessed during the stage of collaboration with other local agencies or a implementation), or ‘summative’ (evaluated at foreign agency. If the job is outsourced to a the end of the project). Two people need to be foreign agency or their collaboration is sought, designated, one to monitor and give feedback, what their status and role would be. Rivalries and the other to evaluate the project once it is among various local agencies can pose a put into operation. problem in developing and implementing a project. In India, for example, any differences between the National Council of Educational Cyclical nature of curriculum/syllabus Research and Training (NCERT) and the designing Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) The aim of the feedback and evaluation is not for drawing up a language syllabus for teaching to criticize those responsible for designing the at schools can be harmful for the success of a curriculum/syllabus, but to learn lessons for the language project. Hence a proper local future and to initiate new changes in the coordinating authority ought to be in place to curriculum in accordance with the feedback assist the ‘community group’. received. Curriculum designing is a cyclical process, and changes and updating are required to be made from time to time. (b) Implementation For effective implementation, the L2 project 1 Those interested in such projects may find more would require teaching/learning materials to be useful hints in Tribble (2012). This collection of produced, teacher training to be executed and papers and case studies, though these relate to testing and evaluation procedures to be worked Teaching of English as a Second Language, can prove out. Will there be just one group to handle all a useful guide for language teaching in general.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 36 References Kern, R. (2006). Perspectives on technology in learning and teaching languages. Tesol Quarterly, 40(1), 183-210. Nguyen, L. V. (2008). Technology-enhanced EFL syllabus design and materials development. English Language Teaching, 1, 2, 135-142. Munby, John (1978). Communicative syllabus design. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Richards, Jack C. (1990). Language curriculum development. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Taylor, P. H. & Richards, C. (1979). An introduction to curriculum studies. Windsor: NFER Publishing Co. Tribble, Christopher (Ed.) (2012). Managing change in English Language Teaching: Lessons from experience. London: British Council. van Ek, J. A. (1975). The threshold level. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. Wilkins, D. A. (1976). Notional syllabuses. Oxford: OUP.

S. C. Sood is a former Reader at Dyal Singh College (Even.), and Professor at Dilla College of Teacher Education, Ethiopia under UNDP. He is presently a practising ELT professional. [email protected]

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 37 Teaching Learning Materials in a Multilingual Education Programme

Urmishree Bedamatta

Introduction in a language while CALP refers to students’ In 2008, the Orissa Primary Education ability to understand and express, in both oral Programme Authority (OPEPA) issued a leaflet and written modes, concepts and ideas that are on the mother tongue based Multilingual relevant to success in school” (p. 71). Education programme (MLE) in the State, Mohanty (2011), simplifies this in the context of entitled ‘Education for Tribal Children in Orissa’. MLE, “ From using language for social In the leaflet, programme planners categorized communication or, what has been called, basic Teaching Learning Materials (TLMs) for MLE interpersonal communication skills (BICS, for under two track strategies—Track I, which short), children must develop to use language looked at the Cognitive Academic Language for reflective engagement with academic Proficiency (CALP); and Track II, which learning and purposeful thinking or to the level evaluated Basic Interpersonal Communicative of cognitive and academic language Skills (BICS). Track I focused on correctness proficiency” (p. 2). and accuracy, and imbibing new knowledge; it included alphabet charts, alphabet books, number The MLE programme charts, number books, and Math books—all of which helped develop CALP. Track II This means that first generation tribal students comprised picture books such as the big book need to learn to use their mother tongue for and the small book, experience stories, academic discourses before moving on to using the school language. In the MLE programme, environment studies, games, sports, songs, tales such TLMs, which call for greater, imaginative and riddles, and focused on meaning and use of language, are used only to develop BICS communication, and exploration of the child’s when in fact they can be used to develop CALP experiences. Going by Jim Cummins’ original as well. Given the kind of TLMs that have been BICS/CALP distinction, such categorization of categorized under CALP, it is the teacher who TLMs under BICS and CALP seems to be a ends up doing all the talking. There is hardly case of conceptual conflation. In Cummins’s any scope for the children to indulge in own words (2008), “ The distinction between ‘academic talk’. Stories, riddles and folk games, basic interpersonal communicative skills (BICS) if used imaginatively by the teacher, could help and cognitive academic language proficiency initiate BICS and CALP talk simultaneously. (CALP) was introduced by Cummins (1979, Cummins (2008), talks about this simultaneity 1981a) in order to draw educators’ attention to during his discussion on the evolution of the the timelines and challenges that second language theoretical constructs of BICS and CALP: “ learners encounter as they attempt to catch up The initial BICS/CALP distinction was to their peers in academic aspects of the school elaborated into two intersecting continua language. BICS refers to conversational fluency

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 38 (Cummins, 1981a) that highlighted the range of individual’s access to and command of the cognitive demands and contextual support specialized vocabulary and functions of language involved in particular language tasks or activities that are characteristic of the social institution of (context-embedded/context-reduced, cognitively schooling. The secondary discourses of undemanding/cognitively demanding) … It was schooling are no different in principle than also recognized, however, that these dimensions the secondary discourse of other spheres of cannot be specified in absolute terms because human endeavor—for example, avid amateur what is “context-embedded” or “cognitively gardeners and professional horticulturalists have demanding” for one learner may not be so for acquired vocabulary related to plants and another as a result of differences in internal flowers far beyond the knowledge of those not attributes such as prior knowledge or interest” involved in this sphere of activity. What makes (Coelho, 2004; Cummins, 1981a, p.74) (my acquisition of the secondary discourses emphasis). associated with schooling so crucial, however, It is evident that the distinction invoked in the is that the life chances of individuals are directly MLE programme to separate TLMs is the result determined by the degree of expertise they of conflation. Not only that, one is also led to acquire in understanding and using this language read a hidden agenda in such an invocation. The (my emphasis)” (p. 75-76). experience stories, songs, riddles and folk games which are categorized under BICS are simply Cognitive transfer meant to draw the tribal students into the The success in acquiring the ‘secondary classroom; the academic language register is discourses associated with schooling’, however, that of the dominant state language. The TLMs may be crucially dependent on the ‘secondary in the mother tongue which are used for BICS, discourse of other spheres of human endeavor’. could be used to develop academic discourse Beach’s study (1995), for example, provides (CALP), but that would displace the established important insights into how cognitive transfer is academic register. Also, since the mother tongue- better when there is a strong relationship intensive TLMs are seen to be useful only for between schooling and work practices, or when BICS, they may not be considered fit materials participating in the practices of schooling and for academic discourse as the grades advance. work are experienced as commensurable by the Cummins also relates the difference between learners (Cobb & Bowers, 1999, p. 7). In the conversational and academic language registers study which focused on ‘transitions between to Gee’s distinction between primary and work and school’, Beach compared the secondary discourses. The following explanation arithmetical reasoning competencies of 13 by Cummins (2008) is crucial in understanding shopkeepers attending adult education classes, the argument of this paper: “Secondary and 13 high school students apprenticed to a discourses can be oral or written and are equally shopkeeper in a Nepali village. The shopkeepers central to the social life of non-literate and performed better than the students as they literate cultures. Examples of secondary wanted to learn because they felt that by learning discourse common in many non-literate cultures arithmetical reasoning, they would be able to are the conventions of story-telling or the increase profitability in their shops. The students, language of marriage or burial rituals which are on the other hand, had to learn school arithmetic passed down through oral tradition from one as an end in itself, as well as to generate profit generation to the next. Within this conception, as a shopkeeper. Cobb and Bowers (1999, p. academic language proficiency represents an 7) cite Hanks (1991) who says, “if both learning

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 39 and the subject learned are embedded in learned achieved when language-rich TLMs (from the skills must rely on the commensurability of mother tongue) are categorized under BICS is certain forms of participation.” In another study, not clear. It is therefore essential to plan a careful Rampal et al. demonstrate how a domestic use of TLMs for the so-called ‘two track worker helps her daughter who is a fifth grader strategies’. and is confounded by algorithms, by breaking a 1 The fifth grader has to divide 180 by 3. The mother problem into manageable parts1 . That is how first separates 50 thrice. Of the remaining 30, she she does her everyday arithmetic. The purpose puts 10 along with each of the 50s so that at the end of these examples was to illustrate the necessity she has three separate 60s. of using the ‘secondary discourse of other spheres of human endeavor’ to help the students References acquire the ‘secondary discourse associated Beach, K. (1995). Activity a mediator of sociocultural with schooling’. This secondary discourse of change and individual development: The case of other spheres of human endeavor is embedded school-work transition in Nepal. Mind, Culture, and in the numerous stories, riddles, folk games and Activity, 2, 285-302. work practices of rural tribal communities. Cobb, Paul & Bowers, Janet (1999). Cognitive and Panda and Mohanty (2009), both directors of situated learning: Perspectives in theory and practice. the MLE Plus programme in Odisha have Educational Researcher, 28(2), 4-15. illustrated in their study on seventh grade Saora Coelho, E. (2004). Adding English: A guide to children, how a folk game called Aphuchhi can teaching in multilingual classrooms. be used to teach probability. Toronto: Pippin Publishing. Community knowledge, which includes work Cummins, Jim. (2008). BICS and CALP: Empirical and and play-related discourse, can therefore be Theoretical Status of the Distinction. In B. Street, & N. H. Hornberger (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Language regarded as a secondary discourse and a source and Education (2nd ed.). (Vol. 2: Literacy, pp. 71-83). of ‘academic language’. But the MLE New York: Springer Science + Business Media LLC. programme planners seem to have missed this Cummins, J. (1981a) Age on arrival and immigrant point. The MLE programme, for all its success, second language learning in Canada. A depends on the transfer of learning from the reassessment. Applied Linguistics, 2, l32-l49. mother tongue to the school language. If the Hanks, W. F. (1991). Foreword. In J. Lave & E. Wenger academic component of the secondary (Eds.), Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral discourses conducted in the mother tongues of participation (pp. 13-26). Cambridge, MA: non-literate cultures is not exploited for Cambridge University Press. classroom use, there is little hope of effective Panda, M. & Mohanty, A. K. (2009). Language transfer of learning from the mother tongue to matters, so does culture: Beyond the rhetoric of the school language. Under these culture in multilingual education. In Mohanty et al. circumstances, it is impossible to hope that MLE (Eds.), Multilingual Education for Social Justice: can rehabilitate community knowledge in the Globalizing the Local (pp. 295-312). New Delhi: Orient Blackswan. school curricula. To illustrate the point, one finds traditional measurement practices labeled as Rampal, Anita, Ramanujam, R. & Saraswathi, L. S. (1998). Numeracy Counts! National Literacy ‘non-standard’ in the MLE Math textbook. Resources Centre Publication. To conclude, the title of the MLE leaflet says it all—‘Education for Tribal Children in Orissa’. Urmishree Bedamatta is Assistant Professor at the The aim of the programme is to make students Department of English, Ravenshaw University, proficient in Odia which is the ‘cognitive Odisha. academic language’. But how this aim can be [email protected]

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 40 Do Language Codes Affect Multilingualism?: A Case Study of an Inclusive School

Sneha Subramaniam

Introduction While Bernstein’s restricted code speaks of a When I first visited Poorna, an inclusive, language that is highly contextual and is ‘alternative’ school in Bangalore and spent time understood only by those aware of circumstantial with the students, I was struck by their candour specificities, the elaborate code is more universal and easy articulation, and most of all by their in its outlook. The elaborate code refers to an free and fluent expression. They showed a explicit language that does not assume that its audience will be homogenous. Bernstein found complete lack of self-consciousness about that learners from a working class background background, class, caste and religion, in forging spoke a restricted code and performed poorly relations. I wondered how social rights and in language-related subjects, while their middle equality, expressed so matter-of-factly by these class counterparts performed better at language- young ten-year-olds, had come to be a part of oriented subjects and spoke an elaborate code. their lives. In a school hallmarked by its socio- economic and cultural diversity, how did the However, his analysis did not stop at this identities and expression of the students, escape superficial level. Bernstein viewed language not from falling into class traps? only as an instrument of communication, but also as an expression of mental structures shaped I wanted to observe how these learners had by a symbolic differentiation of classes. chartered this journey, and whether class According to Grimshaw (1976), Bernstein distinctions had initially played a role in the way believed that the language one used was they expressed themselves. Therefore, armed symptomatic of internalized class structures, and with Bernstein’s theory of language codes, I revealed one’s Weltenshauung (one’s revisited Poorna at the beginning of their conception or apprehension of the world based academic year, and observed and spoke to on one’s specific standpoint). children and teachers of the youngest classes. Although criticized for being a deficiency theorist, Bernstein sought answers as to why Bernstein’s theoretical framework discrepancy between language codes occurred Basil Bernstein, a British sociolinguist, made a and pinpointed pedagogical and curricular significant contribution to education with his aspects that hindered or fostered elaborate code. theory of language codes. Bernstein studied the To understand this discrepancy, he coined the influence of the structures of class, power and terms classification and framing. According to ideology, and their impact on language. He found him, classification refers to the separation a strong relationship between societal class and between the subjects taught in school. Strong language. He derived the terms ‘restricted code’ classification means the boundaries between and ‘elaborate code’ to explain his findings. subjects are clearly defined, while weak

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 41 classification allows for links to be made remained largely quiet, and mostly played alone. between subjects. By being able to relate Even during the Kannada class she seemed to different subject matters to each other and to express herself only by making inarticulate their everyday life, students gain the ability to sounds and gestures. transcend context and speak in a manner that This observation led me to wonder whether people beyond their class can understand, i.e. children who spoke in a restricted code found it using elaborate code. However, if, for instance harder to grasp a second language. Does being the language used in a Mathematics class able to traverse contexts relate to being more cannot be used in an English class, then one easily able to traverse between entire languages? remains in the restricted code, able to confer I was inclined to think so. Therefore, I decided only with an audience that has exactly the same to investigate whether one’s language code had information. It then becomes very difficult for any implications on multilingualism. these learners to go home and tell their parents what they learnt in the Maths class if the parents themselves are not in the Maths class, because Method the general concepts do not seem to transcend To study the impact of language code on the boundaries of the class into actual life. multilingualism, I undertook classroom The framing of the classroom reveals who has observations, watched out-of-class play, and the right to expression. While high framing conducted teacher interviews for class I at suggests that it is mostly the teacher who is Poorna . During classroom observations, several relaying information, low framing implies that questions were going through my mind. Some the dialogue in the classroom is structured so of these were: Was the language in the that the students too are able to contribute to classroom mostly the teachers’? Was there discussions and express themselves. Bernstein formal or informal use of language? How noticed that classrooms which have low framing, did the teacher cue/ restrict students’ encourage students’ expression and create response? When students spoke who did they environments for an elaborate code, so that the direct their speech to and was it self- student’s own words and home contexts find regulated? What did students use their speech relevance with the subject matter. opportunities for? How did the teacher deal with students’ mistakes? Did students’ degree of expression vary depending on the Arriving at a hypothesis language being taught and familiarity with On my first day at Poorna, I observed the it? children interacting with each other and the teacher in the UKG class. I remarked something Findings and analysis curious which I thought related to Bernstein. A young girl S, from an affluent background, told The language used in the classroom was me immediately after meeting me that she spoke controlled mostly by the teacher, who led the Hindi at home. She said this in English, she talked class, and chose the song and the activity carried to her friend in Hindi, and in her Kannada class, out. While the teacher used formal language, she seemed to be most vociferous, even though she did not hint at any correction when the this was her third language. On the other hand, children expressed themselves using incorrect another young girl C from a migrant labourer grammar. Her focus instead was on the family whose first language was Kannada, expression itself. Students spoke to each other

