Sensor Fusion and Control Applied to Industrial Manipulators

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Sensor Fusion and Control Applied to Industrial Manipulators Linköping studies in science and technology. Dissertations. No. 1585 Sensor Fusion and Control Applied to Industrial Manipulators Patrik Axelsson Department of Electrical Engineering Linköping University, SE–581 83 Linköping, Sweden Linköping 2014 Cover illustration: Filled contour plot for the upper bound of the sample time given by (20) in Paper C. The upper bound is derived such that a stable continuous- time linear system remains stable after discretisation using Euler sampling. The sample time decreases when going from dark to light blue. Linköping studies in science and technology. Dissertations. No. 1585 Sensor Fusion and Control Applied to Industrial Manipulators Patrik Axelsson [email protected] www.control.isy.liu.se Division of Automatic Control Department of Electrical Engineering Linköping University SE–581 83 Linköping Sweden ISBN 978-91-7519-368-7 ISSN 0345-7524 Copyright © 2014 Patrik Axelsson Printed by LiU-Tryck, Linköping, Sweden 2014 Till min familj Abstract One of the main tasks for an industrial robot is to move the end-effector in a predefined path with a specified velocity and acceleration. Different applications have different requirements of the performance. For some applications it is es- sential that the tracking error is extremely small, whereas other applications re- quire a time optimal tracking. Independent of the application, the controller is a crucial part of the robot system. The most common controller configuration uses only measurements of the motor angular positions and velocities, instead of the position and velocity of the end-effector. The development of new cost op- timised robots has introduced unwanted flexibilities in the joints and the links. The consequence is that it is no longer possible to get the desired performance and robustness by only measuring the motor angular positions. This thesis investigates if it is possible to estimate the end-effector position us- ing Bayesian estimation methods for state estimation, here represented by the extended Kalman filter and the particle filter. The arm-side information is pro- vided by an accelerometer mounted at the end-effector. The measurements con- sist of the motor angular positions and the acceleration of the end-effector. In a simulation study on a realistic flexible industrial robot, the angular position per- formance is shown to be close to the fundamental Cramér-Rao lower bound. The methods are also verified in experiments on an abb irb4600 robot, where the dy- namic performance of the position for the end-effector is significantly improved. There is no significant difference in performance between the different methods. Instead, execution time, model complexities and implementation issues have to be considered when choosing the method. The estimation performance depends strongly on the tuning of the filters and the accuracy of the models that are used. Therefore, a method for estimating the process noise covariance matrix is pro- posed. Moreover, sampling methods are analysed and a low-complexity analyt- ical solution for the continuous-time update in the Kalman filter, that does not involve oversampling, is proposed. The thesis also investigates two types of control problems. First, the norm-opti- mal iterative learning control (ilc) algorithm for linear systems is extended to an estimation-based norm-optimal ilc algorithm where the controlled variables are not directly available as measurements. The algorithm can also be applied to non-linear systems. The objective function in the optimisation problem is mod- ified to incorporate not only the mean value of the estimated variable, but also information about the uncertainty of the estimate. Second, H∞ controllers are designed and analysed on a linear four-mass flexible joint model. It is shown that the control performance can be increased, without adding new measurements, compared to previous controllers. Measuring the end-effector acceleration in- creases the control performance even more. A non-linear model has to be used to describe the behaviour of a real flexible joint. An H∞-synthesis method for con- trol of a flexible joint, with non-linear spring characteristic, is therefore proposed. v Populärvetenskaplig sammanfattning En av de viktigaste uppgifterna för en industrirobot är att förflytta verktyget i en fördefinierad bana med en specificerad hastighet och acceleration. Exempel på användningsområden för en industrirobot är bland annat bågsvetsning eller limning. För dessa typer av applikationer är det viktigt att banföljningsfelet är extremt litet, men även hastighetsprofilen måste följas så att det till exempel in- te appliceras för mycket eller för lite lim. Andra användningsområden kan vara punktsvetsning av