Infancy to Adolescence. a Cognitive Developmental Outline with Some Reference to Behaviour and Health Effects

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AUTHOR Phillips, Shelley TITLE Self Concept and Self Esteem: Infancy to Adolescence. A Cognitive Developmental Outline with Some Reference to Behaviour and Health Effects. Unit for Child Studies. Selected Papers Number 27. INSTITUTION New South Wales Univ., Kensington (Australia). School of Education. PUB DATE 83 NOTE 23p. PUB TYPE Information Analyses (070)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Abstract Reasoning; *Adolescents; Behavior Problems; *Children; *Cognitive Development; Elementary Education; Elementary School Students; Emotional Problems; Foreign Countries; Health; *Infants; Peer Relationship; Primary Education; *Self Concept; *Self Esteem; Sex Differences IDENTIFIERS Australia (New South Wales); Developmental Patterns

ABSTRACT Initially differentiating ideas of self-concept, personality, and self-esteem, this paper discusses the development of the self from infancy through adolescence. The discussion of infancy focuses on learning about bodily self and related disruptions and describes the emergence of the social and independent self. The discussion of toddlers and preschool children deals with having separate thoughts, concepts of "me" and "mine," skill development and temper tantrums, comparisons, games and time, the looking-glass self, interest and security, identification with parents, and behavior and health problems. School-age children are discussed in relationship to teachers, playmates, the concrete self, autonomy, depression and poor self-esteem, and behavior problems and common illnessIs. With regard to adolescence, the document explores the role of abstract thought, self-consciousness, popularity neuroses, overdifferentiation, intellectualization, asceticism, depression, physical appearance, identity, unemployment, symptoms of disruption in self - concept development, hypochondriasis, and anorexia nervosa. (RH)

A************A********************************************************* Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be math from the original document. A AVAAkk*************************************************"************** Se'c` -d Papers Number 27 Unit for ChildStudies

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SELF CONCEPT AND SELF ESTEEM INFANCY TO ADOLESCENCE A COGNITIVE CEVELORMENTAL OUTLINEWITH SOME REFERENCE TO BEHAVIOUR AND HEALTH EFFECTS Or Shelley Phillips

milomellb MN 0727-4134 SELF-CONCEPT AND SELF-ESTEEM INFANCY TO ADOLESCENCE

A COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTALOUTLINE WITH SOME REFERENCE TO BEHAVIOUR AND HEALTHEFFECTS

Shelley Phillips Unit pr Child Studies

WHAT IS THE SELF-CONCEPT andSELF ESTEEM?

Initially, it may be useful to distinguish self-concept andnersonality. Personality is something people appear to be. It is as otherz,see you. Self-concept is as you see yourself. If you were to completea sentence beginning with "I am" severaltimes on paper, or inyour head, you would have said something aboutyour self-concept. For example, you may have said: "I am male or female"; "I am easy goingor bad tempered", and so on. Self-concept involves one's beliefs,attitudes and feelings toward one's abilities and r"sabilities; it includes one's positive andnega- tive character descriptions, ideas,attitudes, values and commitments. Self-esteem involves the degree of selfacceptance of oneself as one is and whether one feels basically competent in the things that matterto one. For example, if you are poor at cooking, or have a larger thanav- erage nose, and it is not important toyou, it is not a self-esteem issue. Usually, self - esteem issues relateto self acceptance and one's perceptions of one's emotional and socialconfidence and self assertion (Ellis, Gehman & Katzenmeyer, 1980). Further, if you see yourselfas something that the world around hasnegative views toward (perhaps, for example, you are unemployedor a member of an ethnic or religious minor- ity), then this may well affectyour selfesteem.

Can it be changed? is the question. The self-concept and self-esteemare based on behaviours- for example, the way you react in social situations, or how you play golf, or cook, or study. Thus, if you are apoor student and study effectively and gaina credit, your self-esteem improves.

The self-concept also involvesbeing able to distinguish betweentwo types of experience- those which have self-reference and those which do not. For example, you can distinguish your movements from those of others. In some cases, where people cannot do this, the self-conceptis not properly formed and a psychopathological conditionexists (Laing, 1975). Self also involves a sense of continuity. You may have changedyour behaviours in the last ten years, butyou are still you. Some do not have this sense of continuity and such a case is wellexemplified in the study of Sybil (Schreiber, 1973).

Most people can say or sense something abouttheir self-concept in the terms I have outlined but was it always so? It is believed that theans- wer is largely "no", and that the self-concept is learnedthroughout infancy, childhood, and adulthood, INNN

It is believed that at birth infantshave no concept of bodilyseparate- ness, it is suggested that the infanthas to learn about bodily separateness, and where his/her bodyends and that of the caretakerbegins. where- This learning involves physiologicaland neurological development in- by the infant learns to grasp, andtouch separate others, and also volves the departure and return ofcaretakers which gives theexperience baby experiences a sense of separateness. Most important is whether the of bodily comfort through cuddlingduring feeding and at othertimes, for babies at first develop a senseof self through their bodiesand that they are able to senses. InFants also need to learn and experience initiate good responses in others, forexample, through reciprocal smiling (Phillips, 1982b).

an Early ComfortableBodily Sense of Self

Now, although the early work ofBowlby (1953) has been criticised, some of it can be usefully revampedin a cognitive developmentalfashior. want to Bowlby's study demonstrated thatfood is not enough for babies to thrive, but rather than stresspurely maternal attachment thecognitive developmentalis.ts suggest that in order tothrive, a baby needs a com- fall into a de- fortable bodily sense. If they do not have it they may pression, or fail to thrive, evendie, or cry miserably andperpetually. diagnoses fail, Crying can be for a number of reasons,but when all other

, of a the hypothesis that therehas been a disruption in thedevelopmc good, comfortable sense of bodyis worth testing. Some types of incess- such ant colic, sleep disturbance, orhead banging, may possibly have might one deal with suchproblems origir. The practical question is "How on the basis ofexperienceAn child development?"