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 42 and to the teacher in the class, sometimes about stressing upon a non-particularistic related topics, asking questions, giving their understanding. comments, and sometimes saying unrelated This observation illustrates that these students things. They did not self-regulate, which was are generally not aware of any class distinctions indicative of low framing. in the classroom, and even if they are, it does When students made mistakes while repeating not shape or influence the way they interact or the songs being sung, the teacher did not express themselves. There are no feelings of reprimand them. Instead for S, she reiterated superiority or inferiority based on class or caste. the instructions once again and for C, she This is fortified by the fact they are never ever repeated the instructions in Kannada. Hence, disparaged in class for not expressing themselves while initially it seemed that C’s expression in in a ‘correct’ manner, nor are they ever English was limited because she did not know compared to one another. These are, perhaps, the language, as she became familiar with the social factors that influence whether one has classes she became the loudest of all. The fact that she did not know the language very well an elaborate or restricted code in early primary was never emphasized, and special translations school years, in the sense that they are probably were made for her. As a result, she never felt highly influential in determining whether a child that her expression should be limited. who speaks a restricted code in the primary years is able to arrive at the elaborate code expression The analysis of C’s teacher vis à vis her potential later. The very fact that societal class does not for expression and her propensity towards multilingualism ties in with Bernstein’s ideas of impact the children’s lives outside of their classification and framing. The teacher took home—at school where they spend most of their pride in the fact that C did not have day, means that they are not given a chance to predetermined boundaries dictating how she internalize class differentiation as mental should behave and what she should say in structures. At this stage, therefore, C’s working school. If she walked out barefoot from her class background does not seem to precipitate home, she was happy to do the same from her speaking in a restricted code, nor does it school. She had a strong connection between seem to have any effect on her inability to relate her school life and her everyday life, and this to another language besides her mother tongue. implied that classification of activity—which On the contrary, she seems to be making precedes the classification of subjects in a meaning of what she is learning in the classroom child’s education—is a non-entity. outside the class, in Kannada and in English. As far as out-of-class play was concerned, C It seems likely, therefore, that the relationship applied her learning in everyday life as well as between class, language codes and in play. In fact, while playing by herself in the multilingualism depends firmly on the curriculum sandpit, I heard her say, “mele, kelegede, up, and the pedagogy of the school, and is highly down,” (up, down in Kannada and then in susceptible to classification and framing, just as English) and making corresponding hand Bernstein suggested. In the case of Poorna, in gestures and laughing to herself as she recited fact, the curriculum and pedagogy deliberately the words. addresses differences in language exposure in S brought her knowledge of language to all the the classroom, which in turn seems to dissolve classes, and sometimes made an effort to the stratification of language codes so that one ensure that all the children understood her, thus is not affected by the other.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 43 Conclusion References While Bernstein undertook his research in Grimshaw, A. D. (1976). Polity, class, school, and talk: Britain, this study demonstrates that his theories The sociology of Basil Bernstein. Theory and can also be applied in the Indian context. With Society, 3 (4), 553-572. Retrieved from http:// www.jstor.org/stable/656814 regards to whether language codes do or do not relate to multilingualism, I am not sure whether Dillon, D. & Searle, D. (1981). The role of language in one first grade classroom. Research in the Teaching my findings will be replicated if this study is of English, 15 (4), 311-328. Retrieved from http:// conducted in Britain. Perhaps, this is largely www.jstor.org/stable/40170931 because the majority of India is multilingual, and multilingualism is often a matter-of-fact part of our day to day living. Moreover, in India, Sneha Subramaniam is pursuing an M. A. in Education at the Azim Premji University. She is multilingualism is mostly acquired interested in language and curriculum development. conversationally, rather than in academic arenas She loves to travel and enjoys the serendipity of and is part of informal socialization, rather than conversations when meeting new people. pedantic expression. When a language is learnt [email protected] informally, then the connections between code and language acquisition seem to disappear, as in the case of Poorna. Finally, I believe that this investigation into Bernstein’s theories emphasizes just how crucial it is for educators to be cognizant of the larger responsibility and influence they have, which goes far beyond transacting the transmission of information. It is with this hope that we may use Bernstein’s theory to foray into critical thinking so that learners and teachers alike may step back and examine the structural forces imposed upon them, in order to consciously and concertedly use our own understanding and expression to transform prejudice. My study establishes that there is absolutely no relationship between the societal class and the potential linguistic ability of a child. Such stratifying connections seem to be hegemonic constructs that we as educators must work towards dissolving with what seems to be a rather sturdy scaffolding of weak classification and low framing. If the autonomous beings we help shape, develop in this solid environment, as opposed to crumbling under the subjected expression of others, I am sure they will be able to hold their own and exude their own identities and worth.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 44 Language across Curriculum: Principle to Practice

Nisha Butoliya ‘Language is best acquired through different meaning-making contexts, and hence all teaching is in a sense language teaching.’ (NCF, 2005, p. 39)

How do we approach teaching at primary How should we approach language teaching level? at the primary level? All our methods of teaching have been derived Observing children to understand how they from the insights that we have generated through acquire their mother tongue should give us an lively interactions with children, observations and insight into how we should approach language simple experiments. We would all agree that teaching in schools. For example, at the age of children learn by feeling things, throwing them, four, when children call an object ‘a bag’ they banging them, observing them, by asking are not referring to a particular bag, but are questions, by listening to others, by identifying bags in general. They identify it even experimenting, by narrating, etc. While doing all though the bag may be of plastic or jute or cloth. this, they are constantly connecting to their They won’t necessarily be able to tell that these previous experiences and building on it. Thus, bags are of different material, but definitely, the education processes in our schools are geared identify and say that these are bags. If we look towards providing opportunities to children at this example a little closely, we realize that in where they learn by connecting to their previous order to identify a bag, one needs to know that knowledge and achieve understanding in the it has a handle, and a space to keep something. desired domain (at least we advocate it through The handle may be of different kinds, but our curriculum documents!). children are still able to recognize it. They recognize that all handles share a certain similarity—all handles are U-shaped, more or What is language? less. Sometimes, they may refer to a steel According to Halliday (1993), “language is the container with a handle as a bag, but this is prototypical resource for making meaning” (p. precisely how a child learns new words or 1). A child uses a language to understand the concepts, by accommodating changes. world around her/him. Higher the ability to use Therefore, a child enriches his concepts when a language for detailed descriptions of concepts, he understands that not everything that has a and explaining phenomenon, deeper will be its handle and a space is called a bag—this, for me, is a lifelong process. understanding. Krishna Kumar (1986) adds, “language shapes the child’s personality, Therefore, when a child identifies objects, he including perceptions, abilities, attitudes, interests knows their concepts well—to the extent his and values” (p. 9). Therefore, language is at age and exposure permits. If we ask a child of age four years to categorize some objects, she/ the heart of all kinds of learning. he would display a conceptual understanding of According to the NCF (2005), “………….all the objects, even though that understanding may teaching is in a sense language teaching” (p.39). or may not be acceptable in the world of adults.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 45 Also, she/he may not be able to explain the Today’s scenario rationale behind the categories (due to fear/ In schools, we teach mathematics, two hesitation/other similar factors), but she/he would languages and EVS as the ‘main’ subjects, and have an understanding about their uses, shapes, other subjects such as art, craft, and P.E. sizes, where they may be found, whether they (physical education) are considered as co- are edible, etc. To my mind, this understanding curricular activities. How many Science is holistic, and not YET divided by the teachers help children to understand and analyze boundaries of subjects—since I know shapes, I the text, or engage them in meaning-making know Math; since I know uses, I know EVS; processes? For instance, how many of us have since I call it correctly, I know language. really had an opportunity to derive meaning out Further, when a child describes a bag in minute of the term ‘photosynthesis’ through our own detail—its size, shape, material, design, engagements in relevant activities. That is embroidery or painting, number of pockets with supposed to be the responsibility of a language zips or buttons, etc., two processes take place teacher. Conversely, in how many language simultaneously. On the one hand, she/he is uses classes do the students find time to take up language to describe the bag, and on the other science concepts and analyse and discover its the description of the minute details using a meaning. Different kinds of lessons—History, language help her/him to understand the bag Science or Geography—given in a language better. Numerous such examples are available textbook get the same treatment. Thus, it is clear that school subjects are so isolated from each around us. To generalize, language learning in other that collaboration among teachers teaching children takes place along with concept the same classes is also rare. formation and cognitive engagement with the world around them. The second related notion is that of ‘language as a medium of instruction’. One only looks at Secondly, the use of appropriate linguistic language in the context of other subjects, as just components (words, gestures, stress, intonation, a medium of instruction. When a language etc.) is not only an indicator of a person’s teacher was asked for an opinion, the reply was, linguistic abilities, but reveals much more. Which the language in which the majority of subjects words can be used with whom? Where to put are taught should be given importance and the stress? What is the point one is making? should be taught in the class. This implies that How to respond? Where is the gap in the the one who instructs needs a language. Since, arguments? What is the essence of the talk? a child is there just to follow, she/he either does Analyzing all this also requires sound knowledge not require a language, or can manage with the of the subject matter being discussed, apart from language of instruction. To my mind, there is a the skills of analysis, synthesis, questioning, serious flaw in this scenario. Where is the place responding, etc. Although these cognitive for the child’s language? What will happen to academic skills are transferable, the knowledge the concepts that a child forms while acquiring of the subject matter can only be gained through or learning a language? Since we look at active engagement with the content. Thus, language simply as a medium of instruction, we conceptual understanding requires language, and do not advocate the utilization of the child’s for learning a language we need conceptual language. Under such circumstances, the entire understanding. We cannot separate the two. practice of school teaching is set up for failure.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 46 The problem under consideration playground’. We selected the themes based on The syllabus is compartmentalized, and so is the the following criteria: meaning; the children fail to understand the - Themes should be very specific. holistic perspective and the teachers find it - Children should be able to get a first-hand difficult to provide meaningful opportunities. experience. - They should be age appropriate and Way forward interesting. The only way to sort out this problem is to follow - They should not be too broad, such as ‘Our the ideal of ‘a language across the curriculum’. earth’. This is because at that age, a child According to the NCF (2005), “A language- will not be able to actually feel ‘the earth’, across the-curriculum perspective is perhaps of or comprehend its vastness. particular relevance to primary education. For one year, we worked on three themes. We Language is best acquired through different wove the concepts, skills, and abilities around meaning-making contexts, and hence all teaching them in such a way that we progressed from is in a sense language teaching” (p. 39). class 1 to class 5. Thus, we got concentric circles A language-across the curriculum approach around each of the themes. Figure 1 illustrates focuses on providing hands-on experience to the how various concepts such as shape, size, colour, children so that they can discover, explore and kinds of roots, angles, breadth, length, leaves, question the world around them. Language plays and photosynthesis can be woven around the an important role in this, because a child’s theme ‘trees in the playground’. The concentric abilities flourish through her/his own language. circles correspond to different levels of difficulty. He feels respected and included in the teaching- This simple example gives us a glimpse of how learning process; his language flourishes a simple theme can be used to explain concepts because she/he works with other children as well as a group of teachers who speak different languages. As mentioned earlier, she/he uses language to understand the world, and in turn this process enriches the language itself. In order to promote ‘theme based teaching and learning’ process in schools by demonstrating its efficaciousness, my team1 and I attempted to apply the concept of a language across the curriculum. We analyzed the curricula and syllabi of all the subjects taught at Primary level (Classes 1 to 5). We identified the concepts that needed to be discussed, the skills that needed to be fostered, and the abilities that were required to be nurtured from classes 1 to 5. We found that Fig 1 there were three themes that ran through all Once the themes were finalized and the concepts five classes, and addressed most of the concepts and skills were woven around them, we chose mentioned in the syllabus. These themes were age appropriate literature and other reading ‘Myself’, ‘Water’, and ‘Trees in the materials for all the subjects from various

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 47 sources including text books, to get the relevant prescribed book for the children, they may refer material. With the content ready, we started to and read several books out of their interest thinking about interesting and challenging theme- for exploration. based activities which would bind the concepts In primary schools where one teacher teaches and skills of all the subjects together. We came all the subjects, implementing theme-based up with a lot of activities which provided opportunities for exploration, analysis, collection teaching and learning is easier. In schools where of data, deriving conclusions, questioning and there are different teachers for different interviewing, public speaking, etc. Figure 2 subjects, they all can collaborate to apply theme- illustrates how the activities were woven with based teaching learning. the concepts2 Reflections While doing activities such as the ones listed above, I found that my students of class 3 had become more vocal—they asked more questions, they started explaining concepts to each other, they suggested different ways in which class 2 students could participate in skits, they wrote poems, and drew pictures. They even wrote their own answers, and framed their own questions. Even though these were far from perfect, it was their own work. For me, this was truly (language) learning in context.

1 We, the team of teachers at the Aditya Birla Public School, Kharach were guided by an educationist Shri Rasik Bhai Shah to implement theme-based teaching learning. 2 Both these webs are developed by me. The first one is made in powerpoint, while the second is created using mind map.

