CODE SWITCHING AND READING ACHIEVEMENT OF
FIRST GRADE BILINGUAL STUDENTS
by
SUSAN MARTIN LARA, B.S. in Ed.. M.S. in Ed.
A DISSERTATION
IN
EDUCATION
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
Approved
Accepted
December, 1990 I ^^ '^ ACKNOWLEDGMENTS }J0 , / D / I would like to thank my committee for all of their time and help, especially Herman S. Garcia, who has supported me in my educational endeavors. ^—^
I would like to dedicate this work to my family: my parents, who have always encouraged me, and rny husband Tom and my son Artie, who have allowed me the time and have given me the motivation to finish.
11 TABLS OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ii
ABSTRACT v
LIST OF TABLES vii
CHAPTER
I. INTRODUCTION 1
Statement of the Problem 11
Purpose and Objectives 11
Hypotheses 12
Limitations of the Study 13
Definition of Terms 14
II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 16
Theoretical Perspective 16
Overview of Bilingual Education 17
Research Regarding Code Switching 27
Grammatical Concerns 34
Code Switching and Bilingual Education .... 43
III. METHODOLOGY 46
Design 47
Subjects and Setting 49
Procedures 50
Instruments 52
Home Language Survey 52
Science Research Association (SRA) Achievement Tests 52
Texas Educational Assessment of Minimal Skills (TEAMS) 52
i i i Language Assessment Scales 53 Procedure for Determining Percentage of Code Switching 53
Houghton Mifflin Informal Reading Inventories 54
Parent Interviews 55
Limitations 55
Contributions of the Study 55
IV. ANALYSIS OF DATA 57
Demographic Information 58
Hypotheses 65
Hypothesis 1 66
Hypothesis 2 66
Hypothesis 3a 72
Hypothesis 3b 75
Hypothesis 3c 77
Hypothesis 3d 77
V. CONCLUSIONS 83
Effects of Code Switching on Reading Achievement 85 Effects of Language Fluency on Reading Achievement 86
Effects of Demographic Data 87
Implications of Parental Attitude toward
Schooling 89
REFERENCES 93
APPENDIX 99
IV ABSTRACT
Code switching and its effects on reading achievement scores of young bilingual children is examined tnrough a series of language interviews and standardized tests. Code switching is defined as the alternation between two languages and reading achievement is defined by scores on standard achievement tests and informal reading inventories.
Forty-two first grade children who were enrolled in a bilingual program in a town in rural West Texas were chosen as subjects for the study.
A quasi study design was employed which utilized all of the first grade children currently enrolled in the bilingual program of the school district. A Pearson correlation was calculated to find the effects of various demographic data on reading scores of these children.
In order to find the effects of code switching on reading achievement and to enhance validity, each child was interviewed by two researchers. A series of pictures was used to stimulate language and a 200-word sample was elicited from each child. The samples were analyzed to determine what percentage of time was spent in code switching. Each child was given an informal reading inventory in Spanish and English. Language fluency tests and standardized reading tests in Spanish and English were available from the permanent record files of the children.
The percentages of code switching from the language samples,
v language fluency tests and the informal reading inventories were correlated with reading achievement scores. No correlation was found between readirig achieve-ment and code switching. After the correlations were performed, two, two-way ANOVAs were constructed to examine the effects of parental value of education and oral language fluency on reading achievement. There was a high level of significance found when oral language scores were calculated with reading achievement. No interaction effects were found in either of the two-way ANOVA procedures. This study indicates that code switching does not affect reading achievement of young bilingual children. Reading achievement was found to be related to oral language fluency and to parental percep+:ion of the importance of education.
