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FEATURE

CORAL REEFS AND : A CRITICAL AND THREATENED RELATIONSHIP

By J.E. Maragos, M.P. Crosby and J.W. McManus

THE IMPORTANCEOF may dramatically increased negative and synergistic im- be seen in their numerous ecological, aesthetic, pacts from poorly managed anthropogenic activi- economic, and cultural functions. and barrier ties. Globally, are now working together reef islanders recognize that healthy reefs are es- and with other groups to promote assessment, mon- sential for the support, creation, and repair of the itoring, other research, protection, and restoration coral on which they live. Coral reefs also of coral reefs. Establishment of manage- protect coastlines from shoreline and serve ment initiatives at the local community, national, as a living pantry for the subsistence harvest and and regional levels are essential for long-term sus- consumption of many reef organisms. The cycle of tainable use and conservation of these critically im- reef accretion and erosion maintains and portant . The focus of these initiatives provides for and . should be on assisting culturally, economically, and Coral reefs are important recreational resources for politically diverse peoples around the world in their most of the worlds people having the privilege of development of integrated coastal zone manage- The ability of coral living near them. In the modern era, coral reefs ment with emphasis on local community involve- passes and channels provide safe chan- ment and leadership. reef ecosystems to nels for boats, and harbors are often sighted on Introduction exist in balanced har- reefs because they provide natural protection from Most of what we have learned about coral reefs heavy wave action. Coral reefs are fast becoming mony with other natu- has been gathered by scientists during the past 150 the main attraction fbr visitors to many tropical is- , beginning with and James rally occurring land and coastal destinations. Coral reefs are also D. Dana in the mid-19th century (Darwin, 1842: the favorite sites of many governments and devel- competing/limiting Dana, 1872). Darwin first postulated that the subsi- opers for construction materials, and reef rock is dence of volcanic islands can result in the evolu- physicochemical and mined in many countries to provide stone tion of fringing reefs to barrier reefs and and building materials. Few aspects of these activi- (Fig. 1, a-d). Dana, as geologist aboard the U.S. biological agents has ties, especially modern uses, are beneficial to reefs, Exploring Expedition (1838-1842) which circum- and scientists and other reef users are beginning to been severely chal- navigated the globe, was able to publish the first realize that coral reefs are fragile and are now definitive global distribution of coral reefs. He also lenged in the last threatened in many areas in the world from chronic addressed some of the major factors--the need for anthropogenic reef disturbance. The ability of coral several decades by warm (generally >21°C) and reef ecosystems to exist in balanced harmony with light--that contribute to vigorous reef growth and the dramatically other naturally occurring competing/limiting described more of than any other physicochemical and biological agents has been se- increased negative beforehand or afterward, Other pioneering verely challenged in the last several decades by the reef scientists through the early twentieth century and synergistic included Stanley Gardiner, Alexander Agassiz, Al- impacts from poorly fred Mayor, Thomas Vaughan, Maurice Yonge, J.E. Maragos, Program on Environment. East West Center, and Cyril Crossland. Important earlier expeditions managed anthro- Honolulu. HI, USA. M.P. Crosby, and Coastal Re- and laboratories focusing on coral reefs research source Management, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Ad- pogenic activities, ministration, 1305 East West Highway, Rm. 11437, Silver occurred on , the , the , MD 20910, USA. J.W. McManus, Coastal & Coral , and in . The more recent use of Reef Resource Systems Program, International Center for Liv- drilling equipment, , scuba equipment, ing Aquatic Resources Management. Manila, modern laboratory equipment, and other technolog- (ICLARM #1247). All correspondence should be directed to M.P. Crosby. This manuscript reflects the opinions of the au- ical innovations ushered in the era of modern coral thors and is not meant to represent the official policy of any reef research and inquiry, beginning with works of government agency. John Wells, Joshua Tracey, and Harry Ladd, and

OCF.XNOOaAP~Y°~OI.9, No. 1o1996 83 co-workers on several atolls in the causes the islands {or continental ) to shrink beginning in the 1940s, and with Thomas Goreau, in size, leaving a gap (the ) between the off- in Jamaica, beginning in the late 1950s. Drilling reel and shoreline. If island subsi- expeditions to (in ), in 1898 and dence continues to be gradual, allowing upward Enewetak (in the Marshalls) in the 1940s and early reel growth, the volcanic island eventually disap- 1950s revealed that present day atolls have sus- pears and is buried under accumulating lagoon tained continuous upward reef growth of tip to , creating an atoll with perilneter coral _>1,000 m over periods of 50 million years or more. reefs surrounding a lagoon. Secondary reefs also Coral reefs are accumulations of the biogenous form in the of barrier reel's and atolls in- remains of carbonate secreting reel" organisms-- cluding pinnacles, patch reefs, and lagoon fringing Not only is the both and animals that formed in warm tropi- reefs around islands. Passes often cut through - cal (and in some cases, semitropical) . The rier and atoll reefs allowing exchange of lagoon coral reef structure principal reef builders are referred to as "'her- and ocean , and natural channels often serve itself composed of matypic" corals. These corals exist in a symbiotic as gaps along fringing reefs where and relationship with microscopic unicellular sufficiently to discourage reel" and built by a diver- know as -." The coral-algal symbi- growth. otic association aids the formation of massive reefs Living healthy coral reefs (i.e., Fig. _,'~ a-e) ~,,en- sity of organisms, but because of the unique advantages of the associa- erally grow upward and outward (or seaward) the reef structure tion. The symbiotic algae are protected in the tis- from the subinerged slopes of islands, continents, sues of the coral animals that are themselves pro- or older reefs, and are able to thrive in nutrient- serves as the basis tected by highly specialized stinging cells, the poor transparent oceanic waters. If reef growth for one of the highest nematocysts. These animals can also depend on the reaches level, then only outward growth is algae lbr most or all of their food supply, whereas possible because the marine organisms forming diversity ecosystems the algae can depend on the animals lk)r nutrients coral reefs cannot normally live above mean low in the world . . . and for . This symbi- tidal levels. Continuous periods of outward reef otic relationship is widely believed to greatly in- growth creates reel" flats. The inner portions of crease calcification and improve energy and nutri- progressively wider reef fiats begin to accumulate ent between the animals and the plants, and other sediments that eventually may be allowing more rapid coral growth and the corre- transported to shore to form the white sand sponding opportunity for more rapid reef growth. beaches that characterize many coral reef . However, the exact of this relationship has However, the seaward slope and upper edge of the recently been questioned (Marshall, 1996L reef fiat usually supports the principal populations The coral reef structure itself is a thin venecr of of diverse reef-building organisms--corals, cal- living reef organisms that overlays the remains of careous/encrusting/, and sometimes generations of progressively older reef organisms. mollusks. The diversity of reef-building organisms In fact, most of the major coral reefs observed contributing carbonate materials to coral today are living veneers that have covered previ- reefs also includes , sand producing ously existing substrates only within the hist green and , and foraminiferans, with 10,000 years. The accumulations are cemented to- worm tubes, barnacles, and other skeletal remains gether to form wave-resistant structures, capable sometimes adding to the bulk of reef structures. of continued growth in the face of heavy and pre- vailing wave action and currents, especially akmg Coral Reef Biodiversity and Importance seaward reef slopes. Not all tropical coasts are Not only is the coral reef structure itself com- able to support coral reefs. Active volcanic islands posed of and built by, a diversity of organisms, but or continental coasts may be too inhospitable or the reef structure serves as the basis for one of the unstable for corals and other reef organisms to set- highest diversity ecosystems in the world (Talbot, tie and grow. If the shorelines of islands and other 1994). Coral reef ecosystems generally have high coasts are either sinking or emerging too quickly, species diversity, although many associated then it is not possible for large reel" structures and species tend to exhibit low endemism and broad wide reef flats to form. Coastlines subjected to distributions (Norse, 1993). The coral species heavy sedimentation, freshwater flooding, or ex- alone range from >48 in the (Goreau cessive and wave action often do not sup- and Wells. 1967) to >700 in the lndo-Pacific port structural coral reefs. Isolated reef communi- (Wells, 1957: Veron, 1986). When speaking of bi- ties, banks, or patch reefs may be capable of ological diversity, it is indeed appropriate to refer forming in these areas, especially offshore of to coral reef ecosystems as the rain forests of the many large islands and continental coastlines marine realm. Coral reefs have far greater produc- where they sometimes occur only as submerged tivity than other marine systems, surpassing 7,000 reefs. During periods of gradual of vol- g C in : yr ~ (Odum et al., 1959; Helfrich and canic islands, flinging reefs may become barrier Townsley, 1965). Reef , sea urchins, reef',,, if they are able to maintain upward growth to coralline algae, and many additional species of keep pace with subsidence (Fig. 1). Subsidence phmts and animals contribute to healthy reef