Let us take a case study of ahead banging infant:

The parents were very welleducated professionals. They were exceptionally proud of their verybright and engaging eighteen- month-old infant whom we willcall Debbie. Debbie had recently begun climbing out of her cotand banging her head onthe floor. The local doctor's advice wasthat such behaviour was not un- because common at this ageand'that the parents should not worry and Debbie would grow out of it. The parents were not satisfied sought further advice on childdevelopment. Investigation revealed two important andobvious factors. The parents were boastfully parading Debbie asthe wonder child. They were also both very inhibited and did not expressaffection to each other shortcoming in or Debbie. Fortunately, they had seen it as a themselves and with encouragementbegan to cuddle Debbie a little, albeit somewhat shyly atfirst. Gradually they extended of par- this, although they neverbecame the most affectionate burning need to parade Debbie ents. They also curbed their after attending someself-esteem classes. The head banging but many cases like stopped. This may have been coincidence, this have been observed.

behavioural problems may bealleviated thus,in infancy, some medical or by intorminq those concernedof the nature ofself-concept development. Some will want to Offen, as in the above case,information is sufficient. seek further - or perhaps find a place soy,.' as the Unit for ChildStudies for more help with relevant reading material and, perhaps,some coping or interactional skills.

There is no right or wrong about this, for differentskills suit different parents. The problem is that inthese days of smaller families,many parents feel that they have not had a chance to gain experienceby observing others, and that they needa little non-directional and non-judgemental help in a place such as the Unit for Child Studies. Another good place for such help could, perhaps, be the offices of the medicalpractitioner who is typically consulted first in such cases. There are cases wherea medical practitioner or paediatrician who has been interestedand able to gain good training in child development has offered,childdevelopment sessions as part of his/herpractice as a preventativemeasure.

The Emergence of the Socialand Independent Safi

In infancy, games of socialinteraction with caretakers, suchas dropping objects for others to pickup, peek-a-boo, or imitating speech sounds, enhance the development of thesense of self as a social being. By 12 to 15 months, infants are beginning to demonstrate self choice andpreference and may resist being dressedor taking a bath. Some caretakers are very threatened by the loss of thephysically passive baby and they donot ap, reciate that these emerging, individualbehaviours are milestones in se f-concept development (Phillips, 1982b). Head-on power strugglesensue and sometimes, in thesecases, one is presented with an infant with feeding problems because the child,learning that its own attempts at inde- pendence are self-threatening,is stressed.

Such caretakers often feel lessthreatened when they are given information about the infant's growingsense of individuality and, where the behaviour is inconveniencing necessary routines, cope by using skills which donot make the infant frightened of his /her embryonic attempts atindependence. These skills include turningthe infant's resistance intoa game, diversion or rapid,unemotionalremoval.

TODDLERS AND PRE-SCHOOL YEARS

L;eparato Thoughts

Having learnt a separatesense of bodily self, children inpre and primary school need to learn that their thoughts are separate from others. Young children tend to think others, andespecially their mothers, know what they are thinking or see things as they do (Phillips, 1979). Many roaming pre-schoolers, feeling eoite safewiththemselves, are bewildered bythe anger and distress of their parents when theyare retrieved from some interesting corner of the suburbor department store. Only be being "naughty" and not "found out" and throughfrequent conversations andgames with other children, do pre-schoolers beginto learn that their thoughtsare theirs alone (Phillips, 1979).

MENand Wne

In toddlerhood and the pre-schoolyears, the sense of separate self is increased by having aname, a family, and a few possessions (Bee & Mitchell, 1980). Thus, the concept of self is extendedby the inclusion of "me" and "mine". It should be noted that childrenoften use interaction around toys to define boundaries between themselves and other children. Thus, claiming toys is not simplya negative or aggressive behaviour, but an irn- 4 .

social children's definition ofthemselves, within their portant part of self-awareness, and an attempt It is a positive signof increased world. social being (Levine,1983). to make sense of theother child as a separate

and Temper Tantrums dimensions of self. Increasingly, young childrenalso explore the other if?" (Erikson, 1959). I go?" "What happens "What can I do?" "Where can boundaries of theirphysical skills which iswhy They particularly test the for them- attempts to help, andinsist on, doing things they so often reject they may throw a When frustrated inthis self learning process, selves. particularly prevalent at2 and 4 temper tantrum. Temper tantrums are often in trying to develop newskills years of age,which seem to be peak years 1954). and thus, a sense ofself competence withthem (Gesell, struggle to develop acompetent Thus, many temper tantrums mayexpress this is needed if thechild's sense of sense of self,and care with punishment competence is not tobe crushed. unobtrusive assist- instructions accompaniedby diversion, Brief, positive struggles, unemotional removal,achieves much more than power ance, or rapid with neg- tend not to be ableto inhibit behaviour for children at this age feel (Tikhomirov, 1958). Again, parents often ative verbal instructions with experience of observingothers interacting they missed out in the demonstrations in progressive toddlers and appreciate afew relaxed group medical practices or centres, asabove.