VI LIST OF TABLES
1 Monchly Income 59
2 Number of Siblings 59
3 Parental Education 60
4 Parental Attitude Regarding Education 61
5 Pearson Correlation Regarding Reading and Code Switching 67 6 Pearson Correlation Coefficents Regarding Reading Scores and Oral Language 70 7 Table of Means of Reading Achievement Con sidering Code Switching and Spanish Language Fluency 71
8 Two-way ANOVA Model Considering Reading Achieve ment, Code Switching, and Language Fluency .... 73
9 ANOVA Summary Table Considering Code Switching, Spanish Language Fluency, and Two-Way Interaction 74
10 Pearson Correlation Coefficient between Monthly Income and Reading Scores 76
11 Pearson Correlation Coefficient between Number of Family Members and Reading Achievement .... 76 12 Pearson Correlation Coefficient between Reading Achievement and Parental Education 78
13 Pearson Correlation Coefficient between Parental Perception of Necessary Schooling and Reading Achievement 80
14 Table of Means of Reading Achievement Con sidering Code Switching and Parental Perception of Necessary Schooling 81
15 ANOVA Model Considering Reading Achievement, Code Switching, and Parental Perception of Necessary Schooling 81
16 ANOVA Summary Table Considering Code Switching, Parental Perception of Necessary Schooling, and Two-Way Interaction 82
v II CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Bilingual individuals of all ages code switch when interacting in the bilingual community. Kioke (1987) defines code switching as the alternation between the grammatical and lexical systems of two or more languages.
This alternation may serve a social function or it may reflect a lexical need (Kioke, 1987; Olmedo-Williams, 1981).
Code switching serves sociolinguistic purposes in bilingual communities and is a natural language behavior. The primary function of code switching is communication.
A review of the literature reveals that researchers who have studied code switching in depth find a great deal of logic to the phenomenon of language mixing (Garcia, 1981;
Olmedo-Williams, 1981). In contrast to the code switching research, many school officials believe that code switching is not a desirable behavior (Lessow-Hur1ey, 1990; Ovando &
Collier, 1985; Penalosa, 1981; Stein, 1986; Williams &
Snipper , 1990) .
Many times children may be considered alingual if they code switch. School personnel may assume that if the child lacks fluency in either language, English should be the language of instruction (Lessow-Hurley, 1990). After all, it is English that is necessary for success in our country.
When it is believed that English is best for code switchers. 2 the result may be that code switchers are not placed in bilingual education programs.
Prior to 1960, research in dual language acquisition usually concluded that bilingualism was an academic handicap, rather than a cognitive asset (Cummins & Swain,
1986; Thompson, 1952). Studies showed that bilingual child ren did poorly in school, scored lower on verbal tests, and scored lower on intelligence tests; however, socioeconomic factors, culture, and test biases were not considered in these studies (Cummins & Swain, 1986; Lessow-Hurley, 1990).
The results of this kind of research likely affect the opinions school officials have of language minority students today. One evidence of this is that some recent studies have revealed results similar to studies prior to 1960.
These studies say that bilingual children do poorly in school. However, the testing language was usually English and, again, important demographic data such as socioeconomic status, culture, and testing bias are not considered.
Bilingual children who do not receive the benefit of a bilingual education program often do poorly on achievement tests (Cummins & Swain, 1986).
The fact that language minority students traditionally score lower on standardized tests seems to lead school officials to believe that Spanish is a handicap and that it should be eliminated as quickly as possible (Lessow-Hurley,
1990) . In Texas, before the late sixties, Spanish was banned from classrooms and children were punished for using
Spanish in school (Lessow-Hurley, 1990). This practice led to a belief that children should learn only English and that they should learn it as quickly as possible.
Traditionally, English has been valued and Spanish has been devalued in schools in Texas. The devaluation of
Spanish creates doubt about using Spanish in classrooms and makes it difficult for school officials to make the decision about placing children in bilingual education programs. The fact that bilingual children code switch compounds these decisions even more by adding the problem of determining which language is dominant (Lessow-Hurley, 1990; Snipper &
Williams, 1990; Stein, 1986).