;44 OCk,\NOGRAPHY.VoI. 9, No. ] • [ 996 __ i ¸ ¸ iiiil

b

Fig. l: Hlustration of the process by which volcanic eruption (a), followed by periods of gradual subsi- dence of volcanic isand (b), can result in the evolu- tion of fringing reefs (e). to barrier reefs" (d) and atoll,; (e).

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e ecosystems and play a significant role in helping global database on coral reefs being compiled at maintain the resilience, stability, and accelerated the International Center for Living Aquatic Re- coral reef recovery following natural and anthro- sources Management in the Philippines. Produc- tive fisheries also occur in the southern pogenic disturbances. Coralline algae are ex- is tremely robust and help cement large chunks of (Fouda, 1995). Mangroves and seagrasses associ- coral and other reef remains together to form very ated with coral reefs are widely distributed the center of biodi- hard and wave-resistant reef structures. Fishes, sea throughout the region, and seagrasses attain their versity for the reefs urchins, and other graze down growths greatest development in the Red Sea, attributed to of fleshy algae or , allowing both reef- wider and shallower shelves. An excellent recent of the world and con- building corals and coralline algae to flourish and review of the status of South Asian (, maintain reef growth and overall health. Chagos, India, , Pakistan, and ) tains about one-third Diversity of reef-building corals and other reef coral reefs is White and Rajasuriya (1995). As of the world's coral organisms tends to diminish in an east to west di- with other coral reef regions dominated by conti- rection across the tropical latitudes of the Indian nental coastlines, coral reef growth in reefs. Ocean; however, the Red Sea supports higher lev- is inhibited by massive freshwater and els of species diversity than any Eastern Indian inputs from large rivers and by cold in Ocean region. Figure 3 illustrates the global distri- the north. bution of reef-building coral genera, whereas Fig- Southeast Asia is the center of biodiversity for ure 4 illustrates the global distribution of >6,000 the reefs of the world (Fig. 3) and contains about coral reefs recorded to date in "ReefBase," the one-third of the world's coral reefs. Recent re-

OCEANOGRAPHY'Vo[.9, No. 1°1996 85 a b

c d

Fig. 2: Examples of healthy coral reefs. (a) Kaho'olawe Island, , USA (R. Kosaki). (b) Fagatele National Marine Sanc- tuary, American Samoa, USA (H. Hudson). (c) Keys National Marine Sanctuary, USA (H. Hudson). (d) Red Sea Marine Peace Park, , Jordan 'Mohamed A1-Momany). (e) Kona, Hawaii, USA (R. Kosaki).

views of the status of these reefs are found in Mc- cific. For example, there are -48-70 species of Manus (1988) and anonymous (1995). Although reef-building corals (depending on definitions) in surprisingly little is known about the numbers and the Caribbean, whereas in the Philippines there are distributions of most coral reef species, existing >90 genera and >400 species. The diversity differ- information indicates that Southeast Asia tends to ence with East and the Red Sea tends to be have perhaps four to six times as many species in much less with Southeast Asia having only per- a given group (, corals, gastropods, bivalves) haps two to four times more species in a given as the Caribbean and peripheral areas of the Pa- group (Fig. 3). The Pacific region is so large, that

86 'VoI.9, No. 1,1996 most islands and reefs have never been visited by reef scientists. However, some tropical Pacific coral reef ecosystems are documented to contain >1,300 species of reef fishes (Kulbicki, 1992). Most coral reef studies have taken place near the -20 urban centers in the region (Smith 1995; Maragos and Holthus 1996). The incredible diversity of organisms found as- sociated with coral reefs also holds great promise Fig. 3: Map of the diversity and global distribution of reef building coral for improving the quality of life for the human genera, illustrating the highest number of genera to be in eastern Southeast species. In the ever evolving field of biotechnol- Asia (re-drawn from Veron, 1993). ogy, chemical extracts derived from coral reef as- sociated and have been indicated to have potent anti-viral activity (NSTC, 1995). In addition, several and species ders. Hence a global perspective is important for all nations to take when addressing threats to coral found in coral reef ecosystems are capable of pro- Not only are coral ducing terpenes, a broad of aromatic com- reefs. reef ecosystems an pounds used in solvents and perfumes and known Threats to Coral Reefs to deter feeding by fish. Extracts derived from Coral reefs first formed along the original con- important resource in these same species have also demonstrated power- tinent of Pangaea 300 million years ago, even be- ful insecticidal activity against grasshoppers and fore the continents themselves began to drift apart terms of their biologi- the tobacco hornworm (Cardellina, 1986). and move to their present configurations (Veron, cal diversity and pro- and other species of New Caledonian reef coral 1986). The resilience of modern coral reefs is have been used as bone grafts for people requiring manifested by their continuous survival and ex- ductivity, they are maxillofacial and cranial surgery (Roux et al., pansion during the Pleistocene, a period of several also the foundations 1988), and pieces of Gorgonian corals have also major rises and fall of . In fact, virtually been used successfully (Lopez et al., 1989). all of the major coral reefs observed today grew of coastal protection, Not only are coral reef ecosystems an important 100 m during the past 10,000 years, as sea level , and subsis- resource in terms of their biological diversity and began to rise at the end of the last glacial age. , they are also the foundations of Thus for over millions of years, coral reefs have tence economies and coastal protection, tourism, and subsistence shown remarkable power of resiliency and adapta- in many areas serve economies and in many areas serve as focal points tions to environmental changes. However, the abil- for cultural and community heritage. On the Great ity of coral reef ecosystems to exist in balanced as focal points for Barrier Reef, the visitor and resort industries annu- harmony with other naturally occurring compet- ally gross over one billion a in revenues. ing/limiting physicochemical and biological agents cultural and commu- Using the United States as an example: has been severely challenged in the last several nity heritage. • In all U.S. coral reef areas, reefs are the basis decades by the dramatically increased negative for most tourism and most tourism develop- ment, accounting for billions of dollars in con- struction and sales annually. The reef tract is a primary attraction that draws an estimated 2 million tourists to the Keys, with a direct revenue impact approaching $800 million (1990 figures); • In American Samoa, coral reefs play a central role in all aspects of traditional culture, from land tenure to diet. Reefs account for >50% of all fish caught locally; and • For and the Northern Mariana Islands, which lie in the track of "Typhoon Alley," reefs provide protection from extraordinary ocean ac- tion that would otherwise devastate whole com- munities and result in the expenditure of tens of billions of dollars in federal disaster assistance. The transboundary influences both to and from coral reef ecosystems are not limited by political boundaries. Just as ocean currents are potential Fig. 4: Map of the global distribution of >6,000 coral reefs recorded to date carriers of pollutants from one country to another, in "ReefBase," the global database on coral reefs being compiled at the In- larval and adult life stages of coral reef organisms ternational Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management in the Philip- may travel from reef to reef across national bor- pines.