,omp(Irisons from them, they are like others,and how they differ By establishing how pre-schoolers develop a sense ofwho they are. To this end, young children They com- comparison (Mosatche& Broganier, 1981). actively engage in some 4), their activi- (I'm older because I'm41/2 and you are only pare their age (My doll is bigger higher than you), ortheir possessions ties (I can jump boastful These verbal exchanges areoften misinterpreted as than yours). punishment for it. The latter and the child isbewildered by shaming or often has the reverseeffect of thatintended.

c;o7m,;; function in self-concept.development, for Games and playhave an essential physical and socialskills is learnt through a senseof competence in many with parents andplaymates, and saying them. Some games, such as games represent self indifferent spatial positions. "Here I am" help the child involving time and"younger and older"help Conversations and activities that he/she is develop a sense of ageand the realisation the pre-schooler children are alsobeginning older or younger thanothers. At this stage, in their sense ofself, although thereis to incorporatetheir sex identity Ullian, 1974). that sex cannot bechanged (Kohlberg & only partial awareness girl could be- three and four yearolds, when asked if a For example, some hair and put onboys' clothes say she couldif she cut her COW a boy, may others appears to beimportant (Kohlberg, 1966). Labelling by significant Erhardt, 1972). in learning sexidentity (Money &

61,1fl:T building the young other-, play animportant role in Parent', dnd If told often enoughthat they have 'ielf-concept (Hamachek,1978).

i; characteristics or tendencies, children tend to develop them. Admittedly, they bring something to the situation, but often it is relativeor subjec- tive. Vor example, a baby whois slow to adapt tonew foods may be de- scribed as "fussy" by the parents who then generalise the labelso that "normal' hesitancy in toddlerhoodor pre-school is seen also as fussiness. Thus, the child is seen as fussier than normal and he/shemay be told so often that he/she is thus, that by school age the child hasincorporated the idea into the self-concept and is, indeed, avery fussy child. How- ever, the process is usuallyvery complex and sometimes overlain with double messages so that the childis not pickingup the message intended by parents. For example, tellinga child often that he/she is naughty with the intention of influencinghim/her to "good" 1> haviourmay, in fact, lead the child to incorporate naughtiness in his/her self-conceptand act accordingly.

In a recent study (Fahey &Phillips, 1981a), itwas found that many children could only describe themselves negatively. "I am a bad girl. I don't share my sweets." "I'm not nice. I don't help my mum." Actually, our society has some rather hostilebeliefs about the nature of children (Phillips, 1982a) and hence,our discipline tends to be of a negative kind. At the Unit for Child Studieswe try to help parents discipline children in a positive way and turn the typically negative messages intoones that let the child know that there isa belief that he/she is basically competent (Fahey, 1980). Thus, instead of a purely negativereprimand such as "You forgot to shut the door againstupid!", disciplining statementscan be re- phrased into positive expectationssuch as "I know you can shut the door. I've seen you do it,so remember next time." Parents also need encouraging to kr. *1 mind the necessity of saying things3,000 times to children and 0, em to act the required behaviour. Parents nowadays, without the Jf the extended family,are involved in a patient and long-term conu.41oning process. They may need help in understandingthat they can be most competent in this teaching role. Parents need encouraging in the belief that they are competentas parents.

Through the appraisals of adults, thepre-school child learns about his/her special qualities. "I have rosy cheeks", "I am a good runner". These appraisals act as a mirror in whichchildren see and as;ess themselves. Parents and teachers who positively andrealistically mirror their child's activities are laying the basis for thatchild's self acceptance and self- esteem. Sometimes, this mirroringprocess is not in accordance with the child's needs:

Annie, aged 6, comes home from schoolwith a painting of which she is proud, and for which shewas praised at school. Instead of viewing it with pride, fatherturns the conversation to himself and his drawingsuccesses at school. These overshadow Annie's achievements. Father has selected hisresponse in accordance with hisown needs and the focus of the mirroring is diverted from Annie. This pattern of behaviour has beenre- peated invariably, and Annie hasno opportunity at home to see a successful reflection of herself.

Similarly, some children, as indicated earlier,receive only negative appraisals and this influences their self-conceptand their behaviour. The problem is that pre-schoolers cannot thinkabstractly and cannot, therefore, stand back and judge those whoare judging them. They accept adults and their judgements as omnipotent (Piaget, 1965). In extreme cases suchas child buw, 1 he abused child may believe he/shedeserves the abuse. u.

intoroat qnd !;00upity placing children in unfavour- Interest shown by parents,especially fathers, not of security and able comparisons with others,and providing them with a sense development in children acceptance are all importantfor good self-concept (Phillips, 1979). eighteen months older Mr and Mrs B had two sons. The elder, David, was toddlers there was than the younger, Andrew. To most observers as convinced that little to distinguish the boys,but Mr and Mrs B became The parents had bothwished for more David was the "brighter"of the two. David grew older, they education than they had beenable to attain and,. as dreams. Relatives, became convinced he wouldfulfill their own shattered front of the boys that visitors, teachers, wereconsistently informed in initially, David was the brighter ofthe two. Some relatives felt that different cer- this judgement was not based onfact. The boys were very drawing, while David tainly. Andrew took moreinterest in pictures and and learning to write showed greater persistencein getting puzzles right they saw The latter behavioursinfluenced the parents, and correctly. the bright one and them as more "academic". The appraisals of David as the boys. By 10 Andrew as "not as bright" wererepeated daily in front of He expected to be "no years of age,Andrew's self-esteem was very poor. good" at anything and waswithdrawn and "touchy". believes in his/her com- Parents cannot be superhuman,but a secure child who occasional off days or moments. petence and acceptance, canhandle a parent's who cannot and seesill will in It is the insecurechild with poor self-esteem around every corner. every r.:.darkand expects defeat

Identification identify with the parents. They take on In pre-school,children also learn to characteristics, not just in animitative way, but asthough they some parental affectional attachment tothe parents want to be the parents. Here the role of Modelling is also animportant process. important (Bowlby,1980). seems to be behaviours, and may incorp- Children observe how others arerewarded for various Often, for example,aggressive orate them intotheir behaviour(Bandura, 1977). child can get attention behaviour or "naughty"behaviour is the only way a (Balsom, 1981).