Since the rationale for placement in Texas bilingual programs relies on the determination of language dominance, by law, important decisions ..egarding placement of language minority students are made based on fluency in both languages. First, school officials must determine if a language other than English is used in the home. This is usually done by taking a home language survey from the parents of all children who enroll m school. If officials determine that a child speaks a language other than English at home, that child must be given tests of language fluency to determine which language is the strongest. If the child is limited in English proficiency, he should be placed in a bilingual or English as a Second Language (E.S.L.) program (Tipton, 1990).
Bilingual education programs in Texas are transitional.
The stated goal of these programs is to exit the child from
bilingual education as soon as possible (Tipton, 1990).
Research shows that children who stay in bilingual education
programs until at least sixth grade score better on
achievement tests (Crawford, 1989). Despite this research,
children in Texas are usually exited from bilingual
education programs before sixth grade (Tipton, 1990).
School officials, then, face a difficult decision when
placing language minority students. They must determine the
child's strongest language through oral language fluency
tests. Often children from bilingual backgrounds code
switch and this language mixing may be revealed through the
oral language testing. Code switching on tests of language
fluency may cause the fluency scores of these tests to be
lowered. Another problem with language testing is that
tests generally are administered as soon as the child
enrolls in school. Factors such as shyness, the newness of
the school setting, and the language expectations of the
school may influence the responses given on language tests.
In addition to the above testing problems, traditional
Hispanic families socialize children to show respect to adults by limiting conversations with elders to answering questions and taking care of necessities (Ovando & Collier, 1986). This cultural difference often results in less
language emerging when oral language tests are given, since adults administer these tests. Also, the child may believe
that English is the language of the school, since Spanish has not always been valued in Texas schools. This may cause
the child to avoid speaking in Spanish; therefore, his/her
language scores in Spanish would be lowered (Lessow-Hurley,
1990) .
Placement decisions are compounded by the limited
interaction with adults, testing procedures, code switching, and the goals of transitional programs. Often it appears
that the child lacks fluency in Spanish because of limited
responses or because of code switching. Since the majority
of code switches occur for social reasons, it is likely that
the child who code switches does so to enhance the ability
to communicate (Garcia, 1981). Traditionally, school personnel have expected children to speak English, and the child who is limited in English fluency may use as much
English as possible to please the adult administering the test. This occurs whether or not the examiner has this expectat ion.
For a variety of reasons, decisions to place children
in a bilingual program are very difficult. Code switching compounds the decision. Many principals, teachers, and diagnosticians lack training in principles of second language acquisition and in cultural matters (Stein, 1986). 6
The lack of knowledge regarding sociolinguistic matters may result in a lack of understanding of code switching. Often it is assumed that the child who code switches lacks vocabulary in either language; however, research has clearly shown that most code switching occurs for social reasons.
Zentella (1982) found that only 22% of all switches resulted from lexical need. The remaining 78% of instances of language mixing was done for social reasons.
Research shows a variety of reasons for code switching.
Although lexical need is one reason for code switching, language mixing serves a variety of social functions. The speaker may switch languages to express personal feelings or to accommodate the listener. A speaker may mix languages to attract attention; moreover, code switching emphasizes and reiterates the message. Code switching may be used for humor, interjections, clarification, or for parenthetical statements. Bilingual individuals may mix languages to change topics and to exclude or include others in the conversation. In the classroom, code switching may be used for instructional purposes or to regulate behavior (Garcia,
1981; Kioke, 1987; Olmedo-Williams, 1981; Ovando & Collier,
1986) . Garcia (1981) found that children were much less likely to code switch while conversing in English. Eighty percent of code switches occurred while children were conversing in
Spanish. This seems to confirm that children are aware that it is acceptable to switch with other bilinguals and that it is inappropriate to switch with monolingual English speakers. Zentella (1982) found that children were likely to accommodate the need of the listener when speaking.
Thus, they would choose English, Spanish, or a combination of languages to communicate effectively in a given situ- at ion.
Considering these functions of code switching, it is evident that language mixing is a complicated process which requires a rich repertoire of languages. These language combinations enhance oral communication. Research shows that code switching is acceptable in oral communication; however, there is a need to examine the effects of language mixing on written communication. Although some research exists regarding the effects of code switching on writing, little has been done to examine the effects of language mixing on reading achievement. Since bilingual education programs use two languages for instruction, it is crucial to examine the ramifications of code switching on reading achievement.