OCEANOGRAPHY'VoI.9, No. 1,1996 87 and synergistic impacts from poorly managed an- islands to poach rare species of giant clams, which thropogenic activities. are thought by some Asians to have aphrodisiacal Natural and biogenic erosion of the carbonate properties. Many sea turtles are also illegally har- rock structure of coral reefs is constantly occurring vested for their shell to fuel the bekko jewelry from wave action, currents, and the feeding and trade in the Asian markets. Other sea turtles are boring activities of fish, algae, mollusks, and harvested for their meat and eggs for subsistence worms. In long-living reefs, carbonate accretion or sale, particularly at the fewer remaining remote usually outpaces coral reef erosion, resulting in net resting beaches. , pearl shell, trochus, reef growth. However, a variety of natural factors conch, and coconut are also heavily depleted may prevent net reef growth, especially prolonged for commercial trade. Remote atolls and sub- periods of adverse conditions, such as cold and ex- merged shallow reefs attract more than their share treme high temperatures, storm activity, - of shipwrecks, oil spills, and groundings: many are quakes, lava flows or excessive or tiny and nearly invisible beyond a few kilometers, fall such as the sea level functions occurring dur- and navigation charts in remote areas are not as ing the glacial and interglacial ages. The advent of accurate. The frequent occurrence of coral bleach- anthropogenic stresses or threats to coral reefs can ing on many reefs in recent years and increased also disrupt coral reef survival and growth, result- emissions are leading many scien- ing in net erosion and deterioration of reef struc- tists to believe that global may tures. The synergistic effects of natural and anthro- lead to further coastal degradation and damage to pogenic disturbances may exacerbate adverse coral reefs from flooding, sea level rise, and in- effects to coral reefs. creased incidence and intensity of . Al- The synergistic The major documented impacts to coral reefs though linking a "greenhouse" effect to coral are occurring near urban areas, and the reasons are bleaching is controversial, recent remote sensing effects of natural and simple. Lands are cleared for housing, agriculture, studies of sea surface temperatures by the U.S, anthropogenic distur- livestock , and other development, eroding National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration soils and resulting in sedimentation and runoff to (A. Strong, personal communication) and others bances may exacer- coral reefs. Coastal construction for harbors, shore (see Scielu'e 270, 919) seem to demonstrate corre- bate adverse effects protection, causeways, channels, airfields, roads, lations between elevated and re- and building materials are also located near urban cent bleaching events in . to coral reefs. centers. and industrial discharges are also Photographic vignettes of many of the anthro- concentrated, and edible reef species are more pogenic threats now degrading coral reefs on a heavily harvested and depleted. Huge tracts of worldwide basis are presented in Figure 5. Tables mangroves have been converted to . 1-4 present a compilation of the major threats to Popular recreational reef areas are trampled by coral reef ecosystems around the world. The fol- waders, smashed by anchors, and harvested by lowing sections are brief overviews of these shell and coral collectors. It should therefore be of threats, region by region. no surprise that most reef destruction and damage is chronic and occurring in such centers. Further- Atlantic and Caribbean more, most research facilities, colleges, and uni- Storms, , earthquakes, , and dis- versities in the tropics are also located in popula- ease are the major natural disturbances to the At- tion centers. Hence the damage and destruction is lantic and Caribbean coral reefs, but recovery from also documented primarily by scientists living in major hurricanes in recent years has been unusu- such centers, and their research is supported by the ally slow (Woodley, 1995). Significant impacts to political will and financial support that are also coral reefs have resulted from white-band disease, more concentrated in these locations. Non-point which affects , and from the mass source , , alien species mortality of the long-spined Diadema from aquaculture schemes, oil spills, and ship antillarum (a grazing ) in 1983, which groundings also occur more often near population led to excessive growths of benthic algae that centers. Many critically important reefs are now in competed for space against stony corals. Several need of intervention to arrest further degradation episodes of since 1987 have led and to apply restrictive measures. However, reef some scientists to believe the warm water temper- restoration is expensive, and there are few proven atures and possibly increases in ultra-violet radia- technologies available (Maragos, 1992). tion triggered the responses (see above). Mass Coral reefs are also being degraded at an alarm- mortality of the Diadema, first seen off the ing rate in more remote areas, although documen- Caribbean coast of Panama, has been attributed to tation and evidence is less extensive. Destructive a pathogen carried through the Panama . practices such as the use of dynamite, poi- Thus in both cases, there appears to be a strong sons, and illegal gear is often conducted beyond link to the activities of humans (Woodley, 1995). the watchful eye of concerned governments and Moreover, stress from other causes (see next para- residents. Foreign fishing boats illegally land on graph) may make corals more susceptible to dis- sparsely inhabited or uninhabited atolls and coral eases or bleaching.