nrmary

self-concept includes name, age,body image (physical appear- The pre-schooler's actions, acts of competenceand helpfulacts) ance andsize) activities (habitual (Keller, Ford & Meacham,078). The pre- schooler's and material possessions psychological (Damon & Hart,1982). self knowledge is"physicalistic" rather than "present" oriented view ofthemselves which isclosely Young children have a very they live. with other people andthe environment in which tied to experiences superficial to an adultbut has This "here and now"concept of self may seem part of his/her being(Schell & great meaning for thechild and forms a basic Hall, 1982). iwhavioural and IledlOt Praia=

At six year, of age the child is very much under adultconstraint. So much is this so that six-year-old children often seem small clones oftheir parents. There is the consistent demand to be good and'fit theself-concept to what the child may feel are impossible standards. Sometimes this manifests itselfin depression and eating problems,even in the best of families.

Dichotomously, along with the hostilemodel, our society hasa romantic model and this denies that childrenan suffer depression (Phillips, 1981a). Further, if a symptom such as head banging in infancy,or poor appetite at six, is fairly common, it is sometimes seen as a developmental trend and thetendency is for the medical and other helping professions to become concernedabout this only if it persists to a much later age where it is not usual. This attitude is now under discussion and challenge (Cre,tello, 1980), particularlyin the light of self-concept research. Is it not better to test thehypothesis that there may be disruption in self-concept development, especiallyif helping the child develop a sense of self-esteem and competencemay alleviate otherwise uncomfortable symptoms?

As indicated earlier, informing caretakers or professionalsabout self-concept development is often all that is neededand since it is thegeneral practitioner to whom parents first take children with such problems it wouldseem useful if the general practitioner's professionalrooms could have a small collection of up-to-date child development books. Child development journalsand papers could be included in the waitingroom reading fare.

:0100f, AGE

Toadhers

Once the child enters school, teacherscan play an important role in the child's self-concept. For example, they play a highly significant role in inducingsex typed behaviour (Tavris & Offer, 1977; Fagot, 1977) despite their beliefsthat they are behaN Ag otherwise (Serbin et al., 1973). Above all, they greatlyin- fluence a child's sense of self competence in relation to school tasks. Child- ren in early and middle primary school often regard their teachers withawe, and their appraisalsare very important to them. In order to help schools with information and skills, the Unit forChild Studies hasrun many programmes for teachers on self-esteem building inchildren and the firstpaper on the Selected Papers list is most popular with them,as is the book 700 Ways to Enhance the ,',,1f- Concept (Canfield & Wells, 1976),although it should be pointedout that the latter needs adapting to the Australianidiom. Thus, there is literature available as indicated in this paper, to assist Parents and Citizens Groups,and teachers, to run theirown programmes on building self-esteem in schools.

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From groups of playmates or peers children learn a great deal aboutsuccessful and unsuccessful behaviours and incluaethem in their own self repertoireac- cording to group comparisons. For example, research suggeststhat whatever the child has learnt at home, cross gender play is not encouraged bypeers and their criticism and interventionstrengthen sex stereotypes (Lamb, Easterbrooks & Hoiden, 1980). Children also model themselveson behaviours they see rewarded in others. For example, popular children tend to beones who praise, approve and are friendly to other children (Masters & Furnman,1981), and theirbehaviour imitated by othersas social coinage. Popularity also varies according

9 generally assign to skills and situation. If children stage a play they leadership to the imaginative child or, inorganising a game, listen to the athletically skilled child. Peer models can encouragealtruism as wel) as aggression or disobedience(Hartup & Coates, 1967).

Children can also obtain realisticestimates of their skills byplaying with other children, and this isimportant for a well-rounded selfview. Left to their own devices, childrenplay games with one another which explore capabilities and skills in anadaptive manner. Where adults involve children in highly competitive games,it is likely that self-esteem school attain- is affected by anxiety. Comparisons with other children in ment (together with teacher praiseand criticism) alsofigures in children's estimates of the negative andpositive aspects of theirconcepts of themselves as a learner (Fahey & Phillips,1981b).

factor in In fact, when they enter school, for mostchildren, the biggest self-concept development is that they areevaluated in terms of howwell the first they do in comparison with otherchildren of their own age for judgements about themselves as time. This eventually affects children's they rely increasingly on comparisonswith others. Although six-year-olds attention to how do not always feel bad when theyfail, and may pay little their performance compares with thatof their peers, eight-year-olds are more likely to bedistressed at failure and payclose attention to information about the way they measure upto the level of their peers(Ruble et al., 1976). that en- Thus, it is important thatchildren have the background support to them. They ables them to feel competentin areas which are important Unfortunately, need to feel that they cansucceed reasonably if they try. where a sense of competence isinadequate, there is a tendency to see suc- cess as due to luckand failure as due to lackof ability (I'm dumb). Self Concept for Again, the aforementioned book 100Ways to Enhance the skills, as can parents and teachers, canhelp with self-esteem building Unit for Child Studies SelectedPapers land 7.