The education of language minority students has changed at various times in recent history. The traditional curriculum for language minority students did not allow special reading instruction for students who spoke languages other than English at home. Recent efforts have included
E.S.L. programs and bilingual education. Bilingual 8 education includes a daily E.S.L. component or language development period; however, the native language is used for initial reading instruction and to develop academic concepts.
Since the late sixties, bilingual education programs have received federal funding and many states have mandates requiring that districts serve language minority children with bilingual education. Lau v. Nichols (1974) set prece dence within the judicial system for bilingual education.
The court ruled that the San Francisco schools had to provide special language instruction for Chinese students who did not understand English. After numerous government interventions, bilingual education has been implemented in varying degrees in many states. The education of language minority students has been debated and litigated extensively and the effectiveness of bilingual education has been the topic of numerous studies.
A highly publicized review of research funded by the federal government contended that bilingual programs are ineffective (Baker & deKanter, 1983). Later, another researcher, Willig, reanalyzed the data used by Baker and deKanter by employing a sophisticated statistical technique called meta analysis. She concluded that the actual problem with ineffective programs is not the actual bilingual instruction; the problem is that these programs are not implemented properly (Willig, 1985). 9
Baker and deKanter's study may have been reflective of political pressure to disprove the effectiveness of bilingual education. The antibilingua1 ism position of the
Reagan administration set the political tone for devaluing
the use of native language instruction, while efforts to prove English-only methodology in the classroom flourished.
Political issues in bilingual education have always manifested themselves in all branches of the U.S. government. Too many times decisions about bilingual programs are based on politics when they should be based on sound educational research. It seems a continuous political debate flourishes around bilingual education (Crawford,
1989) .
One of the issues in this debate has been the use of native language reading instruction for language minority students. Reading is crucial to success in school; therefore, schools carefully must decide what language(s) should be used for reading instruction with language minority students. If language minority students are to improve their school achievement, sound educational research must be readily available to support methods that work.
Cummins (1984b) suggests the need to examine the relationship between the language proficiency level of bilingual students to academic achievement in bilingual programs. Cummins also discusses the need to examine the entry and exit criteria for students in bilingual programs. 10 These students should be considered carefully when placement is decided. It appears that there is a need for research regarding reading instruction for language minority students . Research needs to reveal the effects of code switching on reading achievement, since reading instruction is crucial for students entering a bilingual program. There is a need to determine the possible ramifications of code switching on initial reading instruction in Spanish, since bilingual classrooms often employ the teaching of reading in Spanish. The knowledge of the effects of code switching on reading achievement in Spanish would help officials make important decisions about placing students in bilingual education programs. In summary, there appears to be confusion regarding code switching in the classroom. Students who code switch may be perceived as being more fluent in English than they are in Spanish when actually they lack the academic proficiency in English needed to be successful in school. Code switching should be examined within the parameters of academic achievement. This knowledge would help school personnel make difficult decisions regarding placement of students in bilingual education programs. There is a need to decide when it is appropriate to provide native language reading instruction for code switchers. It is imperative 11 that students be given the appropriate reading instruction to meet their linguistic and academic needs.
Statement of the Problem Language minority students often code switch when they speak. Since bilingual education programs are available for these students, language minority children frequently receive initial reading instruction in Spanish. This means that the standard Spanish used for reading instruction will vary from the language mixing used for interpersonal communication. Educators may question the need for Spanish reading instruction when children are using a combination of Spanish and English in their interpersonal communication. When questions arise regarding placement for initial reading instruction, educators need to examine code switching and its effects on reading achievement. There is a substantial amount of research regarding code switching, and there is an abundance of research regarding reading achievement, yet there is an absence of research regarding the effects of code switching on reading achievement. This study will examine the effects of code switching on reading performance as determined by reading instruction given in the native language.