88 O('E-\NO(;RAPHY'Vo].9, No. 1"1996 Other anthropogenic impacts to coral reefs are mining are widely practiced in the Maldives, and much more closely linked to the very dense popu- tourism impacts are on the rise including coastal lations of humans that surround most of the coral construction. Most coral reefs in Sri Lanka have reefs in the of Mexico and Caribbean. The been severely degraded by human-induced damage principal threats include 1 ) runoff of sediment, nu- and crown-of-thorns infestations. Major an- trients, freshwater, and other pollutants caused by thropogenic stresses include sedimentation from deforestation, farming, urbanization: 2) coastal , coral mining, oil pollution, destructive construction and industrial activities that con- fishing practices, , and overuse of reefs tribute comparable discharges and populations: 3) in tourism areas (White and Rajasuriya 1995). overfishing and destructive that have reduced populations of key predators and Southeast Asia~East Asia herbivores on reefs shifting the ecological balance: The threats to reefs in this area have been sum- 4) mining of corals: and 5) overuse of many reefs marized by Gomez (19801, and Gomez by tourists and recreationists including damage ( 19851, McManus (19881, and others. Most of the from souvenir collection, boat-anchoring, and perturbations and stresses described elsewhere in diver contact. Depletion of herbivorous fish from this paper are found here in great frequency. Jamaican reefs following the mass die off of Di- Coastlines of Vietnam, southern China, the Philip- adema has had devastating impacts on coral reefs pines, the region of Malaysia, and much of and demonstrates the catastrophic damage that can are packed with rapidly growing popula- result when chronic anthropogenic impacts are su- tions of coastal fishers and associated villagers, perimposed on natural disturbances such as hurri- Because fringing reefs are often easily accessible canes (Hughes, 1994: Woodley, 1995). Recent and can be harvested with very little initial capital, polls of observers across the Caribbean reported they generally tend to support large number of coral reef and associated fisheries degradation in very poor fishers and gathers. The range of verte- 14 of 22 countries by Rogers (1985) and 8 of 13 brates, invertebrates, and plants being harvested is by Smith and Ogden (1993). large and growing, such that in Bolinao, Philip- pines. >350 species appear in the markets each Mi~hlle East Seas and East Afi'ica year (McManus et al., 1992). The markets tend to The principal threats to coral reefs in the west- have minimal or no ice, as is often true of boats ern /East Africa region include l) delivering fish to sell, and a substantial amount of pollution from land-based activities: 2) pollution Depletion of herbiv- fish and invertebrates are lost too spoilage (Santos from maritime transport, especially oil pollution; 1988: McManus et al., 19921. Where they existed orous fish from 3) exploitation of living resources: 4) coral and historically, traditional systems of fishing and sand mining for construction purposes: 5) dredg- Jamaican reefs fol- gathering restrictions have become revised, modi- ing and filling operations; 6) tourism-related activ- fied by western concepts of land ownership, made ities: and 7) natural disasters, especially hurri- lowing the mass die complex and dynamic, or abandoned entirely canes, which cause excessive flooding, (Lopez 1985: Ferret 1991: McManus et al., 1992). off of Diadema has , and wave damage (Fouda, 1995). In In many areas, reef shorelines have been settled by the Middle-Eastern Seas, the major threats to reefs had devastating migrants from various areas, such that fishers con- stem from 1) urbanization and tourism, 2) oil ex- stitute a mixture of cultural groups speaking four impacts on coral ploitation and transport, and 3) industrial pollution or five languages in a single municipality (Mc- and sewage discharges. Population growth and reefs and demon- Manus and Chua 1990: McManus et tt]., 19921. tourism is increasing throughout the region. This may lead to difficulty in attempts to conduct strates the cata- Degradation of coral reefs is also occurring frorn local coral reef awareness programs. heavy souvenir collection {Fouda, 1995). There is strophic damage that All of this tends to heighten feelings of despera- also increasing evidence of increased damage to tion in resource use, and a trend toward increasing reefs from predation by sea urchins and crown-of can result when acceptance of fishing gears that are illegal, cultur- thorns starfish (Glynn 1993; Salm 1993: Fouda ally unacceptable, and even dangerous to the users. chronic anthropogenic 1995L Other natural disturbances to reefs result This condition is known as "'Malthusian overfish- from temperature extremes, , flooding impacts are superim- ing'" because of its relationship to the problem of and silt discharges, and . diminishing resource availability in the face of posed on natural dis- South Asian Re~irm rapid economic growth as identified by Thoxnas turbances such as Threats to coral reefs in the South Asia region Malthus in the 18th century (Pauly etal., 1989: include 1 ) military activities and coastal construc- Pauly 1990; McManus et al., 1992: McManus hurricanes. tion ( in Chagos), 2) heavy exploita- 1996). Problems such as , tish- tion of all salable reef resources (Indian mainland), ing, and the use of dangerous air compressors by 3) various types of pollution including oil pollution deep-diving spearlishers are becoming increasingly and industrial discharges (, Palk common throughout the more crowded coasts of Bay), 4) coral mining {India, Sri Lanka), and 5) the region. Additionally, muro-ami fishing, in sedimentation (most mainland fringing reels). Sou- which tens or hundreds of people drive fish into venir collection, heavy net fishing, and coral rock nets by bouncing at the ends of ropes on

Oct. \'~o(;p,\puY-Vol. 9. No. 1ol996 89 c d

Fig. 5: Photographic vignettes of many of the anthropogenic threats now degrading coral reeJk on a worldwide basis (All credit,; to J. Maragos, except 51 to S. Frisk). (a) Refuse disposal on urban atolls and reefs in Tawara, . (b) Results of live coral being dredged in Pohnpei, Federated States of Microne- sia can be seen of the left of this photograph next to live coral on the right. (c) Nutrients from a secondary treatment lagoon outfall stimulate the growth of the bottom algae Dictyosphaesia, which is seen here growing up and over live coral colonies of the endemic in Kaneohe Bay, Hawaii, USA. (d) Villagers in , Indonesia drying out piles of coral that was later burned in kilns to convert the coral carbanate to lime (calcium oxide). (e) A delta of sediment overlaying coral habitats is evidence of the enormous sediment discharges from poor land management (in this case pineapple and sugarcane agricul- tural practices and overgrazing of steep slopes by goats, sheep, and deer in Molokai, Hawaii, USA). (f) beds completely razed by persistent use of explosives for fishing in Ujung Pandang reef in

90 OCEANOGRAPHY-Vo|. 9, No. 1-1996 Indonesia. (g) Alien mariculture species (such as this red algae Eucheuma introduced to Hawaii from the Philippines) may cause ecological nightmares as they spread through and overgrow coral reefs. (h) Overuse and defacing of coral reefs at tourism sites as seen in Efate, Vanuatu, are the result of lack of ed- Many, if not most, ucation and awareness. (i) The unprecedented impacts to coral reefs in the 1940s and 1950s from nuclear testing can still be seen in this 1986 photograph in the bottom of Bravo Crater at Bikini in the Marshall Is- reefs next to coastal lands. (j) Coral bleaching, such as seen in this at St. John, U.S. Virgin Islands, is thought to be villages are becoming caused by elevated temperature and may be more lethal in combination with other anthropogenic stres- sors. (k) Construction impacts, such as this airfield construction in Okat, Island, Federated States increasingly over- of , can destroy enormous areas of coral reef (l) Ship groundings, such as seen by the result of grown with algae, a collision on a lO0-yr-old brain coral in the Florida Keys, can also be extremely harmful to coral reefs. which interferes with coral growth and coralline substrates, is a problem in the Philippines highly porous, such that groundwater flows often and adjacent waters (McManus 1996). virtually unimpeded through interlinked caves. inhibits the settlement Fringing reefs are often adjacent to lands This lack of filtration means that waste materials formed from raised, ancient reefs. This land is from the crowded coastal villages, even when de- of new corals.