References Kumar, Krishna (1986). The child’s language and Fig 2 the teacher: A Handbook, United Nations Children’s Fund, 1986. Halliday, M. A. K. (1993). Towards a language- Although the activities were not new, they gave based theory of learning. Linguistics and us a glimpse into how meaning-making context Education, 5, 93-116. was readily available with us. We were able to National Council of Educational Research and easily remove the boundaries between subjects Training (2005). National Curriculum Framework and shake the notion that language was just a 2005. New Delhi: NCERT. medium of instruction. Dhankar, Rohit (October-2009). Importance of language. Learning Curve, XIII, 10-12. We came to the conclusion that theme-based planning takes time and effort, but once it is done Nisha Butoliya worked as a Primary Teacher for 6 children LEARN in the true sense of the word. years. Presently she is working as Coordinator, They even learn the school language by mastery Academics and Pedagogy in the University of the concepts. This, I feel, is ‘learning without Resource Centre of Azim Premji University. burden’. But for this, there cannot be any one [email protected]

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 48 Fricatives and Affricates of English: A Case Study of Assamese Learners of English

Anima Baishya

Introduction a complex process. The primary aim of students Vocabulary and its accurate pronunciation play while learning vocabulary is to have the ability a pivotal role in learning a language. When we to recall a word at will, and to recognize it in its consider the phonological aspect of vocabulary, spoken and written forms. The principles of it includes both the vowels (monopthongs and learning English vocabulary in a proper and diphthongs) and consonantal sounds. Teaching systematic way are based on the assumptions and learning of English and its vocabulary are that learners can be taught, and can teach unsatisfactory in Assamese medium schools, themselves. Teaching and learning is a especially in rural areas. The present article complementary process since the teacher has attempts to study the learning of some difficult to follow the same principles that are required sounds of English language, especially fricatives by the student for learning purposes. Hence, and affricates. Through the article, I have tried language learning is not an activity that takes to identify the reasons behind the phonological place in vacuum. problems encountered by English language Vocabulary is central to language and is of great teachers and students in Assamese medium significance to language learners. David Wilkins schools, and recommend remedial measures in (1972), summed up the importance of order to improve the second language teaching- vocabulary for language learning: “without learning scenario. grammar very little can be conveyed, without Fricatives and Affricates are the two classes of vocabulary nothing can be conveyed” (p. 111). consonantal speech sounds that Assamese It has been observed that most Assamese learners of English either pronounce wrongly, learners seem to have an instrumental motivation or find most difficult to pronounce. In the for learning English. They learn English simply articulation of fricatives, the active and passive to fulfil the school requirement, since English is articulators form a stricture of close a compulsory subject like any other subject. In approximation, and the air escapes through the the indigenized varieties of English (IVEs) narrow gap, causing audible friction. Affricates setting, “the reasons for studying English and on the other hand, are a combination of a plosive the skills desired are overwhelmingly the ones and a fricative. Instead of a complete closure normally labelled instrumental” (Shaw, 1981, p. of the vocal tract, there is a delayed release in 121). Often, lack of motivation becomes one of the articulation of affricates. the main reasons that a majority of the students The objective of this research is to ascertain fail the examination, or remain low achievers. the accurate pronunciation of these two classes Students find the English period uninteresting of speech sounds of English language. and difficult, and that also impacts motivation Learning the vocabulary of a language is indeed levels.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 49 The problematic consonantal phonemes Causes of the phonological problems As mentioned earlier, Assamese-speaking Teachers play a crucial role as far as second learners of English language find consonantal language teaching is concerned as they have phonemes of English difficult and problematic. the authority to adopt effective approaches or These problematic consonantal phonemes methods as well as suitable teaching strategies. include seven out of nine English fricatives, and However, for this language teachers have to be two affricates of English. These are: proficient enough in the language they are Fricatives: are non-existent teaching to be role models for their students. in Assamese. They also have to be cautious of their own shortcomings as wrong pronunciation on their For example, many Assamese students would part may result in a negative image of the find it difficult to pronounce ‘fan, van, thin, they, language in the minds of their students. Gatenby zebra, ship and measure’ accurately. (1967) is right when he says, “If we can train Affricates: are also non-existent in the teacher, make him efficient, and give him Assamese. confidence, he can himself remove or get rid of These sounds appear in words like ‘church and most of the other drawbacks” (p. 213). judge’. Some of the reasons for the problems encountered by English teachers of Assamese Assamese rendering of sounds medium schools while teaching English pronunciation include: It has been observed that the English fricatives • and affricates as spoken by the Assamese show The teachers themselves do not know the different properties as compared to the way correct pronunciations. fricatives and affricates are pronounced by the • In-service training programmes are not native speakers of English. It should be clear compulsory for teachers and are generally that it is NOT the case that the Assamese conducted for a short duration. Moreover, children hear the native sounds and render them the notification regarding training of teachers as plosives or fricatives. On the contrary, they normally does not reach schools on time. reproduce what they hear from their teachers Also, very often, school authorities are and may be parents. They seem to be replaced reluctant to send the teachers for training by some easier and similar sounding sounds, in as the number of professional trainers is very accordance with the law of least effort as small. proposed by Ferdinand de Saussure (1966). These sounds are: Thus, teachers of English in Assamese medium schools are not normally exposed to the phonetic features of the English language so as to teach their students correct pronunciation of English words. Most of them have a lack of comparative knowledge of English sounds and Assamese sounds, not being able to correct the spoken form of English words of their students. • Oral work is not encouraged or practised sufficiently by the teachers.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 50 • Most of the English language teachers in should be conducted for a longer duration. Assamese medium schools do not have a The concerned authorities must ensure that specialization in English. Some of them are the notification regarding training of teachers just matriculate, and surprisingly, they are should reach the schools on time. The allowed to teach English without having a school authorities should allow the teachers basic knowledge of the language to go for training so that they can improve themselves. their skills as well as equip themselves with In order to have a clear picture of the teaching- the new teaching methods and modern learning scenario of English in the upper primary techniques. level of Assamese medium schools, the problems • Teachers of English in Assamese medium faced by learners are also a subject of concern. schools should be exposed to the phonetic It is evident that when Assamese students learn features of English language, so that they English, they come across speech sounds that can teach their students correct are quite different from those of Assamese. They pronunciation of English words. They should often find it difficult to articulate these sounds. also have a comparative knowledge of Therefore, they substitute these English speech English and Assamese sounds, so that they sounds with speech sounds of Assamese. This are able to correct the spoken English of pull of Assamese causes unintelligibility. Such their students. problems are meant to be handled by the • Efficient and knowledgeable teachers language teacher in the classroom. However, it should be recruited to teach English. The is debatable whether the language teacher takes selection of teachers should be impartial and note of these problems and makes the necessary fair. corrections. Also, Assamese students do not • Oral work should be encouraged and get enough exposure to English. Not only does practised. this contribute to difficulties in articulating the correct pronunciation, but it also impacts spellings, as the students are not able to perceive Pedagogical issues the correct spelling as a result of faulty Careful attention must be accorded to pronunciation. pronunciation as it is an essential part of vocabulary teaching if the new English lexis is Suggestions and recommendations to be used effectively, or understood without I have made an attempt to suggest academic difficulty. The degree of attention paid to the principles in general and pedagogical practices pronunciation of a lexical item depends on the in particular that underline the teaching of importance of the item in spoken English, and phonology of English vocabulary in the context the extent to which it poses a problem for the of Assamese medium schools. These can help students. us to understand the problems related to Before teaching new pronunciations, the teaching and learning English and its vocabulary teachers should highlight the new vocabulary in such schools. while writing it on the blackboard. They should use the technique of ‘Mimicry-Memorization’ Academic factors through repetition drills to teach pronunciation. • In-service training programmes should be In addition to this, teachers may use minimal made compulsory for teachers, and they pairs to teach two similar sounds that are

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 51 problematic for the students. Error-analysis and voiceless (when the vocal chords are not correction in different areas of pronunciation vibrating) and the voiced (when the vocal helps students distinguish between vowel chords are vibrating) sounds. /f/ is voiceless sounds—in rounding or reduction of rounding, but /v/ is voiced. In fact, that is the only in the lengthening or shortening of vowels, and difference between these two sounds. in the consonant sounds absent in Assamese or b) For the production of /è/ sound, the learners in consonant clusters. should be told not to touch their teeth with In order to teach the pronunciation of their tongue, but to keep it very close to them, problematic fricatives and affricates of English, and subsequently allow the air to escape the teacher should utilize the following sequence: slowly and continuously. 1. Articulate the sound in a word. c) With regard to /ð/, the learners have to form 2. Articulate the sound by itself. a stricture of close approximation instead 3. Get the students to repeat the sound, in of a stricture of complete closure. They chorus. have to be taught the basic difference between a fricative and a plosive. Once 4. Contrast it with other reinforced sounds. again, in order to articulate this sound the 5. Get individual students to repeat contrasting learner needs to bring the tongue very close sounds. to the teeth without touching them. Although this needs a bit of practice, the language The teacher may also write down all new words teacher can handle it in the classroom. One that the students have encountered during the should also remember that /è/ is voiceless week on the board. He/she should then and /ð/ is voiced. articulate the words, and the students should d) In order to articulate , the Assamese repeat them. Then the learners should take turns learners of English have to be asked to raise articulating the words independently and the the blade of their tongue to touch the hard teacher should give them feedback on their palate, keeping the tip of the tongue level pronunciation. with the teeth ridge and rounding the lips The articulation of the fricatives slightly. Note that is voiceless. in the lexis must be given e) For the production of /z/, the learners have special attention as they do not have equivalent to be taught to lower the body of the tongue, sounds in Assamese. Similarly, also and place the tip of the tongue very close to need special care, and the language teacher must the alveolar ridge so that the air can escape make sure that these are articulated and continuously through the narrow gap instead pronounced correctly. of touching the hard palate with the blade a) For the production of /f/ and /v/, the of the tongue. One should remember that Assamese medium learners have to be told /z/ is voiced. to keep their upper teeth very close to their lower lip, and not to bring their upper and f) The Assamese medium learners can be lower lip into contact. The air in the vocal taught to pronounce by raising the blade tract must be allowed to flow continuously, of the tongue and placing it very close to causing friction. It is important to also the hard palate, getting the lips slightly understand the difference between the rounded.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 52 g) For the correct articulation of , the References learners must understand that is a Gatenby, E. V. (1967). The training for language combination of /t/ and . During the teachers. In W. R. Lee (Ed.) ELT Sections II. (pp. 65- 70). London: Oxford University Press. articulation of , there is a complete Saussure, F. de (1966). Course in general linguistics. closure of the oral passage and then there (W. Baskin, Trans.). New York: McGraw-Hill. (Original is a delayed release or continued flow of work published 1915). air. The learners have to be taught to stop Shaw, W. D. (1981). Asian student attitudes towards the air passage by firmly placing the blade English. In L. E. Smith (Ed.), English for cross- culturalcommunication (pp. 108-122). London: of the tongue on the teeth ridge in /t/ position, Macmillan. build up air pressure between the palate and Wilkins, D. A. (1972). Linguistics in language the tongue, and then to release the pressure teaching. London: Edward Arnold. by quickly bringing the tongue to position. h) The same remedial measure is suggested Anima Baishya is a Ph.D. Scholar at the Department of Linguistics, Assam University. for acquiring . The language teacher has [email protected] to demonstrate the difference between a voiced sound and its voiceless counterpart. The learner then needs to acquire the voice feature by regular practice.Note that is voiceless and is voiced.

Conclusion So far, we have looked at the difficulties of the Assamese learners of English and how they pronounce native English fricatives and affricates differently; the fricatives /f, v, è, ð/ are replaced by stops /ph, bh, th, d/ unlike in place of which they use fricatives . Similarly, instead of affricates, fricatives are used. The learners must be made aware of the basic difference between a fricative and a plosive, and between an affricate and a plosive. Finally, the language teacher must take into account the fact that in addition to the input received from teachers and parents and the peer group, the law of least effort is one of the causes of sound replacement; they should accordingly make changes in the language teaching process.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 53 Interview Face to Face with Navnit Kumar Vijay Kumar

Mr. Navnit Kumar is a language teacher (PGT Hindi) in a Delhi government school. He has done his teacher training from the Department of Education (CIE), Delhi University.

Vijay Kumar (VK): Most people have a NK: At school level, the medium of teaching perception that teaching is a very relaxed was Hindi. In my class, most of the students part-time job. Do you agree? used to speak Hindi (standardized Khari Boli) Navnit Kumar (NK): No, not at all. If taken at home, but some spoke Maithili, Bhojpuri, seriously, it is one of the most tiring, challenging Bangla or Magahi (a variety of Hindi) at home. but also satisfying professions. That is why I The vocabulary of these languages is similar to chose this profession. In fact, my whole family that of Hindi with minor variations. In fact, Hindi is in the teaching profession. I was also has more than eighteen related varieties. So, interested in teaching. Therefore, I chose to be Hindi was the medium of instruction, but at times a teacher, and at present I’m teaching in a one could see the influence of native languages government school. on the Hindi used in class. For example, Hindi verb forms vary with gender, but in Magahi, VK: Can you tell me something about your the verb forms are gender neutral. schooling? How was it different from the present day scenario in terms of the teaching-learning VK: What did the language classes of that time process, the curriculum, the textbooks, etc.? look like? What was the pedagogical process/ NK: I did my entire schooling in a government strategy adopted in language teaching? To what school in Bihar. During our days, teaching was extent was it successful in the teaching of the textbook-centric. Generally, students would read second language? the text and teachers would explain it. However, NK: We used to enjoy our language classes, when stories or anecdotes were used, students especially the prose (stories, novels etc.) part. could understand the concepts more easily and The poetry part used to be comparatively less the class became more interesting. In our times, interesting. The reason for this was that most there were fewer public schools; consequently of the Hindi poetry, from Aadi Kal to Riti Kal there was a good mix of students from different has been written in Braj Bhasa, Awadhi or socio-economic backgrounds–a sort of common Maithili. Understanding standardized Hindi is schooling. It was very different from what we not a problem for a child even if his mother see these days in the government schools in tongue is a variety of Hindi, because he knows Delhi, where most of the students are from poor or extremely poor families. it through textbooks, newspapers, magazines, TV, radio, films, etc., but understanding a completely different variety is more difficult. VK: What was the linguistic background of the Also, traditionally, while teaching poetry there students in a class? What was the medium of is an emphasis on the chhand (meter), alankar instruction and how effective was it? (figure of speech), etc., which is generally dry