Purpose and Objectives The purposes of the study are to determine if code switching affects reading achievement of first grade 12 language minority students and to determine the relationship among reading achievement, oral language, and demographic variables. The following demographic variables were con sidered through a parental interview: occupation, family
income, parents' education, educational aspirations for the child, size of family, and language(s) used in the home and community. The major objectives of this study are as
follows:
1. to examine the correlation between code switching and
reading scores on the following measures: TEAMS test,
SRA test, and the Houghton Mifflin Informal Reading
Inventory;
2. to determine the relationship among native language
fluency, reading, and code switching; and
3. to determine how demographic variables such as family
income, parental occupation, number of siblings, number
of extended family, level of parental education, and
parental value of education affect code switching and
reading achievement.
Hypotheses
The following hypotheses have been made regarding the
expected results of the study:
1. Code switching will not significantly affect the
reading achievement of bilingual first grade students
learning to read in their native language as determined
by standardized reading scores on the TEAMS test, SRA 13 tests, and the Houghton Mifflin Informal Reading Inventory.
2. There will be no significant correlation between native
language fluency and Spanish reading achievement, nor
will there be any significant interaction effects
between code switching and native language fluency as
determined by a two-way ANOVA.
3. There will be no significant correlation between
reading achievement and the following demographic data: (a) parental occupation and/or monthly income;
(b) number of siblings and extended family members;
(c) level of parental education; and
(d) parental perception of necessary schooling, nor
will there be any significant interaction between
code switching and the parental perception of
necesjary schooling, as determined by a two-way
ANOVA.
Limitations of the Study
This study is limited to the children enrolled in the first grade bilingual education program in a rural community in West Texas for the academic year 1988-1989. Generali zations of this study to other school districts and to other regions of the United States need to be considered in relation to the characteristics of the bilingual population stud ied. 14 Definition of Terms The following definitions were applied for the purposes of this study:
Code switching—This term was used to describe the mix
ing of two languages (Spanish and English) during
conversation. Code switching will be measured in terms of
percentage of utterances which contain language mixing. For
the purposes of this study, code switching will be defined
as switching within a single utterance.
Reading achievement—This term was used in relation to
scores on the TEAMS, a standardized criterion referenced reading test; the S.R.A., a standardized norm referenced
reading and language achievement test; and the Houghton
Mifflin Informal Reading Inventory.
Language minority student--This term was used to de scribe students who come from a home where a language other than English is spoken. It may be that the other language is spoken in combination with English or the other language may be the sole medium of communication.
Bilingual education programs--This term was used to de scribe a program designed for language minority students, which uses the child's native language as a medium of instruction and includes an English as a Second Language component.
English as a Second Language (ESL)--This was used to describe instruction aimed at developing oral and written 15 skills in English for students whose home language is not
English or is a combination of English and another language.
Bilingual students--For this study, the term bilingual students was used to describe students who speak two
languages at various levels of fluency, and this term will
not necessarily denote a certain level of proficiency in either language.
Placement--This term was used to describe the placement
of students in Spanish or English reading instruction. CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Theoretical Perspective
Code switching is an interesting phenomenon which is
prevalent among bilingual populations anywhere in the world.
Code switching occurs when a bilingual individual chooses to
mix languages, to enhance communication. There are a
variety of reasons for code switching and there are
linguistic rules that govern code switching. Language
mixing is a viable form of communication within the
bilingual community and it serves as a unique form of
cultural identification. In order to develop an under
standing of code switching, it is crucial that
lexica1ization and social reasons for code switching be
examined .
The current study examines the effects of code
switching on academic achievement. Since reading scores are
often used as a predictor of academic success (Ovando &
Collier, 1987), the current study proposes to examine the
interaction between code switching and reading. Other
factors that may affect reading achievement are examined as
wel 1 . The purpose of this chapter is to examine bilingual
education programs, to provide an understanding of the complex behavior of code switching, and to examine how code
16 17 switching affects placement procedures for bilingual children.