OCEANOGRAPHY'Vo|.9, No. 1o1996 91 1 A compilation of the major threats to coral reef ecosystems in Atlantic and Caribbean

Number of Protected Govermnent Types of Reefs Threats to Reel", Reefs

Anguilla Fringing, barrier, comm. A, D, I, O 1 Antigua & Barbuda Fringing, barrier, comm. A, D, O, R, V, 1, 2 I Bahamas Fringing, barrier, comm., atoll A, D. O, R, 1, 2, 3, 4 5 Fringing, comm., barrier C, D, G, P, S, T. 1.4 1 Belize Fringing, large barrier, comm., 3 atoll A, C, O. R, S, T. U, I, 4 2 Bermuda Fringing, barrier A, C, D, P, O. T, V, 1,2, 4 2 Brazil Cont.. fringing, comm., atoll D, l, R, S, T, U, I, 2, 3.4 2 British Virgins Comm., fringing, barrier, coral A, C, D. H, I, M, O. P, S, U, V I Caymans Coral, fringing, lagoon A, D, M, O. P, R, S, T, U, V, 1,4 24 E. Columbia Several comm., cont., fl'inging, atolls, A, C, E, G. H, O. P. R, S, T, V 2 barrier E. Costa Rica Comm., fringing C, H, O, P, R, S, T, U, 3, 4 2 Cuba Comm., flinging, barrier, atoll C, D, I. M. R. V 1 Dominica Comm., flinging H, 1, O, R, S, 1 {I Comm.. fringing, barrier D, E, G. H, 1, M, O, P, R, S, T, U, 1 2 Grenada Comm., fringing, barrier C, D. G, H. O, S, U, I. 2 1 Comm., flinging, barrier C, D. G, H. 1, M, O, P, R, S, T, V, I. 2 0 Haiti Comm.. fringing, barrier I, O, R. S, 4 0 Honduras Comm., fringing, barrier A, C, P, S. T, 1 0 Jamaica Comm., fringing, barrier A, D. F, O, P. R, S, T, U, V, 1.2.3, 4 2 Martinique Comm., fringing, barrier C, I, O, P, R, S, T, 1, 3, 4 0 Mexico Cont., comm., fringing, barrier, atoll D, H, l, O, P, R, S, T, U, V, I, 4 4 Monterrat & St. Kins Nervis Comm., fringing, barrier M, O, R, T, 1 0 Netherlands Antilles Comm., fl-inging, barrier A, C, D. E, H. 1, M, O, P, R, S, T, U, V, 1.3, 4 2 Nicaragua Comm.. fringing, barrier S 0 E. Panama Comm., fringing C, F, G, H, O. P, S, V. 2.3, 4 I Puerto Rico Subm., comm., fringing, barrier A, B, C. D, E, H. I, M, O, P, R. S, T, V, I. 3, 4 0 St. Lucia Comm., flinging, patch A, C. D, E, M, O, R, T, U, I. 3, 4 I St. Martin & St. Barthelemy Comm., fringing, barrier M, P, R, U 1 St. Vincint Comm., flinging, barrier H, P, R 0 Trinidad & Comm.. fi'inging, patch, barrier A, C. O, R, S, U, 1, 2, 3 I Turks & Caicos Comm., fringing, barrier C, D, H, M, O, P. R, S, T, V 0 U.S.A. Atlantic/Gulf Coast Cont., comm., patch, /barrier & A, C, D, E, G. H, 1, O, P. R, T, V, 1, 2, 3, 4 6 one pseudo-atoll U.S. Virgins Comm., fringing, barrier A, C, E, H. I, M. O, P. R, S, T, U, V, I, 2.3, 4 2 Cont., comm., fringing, barrier, atolls H, I, O, P, S. T, V, 3, 4 3 West Africa Cont., communities No information ?

Tables I-4: Summary inl'ormation on the coral reefs of the world including reef types, natural and anthropogenic stresses, and number of protected areas, subdivided into four regions (After UNEP/IUCN 1088 and various other sources). Explanation of reef terms: comnl., communio', nonstructural reefs, only communities present: deep. submerged or deep shelf reefs: fi'inging, fringing reefs around volcanic coasts: coral, fringing reefs around coral islands: harrier, barrier reefs off volcanic coasts or islands: atoll atoll reef: cont., ('ontinenta[. bank reefs off continental coasts: other, reefs other than above. Explanation of symbols for Natural Threats to reefs: I, troplcal cyclones, storms: 2, disease: 3. coral bleaching/El Nino: 4, sea urchin die off: 5, starfish predation: 6. flooding/heavy rains: 7, cold temperatures: 8, lo,s : 9, heavy wave action: 10. volcanic Excessive sedimen- eruptions: 11. earthquakes: 12. : 13, emergence: 14, submergence (subm.). tation from deforesta- Explanation of symbols for Anthr(q?oqcnic Threats to coral reefs: A, anchor damage: B, bnmbing/military activity; C, coastal construction: D. destructive lishing: E, : F, flooding; G, agricultural rtmoff: H, hazardous/solid/mining waste: 1, tion, construction, industrial pollution: M, mining of coral: O, overharvesting and merfishing: P, pollution from nutrients and sewage; R, poaching or depletion of rare reef species: S, soil erosion and sedimentation from fire. overgazmg, delorcstation, land clearing, etc.: T. tourism and , mining, and resorts: U. overuse/trampling: V, vessel grnundings and oil spills. other sources cuts posited on land, generally have a strong effect on erating in the Philippines often initiate harvesting back on coral growth adjacent reefs. Many, if not most, reefs next to of sea cucumbers, sea urchins, or sharkfins, which and settlement and coastal villages are becoming increasingly over- last only a few months befl)re local stocks become grown with algae, which interferes with coral depleted, causing the buyers to move on and stimu- often results in the growth and inhibits the settlement of new corals. late depletion of additional reefs. of coral com- Plastic bags. discarded by the millions, snag around Pollution from cities tends to be more varied and corals and shoots, killing them. Sea tur- have more widespread effects. Oil commonly inun- munities, particularly tles ingest the bags, mistaking them for ,, dates reefs, particularly those near transfer facilities (Gomez 1978; Bilal and Kuhnhold 1980). Exces- small non-reef coral and they too die. Villagers collect turtle eggs and actively hunt turtles, dugongs, and other large ver- sive sedimentation from defi)restation, construction, communities. tebrates for food. Buyers from China and Japan op- dredging, mining, and other sources cuts back on

92 OCEANOGRAPHY'Vo[. 9, No. 1o1996 Table 2 A compilation of the nlajor threats to coral reef ecosystems in West Au'qralia and South Asia

Number of Protected Government Types of Reefs Threats to Reefs Reefs

W. Comm., fringing, cont., barrier, atolls A. C. D. O, R,T. V, 1.5. 11 3 Bangladesh Comm., submerged D, l. P, R,T 0 Burma Fringing, cont., comm. ? 0 Brnnei 3 Communities. subm., fringing, coral ? 0 Chagos Subm., 5 atolls C, V, 5. II. 13 0 Comoros Comm., fringing, barrier D, M, O, R. S, U, 3,5 I India Cont., fringing, patch, atolls, barrier D, G, I, M. P, R, S, T, V, 1,5,6 2 Indonesia All types of reefs A, C. D, G, 1. M, O. P. R. S. T. V, 3.5, 10 14 Kampuchea Comm.. cont. ? 0 Malaysia Cont., comm., patches, coral, fringing, barrier. D.G,H,M.O,P,R,S,T,V. 5,13 9 atoll Maldives Atoll, coral A.C.D.I,M,O.P,R.T,U,V, 5 0 Pakistan Communities 0 Philipines All types of coral reefs A, C, D, G. H, I, M, O, R, S, T, V. I. 5, mangroves 16 Comm., subm., l~inging, patch, coral, atoll C. G. H. M, O, P. R, 2, 5 Ill Singapore Comm.. fringing, cont. A,C,R, V 0 Sri Lanka Comm.. fringing, patch, coral A, D. G. M. O, R, T, 5, 6 2 Thailand Cont., comm., fringing, coral A,C,D.G,H,I,M.O.P,R, 5,13 9 Vietnam Cont., coral 0