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 54 and uninteresting for a child. I wish these the corresponding word in his mother tongue. technical aspects of poetry could be taught in a Similarly, grammatical constructions can be more interesting way. learnt as a model, with certain variations as compared to the mother tongue. But, as I have VK: Moving on to your teaching experience, already said, sometimes the influence of the can you tell us something about the socio- mother tongue on the second language cannot economic and linguistic background of your be ruled out. For example, a child tends to make students? mistakes in the pronunciation and grammatical NK: My students are generally first generation constructions of Hindi as a result of the influence learners. Their parents are mostly daily wage of the mother tongue: a child whose mother earners, labourers, helpers, etc. In fact, most of tongue is Haryanvi may pronounce ‘bulb’ as them are first generation learners from the rural ‘balab’, or a child whose mother tongue is villages of Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Magahi may make mistakes related to verb Bihar, Rajasthan and Haryana. Most of the forms because her/his mother tongue is gender children either speak Hindi, or a variety of Hindi neutral. at home. VK: What pedagogical process/strategy do you VK: Having children belonging to such diverse adopt while teaching Hindi in school? In what linguistic backgrounds, how do you manage your way is it different from the way teaching was classes? Do you face any problems? done in your school days? NK: Most of my students use different dialects NK: In our school days, the emphasis was on of Hindi in class, which has an impact on both textbooks. There was also a lot of stress on the their spoken and written Hindi. Sometimes, they technical aspects of literature. I feel that though make mistakes because of the variation in their these technical aspects of language teaching are mother tongues from standardized Hindi. I important, the manner in which these were explain to them that some of their mistakes are taught was not very appropriate. I try to teach common and are simply a reflection of the influence of their mother tongues. Then I these topics through discussions, examples, demonstrate to them that there is a certain anecdotes, debates, etc. I suggest to my students pattern in their mistakes. The idea is to make to read newspapers, magazines, novels, stories, them proud of their mother tongues, while at etc., because one can’t master a language by the same time making them aware of its variation focusing on the textbook only. I also tell them to from the standardized language, so that they can read about the topics that are referred to in the pronounce and write correctly. chapter. Interdisciplinary approach, according to me, is always better. VK: What do you think about the effect of the mother tongue on the acquisition of other VK: I had a chance to attend a presentation languages? Is it negative or positive? made by you at Ambedkar University, Delhi. NK: I feel that the mother tongue helps in the You explained how a difficult chapter ‘Kootaj’ acquisition of a second language. Through the (name of a plant), written by Hazari Prasad mother tongue, a child is already acquainted with Dwivedi, could be made interesting for children. a language system. Therefore, a word of a Could you tell me a little more about this second language can be learnt as a synonym of method?

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 55 NK: Unfortunately, when I was in school, this VK: Children fear grammar. In fact, I too dread chapter had been taught in a linear, one- grammar. Do you think grammar should be dimensional and uninteresting manner. I found taught in the manner it is taught? that ‘Kootaj’ encompasses or touches on NK: During my school days, I used to consider diverse areas such as Geography, History, Sanskrit as the most difficult subject. It has so Mythology, practical wisdom, zest for life, satire many dhatu-roops, sabda-roops, rules, etc., on corruption, etc. Therefore, while doing this and one has to memorize all of them. In Hindi, chapter with the children, I touched upon all the grammar portion, particularly the technical these topics. Similarly, if there is a reference in parts certainly creates disinterest among the chapter to plate tectonic theory, I encourage students. However, this does not mean that the students to refer to this topic in their grammar should be totally neglected; in fact, the geography books. If there is a reference to word-building aspects of grammar such as Indo-European languages, I encourage them to upsarg (prefix), pratyay (suffix), etc., should independently find similarities between various be taught in an interesting way. Topics should languages. In the same way, if there is a be chosen in a manner that grammar teaching reference to Rahim, a child can better does not become a tedious and boring exercise. understand the point if he is aware of the story of Rahim, his achievements as a poet, etc. If VK: What modifications would you suggest in the author has written a satire on corrupt the course content of Hindi textbooks to make practices, the teacher should initiate a discussion it compatible with the recommendations made on it. The students can be asked if they have in NCF 2005? encountered any corrupt practices, and what NK: The recommendations of NCF 2005 are changes have been made to curb these good, but its problem areas are implementation practices. Thus, I work on the premise that and training. As I have already told you, emphasis inter-disciplinary approach in teaching is one of should not be only on the technical aspect of a the prerequisites of language classes. language. The language curriculum should be such that it should directly or indirectly touch on different disciplines and subject areas such as VK: What is your opinion regarding language Sociology, Political Science, Philosophy, History, curriculum at various levels of schooling. Is it Natural Science, Mathematics, etc. relevant and interesting? NK: As far as Hindi is concerned, certain changes have been made. For example, at the VK: Thank you for sharing all this. higher secondary level, some relevant topics NK: Thank you for such a nice discussion. related to creative writing and journalism have been introduced. However, in the junior classes, Vijay Kumar, M.A. (Linguistics) and M.Phil (Library instead of including poetry or prose chapters and Information Science) from the University of written in archaic, older or different forms of Delhi, is a language and library science researcher the language, chapters written in the and activist. contemporary form of the language should be [email protected] included. Unnecessary emphasis on alankars and chhands in Hindi poetry at the junior level of schooling should be avoided.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 56 Landmarks

Chomsky’s Innateness Hypothesis: Implications for Language Learning and Teaching

Ayesha Kidwai

Noam Chomsky’s 1959 review of B. F. Skinner’s A) Adult: Where is that big piece of paper I Verbal Behavior is widely acknowledged as gave you yesterday? having sounded the death knell of behaviorist Child: Remember? I writed on it. approaches to human learning and knowledge, Adult: Oh, that’s right, don’t you have any and as paving the way for the ‘cognitive paper down here, buddy? revolution’ in the decades to follow. Over fifty years later, Chomsky’s remarks are not merely B) Child: Want other one spoon, Daddy of historical significance, as they are still relevant Adult: You mean, you want the other spoon. to the contours that an enquiry into human Child: Yes, I want other one spoon, please cognition and behavior must have. Daddy. At its most basic level, Chomsky’s critique of Adult: Can you say “the other spoon”? behaviorism claims that children’s first Child: Other … one … spoon language(s) acquisition is directed by the stimuli Adult: Say “other”. provided by adults through a reinforcement of Child: other casual observation and imitation by children. What Chomsky is suggesting in this early article Adult: “spoon” is that much of the child’s linguistic knowledge Child: spoon is expressed in contexts where no reinforcement Adult: “other … spoon” is ever available. As research has progressed Child: other … spoon. Now give me other in the area, a more complete picture of the one spoon. inaccuracy of the behaviorists’ fable has (Pinker, 1995, p. 281) emerged. Parents neither reinforce children’s The first set of dialogues (A) show that the grammatical utterances, nor pay any special reinforcement that a child gets, through parental attention to their grammatical wellformedness; agreement in this case, is for an ungrammatical and children also resist any attempts at utterance. Simply put, parents care more about correction. Furthermore, while children may well the meaning and truth of their children’s linguistic acts, than about their grammatical form. The imitate the linguistic utterances of adults, such exchange in (B) illustrates that while imitation imitation does not form the basis of the linguistic is something that a child may easily do, neither knowledge they put to use. The following two does she/he see the injunction to imitation as a sets of dialogues—which form part of research reinforcement behavior by the adult, nor does conducted after Chomsky’s review— she/he let the imitated utterance form the basis demonstrate this: of her own utterances.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 57 Add to this the fact that the nature of reinforcing the product of reinforcement, how is this behavior may itself be full of ‘noise’, as verbal knowledge ever arrived at? This is especially communication is full of false starts, stops, relevant when we consider the number of incomplete utterances, etc. If a child were to mistakes that children do not make. A simple rely on this flawed input as the basis for learning example is that of a phrase order in a sentence, language, the speed with which she/he acquires which in a language such as English is of the the basic grammar of her/his language would order of Agent-Action-Recipient-Object- be unexpected. Across languages, a normally Location. As Roger Brown observed in the developing child has a complete grasp of its rules 1970s, while the earliest utterances of children of sentence formation (syntax) by the time she in the age group 2-2.6 years conform to this is five. Beyond that age, even as children (and basic order, and the difference between their the adult) continue to learn new words and output and that of an adult lies mainly in the fact phrases, very little syntax learning needs to take that children’s outputs have more omissions. place; in fact, by the beginning of the teens, very little syntax learning can take place. An oft- These omissions can be due to a variety of mentioned example in this context is that of a factors, some acquisition-related factors and child named Genie, who was rescued from an others extra-grammatical. An example of the abusive father at the age of thirteen. Genie had latter is that children often allow the discourse been kept in an outhouse, chained to a potty context to do the talking as it were, so if an since the age of one, and while food was pushed object can be pointed to, they do not linguistically into the shed twice a day, she had never been represent it. For example, sentence (f) below spoken to by anyone. After her rescue, Genie could be accompanied by a pointing gesture to made rapid strides in cognitive development, but the object that is to be laid on the floor. A case her overall linguistic skills remained poor, and of grammatically-conditioned omission could she could never produce grammatical utterances however be made out for the systematic of even average length. omission of prepositions in the entire set of It is also rare for a child to hear ungrammatical examples – clearly the realization of prepositions sentences as part of the stimulus. However, if a as markers of spatial relations cannot be child’s knowledge of ‘ungrammaticality’ is also produced at this early stage of acquisition. (C) Agent Action Recipient Object Location (Mother gave John lunch in the kitchen.)

a. Mommy fix. b. Mommy pumpkin. c. Baby table. d. Give doggie. e. Put light. f. Put floor. g. I ride horsie. h. Tractor go floor. i. Give doggie paper. j. Put truck window. k. Adam put it box.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 58 In the examples above it will be noticed that in which environmental exposure stimulates an while the early utterances of children do not innate trait—for language acquisition suggests uniformly realize the full frame of Agent-Action- that this innate endowment is genetic, “spurred Recipient-Object-Location (as shown in the on by the unfolding of the genome during adult sentence Mother gave John lunch in the maturation” (Pinker, 1995) kitchen), they do have knowledge of the frame. Finally, if grammar is what this innate If they did not, then children should have been endowment must be, then this human cognitive equally likely to produce Mommy fix as well as ability is an instance of domain-specific fix Mommy to mean ‘Mommy fixed it’; however, intelligence, unrelated to the development of they do not. Similarly, if this frame were not general intelligence and cognitive abilities. available, we would expect that the children Research, both preceding and following would have used example (f) to describe an Chomsky’s (1959) Review has confirmed this event when the floor was being laid in a building in a number of ways. The human brain has (i.e., when the floor was interpreted as the circuitry in the left hemisphere exclusively for Object), but that was never the case – (f) was language, and there are a few inherited used when something was to be laid on the floor syndromes that target language alone. One such (i.e., the floor was location). syndrome is Specific Language Impairment Children also do not make certain mistakes that (SLI), which recent research has established they would be expected to make were they as genetic. SLI is a purely linguistic inherited generalizing from observed patterns. As Pinker disorder caused by mutation in the gene FOXP2. (1994) points out, if British/American English- Moreover, intact language has been found to speaking children were generalizing from coexist with severe retardation, as in the famous observed patterns, we would expect that on case of Christopher, who was born with observing the patterns in (D), they would utter hydrocephalic brain damage, and was severely the ungrammatical (Eii). However, British/ retarded, but had unique and prodigious language American English-speaking children never make abilities—he could read, write and communicate this mistake. in any of fifteen to twenty languages (Smith and Tsimpli, 1995). (D) (i) Irv drove the car into the garage. For language teachers of young children today, (ii) Irv drove the car. Chomsky’s nativist ideas point towards a profound question—how much of the innate (E) (i) Irv put the car into the garage. endowment is implicated in the construction of (ii) *Irv put the car. linguistic knowledge? Chomsky’s answer would be much along the same lines as his observations Since the 1970s, this line of reasoning has come in the Creation and Culture Conference in to be known as the ‘poverty of the stimulus’ Barcelona in November 1992: argument: Given that the data children receive Most problems of teaching are not problems of from the input is woefully underdetermined to growth but helping cultivate growth. … Typically, serve as the basis for language acquisition, and they come in interested, and the process of given that children nevertheless do acquire the education is a way of driving that defect out of grammar(s) of their native language(s), it must their minds. But if children[’s] [...] normal be that the child’s learning of language is guided interest is maintained or even aroused, they can by some form of innate linguistic capacity. The do all kinds of things in ways we don’t existence of a critical period—a window of time understand.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 59 It is therefore important to question whether the example, no textbook would ever attempt to methodology we employ assumes that first or explain the linguistic properties of the Hindi use second language learning is primarily graphic, of apne-aap, or the English themselves. In fact and that the process is deductive, requires rote many crucial properties of language are not the memorization, role playing and structure drilling, subject matter of lessons at all. Consider and stress habit formation as a means of Chomsky’s (1983) example of the kind of learning language. These are all behaviourist sophisticated knowledge that children must have assumptions. Teaching first or second languages to be able to process their parent’s utterances through grammar is not really teaching language (even before they can themselves produce at all, because what is taught is a system of prescriptive rules that linguists/grammarians similar ones): have come up with to describe a language. To Take the sentence “John believes he is tell students that they must not split an infinitive intelligent.” Okay, we all know that “he” can with an adverb is to teach an aesthetic choice— refer either to John or to someone else; so the i.e. the ‘correct’ form is not I want to quickly sentence is ambiguous. It can mean either tell you but I want to tell you quickly—because that John thinks he, John, is intelligent, or all native speakers of English actually agree that that someone else is intelligent. In contrast, both alternatives are grammatical. Teaching consider the sentence “John believes him to be young students the grammatical jargon for the intelligent.” Here, the pronoun “him” can’t refer form ‘I am reading” is the present progressive, to John; it can refer only to someone else. is not teaching language, but grammar, and while an appreciation of grammatical analysis is an Now, did anyone teach us this peculiarity about important aspect of learning, this is a English pronouns when we were children? It sophisticated skill and not suitable for very young would be hard to even imagine a training children. At the heart of our teaching must lie procedure that would convey such information the understanding that children already know to a person. Nevertheless, everybody knows it their first language, and that this knowledge can – knows it without experience, without training, be harnessed to acquiring other languages as and at quite an early age. well. Finally, while the focus on writing is crucial, The ‘Chomskyan revolution’ has had an it must not be at the cost of encouraging children important impact on language teaching to fully ‘activate’ their developing knowledge methodologies, particularly in the development of language, by learning new vocabulary (the of content-based communicative approaches. only aspect of language acquisition that carries These approaches make active learner on throughout one’s lifetime) and using all the participation the centrepiece of the activity, and syntactic constructions they have an innate competence in. aim at providing appropriate language input and Awareness of the innateness argument should increasing communicative competence. also enable us to critically evaluate the However, there are still many other fruits that instruments by which we teach language— remain to be picked. One of them is the textbooks, storybooks, readers, etc. While one implication that the Chomskyan revolution has can be misled into thinking that a particular lesson for mother tongue education and multilingual ‘teaches’ some aspect of language, quite often learning. the lesson’s content simply piggybacks on the Although we have not mentioned it thus far, the child’s tacit knowledge of language. For Chomskyan perspective argues that the innate