Many political factors affect bilingual education, and historically bilingual education has not been well understood in the United States. Code switching is an overt behavior of bilingual children and it often affects how others view these children. It is important to understand bilingual education and code switching in order to provide an appropriate education for language minority children.
Overview of Bilingual Education
It is important to understand how code switching influences the reading proficiency of bilingual students. A careful examination of the research regarding bilingual education indicates that native language instruction is effective with Spanish-speaking minority students (Crawford,
1989; Hakuta & Gould, 1987; Penalosa, 1981; Willig, 1985).
Evidence regarding the success of bilingual education must be carefully examined to ascertain that students benefit from initial reading instruction in Spanish. Furthermore, research needs to be examined regarding the effects of code switching on Spanish reading achievement.
Bilingual education is often an issue in American education, and the perception of its goals are often contorted by the majority population. Press coverage of bilingual education is often stilted in favor of those who find it unacceptable. Many people assume that bilingual 18 education stemmed from legislation in the sixties and that it is a result of the war on poverty era of Kennedy and
Nixon (Crawford, 1989; Ovando & Collier, 1985; Stein, 1986) .
Bilingual education in the United States is distinguished in two time periods: the period prior to 1959 and the post-1959 period. In the pre-1959 period, bilingual education existed primarily in parochial schools.
Traditionally, immigrant groups retained their native languages for religious purposes. Most of these groups experienced language loss within three generations.
Language loss often occurred because of political pressures to assimilate into the mainstream of American Society.
Traditionally, second generation immigrants were bilingual, but third generation offspring spoke only English. However, many Hispanics in the southwestern United States have continued to retain their native language and culture. It was not until the period after 1959 that language minority children were more frequently served by bilingual education programs in the public schools (Anderson & Boyer, 1970).
This period is characterized by federal legislation and by court decisions which influenced policy on bilingual education (Ovando & Collier, 1985).
In 1959, large numbers of Cuban refugees arrived in
Dade County, Florida, and this group of people established
Spanish schools for their children. The Cubans believed they would soon return to Cuba, but the political situation 19
in Cuba did not improve and they were unable to go back. As
a result, parents pushed for bilingual programs in the
public schools. The first public school designed to meet
the needs of these students using two languages was the
Coral Way Elementary School. Language minority students in
this situation came from middle-class homes and had a strong
foundation in their native language. Their higher
socioeconomic backgrounds and the use of Cuban teachers
helped ensure the success of this program. Following the
triumph of the Coral Way School, other bilingual programs
were started in Dade County, Florida (Anderson & Boyer,
1972; Crawford, 1989; Stein, 1986).
A number of studies of the 1950's showed language
minority children were lagging behind in school achievement
(Crawford, 1989)1. A host of legislation was enacted on the
federal level following these studies. Many of the new laws
were results of the War on Poverty which swept the country
in the sixties and early seventies. Some of the laws which
influenced bilingual education legislation included the
Indian Education Act, the Migrant Education Act, the Ethnic
Heritage Program, the Head Start Program, the Follow Through
Program, and the Bilingual Education Act of 1968 (Stein,
1986). These laws called attention to the needs of language minority children. Many of the programs which resulted from
the legislation served the same group of language minority chiIdren. 20
More government support came m the seventies. In 1974
and 1978, the Bilingual Education Act, resulting in a number
of local programs receiving "start-up" funds for three years
or longer, was refunded through additional bilingual
education acts. Three goals were set by the federal
government programs receiving this seed money. These wete
to increase English skills, to maintain and develop the
native tongue and to support the culture of the children
served (Ovando & Collier, 1986). In 1974, the United States
Supreme Court (Lau v. Nichols) ruled that districts with
students of limited English proficiency should provide
bilingual education to ensure the fair education of language minority students.
The Lau v. Nichols case is considered landmark legisla
tion in bilingual education. This case involved Chinese children in San Francisco, California, who were not able to participate fully in school because of language differences.