For explanation of terms, see Table 1. coral growth and settlement and often results in the coastal development and the fact that replenishing burial t)f coral communities, particularly small non- stocks from the Philippines may diminish because reef coral communities {Alino 1983). Construction of reef degradation there (Veron 1993). threatens many reels and is a leading cause of - age in Singapore (Newman and Chuan 1994) and Pacific Japan (Veron 1992). A study of corals in Japan has The most serious documented impacts to Pacific recently concluded that many species there may' coral reeg are concentrated in the urban centers: 1 ) face local because of abuses related to soil erosion and sedimentation off volcanic islands,

Table 3 A compilation of the major thrcats to coral reef ecosystclns in East Africa and the Middle East

Number of Protected Gmernment Types of Reefs Threats to Reel'.', Reefs

Bahrain Coral, fringing, patch, barrier, atoll'e? A, C, H. O, V, 5 0 Cont., flinging, patch A, C, D. O, R, U, V 5 Egypt Fringing, comm., patch A.D. H, O. T, U, V. 5 2 Ethiopia Comm,. fringing, coral, patch H. R, I 0 lran Comm., fringing V, H 1 Fringing. patch, comm. C, M. T. V, 13 I Jordan Fringing. patch, comm. A.C.D. 1, M, V, 5. 13 I Kenya Cont., comm., fringing, coral, patch D, G, I, R, U, V, 5 4 Kuwait Comm., fringing, coral A.H. 1, V. 5, 7, 13 0 Madagascar Cont., comm., fringing, barrier, sabra. D, O, R. S I Coral, fl'inging, patch, barrier A, C, D. G, M. O, P, R, S, T. 1, 5 6 Mozambique Cont.. fringing, comm. D, G. H, I, T 2 N. Yemen Comm.. fringing, subm. '? 0 Oman Comm., patch, fringing C, D. H. O, R, U, V, 7, 8 0 Qatar Comm., fringing, barrier',', atoll? P, V 0 Reunion Comm., coral, fringing, atolls, subnl. D.G.H.O. P, R, S, U, 3 6 Cont.. fringing, atolls, barrier, coral, patch, comm. C. D, H, 1. O, P, R, U. V, 2, 5 0 Cont., comm., barrier, fringing, patch C. M, P, S. V 0 S. Africa Comm. C, U, V, b l S. Yemen Comm. V 0 Sudan Comm.. fringing, barrier, atoll A, D, H, I. P. R. U. V. 5 1 Tanzania Comm., fringing, coral, patch, cont., I atoll D, P, R. S, [l 8 Comm.. subm., patch 7 0

For explanation of terms, see Table I.

OCEANOGRAPItY'Vo1. 9. No. 1°1996 93 Table 4 A compilation of the major threats to coral reef ecosytems in Pacific and East Asia

Number of Protected Government Types of Reefs Threats to Reefs Reefs

American Samoa 2 Comm., 5 l~nge, 1 barrier, 2 atolls C, D, F,I, O, P, R, S,V, 1, 6, 3, 13,5 3 E. Australia All types except atolls A,C,D.F,G,P,R,S,T,U, 5,6 12 Chile (Easter I. ) 2 Comm. C,S,V, 1,4 0 China Comm., subm., atoll, fringing, coral C, M, O,R,V, 1 3 W. Columbia Cont., comm., fringing A, C, D, G, O, P, R, S, T 2 Cooks 7 Fringing, 1 barrier, 7 atolls C,D,I,O,R,S,I,5 3 W. Costa Rica Comm., fringing C, M, O, P, R, S, T, U. 3 10 Ecuador (Galapagos) Comm., subm., fringing O, R,T, 3 4 Fed. St. Micronesia Subm., 27 fringing, 2 barrier, 31 atolls C, D, I, M, O, P, R, S, V, 5 2 13 Fringing, 22 barrier, 3 atolls C, D, F, H, I, O, P, R, S, V, 5 0 French 12 Comm., 18 fringing, 10 barrier, 79 atolls C, D, F, H, I. O, P, S, T, U, V, 1, 6 2 Guam Comm., fringing, 2 barrier B,C,F, H. O, P, S,T, V, 1,3,5, 13 4 Hawaii & other U.S. Is. 14 Comm., 14 fringing, 2 barrier, 9 atolls A, C, D, E, F, H, I, O. P, S, T, U, V, 1, 2 5, 10, 11, 14 Hong Kong Comm. A, B, C, E, F, G, H, I, O, P, R, S, T, V, 0 1,5. 12 Japan Comm., coral, fringing C, D, 1, O, P, R, U, 7, 13 4 Kiribati 3 Subm., 15 coral, 18 atolls B.C,H,I.O,P,R,S,U,V, 1,2,3,5,7 2 Marshalls 5 Coral, 29 atolls C,G,H,O,P,R, 3,5,6 0 Mexico Cont., 1 comm. B, C, E, H, I, O, P, R, V, 1, 5 1 Nauru 1 Coral V, 9 0 New Caledonia 5 Fringing, 4 barrier, 5 atolls F, H, I, O, R, S, V 4 New Zealand 15 Comm. 1 (Kermadecs) 1 Fringing U,I 0 N. Marianas 11 Comm., I 1 fringing, 2 barrier C,D,I,O,P,S,T.U,V, 1,5,9, 10 0 Palau 2 Subm., 14 fringing, 1 barrier, 3 atoll, 5 coral C, D, O, P, R, S, T, U, V, 5 3 W. Panama Cont., comm. A,C,F,O,P,S,V, 3 2 Papua Subm., comm., 24 fringing, 15 barrier, 41 atolls C,D,F,I,P,R,S,V, 1,5,11 6 U.K. (Pitcairn) 2 Comm., 1 fringing, 2 atolls 5,7 0 Solomons Subm., comm., 16 fringing, 10 barrier, 3 atolls C,D,I,P,R,S,V, 1,3,5, 11, 13 0 Taiwan Comm.. flinging, subm., atoll, coral, 3 atolls A,C,D,O,R,T.U,V, 1,5 2 Tokelaus Comm., fringing, subm., atoll, coral, 3 atolls C, O, R, V, 1, 3, 5, 13 0 Tonga 7 Comm., 37 coral & fringing, 6 barrier C,D,O,P,R,U, 1,3,5,6, 13 6 Tuvalu 1 Subm., 3 coral, 4 atoll C,P,R,V, 1 0 Vanuatu 12 Comm., 42 fringing, 1 atoll C,D,I,P,R, 1,5,13 2 Wallis & Futuna 2 Comm., subm., 3 fringing, 1 barrier C,D,P,R,S 0 W. Samoa 5 Comm., 7 fringing C, D, I, O, P, R, S, 5 1

For explanation of terms, see Table I.