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 60 mechanism enables children to acquire as many References languages as there are in the input provided a Chomsky, N. (1959). A review of B.F. Skinner’s Verbal child’s environment. So, if a child has parents Behavior. Language, 35, 26-58. that speak to her in two languages, say Chomsky, N. (November 1983). Things no amount of Malayalam and Bangla, and her playmates and learning can teach, Noam Chomsky interviewed by other caregivers speak to her in Hindi, she will John Gliedman, Omni, 6, 11. No page numbers. acquire at least three languages in her childhood. Retrieved from http://www.chomsky.info/interviews/ By the time she is five, she will be roughly equally 198311—.htm on 14 December 2012. competent in all three (provided, of course, that Pinker, S. (1994). The language instinct. New York: the input is regular and use of all three languages Morrow. is not discouraged). It has been observed that Pinker, S. (1995). Language acquisition. Why the child once children start going to school, this incipient holded the baby rabbits: A case study in language acquisition. In L. R. Gleitman, M. Liberman, and D. multilingualism gets eroded, and some of the N. Osherson (eds.), An invitation to cognitive languages get restricted to the home domain, science. Volume 1: Language. pp. 107-133 Cambridge, often withering away. However, imagine a MA: MIT Press. school in which the languages of all children Smith, N. & Tsimpli, I. M. (1995). The mind of a were encouraged, where homework involved Savant: Language learning and modularity. Oxford: learning poetry in more than just one or two Blackwell. dominant languages, and where these other languages were brought to the classroom and Ayesha Kidwai (Ph D, Linguistics, JNU) is Associate shared. In that world, children’s cognitive Professor of Linguistics at JNU, Delhi. Her special development and linguistic creativity would areas of interest include linguistic theory, with develop more rapidly, and they would be more particular reference to generative syntax and aware of differences and the rights of others. morphology, philosophy of language, the politics of In such a scenario, even though education may English and language evolution. ultimately move in the direction of one or two [email protected] languages, the richness of the initial multilingual resource would ease the transition. In the world we live in, however, many, if not most, children are often educated in a language that they have never heard as the input. While this language could be English, it could also be a major regional language not spoken in their home environment. This imposes a tremendous cognitive burden on the child who is expected to gain ‘knowledge’ through a medium that she/ he does not comprehend. This creates a fundamental inequity between her/him and other children who do have access to the language of education, an inequity that cannot serve as the edifice on which true learning can be built.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 61 Book Reviews

Second Language and parameters to allow variation between Acquisition and natural languages (the ‘Verb-Complement Universal Grammar Parameter’ that allows languages to either have By Lydia White (2003). their objects to the right of the verb or to its Cambridge Textbooks in left). These principles and parameters have for Linguistics Series. long been argued to shape the linguistic Cambridge: Cambridge competence of native speakers of first languages University Press. (L1); they give the speakers the ability to build Paperback ISBN: grammars in the face of impoverished input data 9780521796477, pp. 316. in a surprisingly short duration, and without much explicit instruction. Not surprisingly, research into Reviewed by: Pritha Chandra L2 acquisition has also largely been directed by the objective of investigating whether or not UG Lydia White’s book is on interlanguage grammars mechanisms are at play in this domain. A second (ILGs) and the mechanisms used by second question concerns the extent of L1 grammar language learners in acquiring them. The mediation in learning the target L2. Since L2 concept of an ILG first came up in the 1970s. learners already possess the grammar of at least Researchers commonly held that ILGs are one adult language, it presents the potential risk systematic, with ‘errors’, that on closer probe, of intervention in the target (L2) language. turn out not to be random mistakes but The literature, as many second language rule-governed behavior. Therefore, while they researchers point out, is often unclear between appear to be beset by faults, these languages the roles given to UG and Language Acquisition have grammars just like other adult grammars. The second language (L2) speakers using them Device (LAD) in shaping linguistic competence. therefore have complex linguistic systems As White very succinctly points out, UG is a underlying their linguistic competence. theory relevant to the issue of linguistic competence, i.e., it is a theory on the nature of White takes the debate surrounding grammatical representations. It provides a interlanguage or L2 grammar representations a hypothesis space for grammars, i.e., it constrains little further. She suggests that ILGs are possible grammars in the course of acquisition. constrained by the principles and parameters of However, it is not a theory of acquisition. a Universal Grammar (UG). The principles and Unfortunately, many researchers incorrectly parameters model of grammar (Chomsky, 1981) assume it to be an equivalent to LAD. In builds on the premise that there is a specialized actuality, however, it is more appropriate to think module of human language in the brain of every of UG as just a part of an LDA or as a part of a normal infant. This module comprises a UG with inbuilt invariant principles (the requirement that language faculty. For language acquisition in lexical information of individual words must not general, and L2 acquisition in particular, we be lost while building structures using them, more therefore do not just require a theory of popularly known as the ‘Projection Principle’) constraints on IL representations, but also a

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 62 theory of development that would tell us how SLA researchers, White included, emphasize on those representations are acquired. the need to consider ILGs as a separate arena As for the role of UG, there is a lot of work on of study. In more explicit terms, this amounts to considering whether ILGs are natural language whether parameters are at use in L2 acquisition, systems, instead of merely comparing L2 as for instance the research into head position learners to native speakers of the L2. or the pro-drop phenomenon (i.e., subject-less Researchers have variously tried to argue that constructions) by White herself. There are if the focus in on properties of the ILGs, one broadly three approaches in this regard. The first may arrive at interesting results that show that is the ‘parameter (re)setting’ approach, where L2 learners arrive at grammars that account for researchers probe for instances of parameter the L2 input (though not in the same way as the (re)setting in ILGs, with a certain parameter grammar of the native speaker). The questions, depicting an early stage L1 value and a later then, are (a) whether the ILG is a ‘possible stage L2 value, with relevant clustering of grammar’ and (b) how learners arrive at these properties. The main idea of these works is that grammars in the face of impoverished data. while L1 settings prevail initially, subsequently Some researchers argue that L2 learners arrive they change into L2 settings. Then there is the at their target grammars using a completely ‘no parameter resetting’ hypothesis which states different set of analyses than L1 speakers of that L2 grammars are UG constrained, and fail the same language. To illustrate, while learning to reset parameters. According to yet another how to form questions, they do not use approach, L2 settings are attainable without prior displacement of the wh-phrases, instead opting adoption of L1 settings. for a base-generated analysis for them. L2 White’s work is a defense of the significant role learners, according to these authors, thus choose that UG plays in the formation of ILGs. She very different learning mechanisms from the illustrates with several ‘poverty of stimulus’ ones chosen by L1 speakers. cases, where the phenomena in question are In sum, White’s work is a defense of a nativist underdetermined by the L2 input and cannot be account for L2 learning. It is a very clear easily inferred by looking at frequency effects, exposition of theoretical assumptions and novel or learned on the basis of instruction, analogical empirical evidence indicating the significant role reasoning etc. It is also explicitly suggested that of innate mechanisms in language learning. In the phenomena under study work differently in recent years, a number of alternatives have been the L1 and L2 domains. The subtle and abstract proposed in opposition to Chomsky’s knowledge that L2 learners display is therefore ‘representational nativism, commonly known as not due to the knowledge of the L1 grammar ‘emergentism’ (see O’Grady 2010 for a alone. comprehensive survey). Contemporary emergentism often tries to explain linguistic It has previously been pointed out in Bley- development by reference to the operation of Vroman’s influential 1983 paper that “work on simple mechanisms (essentially inductive the linguistic description of learners’ languages generalizations) that extract statistical can be seriously hindered or sidetracked by a regularities from experience. White, while concern with the target language” (p. 2) and endorsing the view that language acquisition that “learner’s system is worthy of study in its mechanisms are not limited to innate biological own right, not just as a degenerate form of the principles, shows us how UG based studies can target system” (p. 4). Therefore, several UG/ lead us to a better understanding of language

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 63 learning. She also makes a very strong case for since ancient times. The debate about the why ILGs should be studied in their own right, correct method of teaching language is also old, instead of relating them to the adult native perhaps starting with the Greeks (Horrocks, grammars of the same languages. This study 2010). The modern world has seen various can therefore be considered as a landmark in waves of theories regarding language teaching the study of L2 learning. methods, the most traditional among them being the grammar translation method. The book, References “Advanced English Grammar: A Linguistic Bley-Vroman, R. (1983). The comparative fallacy in Approach” is the fruit of labour of two interlanguage studies: The case of systematicity. experienced teachers of English language who Language Learning, 33, 1-17. have tried to bridge the gap between traditional Chomsky, N. (1981). Lectures on government and method of teaching English, and a thoroughly binding. Dordrecht: Foris Publication. linguistic analysis of language. This was an O’Grady, W. (2010). Emergentism. In P. Hogan (Ed.), effort to make clear to the students “that there Cambridge encyclopedia of language sciences is a logical system underlying the rules they were (pp. 274-276). Cambridge: Cambridge University learning by rote memory”, which is apt for the Press. target population of this book, namely advanced learners of English. Pritha Chandra (PhD, Maryland) is an The book is neatly laid out in six chapters. After assistant professor in the Department of discussing the primary notions of various Humanities and Social Sciences at the IIT Delhi. grammatical forms and functions in the first She has wide range of teaching and research chapter, the authors move on to describe the experience in the areas of Theoretical Linguistics important notions in English grammar from a (Syntax) and Formal Semantics. She has linguistic analysis vantage point. An important presented several papers at various prestigious aspect of the design and choice of topics in this meetings in Linguistics. She has published book is that it discusses the relevant notions of several papers in reputed journals of Linguistics language structure that will help the student better too. grasp the concept rather than burden them with [email protected] linguistic theories and terminologies. The chapter on ‘Verb and its Compliments’ addresses some main basic notions of verb morphology in the Advanced English language, including the classification of verbs Grammar into lexical and auxiliary verbs, and the passive By Ilse Depraetere & and complement structure of verbs. ‘Nouns and Chad Langford (2012). the Noun Phrase’ (or the noun morphology) New Delhi: Bloomsbury covers the expected ground of modifiers, ISBN: 1441149317, determiners and subject-verb agreement. The 9781441149312, pp. 376 treatment of the ‘genitives and possessive Reviewed by: Bidisha Som determiners’ in this section is a welcome surprise, and has been dealt with clearly and with adequate examples. ‘Tense and aspect’ is Learning and teaching language as a cognitive discussed in a separate chapter in great detail. activity has been part of most literate societies A significant aspect of this chapter is that the

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 64 authors take care to show the relationship analysis of language. In addition, there is between time and tense, and the different type companion website to accompany the book, of mapping possible between them, such as from where users can download resources. present tense to talk about future time etc. In a clear departure from traditional approaches, the References book aims to teach the students that “choice of tense… follows from a few basic generalizations Horrocks, G. (2010). Greek: A history of its language related to how time is perceived in English”, and speakers. Malden, MA: Wiley Blackwell. referring to the underlying perceptual factors Wardhaugh, R. (2002). Understanding English responsible for language structures. ‘Modals and grammar: A linguistic approach, (2nd ed.). Modality’ is a detailed chapter; it discusses the Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. different ways to use modal verbs to communicate either epistemic or non-epistemic Bidisha Som (PhD, JNU) is an assistant meaning. The discussion brings out the equation professor in the Department of Humanities and of modal meaning with respect to temporal Social Sciences at the IIT Guwahati. She has reference and aspectual distinctions, thus taught various courses in linguistics. creating a holistic picture of the rules governing the function of verbs in this language. The last [email protected] chapter on discourse is short and crisp. At the end of the chapters, there are exercises on each Masti Ki Paathshala (in Hindi) chapter, which is of great use to the language teacher as these exercises can be used in By Kamalanand Jha (2009). classroom teaching as well as by the students New Delhi: Publication Department, Ministry themselves to sharpen their skills. of Information On the whole, this is a very welcome book that and fills a gap between traditional grammar approach Broadcasting, and pure linguistics analysis, and is written in a Government of style that steers clear of the intimidating prose India. of linguistic analysis and the prescriptive nature ISBN: 978-81- of traditional grammar. It is perhaps because of 230-1621-4, pp. the long teaching experience of the authors that 153. there is a conversational attitude in the writing Reviewed by: Parmanand Jha that can be expected to be student-friendly. Though the book is primarily addressed to the non-native learners of advanced level English, Stephen Spender, the celebrated British poet, in it could also prove useful for the native speakers his famous poem, ‘An Elementary School as a reference book, owing to the systematic Classroom in a Slum’, portrays, with down to analysis of the underlying rules of the language. earth realism, the depressing faces of school The idea of a nagging necessity of teaching children confined within the four walls of the language through linguistic theories is not entirely school classroom. On the room wall are the new, and books with this approach have been pictures of Shakespeare, the Tyrol Valley and a fruitfully engaged to fill the gaps (Wardhaugh, map of the world—all far removed from the 2002). All in all, this book provides the readers interests and concerns of the children coming with a refreshing viewpoint of the traditional from a socially and economically backward method of teaching English and a linguistic background, and whose world is represented by