The Concrete Self quite concretely and At the beginning of theschool year, children think visible and the their view of self islikewise. It revolves around the (I'm skinny) and practical such as their name,where they live, body image also begin to group memberships(I'm a girl guide). At this age, childrer These are usually also of an include their interests intheir self view. firm concept of sex active and concrete kind. They have also developed a the sexes (Kohlberg identity based primarily onphysical differences between and roles that society pre- & Ullian, 1974). Sex role concepts or behaviour At this age fathers, in par- scribes for the sexes become morestereotyped. their male and ticular, may start demanding morestereotyped sex roles for female children (Bee, 1978;Phillips, 1981b). children begin to be- In the later school years, oraround 8 years of age, One is distinct from come aware of the inner orsubjective nature of self. different material pos- others not simply because onelooks different or has Thus, some sessions, but because one hasdifferent thoughts andfeelings. (said one ten- psychological attributes areincluded in the self description looks like me but never a personwho year-old: "There could be a person who thinks exactly like me" - Damon& Hart, 1982). At this stage, therefore, "I am shy" or "a hard children begin to includepersonal qualities such as to realise that anotherperson's worker", fhe child is also beginning

ct clothing, hair or possessions may change, but they also have innerquali- ties which remain the same. It is almost likea Piagetian conservation task applied to personality rather than wateror beads. They have learnt that changes in surface attributes do not signify changes inpersonality (Shantz, 1975).

As children become more aware of themselvesas separate beings, or as their sense of individuality develops, so their awareness of the differencesof others increase. A seven-year-old's descriptionof a friend does not distinguish him/her greatly, and describes him/her either interms of joint physical activities or things they have in common("We playtogether"). But by age eleven there is a sharp increase in comaprisons andespecially in terms of personal qualities ("He'scleverer than me") (Honess, 1980).

Along with these understandings of differences and personalqualities, children's empathetic skills increase, and they begin to understandthat others may react differently to the same vent and begin to be able toput themselves in the other's place (Kurdek,1978). They may also begin to consider what they were in the past and likely to be in the future. Children from higher socioeconomic areas willinclude their ambitionsmuch earlier in their self descriptions than disadvantaged children (Fahey& Phillips, 1981a). WPC WONOMOU8

During the school years with these increased cognitive abilities,the self- concept broadens and children become more capable of self criticism andcan take more buffeting. They also push for greater selfautonomy by spending less time in the family and more with playmates. Many may become more sec- retive with their parents and less angelic (Phillips, 1979). Perhaps they will demonstrate their new individuality by being sloppier indress and lan- guage than previously, and engaging in smallgang naughtinesses such as stealing apples from the neighbour'strees. Children at thisage enjoy sentence completion games "I am", "I have", "I can". This gives insights into their self-concept (Fahey & Phillips,1981b).

Depression and Poor Self -Esteem

Thus, in the primary schoolyears, the child has a great deal to contend with, and it is not surprising that the child's self-esteemmay plummet on entering school. There can be an added problemfor boys who have, in the pre-school years, probably spentmore time with their mothers than their fathers, and incorporatedmany female sex roles into their self concept (for example, not being rough). These roles may be scornedas "sissy" and inap- propriate upon entering school. In fact, it is suggested thatnowadays, boys are required to be a lot tougher and more distinct from femalesupon entering school than in the nineteenthcentury, where boys and girls tended to play more similar games. It is suggested that thisprocess causes anxiety in many boys and they are more prone to depression than girlsat this time (Phillips, 1979). Support, sympathetic listening,discussion of the issues, and praise for competence, isvery important to the child at this time.

/0°,.;/ Pl-q)/4.T14: rInd Common r1incoses

Once again, when all other hypotheseshave failed, it can be practically helpful to explore the hypothesis thatthe child's ill healthor behaviour May relate to anxieties about an insufficient sense of competence andpoor 'wlf feelings. Any one of the following have beenfound to relate in middle r.hildhood to depression and problemswith sel f- concept development: night- school performance and atten- mares, headaches,tummy upsets, deteriorating tion-seeking devices such asling or stealing, which maybe symptoms of masochism as in the children who feel rejected. Truancy, running away. or following case, may also demonstrateself-esteem problems:

at Phillipwas continuallybeaten up by the other children had very school, The school counsellor discoveredthat Phillip poor self-esteem and sawhimself as deserving of thepunishment by other children. It was invited by him as aself-fulfilling prophecy. in the follow- Some cases of hyperactivity arealso self-esteem problems, as ing case:

Jonathan was the "golden"child. He was seen by his parents as excessively bright when, infact, he was probablyonly a little kinds of activi- brighter than average. He was pushed into all ties to "extend" him, such asstage plays, choirs,modelling, By 5 and pressed very hardto excel at pre-school andschool. Feingold years of age Jonathan wasdiagnosed as hyperactive. for Jona- diets, drugs, physiotherapyand psychiatry did nothing headaches and stomach prob- than. Jonathan also suffered many behaviour as a product of"over bright- lems. His parents saw his parents, in despair,went to a ness". When Jonathan was 10 the interested in the new young generalpractitioner who was very self-esteem programmes. trends in holistic medicineand particularly parents to some He took Jonathan off thedrugs and recommended the The father has partic- child development andself-esteem classes. Jonathpn is super ularly found it hard togive up the notion that to fulfill many of theparents' bright. Jonathan had been delegated eventually made. social ambitions. However, good progress was sometimes be self-esteemproblems. Eneuris and otherelimination problems may

1 Georgie, aged 5, had beenattending a counsellingclini the walls of his . years. He plastered his faeces over been Punishment achieved nothing. Although the mother had father until the frequently, investigationdid not extend to the that father had had third year of therapywhen it was discovered Father believed it to bein the a similarhabit as a child. nature of children todo such things. The belief supported the the message notion that he was normal. Georgie had picked up He was a very un- which very much confusedhis view of himself. happy child, prone to manystomach complaints. turned into the Children are oftendelegated in this way by parents, or the parents and theparents family scapegoat. Other children are treated as following case of schoolphobia. reverse roleswith them, as in the Alack marks Polly was good at schoolbut was often away. the mother was achieved nothing. Investigation revealed that who was indirectlymaking a verydependent and nervous persqn Polly was Polly feel that she shouldst4y hOme as support. She suffered very unhappyand confused about herbehaviour. many twilmydisorders. j9 Some children are deliberately naHnhty, having learnt that itcan divert parents from quarrelling. Their confusions about wantingto be a good self, but needing to be a bad one, to solve a family problem isvery con- fusing for their self viewand can take the concrete formof somatic complaints. Traffic and other accidentscan also be cries for help whena child is feeling seriouslyunacceptable (Phillips, 1981a).