The Chinese parents filed suit, and as a result, the court's decision supported special language programs for language minority students. This decision has affected bilingual education across the nation.
Bilingual education was threatened in the early eighties with the beginning of the Reagan administration.
The conservative position in this administration was shown quite clearly as the U.S. Department of Education set out to eliminate the use of non-English languages in United States 21 schools. Attempts to discredit bilingual education were highlighted by press coverage of studies which showed bilingual education programs to be ineffective (Baker & deKanter, 1981; Stein, 1986). Then, in a contradictory move, in 1984 when Reagan needed tho Hispanic vote, he declared his support for bilingual education (Stein, 1986).
Since 1984, bilingual education legislation has been pending in Congress, accompanied by protest from opposition groups such as U.S. English, conservatives in Congress, and presidential cabinet members. Recent Education Secretaries
Bell and Bennett opposed bilingual education despite research studies proving its effectiveness. Bilingual education is not only an educational issue, clearly it is a political one as well (Crawford, 1980; Lessow-Hurley, 1990).
Federal policies regarding dual language instruction are often shaped by politics and local policies regarding bilingual education are also steeped in politics. Local officials who have decision-making power may be opposed to the idea of using a language other than English in the classroom. This attitude toward dual language instruction is compounded by code switching in language minority children. When bilingual children mix languages, officials may assume that these children lack fluency in both languages and that they are in fact alingual (Crawford,
1989; Lessow-Hurley, 1990; Penalosa, 1982; Stein, 1986).
However, it is important to remember that bilingual 22 individuals everywhere mix languages to enhance communication. It is also crucial to examine the success of language minority children who have been placed in bilingual programs .
Defining bilingual education is difficult, since there
are a variety of possible meanings of the term "bilingual."
Bilingual indicates the use of two languages, but there are
a variety of ways two languages can be used in a classroom.
Sometimes a language other than English is used for
instructional purposes, while in other situations, the
native language is used for brief explanations (Stein,
1986). At other times, so-called "bilingual programs"
actually do not use the native language at all. If tnis is
the case, the word "bilingual" is an inappropriate
descriptor. One of the biggest problems with research in
bilingual education is the variance among programs.
There is a variety of research available regarding
bilingual education. Some research has revealed that
bilingual education programs are not very effective. One of
these studies was financed by the Office of Planning, Budget
and Evaluation of the United States Department of Education.
This research was based on the Reading and Math scores
reported in some 28 previous studies. The scores of
bilingual program children were compared to the scores of children in traditional programs. The bilingual programs did not show significant progress when compared to 23 traditional programs (Baker & deKanter, 1981). This study was highly publicized by previous Secretary of Education William Bennett. Based on this study and others, many have concluded that bilingual education must be ineffective (Crawford, 1990; Stein, 1986).
A later analysis by Ann Willig (1985) showed that the
research design for Baker and deKanter's study was
inadequate. Willig's study revealed that when properly
implemented, bilingual education is indeed effective. The
research done by Willig utilized the same studies used by
Baker and deKanter. Willig used a technique called meta
analysis which allowed her to pull all the variables from
the various studies analyzed by Baker and deKanter. She
then reanalyzed the data and compared like variables and she
found that in many cases the research design used in these
studies was poor. Children from different demographic
backgrounds were compared to one another, and this resulted
in inaccurate findings by Baker and deKanter (Willig, 1985).
Several factors came out in the various studies when
Willig performed the meta-analysis on Baker and deKanter's data. One of these factors which affects school achievement
is socioeconomic status. Poor children do not do as well in school, thus making parental occupation an important variable in school achievement. There is an economic difference between various blue collar workers which can affect data regarding school achievement. Even the 24 difference between truck drivers and field hands designates a socioeconomic gap which significantly affects the academic achievement of this group of children (Willig, 1985).
Another factor Willig found significant was the point at which children were exited from bilingual education programs. It is difficult to know when children are ready to exit programs, and many times conversational fluency causes the children to appear fluent in English when academic vocabulary is lacking. If the child's academic vocabulary is limited, it will be more difficult for the child to achieve academic success in an all-English curriculum. Willig found that children exited early were less likely to be successful than were those who remained in the program for longer periods of time (Willig, 1985).