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 65 the foggy world of slums. Spender concludes Jha favors attempts to encourage inquisitiveness the poem, emphasizing that education should help in children rather than disciplining them into these children re-establish contact with silence. In one of the chapters, Aadhunik nature and life. Kamalanand Jha’s Masti Ki Shiksha ka Nachiketa, Jha frankly admits that Paathshala not only vindicates Spender’s views education for children has become a source of to a considerable extent, but further examines boredom in place of an interesting and delightful various issues and concerns underlying school activity. When scoring marks becomes the education in India. Based on the personal be-all and end-all, the whole purpose of imparting experience of Jha’s stint as a school teacher, education is reduced to an exercise in futility. and his findings as a research scholar at JNU, Jha’s views are fully corroborated if one reads the book covers all the aspects of teaching school Anil Thakkar’s remarkable defense of the poor children. The fourteen chapters of the book, performance of Indian students in the 2009 divided equally into two parts, have a nice Program for International Student Assessment introduction. The first part focuses on issues such (PISA) on the grounds “that a standardized test as the relevance and role of course books, can produce any sort of objective picture of question-oriented education, self-image of students’ abilities is a ridiculous proposition.” teachers and students, cultural context of (Times of India: Counter View,7 September modern education and the role of children’s 2012). magazines. The second part of the book Cultural disconnect, according to Jha, has led to examines the challenges and relevance of a gnawing gap between tradition and homework, and suggests interesting methods of modernity—the biggest irony of modern teaching poetry, story, drama, essay, social education. Only by striking a balance between sciences and grammar. traditional and the modern strategies of teaching Course-Books, Jha believes, are fundamental can we make our education meaningful and to teaching but they should be child-oriented; relevant. Jha mentions educationists such as related to children’s lives and backgrounds; Gijubhai Badheka, Prakash Chandra Shukla, Anil completely free from communal, political or Sadgopal, Krishna Kumar and Rama Kant sectarian biases; and be taught by trained and Agnihotri, whose contributions to the field of competent teachers who understand the education have been significant and have psychology of children and rise above class and generated fruitful debates and discussions all caste contempt. Jha’s concern for a proper over the country. Books authored by them have training for teachers so that they may create helped tremendously in honing the skills of targeted support programs in schools for children teachers. Jha suggests three specific magazines coming from underprivileged backgrounds (Eklavya from Bhopal, and Primary Shishak stands vindicated by a recent survey conducted and Bharatiya Aadhunik Shiksha by NCERT) among more than a lakh of class 5 students in that may improve the standards of teaching 6602 schools across India under the aegis of substantially. The last chapter of the book NCERT. “After fairly exhaustive questions in condemns banning of books or portions thereof Mathematics, Environmental studies and due to vested interests, and strongly advocates language, it was found that the performance of a shift of marginalized materials to the centre. students from scheduled caste and scheduled Part 2 of the book begins with a realistic account tribe backgrounds was rather worse than that of the challenges faced in the teaching of Social of students occupying the general seats.” (The Sciences, and offers strategies to handle them. Telegraph, 14 September. 2012). History teaching, Jha holds, requires objectivity

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 66 and impartiality on the part of teachers who must Call for Papers also have a historical insight. Geography and Civics can be made more interesting by relating them to the children’s‘ immediate surroundings, Language and Language Teaching and through group activities and team work. Language and Language Teaching (LLT) is a peer-reviewed periodical. It is not an ELT While assigning homework, the teacher must periodical. It focuses on the theory and practice take note of the different levels of students in of language-teaching and English is only one of the same class. The next five chapters explore the languages one might consider. Since there innovative methods to make the teaching of are already many journals devoted to ELT, we poetry, short story, drama, essay and grammar particularly welcome articles dealing with other more interesting and delightful. Traditional languages. methods of teaching these genres have also Papers are invited for the forthcoming issues. been critically examined. Jha concludes by Please follow the Guidelines given in the current asserting that many of the old methods need to issue. The references must be complete in ALL be dispensed with in favour of new ones which respects, and must follow the APA style sheet. make the students stay connected and enjoy Papers may address any aspect of language or what they read. language-teaching. They MUST be written in a Masti ki Paathshala is indeed a seminal work, style that is easily accessible to school teachers, which presupposes that education grows out of, who are the primary target audience of this and is impacted by the socio-economic-cultural periodical. The articles may focus on the learner, environment. Education, as Stephen Spender teacher, materials, teacher training, learning says, should instill in students the spirit of environment, evaluation, or policy issues. freedom and enjoyment. Jha wants to add the Activities focusing on different languages are elements of fun and frolic in the teaching also invited. The article must be original and methodology so that we allow children to retain should not have been submitted for publication their childhood and learn the lessons anywhere else. A statement to this effect must simultaneously. be sent along with the article. No paper should exceed 2000 words Parmamand Jha (PhD, LNMU) is an associate including references and the bio-note of the professor and Head of the Department of contributor. The bio-note should not exceed English at the C M College, Darbhanga. Dr Jha 25 words. has a rich experience of teaching undergraduate Last date for the submission of articles: and graduate courses. January Issue: October 30 [email protected] July Issue: April 30 Articles may be submitted online simultaneously to the following email IDs: [email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

They may also be posted to: Vidya Bhawan Society Fatehpura, Udaipur 313004 Rajasthan, India

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 67 Suggested Readings

Vocabulary sections A and B deal with vocabulary in written By John Morgan and Mario Rinvolucri texts. Section A comprises exercises that draw ELBS (Educational the student’s attention to new or known Low-priced Books vocabulary, and offers a psychological reason Scheme) for reading. Section B lists exercises such as Oxford University guessing words in the target language from a Press, UK given context. Section C is concerned with the First Published: 1986 imagery of words, and the associative power of ELBS edition first image and gesture. Pictures, for example, can published: 1991 help in remembering words, and children can ISBN: 019442135X be asked to draw all the words related to a (Paperback) certain concept which can then be labeled. The basic idea being explored is that children tend Vocabulary is part of the ‘Resource Books for to remember things that they have created or Teacher’ series. It provides the teacher with a discovered for themselves. Section D deals with guide to some of the key concepts of language the set theory of words—why and how we teaching. Intended as a book for teachers of categorize words internally thematically in English as a foreign language, the book explores causative and/or temporal chains, through the process of vocabulary learning and suggests associations that derive from reading or clichés practical classroom activities that can help and prejudices. There are activities to explore learners acquire vocabulary. There is no linear word profiles, intelligence tests, unusual word divisioning as such in the book, and one section families, collocations, classifications, etc. Section can be read independently of the other. The E encourages the learner to explore personal sectioning follows the authors’ core underlying responses to words (‘power words’ for instance intuitions regarding the acquisition of that are important in view of the learner’s life vocabulary—that it is not linear but a branching experiences), while section F suggests ways in process; it is not an impersonal but an intensely which the dictionary can help in creative personal process; that it is not a solitary but a learning. From the point of vocabulary social process and finally, it is not a purely improvement, section G is crucial in that it gives intellectual/effortful process but an experiential novel as well as traditional ways of coping with and ‘hands on’ process. The book also gives vocabulary revisions. Apart from the traditional freedom to the teacher to plan lessons that bilingual ‘lists’ of words, there is also scope for reflect the required styles of activity rather than interactive learning of vocabulary from some follow any sort of progression within the text. of these exercises, which makes this book an The book is divided into seven sections of which extremely effective resource book for teachers.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 68 Language Teaching Games and Contests different games dealing with various aspects of language learning. Chapter 1 for instance By W. R. Lee proposes structure games that expose the learner Series title: Applied to the syntax of the target language. Also Linguistics and included are ‘guessing games’, which encourage Language Study learners to communicate what they think is the Oxford University right answer to the questions. These can be Press, UK learnt at an elementary level (example: yes/no answers), intermediate level (example: brushing First Published: 1979/ up vocabulary with here/there kind of answers), 1994 or advanced levels (example: conditionals/ Pages: 214 hypotheticals such as “I would visit…”, ISBN: 019 4327167 (Paperback) and tenses/reported speech). Likewise, Chapters 2 to 5 give various examples where vocabulary, spelling, pronunciation and numbers may be Language Teaching Games and Contests, learnt at an elementary, intermediate or now considered a classic, is designed for advanced levels. Chapters 6 and 7 may be effective and enjoyable learning of language. particularly useful in that they deal with Although it includes games for all age groups conventional listening and reading skills of and language levels, it is especially suited for language learners. The former includes games use with large classes. There are ten chapters that help in the recognition of oral commands, in all and each chapter begins with a short listening and communicating via storytelling/ introduction followed by an explanation of drawing etc, while Chapter 7 gives variants a game. The chapters have suitable titles: of games that help in responding to familiar ‘Structure games’, ‘Vocabulary games’, commands in an unfamiliar print medium, ‘Spelling games’, ‘Pronunciation games’, and facilitates word recognition, etc. Chapter 8 ‘Number games’, ‘Listen-and-do games’, introduces and thereby encourages meaningful ‘Read-and-do games’, ‘Games and writing’, writing practice through games (from elementary ‘Miming and role play’, ‘Language club games’ level games that familiarize learners with the and ‘Discussion games’. letter-shapes: A is like a hut, S like a snake, and An underlying tenet of the book is that a T like an umbrella; to advanced levels of language is learnt by using it in situations and sentence relay type of games). Finally, Chapters communicatively. Language teaching through 9-10 include games involving miming, role play games not only improves the performance of and discussion that ensure maximum class students (games are typically played to outstrip participation and enjoyment while learning. This another’s performance), but also proves handy book should be on the ‘must read’ list of enjoyable given the involvement of classmates. all teacher training programmes. An advantage of using language games is that often, these games distract the learners’ attention from the study of linguistic forms per Suranjana Barua, has a PhD in Linguistics from the se: “They stop thinking about the language and University of Delhi. She is currently working at instead use it, receptively or productively the Centre for Assamese Studies, Tezpur University, as a means of considering something else” Assam. Conversation/Discourse Analysis, Language Teaching, Gender Studies and Translation (p. 2-3). Repetition of successful and interesting Studies are her areas of interest. communication is an enjoyable and encouraging way of learning language. Each chapter suggests [email protected]

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 69 Meri Badi Kitab (in Hindi) Kapre, p. 137). These stories also have a wide By Franz Hohler range of how and why stories (such as Mendhak aur Toothpaste, p.152), etymological Translated in Hindi stories (such as Beemar Bahane ya Nursen, by Amrit Mehta p. 266), and a story with seven different endings Vani Prakashan, (Luhar aur Naanbai, p. 168) which compels Delhi children to analyse a situation and reflect on it. First published in Many of the stories in the collection have the 2009 quintessential Hohler feature of having a social Hindi edition 2012 relevance. They covertly focus on the problems of society (as in Shahar me Van ki Zameen, p. Pages: 316 253). Thus, Hohler’s stories are different from ISBN 978-93-5072-205-3 the kind of stories Indian children get to savour usually in terms of form, craft and content. Meri Badi Kitab—a collection of short stories Another attraction of the Hindi edition is the by Franz Hohler, the famous writer and cabaret artistically done original colour illustrations. performer from Switzerland—is a valuable While these stories are refreshingly enjoyable addition to children’s literature published in Hindi. for children, they also give them exposure to a Unfortunately, since writing for children has not different culture. In fact, these stories are also yet become a serious and viable business in India a good resource material for teachers to use in for authors and otherwise also, it lacks diversity the classroom. Given the fact that the book is of form, style and content. At the same time, bulky and the stories have different levels with children reading Hindi and other Indian regard to background knowledge (Maskhari, languages hardly get an exposure to world p. 258), abstraction (Srijan, p. 78, Ek Doosari literature (not even Raduga Publishers’ Hindi p. 80, Aadmi ka Baccha p. 268) etc., the titles from Russia, which used to be a staple teacher can pick and choose specific stories for diet for the previous generation). pleasure reading according to the level of the students. The stories in this collection, written originally in Swiss, have all the characteristics which mark Franz Hohler’s literature. His stories oscillate Mukul Priyadarshini, teaches in the B.El.Ed. between the real and the imaginary. They have programme at Miranda House, University of Delhi. She was associated with the preparation of the NCF a narrative that is often grounded in fantasy, but 2005, the language syllabi and Hindi textbooks of the fantasy in these stories is such that it will the elementary level at NCERT and SCERT, Delhi. fascinate even those readers who may not have Her areas of interest are language education, writings a particular liking for things intangible. This is for children and politics of language. because these stories are contextualized in the [email protected] real, everyday world. The fantasy in Hohler’s stories does not aim to mesmerize or mystify; it gives a subtle element of comic and humorous, e.g. a chimney visiting a doctor for sore throat (Saaf-Saaf Mamla, p. 155), or Mr. Tsogg’s clothes going to his office to attend duties when he refuses to get up on time (Mr. Tsogg’s ke

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 70 Classroom Activities

Activity 1: Dominos Fun Activity 2: Searching Spree Objectives Objectives • To build listening skills by hearing • To be able to use logical thinking and instructions; comprehension skills; • • To enrich vocabulary. Vocabulary enhancement. Materials Material • Picture cards of words and letters; • Worksheet attached herewith or another • Counters or Buttons or Dominos. similar one designed by you; • Crayons or counters; Scope: Group Activity for pre-primary classes • Letter cards. and classes 1-2.