Yet, these kinds of cases are not all that unusual. Even within the most loving and supportive families,children experience asense of incompetence every now and then, and most children haveexperienced some of the behavioural manifestations whichmay suggest poor self-esteemas indicated at the beginning of the section. A new school, a new teacher,a period of stress in the family, and a lot of otherfactors may make a child feel inadequate.

As stated previously in thispaper, without the benefit of the extended family, parents who are concerned, may experience difficulty infinding reason- able, uncensorious information. Some feel they are admittinga weakness if they read a book or go to a seminar on any topic to do withchildren, although they do not necessarilyfeel inadequate if theygo to a lecture on cooking, carpentry, or how toinvest their money. Yet there are indications that where parents join short,non-directive courses on child development, the self-concepts of their childrendiffer positively from those who donot (Summerlin & Ward, 1978).

ADOLESCENCE

The Role of Abstract Thought

Whereas the self-concept of primaryschool children is largely action based, during adolescence self understandingshows an increasinguse of psychological concepts ("I think I consider popularity as more importantthan I should") and social concepts ("Iam friendly so I make friends easily") (Damon & Hart, 1982). There also develops an awareness of selfreflection ("I saw myself back in primary school-I could sit back and watch myself"), and an awareness of one'sown self-awareness. Adolescents also learn to reflect upon their own diversity ("Amongfriends I am talkative- at home I am quiet"). By late adolescence theyare able to integrate this diversity into a coherent system of self understanding. ("I am talkative withmy friends because they think Iam interesting. At home I am quiet becauseno one listens") (Damon & Hart, 1982).

These in-depth changes in theself-concept are closely related to experience and biological changes. They are also possible because duringadolescence there is a gradual development of abstractthought and the ability to think hypothetically and deductively, and to combinerelationships in a wide range of possibilities and hence,see things from another's point of view. These tbilities may not be established until16, 17, or 18.

The first stage in this abilityfor abstract thinking is often theprocess of differentiation where adolescents distinguishtheir thoughts and ideas from those of their parents. At the same time, the ability to judgethose who judge them, or have assessed them inthe past, increases. As mentioned earlier, in late childhood, childrenhave begun the push for self autonomy on a predominantly activity level by doing things withplaymates outside the family. Adolescents seek intellectual autonomyas well. Excited about their newfound thought processes and discoveringthat they can think in the head, without reference to the activitiesand concrete props needed in their childhood, they tend to indulge theseprocesses by exaggerating the differ- 1:3 ences in their own and theirparents' ideas. They may become hypercritical of parents and accuse them of hypocrisy orhaving double standards.

Erikson (1974) suggests that if parents are riotcoming in for some criticism they should be concerned that theiradolescent does not feel free to test self indiv'.Juation, He believes parents should notsurrender but put their point of view as the clash of perspectivehelps the adolescent see his/her views from another perspective.

Some other facets of the influences ofthe development of abstractthought upon adolescentself-concept development can be seen in theadolescent's self conscious concern with popularity, atendency to histrionics, intellec- tualisation and asceticism.

.."'onoo(qou0notio

In the initial stages of the developingability for perspective taking, the adolescent is apt to become particularlyself-conscious for he/she can now not only conceptualise his/her ownthoughts, but also the thoughts of other people, Since the adolescent's concern inthis period of rapid physiologic- al, biological and self developmenttends to be him or herself, he/shetends to think others are similarly obsessed.He/she fails to differentiatebetween the directions and concerns of thethoughts of others and those of his orher and spend much of their time own. Thus, adolescents tend to feel on atage constructing or reacting to an imaginaryaudience, even when among their peers (Elkind & Bowen,1979). The fast line, the dramaticentrances, the acts and the self deprecations, aresymptoms of this belief.

Pol.ularity Neurooeo about self which This tendency to feel on stage,together with the uncertainty is understandably part of the asyet immature self-concept,leads to an over- adolesc- concern with theopinion of one's peers. In contemporary society, models within ents tend to congregatetogether and outside the varying age their own age group and the popculture. the family. They model themselves on diff- Because of their self uncertainty,adolescents, while protesting their tb be different in any way fromtheir erence fromtheir parents, tend to fear only the differences peers, yet they do notrecognise their conformism and see popularity, a fear of peer gossip from adults. There is often a concern for or rejection, which canreach neurotic proportions.

While under differentiating may beobserved in some aspects ofself-concept development, in otners there is overdifferentiation. There is a tendency the unique experi- for the individual adolescentto believe that no one has There encer, or feels asintensely as he/she does. "No one understands me". a tendency toconstruct a !..pn,,no/ ,rdqt, ofone's especial uniqueness (Mind, FM).

de- Having found they can think,adolescents tend to intellectualise as a intellectual and seemingly impersonaldis- fence, They may indulge in highly cvMon on sex, authority orother areas which cause themanxiety (Conger, handling with a respectfulsensitivity. 19/1), rhk approach requires

14 Ascoticism

Some adolescents go through a stage of investing their self-conceptentirely in their thought processes and attempt to ignore theirphysiological and biological self by denying themselvesfood, drink, sleep and elimination functions. Others go in for extremesof deprivation to test the physical limits of self.