2) coastal construction, 3) sewage and industrial atolls are still in an undistributed condition. Natural discharges, 4) overfishing of subsistence resources disturbances to Pacific reefs include typhoons and and excessive commercial exploitation of other crown-of-thorns starfish outbreaks. E1 Nino south- fisheries, 5) increased flooding and discharge of ern oscillations may often result in warm water On a global scale fertilizers and toxic chemicals, and 6) vast destruc- temperatures and coral bleaching events. Volcanic tive fishing techniques, especially explosives. Mili- eruptions, earthquakes, subsidence, and emergence the most significant tary training and testing activities have also been are other less frequent disturbances. threats to reefs are conducted in the Line Islands, Marshall Islands, and (for nuclear weapons test- What Can Be Done to "Turn the ?" associated with high- ing), with additional islands in Hawaii and else- On a global scale the most significant threats to density human popu- where used for bombing. Tourism activities are in- reefs are associated with high-density human pop- creasing rapidly in many island groups resulting in ulation living near coral reefs. Reef ecosystems in lation living near overuse, trampling, anchor damage, and souvenir Southwest Asia, East Asia (Japan, China), South coral reefs. collections. On remote islands, primarily Asian Asia (India, Sri Lanka), and the Caribbean appear fishing boats are illegally harvesting rare and de- especially degraded. In the Pacific, urban reefs ap- pleted species, especially giant clams, , and pear to be declining near population centers. sea turtles. Overall, the status of most reefs in the Human migration and population increase is the region cannot be ascertained because of a paucity single most significant cause of reef degradation of information. It is likely that many coral reefs, worldwide and is the basic cause for most of the especially on remote or uninhabited islands and impacts to coral reefs in urban centers. Elsewhere

94 OCEANOGRAPHY'VoI. 9, No. 1"1996 remote reefs are being preferentially degraded by The Regional Seas Program of UNEP has also illegal or destructive fishing and harvesting prac- focused considerable attention to coral reef protec- tices. Submerged reefs--the least understood of tion during the past decade with the establishment all major reef types--are probably being severely of regional approaches to control pollution and degraded by activities. Ship management of marine and coastal resources. In groundings and associated fuel and cargo spills the tropical Pacific the South Pacific Regional En- are also becoming more serious threats. In recent vironment Program (SPREP) and in the Carib- years many actions have been taken to address the bean, the Caribbean Environmental Program protection of coral reefs, but most of these actions (CEP) were established to provide a mechanism The International have been taken on a piecemeal basis, one reef at for culturally, economically, and politically di- Coral Reef Initiative a time. verse states and territories of each region to col- The high human coastal densities and rapid lectively address the protection of marine, coastal, (ICRI) is a partner- population growth rates of many regions tend to and other environmental resources. Similar pro- ship among nations call for a very tight coordination of village and grams have been or are being established in the governmental-level management planning and im- other Regional Seas regions of UNEP (e.g., the and organizations plementation, often referred to as co-management Coral African Regional Seas Program, etc.), and seeking to implement (Pomeroy and Williams 1994: McManus 1996). In these promise to afford the appropriate degree of regions having immediate problems with coastal cooperation to lead to more effective management chapter 17 of construction impacts, the only practical in of coral reefs than would be possible only at the some cases has been to move an entire coral com- country or territorial level. At same time, addi- Agenda 21 of munity, colony by colony, to a safer location tional emphasis is being placed on community UNCED and other (Newman and Chuan 1994). level management or coral reefs. This last strategy Only a decade ago, it was not possible to spec- has proven to be effective in enlisting the coopera- international conven- ulate on the global status of coral reefs. However, tion and support for effective management of ma- tions-and agree- much has happened recently to improve global rine protected areas by affected or nearby commu- awareness of the urgency to address threats to nities. These management initiatives are now ments, . . . coral reef ecosystems. In 1985 Sue Wells and co- progressing at community, national, and regional workers began to compile available information levels for coral reef management. on coral reefs for all regions of the world as part of a United Nations Environment Program The htternational Coral Reef Initiative (UNEP) and IUCN sponsored initiative. The three The International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) volume set Coral Reef's of the Worht was pub- is a partnership among nations and organizations lished in 1988 and still serves as the most thor- seeking to implement chapter 17 of Agenda 21 of ough global reference on coral reefs (UNEP/ UNCED and other international conventions-- IUCN, 1988). This effort is continuing in the form and agreements, for the benefit of coral reefs and of ReefBase: the Global Database of Coral Reefs related ecosystems. The ICRI was founded by and their Resources, which will make data on the eight governments IAustralia, France, Jamaica, , uses, abuses, and governance factors con- Japan, Philippines. Sweden. United Kingdom, and cerning the world's coral reefs available on CD- United States) and was announced in December ROM in June, 1996. The ReefBase effort at the 1994 at the First Conference of the Parties of the International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Convention on Biological Diversity in December Management is supplemented by a project to digi- 1994. The eight original members later drafted a tize maps of coral reefs at the World Conservation "'Call to Action" to draft broad principles for fur- Monitoring Center. The United Nations Confer- ther action. Since then, the ICRI has attracted the ence on Environment and Development (UNCED) support of additiomd governments, UN organiza- in Rio Di Janeiro in 1992 and Agenda 21 brought tions, multilateral development banks, environ- worldwide attention to the need for protection and mental and development nongovernment organi- monitoring of coral reef ecosystems. Recently at a zations, the private sector, and "the research 1993 conference on the Global Aspects of Coral community." The first workshop for the ICRI was Reefs, the concept for a "Year of the Ree£" was held in Dumaguete City, Philippines in June 1995 born, now targeted for 1997. The next (8th) Inter- leading to the development of a "Framework for national Coral Reef Symposium will be held in Action" based on the earlier "Call for Action." June 1996 in Panama and promises to devote con- These two steps provide the basis for regional siderable attention to reef management issues in- workshops that will define regional needs and pri- cluding a special session on the global status of orities and catalyze the development of national coral reefs. A Global Task Team on Climate coral reef initiatives, They also encourage UN Change and the International Oceanographic Com- agencies, convention bodies as well as multilat- mission (IOC) have also published recommenda- eral and bilateral donors to incorporate ICRI into tions on coral reef monitoring procedures and are their programs and identify important roles for organizing a global network for monitoring coral UNEP, International Oceanographic Commission reefs. (IOC), and the scientific community in monitor-