Scope: Pre-primary and primary classes. Procedure • Divide the class into groups of five. Give Procedure each child in the group a counter. • Give one activity sheet to each child. • On each table, give 5-6 picture cards. Tell • Tell the children to look carefully at the faces the children that when they are shown a on this sheet. letter card, they have to quickly find the • In lower classes, they have to listen to the picture that starts with that letter, and keep name of that face and place the letter card the counter on it. For example, if you show with which the name starts on the picture the card for the letter ‘L’, the children should of that face. put the counter on the card of a lion, lamp, In higher classes, students have to choose the leopard, or whichever ‘L’ picture card is picture which is described by the teacher. For available on their table. example, identify Bill who has curly hair and a • The group which does this first for all the moustache. Or identify John who has a beard, letters is the winner. wears spectacles and has a centre parting in his hair. • For Classes 1 and 2: Picture cards can also be used to reinforce the concepts of synonyms and antonyms. The teacher Bhavna Tandon has been teaching primary classes shows the children some picture cards. The in DPS International School, R.K.Puram, New Delhi children have to put the counter on the for the past seven years. She also taught in Bal picture card which is the synonym/antonym Bharati School, Rohini, Delhi for five years. of the word card shown by the teacher. [email protected]

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 71 Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 72 Activity 3: Say only ‘yes’ or ‘no’ Now group B will choose an object from the Objectives centre of the room, and group A will try to guess its name. • To develop observational skills; The teacher may keep count of the number of • To develop the ability to classify; questions each group has asked. This makes • To enable children to think, and ask precise the activity more challenging for the groups as and accurate questions. the students try to think carefully in order to ask accurate and the least number of questions. For Material this they need: 25-30 objects of various shapes, thickness and 1) to observe carefully each object, including its materials (e.g. an eraser, scale, comb, folder, shape, colour, material, use, etc., in other words the properties of the objects. For example, the key, key rings, etc.) that one can easily find in student may ask questions such as ‘Is it made the school/classroom. of plastic? Is it round?’ etc. 2) to think about the usage of the object, e.g., is Scope: Young learners of classes 3-5 it used for keeping papers? Is it used for writing?’ etc. Procedure 3) to think about various categories of objects, Divide the class into two groups. Name the i.e. stationery, electronic, wooden material, etc.? groups (the names could be A and B). This activity may lead to learning outside of what Put all the objects in the centre of the class (or is described here. Conduct the activity in your at a suitable place) so that both the groups can classroom, and find out what happens. see all the objects. Now ask any one person from one of the groups, Rajni Dwivedi on behalf of Vidya Bhavan Resource say group ‘A’, to look at the objects carefully, Centre, Udaipur. and select any one object and write its name on [email protected] a piece of paper without disclosing it to any member of either group. This piece of paper is then handed over to the teacher. Activity 4: Writing Poems The other group, i.e. group ‘B’ has to guess the Objectives name of the object that has been written on the • To familiarize the learners with idiomatic piece of paper by asking questions to the expressions (in English) that include colour; teacher. There are certain conditions: • To enable the learners to write simple poems 1. They can ask a maximum of 10 questions in English. from group A. 2. All questions should be of ‘yes/no’ type, e.g. Material ‘Is it made of plastic?’ Informative questions A few objects that share the same colour, e.g., are not allowed. leaves, lady finger, broccoli (for green); 3. Similarly, direct questions such as ‘Is it a sunflower, lemon, picture of sun (for yellow). lock?’ or ‘Is it a rubber?’ are also not allowed. The group may/may not guess the name of the Scope: Individual activity for middle school object in ten questions. In case they are not able learners (Grade VI to VIII) for task 1 - ‘My to guess the name, the other group takes a turn. Colour’ poem.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 73 Procedure USP: The above-mentioned task encourages • The teacher takes a few similarly coloured learners to write a poem independently. Poem- writing, in this task, is a step-by-step procedure. objects to the class, and asks the students It takes the learners from controlled writing to to name the colour of the objects. He/she guided writing, and then from guided to free also asks them to name a few other objects writing. The task aims at nurturing the creativity associated with that colour. of learners by giving their imagination a free • The teacher then asks the students to think rein. of a colour of their choice, and write the names of different objects associated with Activity 5: Rhyme in line that colour. He/she encourages the learners Objectives to write in the following pattern: ‘As (name • To enable the learners to create a string of of colour) as a (name of object)’. similar sounding words (rhyming words) in Examples: As red as a tomato; as red as a English; letter box; as red as blood etc. • To enable the learners to write a poem in • The teacher narrates a poem based on the English, using rhyme as a poetic device. above examples to give the learners an idea Material of how to write a poem using a colour, and A few folded slips of paper (each slip must have the objects associated with it. a word written on it), shuffled together. Skill involved: Group writing Red is the tomato Scope: Middle school learners (Grade VI to that I relish eating VIII) in my salad; Procedure • The teacher divides the class into groups of Red is the letter box 5-6 learners each. that helps me reach • The teacher picks up a slip from the bunch my distant relatives; of shuffled slips, opens it and reads aloud the word written on it. She then utters 3-4 Red is the blood words that rhyme with the word on the slip. that flows freely Example: in my veins. o Word: night o Rhyming words: bright, white, light, • The teacher asks students to write a poem height, might, tight, flight (in English) based on their favourite colour • The learners of each group are asked to and the objects associated with that colour. follow the teacher’s example. A member The students may name their poems ‘My from each group picks up a slip, reads out green colour poem’, ‘My red colour poem’ the word to her/his group. The members of and so on. (The students may draw pictures the group discuss and write down words related to their poem, or write them on a that rhyme with the announced word. The poster. The teacher can put up the work on teacher helps the learners wherever the notice board to encourage the learners.) necessary.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 74 • Once all the learners have completed writing Activity 6: Playing with meaning a set of rhyming words, the teacher Introduction encourages them to make small sentences Reading is the ability to decode and make using the words at the end of the sentences. meaning. There is a difference between making The sentences are then clubbed together meaning from a word, a sentence, or a group of cohesively to make a small poem. The teacher uses the words in the ‘night’ sentences, popularly called, ‘textual meaning’. example and makes up a poem to help the A text can be oral or written. Irrespective of its learners understand the idea better. form, a text consists of sentences with a thread running through them that binds them. The thread Example: is called cohesion and it refers to the relation of meaning that exists within the text. In fact, the technical meaning of the term cohesion is the The sun was shining bright relation of meanings that exist within the text. It occurs when interpretation of some elements In came the light of the text depends on another element. In a I woke up, brushed my teeth white classroom, generally, the word meaning as well Then, went on the roof to fly a kite as the sentence meaning is taught. It is often assumed that textual meaning is a combination My kite reached great height of meanings of sentences put together, and so it Happily, I went to bed at night. need not be taught explicitly. An explicit teaching of textual meaning is however necessary for more effective literacy and for enhancing the 5. Each group writes a poem/poems using level of awareness of the language itself (called similar sounding words (to the word in their slip) metalinguistic awareness). The following activity in a cohesive manner to make a poem. The represents a basic level of cohesion. teacher asks the groups to share their poems Objective with the rest of the class either by reading them The objective of the activity is to explicitly teach aloud, or by writing them on a paper for the textual meaning. display board. Scope: This game can be used with any class USP: In the above mentioned task, learners from 5 to 7. The complexity of the passage write poems in a progressive manner in a group. needs to be increased for higher classes. Encouraging writing in a ‘step-by-step’ manner Procedure removes the fear of creative writing from the • A text is given which has several blanks. minds of the learners. Tasks performed in groups Students have to fill in the blanks from the enable and motivate even the shy or weaker list of options given. learners to listen and learn from the quick • Give the following instructions to students: learners. • This is a small story with several blanks Manu Gulati, TGT English in Sarvodaya Kanya numbered 1, 2, 3, etc. Vidyalaya, Panjabi Bagh, New Delhi • A set of options numbered 1, 2, 3, etc., is [email protected] also given.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 75 • Fill in each blank selecting from the Outcomes corresponding set of options. To illustrate, • Students will be able to define the meaning blank number 1 has to be filled in by selecting the answers from option number of textual meaning; 1, blank number 2 with options from 2 etc. • Students will be able to identify places where • Caution: Ensure that you do not mix up the textual meaning is violated, and understand numbers in the blanks and the numbers in reason for it. the options. Tips for teachers for creating the stories • You are free to select any word/phrase from the list of options as long as you do not mix • Create five to six identical texts using up the blank numbers and the option different options. Ensure that the texts are numbers. the same. • No answer is right or wrong; they are either • Remove all the options and place them appropriate or inappropriate. together in accordance with their blanks • After filling in the options, read through the For example, text with blanks: story to make sure that it makes sense. ,d ekg igys Option I tc eSa Option 2 vkSj Extension activities Option 3 eq>s yxk fd Option 4 ’kk;n rqeus • Encourage the students to play with igys dHkh vuqHko fd;k gks eq>s Option 5 vkSj different options and then read through the Option 6 Option 7 passage to see if it makes sense, identify ,glkl gqvk fd eq>s tks esjk spaces where it does not make sense, and fe= gS] mlus eq>s ,d fnu iwoZ Option 8 ls discuss the reasons. tqM+h Option9 fd leL;k ds ckjs esa crk;k Fkk • Encourage the students to play with the eSa Option10 FkksM+k ijs’kku Fkk vpkud ls sentences in the text by substituting the Option 11 ns[kk Option 12 vkSj eSaus rqEgsa blds words and phrases. ckjs esa crkus dk fu.kZ; fy;kA

Option I Option 2 Option 3 Option 4

• ,d v¡/ksjh rwQkuh • 'kgj esa Fkk • Q+ksu ij ckr dj • eSa eqlhcr gw¡ jkr esa • ?kj ij Fkk jgk@jgh Fkh • dksbZ eq>s ns[k • ,d vthc ?kVuk esjs • xf.kr fd d{kk • iwjh [kk jgk@jgh jgk gS lkFk gqbZ esa Fkk Fkk@Fkh • dqN Bhd ugha • D;k gqvk • ?kj ds ihNokM+s • vius cky lq[kk gS • rqe ;dhu ugha esa Fkk jgk@jgh Fkk@Fkh • dksbZ cncw vk djksxs • jlksbZ esa Fkk • iSny py jgk@jgh jgh gS • D;k gqvk lquks • gksVy esa Fkk Fkk@Fkh • eSaus ?kM+h ugha • vk/kh uhan esa Fkk@Fkh iguh gS • vkbuk ns[k jgk@jgh • eSa ,d NksVk Fkk@Fkh cPpk gw¡A • cSBk gqvk Fkk@Fkh

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 76 Option 5 Option 6 Option 7 Option 8

• vpkud Mj • dksbZ fu.kZ; ysuk gksxk Write your friend’s • iqfyl yxk • dqN djuk gksxk name • lM+d ds • [kq'kh gqbZ • Luku?kj tkuk gksxk dqÙks • Hk; yxk • lkus tkuk gksxk • iz/kkukpk;Z • cgqr vPNk • vius ckyksa dks tYn • ek¡ yxk lq[kkuk gksxk • firk • fdlh dks cqykuk gksxk • fdlh • lp dk irk yxkuk vifjfpr gksxkA

Option 9 Option 10 Option 11 Option 12 Write another • mUgsa ysdj • esjh vk¡[kksa us • ,d Hk;kud lp friend’s name • mls ysdj • eSaus vkbZus esa • ,d dqÙks dks HkkSadrs ns[kk • ;g lksp dj • eSaus nhokj ij • ml lp dks ftls eSa fy[kk ns[kkA ut+jvankt dj jgk Fkk • eSaus isM+ ds ihNs • ml O;fDr dks ns[kk ftls • njokt+s ls fdlh eSa ns[kuk pkgrk Fkk dks vkrs ns[kk • viuh ek¡ dks • ,d cqjs LoIu dks

Devaki Lakshminarayan leads the Azim Premji University Research Centre. Before joining the Foundation, she was working with Central Institute of Indian Languages, Mysore for over 20 years. She possesses a Doctoral Degree in Psychology from the University of Mysore and Masters in Linguistics, from Groningen University, The Netherlands. [email protected]

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 77 Reports Workshop on Material Development June 25-30, 2012

Suneeta Mishra

Background Objectives The Sansarg group comprises a team of people The sessions of the workshop were planned in working together on different aspects of such a way that ‘Material Development’ was education ranging from theatre to teacher not seen as a solitary process, unrelated to the education. In collaboration with University basic philosophical and psychological tenets of School Resource Network (USRN), the team the teaching-learning process. Another has successfully created a functional network underlying objective was to counter the between schools, teachers, education colleges prevalent notion of material being limited to something concrete, as well as limited by the and the Department of Education (CIE) of the particular pedagogy areas. With these University of Delhi, an outcome of which is a objectives, the sessions were basically of three series of material development workshops in the kinds: 1) Theory-based (discussions around past few years. These workshops focus on NCF, CCE, etc.); 2) Activity-based (material understanding the use of the current material, development); and 3) Review and analysis (film- as well as developing new material for screening, material review, etc.).These sessions pedagogical use in schools. The material were not restricted to any specific category. developed in these workshops has been ‘tried’ in some schools that were part of the USRN project. It is theme-based and most of these Sessions themes cater more to the areas of Language Day one began with the participants sharing and Environmental Studies. previous teaching experiences, along with the resource material/teaching aids used by them. This six-day workshop on Material The discussion brought out many assumptions Development, conducted at District Institute of and expectations that the teaching-learning Education and Training (DIET), Daryaganj from process is based on. This was followed by a 25 to 30 June 2012, was a continuation of the discussion on some of the basic tenets of the previous workshops but with a more focused NCF, such as ‘local to global’, ‘home language goal—reviewing the material developed till date, to school language’, ‘spiralling of curriculum’, and improving upon it. During the course of the etc., along with an understanding of a broader workshop there were numerous discussions on concept framework. Finally, there was a ‘hands- the theoretical foundations of material use in on’ session where the participants took up classrooms, particularly in light of NCF 2005 different pedagogical themes/areas and worked and the syllabus based on it. The participants in pairs to chalk out a lesson plan and select the included trainee teachers from various courses appropriate material required for it, based on such as B El Ed, DIET and ETE. the discussion.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 78 This discussion, anchored in the link between purpose of story-telling, enactment, or theory and practice, continued on the second dramatization of various concepts. day as well. Day two also included debates on Picking up on the previous day’s discussion on the components of CCE, and the scope of the the use of masks, the role of material in use of material other than just paper and pencil, motivating students was explored further on day in the CCE system of assessment. five. There were debates on how various The Arts faculty of DIET, Daryaganj conducted materials could reduce the negative competitive a session in which the participants learned how spirit between students, and lead to healthy group to use paper, pencil and paint as powerful tools work and peer-learning. The experiences shared to represent abstract ideas. by the participants brought up once again the Day three and four were mostly spent in the differences between assessment and evaluation review of existing material that had been in CCE. Participants discussed the tasks and developed in the earlier Sansarg workshops. The activities that could be used for assessment participants made presentations on the gaps in within the teaching-learning process rather than the existing material, and how these could be designing tasks especially for evaluation. Thus, eliminated by adding more content. The sharing the difference between assessment and of material review brought up many interesting evaluation was also addressed. issues and ideas that helped to enrich it further. On the last day, a film was screened, and For instance, many participants, while reflecting feedback on the workshop was collected from on the language used in some of the stories taken the participants. The film, entitled ‘A teacher’s as material for various themes, changed it to journey’, was based on the life of a school more a child-friendly and familiar language. teacher in a rural, single-teacher school. It They also included the addition of local language presented the struggles faced by the teacher in words wherever possible. In some text-based handling multigrade classes without much material, participants even added pictures. support from the system, and the gradual Different types of writing -descriptive, analytical, success in developing effective ways of dealing narrative, etc. were also discussed, keeping in with the situation. The post-screening discussion mind the basic philosophy of considering reading centred on the effectiveness of locally-available, and writing a medium of learning rather than cost-effective material; use of childrens’ skills to be learnt separately. knowledge and repertoire as resources; positive use of peer-learning in a multigrade class; and On the fourth day, the Science faculty and the the integration of knowledge across different Principal of DIET, Daryaganj, jointly subject areas. demonstrated how a simple, workable Science kit could be developed out of waste material. Participants prepared a pool of material that Feedback and suggestions for future could be used effectively in the teaching of endeavours scientific concepts, and developed easily by the The feedback and suggestions from the students themselves. participants provided a valuable learning The Arts faculty from DIET, Daryaganj experience for the Sansarg team. A large conducted a session on mask-making from number of participants suggested sharing the ‘papier mâché’ and plaster of paris. This was material that they develop in their teacher- followed by a discussion on how masks could education courses, across colleges where be used as a resource in classrooms for the Sansarg could provide a common platform and