bilkarosser och paketering av olika varor. För dess applikatio- ner är banföljningen inte det viktiga, istället kan till exempel en tidsoptimal ban- följning krävas eller att svängningarna vid en inbromsning minimeras. Oberoen- de av applikationen är regulatorn en avgörande del av robotsystemet. Den van- ligaste regulatorkonfigurationen använder bara mätningar av motorernas vinkel- positioner och -hastigheter, istället för positionen och hastigheten för verktyget, som är det man egentligen vill styra. En del av utvecklingsarbetet för nya generationers robotar är att reducera kost- naden men samtidigt förbättra prestandan. Ett sätt att minska kostnaden kan till exempel vara att minska dimensionerna på länkarna eller köpa in billigare väx- ellådor. Den här utvecklingen av kostnadsoptimerade robotar har infört oönska- de vekheter i leder och länkar. Det är därför inte längre möjligt att få den önska- de prestandan och robustheten genom att bara mäta motorernas vinkelpositioner och -hastigheter. Istället krävs det omfattande matematiska modeller som beskri- ver dessa oönskade vekheter. Dessa modeller kräver mycket arbete att dels ta fram men även för att identifiera parametrarna. Det finns automatiska metoder för att beräkna modellparametrarna men oftast krävs det en manuell justering för att få bra prestanda. Den här avhandlingen undersöker möjligheterna att beräkna verktygspositionen med hjälp av bayesianska metoder för tillståndsskattning. De bayesianska skatt- ningsmetoderna beräknar tillstånden för ett system iterativt. Med hjälp av en matematisk modell över systemet predikteras vad tillståndet ska vara vid nästa tidpunkt. Efter att mätningar av systemet vid den nya tidpunkten har genomförts justeras skattningen med hjälp av dessa mätningar. De metoder som har använts i avhandlingen är det så kallade extended Kalman filtret samt partikelfiltret. Informationen på armsidan av växellådan ges av en accelerometer som är mont- erad på verktyget. Med hjälp av accelerationen för verktyget och motorernas vin- kelpositioner kan en skattning av verktygspositionen beräknas. I en simulerings- studie för en realistisk vek robot har det visats att skattningsprestandan ligger nära den teoretiska undre gränsen, känd som Cramér-Raos undre gräns, samt att införandet av en accelerometer förbättrar prestandan avsevärt. Metoderna har även utvärderats på experimentella mätningar för en abb irb4600 robot. Ett av re- sultaten i avhandlingen visar att prestandan mellan olika metoder inte skiljer sig markant. Istället måste exekveringstid, modellkomplexitet och implementerings- kostnader tas med i valet av metod. Vidare beror skattningsprestandan till stor del på hur filtren har trimmats. Trimningsparametrarna är kopplade till process- vii viii Populärvetenskaplig sammanfattning och mätstörningar som påverkar roboten. För att underlätta trimningen så har en metod för att skatta processbrusets kovariansmatris föreslagits. En annan viktig del som påverkar prestandan är modellerna som används i filtren. Modellerna för en industrirobot är vanligtvis framtagna i kontinuerlig tid medan filtren använ- der modeller i diskret tid. För att minska felen som uppkommer då de tidskon- tinuerliga modellerna överförs till diskret tid har olika samplingsmetoder stude- rats. Vanligtvis används enkla metoder för att diskretisera vilket innebär problem med prestanda och stabilitet. För att hantera dessa problem införs översampling vilket innebär att tidsuppdateringen sker med en mycket kortare sampeltid än vad mätuppdateringen gör. För att undvika översampling kan det motsvarande tidskontinuerliga filtret användas för att prediktera tillstånden vid nästa diskreta tidpunkt. En analytisk lösning med låg beräkningskomplexitet till detta problem har föreslagits. Vidare innehåller avhandlingen två typer av reglerproblem relaterade till indu- strirobotar. För det första har den så kallade norm-optimala iterative learning control styrlagen utökats till att hantera fallet då en skattning av den önskade reglerstorheten används istället för en mätning. Med hjälp av skattningen av sy- stemets tillståndsvektor kan metoden nu även användas till olinjära system vilket inte är fallet med standardformuleringen. Den föreslagna metoden utökar mål- funktionen i optimeringsproblemet till att innehålla inte bara väntevärdet av den skattade reglerstorheten utan även skattningsfelets kovariansmatris. Det innebär att om skattningsfelet är stort vid en viss tidpunkt ska den skattade reglerstorhe- ten vid den tidpunkten inte påverka resultatet mycket eftersom det finns en stor osäkerhet i var den sanna reglerstorheten befinner sig. För det andra har design och analys av H∞-regulatorer för en linjär modell av en vek robotled, som beskrivs med fyra massor, genomförts. Det visar sig att regler- prestandan kan förbättras, utan att lägga till fler mätningar än motorns
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