Depression

Adolescents try to integrate the experiences gained fromchildhood games and role plays, and create a mature self with consistent goals andvalues. Many adolescents mourn the passing of the permissable inconsistenciesand fantas- ies of childhood. They may complain that theyhave lost their childish self and feel empty or lack feelings. This is recognised and exploredin the commercialised world of adolescentculture and music, Visual effects accomp- anying popular songs about happy birthdays and other eventsare given a childlike emphasis.

Some adolescents also worry that at the end of the physiologicaland biological changes of adolescence theirbodies may not bea good enough home for the self-concept constructed fromtheir thought processes.

Physical Appearance

If one thinks about it, the physicalself plays an important role in one's feelings and attitudes toward self. It is believed that the body imagere- mains the core of the self-concept throughout life and influences howwe judge ourselves (Lerner & Spanier, 1980).

In primary school years, and particularlyin adolescence, it becomesvery important as more is learnt aboutone's appearance, physicalprowess and skills by comparison with othersand others' appraisal. Rt aarch suggests that, in some such cases, these appraisalsmay have negative consequences. For example, some juvenile delinquentsbelieve their physique is inappropri- ate for their sex and act out theirpoor self-esteem. Certainly, movies, television, advertising, and the worshipof the heroes and heroines of the electronic media, perpetuatereverence for a stereotyped body image for males and females, and for some, itmay be more pervasive than the influence of parents.

However, on the whole, research suggeststhat where children and adolescents are allowed to feel secure and competent, and whereparents and peers and significant others do not makean issue of deviance from socially stereotyped expectations, ii does notseem to affect self-concept greatly (Hama- chek, 1978).

Nevertheless, physical changes ofthe magnitude experienced by adolescents have a significant effect on how both sexes feel about themselves, andado- lescents who feel unacceptableor have low self-esteem may become anxious about their body image,even though their development is well within the normal range (Peterson & Taylor, 1980). The social context isa major factor in these ouixomes.

For example, many adolescent girlsare likely to have an ambivalent feeling about their developing breasts, They may be both proud and ashamed. The 'ame is often a product of some attitudes toward, andjokes about, the fe- , le bosom engendered by social taboos andthe ambivalence of significant male figures, as in the followingcase: 15 Erica had been a delightfullyco-operative child and the apple of mysogynist. her father's eye. Father was somewhat of ao unconscious He .eased young females yet madesneering references to the female sex, derogatoryjokes about women and, attimes, exhibited disgust towards h's wife's sexuality. Inadolescence when Erica began tode- velopj ..asts, Fhe began to starveherself. Her behaviour became serious. Psychotherapy revealed afear of developing femalecharac- teristics in case her father rejectedher and a fear to develop a sexual ident which he, and hence, she, regarded sopoorly.

particularly concerned about suchcharacteristics as a Adolescent boys u.3 genitalia, circle of fat around the hips andthighs, under developed external breast region. Although such or the developmentof subcutaneous tissue in the dis- developments as fatty hips and breastgrowth are normal and usually soon appear, they are often asource of greatembarrassment to a boy. Late ma- turing boys may particularly suffer from a poorself-esteem (Hamachek,1978).

Particularly among females there has been achange\in the direction of earl- to make ier premarital sexuality. The recent openness on sexual matters seems activities are below many adolescents ofboth sexes feel their own sexual adolescents normal (Offer, Ostrov & Howard,1961), but, like most adults, most believe that pre- do not condone promiscuity. Unlike most adults, adolescents is loving. marital intercourse ispermissable for them where the partner problems for Nevertheless, this can, in some cases,create greater self-esteem high schools girls than boys as doublestandards still seem to apply in regard (School of Education researchfilm). Further, since most adolescents discuss these problems their sex lives as a personalmatter, they tend not to discussed in a non- with parents (Sorenson,1973). The matter may best be The personal way through briefmagazine articles or television programmes. his daughters, self-esteem of the mother, andthe attitude of the father to and confidence about her seem very important inthe daughter's self-esteem sexual identity (Bee,1978).

Identity and self-concept" Often, in the developmentalliterature, the terms "identity" However, the concept of"identity" is used fre- are usedalmost synonomously. socio-political quently to refer to one'sself-definition in the contemporary, broader term embracing per- and economic context. Self-concept is probably a identity in the socio- sonal and esteem elements aswell as one's sense of theory of adolescent identitywhich economic context. One who has formulated a psychologists and educators, is is favoured by manypsychiatrists, and some the neo-Freudian, ErikErikson (1974). asking "Who am Erik Erikson (1974), suggeststhat the adolescent is not only I?", but "Who am Iin the world today?". In our society, young people are is a "mora- given a time to workthese things out, In Erikson's words there "not yet adult" torium" or an adolescent periodin which one may act in a adult roles. It is fashion, or even a littlechildishly, as one rehearses for Some, however, at an "time out" for questioning,testing, and practising. incorporate them into their early age, take over theirparents' values and identity. self-concept without anyquestioning, thus achieving a premature Erikson believes a searchingperiod is preferable.