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 79 space. Participants from Jamia expressed the Proceedings need for more workshops, particularly those The workshop began by a brief introduction of related to language pedagogy, and the screening the guest experts, Prof Rama Kant Agnihotri, of films pertaining to educational and social renowned linguist and Prof A L Khanna (both issues. Some participants asked for a focused formerly at University of Delhi). It was followed workshop on major educational psychologists by the introduction of participants wherein they such as Piaget, Vygotsky and Bruner. were also asked to mention the language/ languages they knew. More importantly, the Suneeta Mishra, M.Phil. (Linguistics), teaches at the participants also mentioned what they expected Institute of Home Economics, University of Delhi, from these types of workshops and the kind of Delhi. She has written this on the behalf of the Sansarg difficulties they faced in language and in its Group. teaching. It was also reiterated by the experts [email protected] that the workshop was not on Hindi language but on language and on language teaching. Workshop on Language and Language Multilingualism is natural and inseparable was Teaching in Schools at SCERT, Patna evident in the introductory session of the July 19-21, 2012 workshop when attendees mentioned their ability to write and speak these languages - Hindi, Amresh Chandra English, Sanskrit, Bhojpuri , Magahi , Angika, Bangla, Urdu, Punjabi, Maithali, Santhali, Introduction Himachali, Vajjika etc. It reflected that generally A workshop on language and language teaching one person knows more than one language and in schools was held from 19 to 21 July 2012 at multilingualism is quite natural. This factual the SCERT, Patna campus. It was organized revelation emphatically underlined the fact that by SCERT in collaboration with Vidya Bhawan all countries of the world are multilingual. There Society, Udaipur. It was attended by the faculty is no regional language but there is a region of members of DIETs and Primary Teacher language. The other things which prominently Training colleges, people from Gyanshala, team surfaced in the introductory session were the members of Vidya Bhawan, faculty members mistakes a child normally commits in matra, of SCERT and an education specialist from varna, ucharan (pronunciation), linga UNICEF. (gender).To them these mistakes are due to The purpose of the workshop was to present to environment, society they are/ were in. They the language teachers a platform on language were also willing to know mechanism to teaching that was innovative, in tune to innate overcome these problems. and natural ability of the child (however, it also focused holistically on the entire gamut of the After the completion of the introductory session, learning process of the child at the school level). a sheet was given to each participant containing The event was unique in the sense that for the 10 statements about different aspects of first time, teacher educators and all other language. A few are reproduced below: participants got opportunities to think on different 1. Hindi is not the national language of India. dimensions of language and its teaching process 2. India has over 1500 languages. in the schools that till date are largely archaic and not willing to give ‘space’ to the child in the 3. There are 18 languages in the 8th schedule whole activity. of the Indian constitution.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 80 Some of the statements seemed to test CCCV = i.e., the cluster of consonental sounds information but through these statements an that could appear in word initial position. They attempt was made to assess the conceptual soon figured out that C1 could only be ‘s’ and thinking of the attendees on language. The paper C2 = ‘p, t or k’ and C3 = ‘y, r, l, w’. was not meant to gauge the knowledge level of Second day of the workshop started with the the participants; contrary to it, it was aimed at feedback of the participants. In it, attendees understanding opinion, attitude, views and were asked to highlight their take on previous thinking process of participants on language and day’s proceedings and what new they had learnt. its teaching process in the schools. Responses In the first session, it was underlined that the of the participants reflected their understanding science of language looks at - SAC i.e., on the status of language, constitutional Structure, Acquisition and Change. There is a provisions for languages, evolution of Indian certain structure of language, there is process languages, status of Sanskrit (people generally of acquisition and on temporal basis there is consider it the mother of Indo-European change in it. The other thing figured prominently languages of the world; Sanskrit is actually in the session was subtle evolution of ‘R’. For mother of only Indo-Aryan languages), status example, ‘R’of mar is without swar [vowel] but of Hindi language in the country, learning with swar in ram etc. process of language of a child. Most of the Prof. Agnihotri did not subscribe to the common participants were not aware that Hindi is not notion of the people that there is linkage between our national language. This exercise was done one’s ability to learn language and one’s ability to get the wider perspective of the attendees on to hear/listen and speak it. Use of sign language different dimensions of languages and role of is a testimony to this fact. He also opined that if societal, political and historical factors in the government can afford availability of recognition and status of languages. Emphatic infrastructure to schools then a large number of attention was drawn on multilingualism and a physically challenged, deaf and dumb children reminder that the constitutive feature of India is could get access to education heterogeneity of language, religion and culture and this unique feature supports and hastens In the post lunch session of the last day, he drew rather than retards the process of learning some universal rules on the basis of some language/ languages. sentences. After their responses, Prof Agnihotri outlined the rules regarding a) Person, Number The concluding session of the first day and Gender (PNG) of Verb and b) rules concentrated on the structure of words. regarding the agreement between verbs, subjects Participants were asked to write some words and objects. of different languages in Roman script and were asked to think on what could be said on this On the last day of the workshop, it was firmly basis. Taking into account the views of the stated that the meaning of a word is not innately attendees, Prof Agnihotri underlined the fact that (by origin) linked to its form; it can vary with script has nothing to do with language and all place. Structure of language is intricate and languages of the world could be written in one complex, and a child understands these script. It was also shown that words in English complexities without any external help. Against and most Indian languages follow the structure the misconception of the participants, he of CVCV (C = consonant, V = vowel) and it reiterated the fact that existence of language is was also suggested that approximately 98% not possible without grammar and the latter does languages of the world follow this structure. The not contradict the former. There is no slavery in participants also tried to examine the rules for language and it knows no boundary.

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 81 The concluding session of the workshop emphasized the need to apply these things at Forthcoming the target level (schools) and at the teacher educator level. Language teachers who are Events looking for more effective and interesting ways to teach language/languages left this three day workshop with many practical ideas that they January 2013 could apply in their classrooms to enliven their International Conference on Empowering lessons/ class. They gained confidence about the English Language Classroom helping their students learn the seemingly Dates: January 18-19, 2013 difficult things with great ease and scientific base, particularly in language. The workshop Deadline for abstracts/proposals: 15 created grounds to assist in addressing the November 2012 continuing need to provide professional Organization: Malaviya National Institute of development opportunities that enhance the Technology, Jaipur teaching skills of language teachers in Bihar’s The conference will focus on significant issues schools and in the training colleges. The related to English Language Teaching in the workshop’s emphasis on “What a child knows technology-dominated academic and before coming/joining to school” tried to bring professional environment, and will also explore in the issue to the fore that a child knows many modern pedagogical approaches which can things (including language structure) before she empower the teacher in the English Language enters the school premises. Classroom. http://www.mnit.ac.in/new/cms/uploads/2012/ Amresh Chandra (PhD, JNU, New Delhi) works in 10 Vidya Bhawan Education Resource Centre, Patna. Brochure_International_Conference_Jan.18_- His interest in language stems from his father, who spent time with eminent scholars such as Hajari 19,_2013_.pdf Prasad Dwivedi and Ramchandra Shukla, both of Contact person: Dr Preeti Bhatt and Mrs Nanny whom have greatly influenced Amresh. Tripathi [email protected] IAIRS: International Conference on English Language and Literature (ICELL - 2013) Dates: 19-20 January 2013 Organization: International Academic and Industrial Solutions (IAIRS) Location: The Golkonda Hotel, Hyderabad, A.P, India Registration: 25 December 2012 Website: http://www.iairs.org/eng_hyd/ ENGLISH.html Contact person: Conference Secretary

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 82 February 2013 invited for publication in the GSTF Journal of Confluence: The 4th Annual International Law and Social Sciences (JLSS) (Print ISSN: Conference on Teaching and Learning 2251-2853, E-periodical: 2251-2861) which is English as a Second Language indexed by EBSCO, CrossRef, ProQuest, Dates: 22-23 February 2013 Ulrichsweb and Cabell’s Directories. Location: Nagpur, India Best Paper Awards and Best Student Paper Last date for submission of abstracts: 15 Awards will be conferred at the conference (in December 2012 order to qualify for the award, the paper must Last date for submission of full papers: 15 be presented at the conference). L3-2013 will January 2013 also constitute a Special Panel Session. Panel Proposals are invited for submission to Enquiries: [email protected] the L3 2013. A minimum of three papers centring Web address: http:// on a specific topic will be accepted for www.confluenceindia.co.in submission under Panel Category. Website: http://www.l3-conference.org March 2013 Contact person: Penny Jing 3rd International English Language Teacher Educator Conference July 2013 Dates: 16-18 March 2013 ECLL 2013 - The European Conference on Language Learning Conference Organization: British Council, EFL-U (English and Foreign Languages University), ELTAI Dates: 18-21 July 2013 (English Language Teachers’ Association of Deadline for abstracts/proposals: 1 March 2013 India) and IATEFL (International Association Conference Theme: “Shifting Paradigms: for Teachers of English as a Foreign Language) Informed Responses” Location: Hyderabad International Convention Location: Brighton, United Kingdom Centre, Hyderabad, India Organization: IAFOR (International Academic Forum) June 2013 Publishing Opportunities: Authors of accepted 2nd Annual International Conference on abstracts will have the opportunity of publishing Language, Literature and Linguistics their associated paper in the official conference (L3-2013) proceedings, and a selection of papers will be Dates: 17-18 June 2013 considered for inclusion in the IAFOR Journal of Language Learning. For more information Organization: Global Science and Technology about IAFOR journals, go to http:// Forum (GSTF) www.iafor.org/journal.html. Location: Singapore Website: http://ecll.iafor.org/index.html The Conference Proceedings (Print ISSN: 2251- Contact person: Mr Kiyoshi Mana 3566, E-Periodical ISSN: 2251-3574) will be indexed by EBSCO, CrossRef, ProQuest, and Ulrichsweb, and will be submitted to Scopus, ScienceDirect and Cabell’s Directories amongst Haobam Basantarani is Ph.D. Linguistics, others,where applicable. Osmania University, Hyderabad and is Depending on their importance, originality, interested in Sociolinguistics and Applied quality, relevance and other editorial Linguistics. considerations, eligible research articles will be [email protected]

Language and Language Teaching Volume 2 Number 1 January 2013 83

Developing Leaders Azim Premji University for Social Change Masters’ Programmes in Education and in Development: 2013 – 15 Azim Premji University is committed to developing leaders in Education and in Development, who are passionate, aware and capable. Our students experience a vibrant learning environment with: • Effective integration of theory and practice that informs the curriculum, learning processes and institutional design • Deeply committed faculty group of leading academicians and field practitioners in education and development • Challenging yet supportive culture of inquiry and discovery w ith strong cross disciplinary exposure that builds skills, fosters perspectives and develops sensitivity to social issues Applications i nvited from working professionals & fresh graduates to Masters’ Programmes 2013-15

Master of Arts in Education: 2 Years

A post-graduate degree that prepares competent and passionate professionals for the Indian education sector. The curriculum aims for conceptual rigour and practical understanding of the various disciplines that contribute to education studies. Students may choose to specialize in areas likeCurriculum & Pedagogy or School Leadership & Management or alternatively pursue a balanced general programme . Master of Arts in Development : 2 Years India needs a large number of professionals who understand the challenges of development and are eager to contribute meaningfully. The programme is inter-disciplinary and has a strong field practice component that builds on a thorough understanding of the Indian social, political and economic context. Students have the opportunity to pursue a balanced general programme or specialize in areas such as: Public Policy, Livelihoods, Health & Nutrition or Law & Governance. The University Grants Commission (UGC) has endorsed the degree programmes under Section 22F.

ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA such organizations to create career opportunities for M.A. (Education) and M.A. (Development): students through campu s andoff- campus placements. Bachelor’s Degree in any discipline. Candidates with work experience are actively encouraged to apply to Azim Premji Foundation itself plans to recruit both these programmes. over 3000 people over the next 5 years. Students of the University will have the opportunity to be CAREER OPPORTUNITIES & PLACEMENT considered for employment at the Foundation in the SUPPORT final semester of their programme. In addition the Foundation will consider candidates with at least India’s quest for inclusive development is rapidly 2 years of work experience for employment at the creating and expanding opportunities for specialized time of admissions, if they have an interest. Selected talent in the social sector. This is driven by large candidates can join the Foundation on successful scale government interventions and increasing Civil completion of their University programme. Society, NGO and corporate engagements. Renewed focus on improving school education is creating a demand for people with expertise in various areas FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE of education e.g. teacher education, curriculum Educational Loans: available for all students to & pedagogy, education leadership. Equally, other cover partial/full tuition fees and living expenses. critical areas of human development (e.g. health, Support for loan repayment is offered to students livelihoods, ecology, governance) need very large who join the social sector or pursue higher education numbers of capable and committed professionals. in related domains. Scholarships: available for students who meet the Students can look forward to a variety of roles in economic eligibility criteria. organisations engaged in grass roots level work, Additional financial support: available for academia, policy think tanks, politics, government working professionals, in a few specific cases, programmes, multilateral agencies, corporate who are working in the not-for-profit sector (min. social responsibility functions of companies, funding 2 years of work experience). Financial assistance organisations, social entrepreneurship and media. schemes may also be available for other working The University’s Placement Cell works with many professionals based on eligibility criteria. APPLICATION PROCEDURE Selection based on national written test at 36 centres across India on Sunday, February 24, 2013 and personal interviews. Further details are available on the University website. Last date for receipt of completed application forms February 8, 2013. Azim Premji University, Pixel Park, B Block, PES Institute of Technology Campus, Electronic City, Hosur Road (Beside NICE Road), Bangalore 560100 Toll Free No: 1800 266 2001 E mail: [email protected] Website: www.azimpremjiuniversity.edu.in Facebook: www.facebook.com/azimpremjiuniversity YouTube: www.youtube.com/AzimPremjiUniversity Towards a just, equitable, humane and sustainable society INSIDE Articles Interview Landmarks Book Reviews Suggested Readings Classroom Activities Reports Forthcoming Events

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