OCEANOGRAPHY'VoI. C), No. I °1996 95 ing and addressing the serious global decline of ReefBase. another major activity in support of the coral reefs. ICRI is the Global Coral Reef Monitoring Net- The Framework for Action is guided by several work. This activity will involve coral reef re- principles-full participation, and commitment by all searchers around the world in coordinated moni- parties: support actions with tangible positive ef- toring of selected coral reefs. The program is fects on coral reefs and related ecosystems and expected to yield important insights into the human communities: managing human activities causes of coral reef degradation and the responses that degrade coral reefs: recognition of - of coral reefs to global change. The associated sity of cultures, traditions, and governance within fieldwork is expected to be underway by 1997. nations and regions: integrated with emphasis on community participation: devel- The United States and Local Coral Reef oping national capacity to conserve and sustainably Initiatives use coral reefs: strategic research and monitoring An outgrowth of the ICRI is the early develop- programs; and taking advantage of the extensive ment of national coral reef initiatives. The United body of international agreement and organizations States is developing an interagency CRI to create that address issues related to coral reefs and associ- the base fl)r a combined domestic and international ated ecosystems. The Framework flw Action identi- effort aimed at the conservation and effective man- fies activities in the following areas that address the agement of coral reef ecosystems (Crosby et al., need for conservation and sustainable use of coral 1995: Crosby and Maragos, 1995). The U.S. CRI is reefs and related ecosystems-integrated coastal building on existing federal, state, territorial, com- management: public awareness, education, and monwealth, and local partnerships through commu- training: ratification of or accession to relevant in- nication with relevant stake holders at all levels. ternational instruments: stakeholder participation at Mechanisms Ik)r ongoing consultation among stake- all levels: training policy makers and private sector holders have been initiated and are being expanded decision makers in coral reef management: marine to take into account local needs, priorities, and op- science and technology: environmental law, espe- portunities in developing the U.S. CRI. Under the cially environmental impact assessment regula- U.S. CRI, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric tions: and assessing potential for microenterprise Administration (NOAA) is working in partnership For the U.S. and development and facilitating associated financing at the federal, state, territory, and commonwealth level, seeking to integrate their operational man- International CRIs to of it. The Framework fl)r Action also emphasizes four substantive directions: Management, C~qmci O' agement activities in an -wide approach. succeed in effectively Building. Research and Monitoring, and Review. increase monitoring, conduct assessments to pro- Specific actions are specified within each of these vide better information for decision makers, pro- conserving and man- four areas of emphasis. vide education and outreach to increase public un- aging coral reef Regional workshops on the ICRI have been ini- derstanding, and undertake a more proactive effort tiated including a South Pacific Regional Environ- in understanding and maintaining biodiversity of ecosystems for long- ment Program (SPREP) Workshop for the ICR! on coral reef ecosystems. Efforts to achieve holistic term sustainable use, 27 November to 1 December 1995. These work- management must consider not only the fish and shops help to tailor the "'Call to Action" and the coral reef resources but also the ecological, so- programs should "'Framework for Action" to fit the particular issues cial, economic, and political aspects that involve all stake holders. A key component of such a strategy essentially be based and needs within each region. For example at the SPREP workshop "'beaches" were added to "'man- would be promotion of healthy ecosystems by en- on local community groves" and "' beds" as among the impor- suring that economic development in the United tant associated coral reef ecosystems. The work- States is managed in ways that maintain biodiver- involvement. shop also pointed out the "'top down" approach of sity and long-term productivity for sustained use of the ICR1 to date with emphasis on government ini- our coral reef ecosystems. tiative and inadequate recognition and support for The primary objective of NOAA's involvement the participation of the scientific community. in the U.S. CRI is to foster innovative cross-disci- Notwithstanding the style of the development of plinary approaches to sustainable management and the ICRI to date, it has the best hope to provide conservation of coral reef biodiversity and ecosys- the needed international framework and guidance tems through the development of cooperative rela- to help direct management of coral reefs more ef- tionships among the various stake holders. Perhaps fectively at the International and Regional levels the most important element within the U.S. CR1 is while giving more support to the need for National support for community involvement in developing and Community level rnanagement. An important and implementing local and regional CRIs suited to responsibility of the scientific community will be those community needs and situations. For the U.S. to evaluate the ICRI at the upcoming 8th Interna- and International CRIs to succeed in effectively tional Coral Reef Symposium to be held in conserving and managing coral reef ecosystems for Panama, in June 1996. Also the support of Reef- long-term sustainable use, programs should essen- Base as the International Scientific database and tially be based on local community involvement. GIS for coral reefs is warranted. In addition to To this end, the U,S. CRI (through support from

96 OCI'-\x;O(;RAPH'~'oVol.9, No. 1.1996 NOAA and the Department of the Interior) spon- Within the United States. NOAA is developing a sored Pacific and Caribbean regional workshops nationally coordinated coral reef monitoring pro- for U.S. states, territories, and commonwealths to gram to be implemented in 1996 and is actively assist the regions in working more closely together pursuing partnerships with other agencies {such as in promoting stewardship of U.S. coral reef the National Park Service and the Environmental ecosystems and in developing local CRIs. Scien- Protection Agency) and volunteer interest groups tists, government managers, nongovermnental or- (such as American , The Nature Conser- ganizations, and other interested residents have vancy, REEF. and Reefkeeper) in this effort. been actively planning local coral reef initiatives Globally, ICRI has committed to developing such throughout Hawaii, Guam, Commonwealth of the an effort through the IOC. The long-term vision Northern Mariana Islands, American Samoa, Until the present decade it was not even possi- for the Coral Reef Florida, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands. ble to evaluate coral reefs on a global basis nor as- Most of these entities have developed local CRIs sess the extent of degradation. However, the Initiative may be that are now well under way and promise to serve UNCED at Rio in 1992, the ICRI launched in as models for development of local or community- 1994. the upcoming review of the global status of viewed as a global based initiatives elsewhere in the United States and coral reefs by scientists at the June 1996 meeting effort to conserve in other countries. As an example, Guam's local in Panama, and the proposed Year of the Reef in CRI activities were the focus of special sessions at 1997 have launched a new era of coordinated sci- and restore coral reef the ICRI workshop in the Philippines, and much of entific inquiry into the status and improved man- ecosystems at local the ICRI "Call to Action" and "Framework for Ac- agement of the world's coral reefs. Clearly scien- tion'" can be traced to these earlier U.S. regional tists need to be better organized and mobilized to levels for the use workshop efforts. respond to these above challenges including exert- and enjoyment of ing sufficient influence over the direction of the Conclusions and Recommendations ICRI and other international initiatives involving future generations. Coral reefs ecosystems have formed in >100 coral reefs. The next few years hold great promise countries around the world. An overview of the in refining our goals and needs for better protec- status of these ecosystems reveal that many are tion of coral reefs into the next millennium. under threat or are being degraded as a result of The hmg-tenn vision for the Coral Reef Initia- chronic human derived activities and pollution, es- tive may be viewed as a global effort to conserve pecially fl)r coral reefs near population centers, and restore coral reef ecosystems at local levels Negative impacts also occur at many remote reefs. for the use and enjoyment of future generations. and natural disturbances may be exacerbating The U.S. CRI will build on existing activities and damage to coral reefs when superimposed over programs through partnerships and, where appro- chronic human degradation of coral reefs. The im- priate, develop new activities. Both the U.S. and pacts of widespread degradation of coral reefs arc International CRls are striving to reverse the trend difficult to predict accurately' and to circumvent toward degradation of these valuable ecosystems. because of a paucity of critical information. creating a global partnership to resolve problems. Biodiversity associated with coral reefs is diffi- and to increase the capacity of countries for man- cult to assess because of a dearth of reliable taxo- agement and sustainable use. A strong commit- nomic information, stemming from an appalling ment to the U.S. CRI will improve domestic pro- lack of support for academic taxonomists in the grams that will serve as models for management last few decades on a world scale (see Maragos et of coral reef ecosystems as part of sustainable de- al., 1995). There is an obvious need for training of velopment strategies having global applications. appropriate systematists. 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