(1968) is that while it usefully One of the problems withErikson's theory context it retains conceives of adolescentidentity developing in the social male support. While the outdated view thatfemale identity is dependent on through the typical male he describes males asachieving their identity describes the female as stereotype of autonony,initiative and industry, he 1 6 holding her identity in "abeyance" untilshe finds a man to her "emptiness" and rescue her from loneliness by filling the"inner space". ency view of the woman's This depend- self-concept is male-orientedand socially induced - a point which Erikson fails to discuss (Lerner &Spanier, p 379). One of the more useful of Erikson'sconcepts is that of "negative" or the process of stepping identity, outside existing conventionsto make one's culture. The use of "negative" own is. perhaps, unfortunatelyvalue laden. Nevertheless, in some adolescent sib culturessuch as the adolescent the eighties, punks of or the "flower" childrenof the sixties, step outside social we see an attempt to norms and so be noticed andnot lost in the crowd. Through unconventional hair styles, dress,and make-up, the punkcan shock adult culture andachieve an audience. These sub cultures tendto have their own music And songs, and muchof it concerns the in the wolid today. search for self and identity This kind of searchinghas long been the writers and musicians, concern of and is exemplifiedin Ibsen's Pier Gynt and search for identity, Pier's or the confused strivings ofBiff in Arthur Miller's "Death of a Salesman", and those of HoldenCaulfield in Salinger's in the Rye". "Catcher

onomp/oyment

Erikson's emphasis on the social context of self-conceptand identity development is indeed important. Social and group valuesfigure enormously in what the adolescent endeavours to make of him/herself. For example, for most, society and educationencourage the self expectation that ployed person. one becomes an em- Serious disruption toself-concept and self-esteem influential social occurs when expectations cannot be fulfilled. Poor self-esteem expressed in hopelessness, may be illness, depression, drugusage, and delinquency.

Some Symptoms of Disruptionin Self-Concept Development In AaWcooenoo

There are many of these in adolescence and,onca again, when all other hy- potheses have not proved fruitful, problems in relationto self-conceptcan be explored. For example, psychophysiological disturbances have manycauses but, for some children,they may be triggered by relation to authoritarian feelings of incompetence in and punitive parents, andcontingent emotions of anger, anxiety and depression. For example, insome cases of asthma, there may be rapid remission as soon as the adolescent is referredto a special- ised residentialtreatment centre (Conger, 1977).

Hypochondriasis

Rapid physical and sexual changes in the adolescentinevitably focuses the adolescent's atte;Ition on the physical self, and sonetimes,anxieties about other mattes such as self-confidence and security,may be diverted into concrete manii'estations such as cramps, or stuffynoses, which adolescents may exaggerate, 'They may imagine something is wrong with their heartbeat, breathing,or digestion. Sometimes the anxieties aboutself-concept in relation to emotional confidence or stabili"y may be so overwhelmingthat the adolescent fears he/she is going crazy. Dismissing such symptomsexacerbates the problem, In such cases, the adolescent needs the opportunityto talk about his/her self developmental tasks. Suitable reading on self-concept development in terms that relate to adolescenceor adolescent novels and Pi lms, mdy be recomended(Phillips, 1983).

1 7 and a twiggy type undereat to the pointof malnutrition The tendency to and occurs moreoften in appearance oftenhas its onsetduring adolescence the University ofArizona in the girls than boys,although research from 1983), suggests thatfanatical Nod A,;:onf,loupri!, mediciy (October, obsessions as young womenwith anorexia ner- male runnersexhibit the same number of adolescent femaleanorexics indicates a vosa. The research on often outstandingly As young childrenthey are/were background factors. home, precociously clean, eager toplease, helpful at good, quiet, obedient, They were thepride and in school(Bruch, 1973). dependable and excelling In many cases, and great things wereexpected of them. joy of their parents, childhood, that thechild exerted such firmcontrol during the parents have self and confidencein his/her had difficulty inestablishing a sense of ability to make decisionsby him/herself. parental cues andcontrols as child may become focussed on Such a regulated bodily cues. and not learn torespond to her own determinants of behaviour despite severe malnu- recognise the cues ofhunger, fatigue and, She fails to to a grotesque hyper-activity. Even when reduced trition, many exhibit deny that sheis thin and con- skeleton-like appearance,the adolescent may A paralysing senseof ineffectiveness, a tinue to worry aboutbecoming fat. stubborn masked by surfacenegativism and feeling of beingenslaved, usually It is suggestedthat such cases may defiance makes treatmentdifficult. adolescent develop anidentity separate from need family therapyto help the the parents(Conger, 1977).

GloNCidi;;Trw Depress- have self-esteemelements. Many other illnessesand behaviours may involve disruptedself-concept develop- ion or alcoholism may,in some cases, by self- Some cancers appearto be triggered ment and poorself-esteem. where Medical proceduresand hospitalisation esteem threateningsituations. deprived of self excessively dependentand uninformed or the patient feels study of mothers undermine self-esteem. For example, a initiative, may of them feltthey had births were induced,suggested that many whose babies' their own naturalprocesses. This "failed" to accomplishthe birth by of of adequacy inthe early stages appeared to alsoaffect their feelings mothering(Trowell, 1982). protecting boastful person, isoften one who is The aggressive person,or the professional may outwardly showyfacade. The arrogant poorself-esteem by an he/she does not esteem is severelythreatened because actually be one whose he/she does. Chil- but wishes to conveythe impression know all the answers, reading epilepsy (Young,1983) or learning or dren withhandicaps such as teachers orcaretakers excessively naughtybecause th:Hr problems, may become their potential. They and do not allowthem to express regard them poorly Rejected children, orchildren suffer- frustrated by theirincompetence. are during a divorce areoften exasperatingly ing the departureof a parent (Phillips, 1979). and negative becausethey feel unworthy naughty, aggressive assessed as spoiltwhen what they Coo olten, suchchildren are mistakenly affection, attention,and self-esteem. need is,in fact, patient

16' As indicated at the beginning of this paper, self-concept andself-esteem are based upon behaviours. Thus, where self-esteem ispoor, positive behaviour changes which activelyinvolve a sense of competence havea good effect. Parents and professionals may benefit by adaptations of thepro- grammes suggested in this paper. These are h.lpful in the family,school, hospital, and similar settings.

This paper is basedon sominaos given in the Department of Health Education, RoyalHospital for Women, Paddington, October 8th, 1983,for the Royal Australian College of General Practitioners.

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