The most crucial factor in bilingual education seems to be the planning and implementation of programs. A bilingual program must be properly implemented to be successful. The attitude of the community and administrators seems to be a significant factor in success of bilingual programs. Often, hostility toward the bilingual program exists, and this creates other affective factors which may lead to limited success (Stein, 1986), Willig (1985) found that the Baker and deKanter study did not consider the community and school attitude regarding bilingual education. This contributed to the faulty design of their research. 25
Another problem with Baker and deKanter's research is that when bilingual education is mandated, it is difficult to find comparison groups. Even when the program is experimental, it is difficult to match subjects for comparison. This may help explain why Baker and deKanter's research was not sound. An equivalent comparison group is needed in order to discover if bilingual education is effective. Other researchers relate similar problems with a lack of random assignment to groups for study (Hakuta &
Gould, 1987) .
A recent longitudinal study in Arizona revealed that children who were in a maintenance program in kindergarten through fifth grades scored at the national norms on standardized achievement tests. This group of children had graduated from high school and they were compared to another group of children who graduated from high school, but were served only by the monolingual program. The results showed both groups scoring at the national norms. The authors mentioned that the comparison group differed from the other group in socioeconomic status. This problem in research design is similar to the problems of the Baker and deKanter research (Medina, Saldate, & Mishra, 1985).
In a study commissioned by the Department of Education, the SRA technologies designed a study to overcome some of the difficulties in research design. Comparison groups were carefully matched, as was the proportional use of 26
language(s) in the classroom. The purpose of the study was
to compare early exit transitional bilingual programs to
structured immersion and late-exit bilingual education.
Early-exit or transitional programs .mainstream children
after two or three years, while late-exit programs maintain
bilingual education through the sixth grade. Structured
immersion programs use the native language informally, and
the primary language of the classroom is English.
Preliminary results showed that students in late-exit
bilingual programs scored the highest in academic subjects
when tested in English. Students in early-exit programs
scored higher than did those in structured immersion
programs (Crawford, 1989).
Another study showed that students in a bilingual
program scored higher on comprehension skills than did their
peers in traditional programs. Both groups mastered word
attack skills, which require memorization of sounds and
syllabication. However, when comprehension was examined,
the students in the bilingual program scored four grade
levels above the monolingually instructed students
(Mortensen, 1984).
Other research shows that students who are taught in their native languages score higher on cognitive skills.
Bilingualism is a cognitive asset, according to a synthesis of research regarding bilingual education. This synthesis of research revealed that children who were ir a bilingual 27
education program scored higher on tests requiring high-
level thinking skills (Hakuta & Gould, 1987). These authors
point out that bilingual education can vary according to the
district's interpretation and that early-exit programs
produce less success.
While the research shows that bilingual education is
effective, no definite research has emerged regarding the
effects of code switching on reading achievement in the
native language. It is crucial to examine code switching to
determine the nature of this language behavior. Since local
policy may be based on the assumption that code switchers
are alingual, it is imperative that code switching be
understood.
Research Regarding Code Switching
Code switching is defined as the alternation between
two or more lexical systems (Kioke, 1987). Code switching
occurs when a speaker mixes two or more languages when
communicating. Code switching may occur for a variety of
reasons and there are grammatical rules used by bilingual people during code switching. Code switching occurs in a
variety of contexts, including formal speeches, classroom
instruction, and informal narration. In order to understand bilingual children, it is important to examine code switching and its unique qualities.
A careful review of the research reveals that the reasons for code switching are primarily social. 28
Olmedo-Williams (1981) describes nine categories of code
switching from her study of language mixing in classroom
settings. These categories include emphasis, sociolin-
guistic play, clarification, accommodation, lexica 1 i za tion,
attracting attention, regulating behavior, and miscellaneous
switches .
Sometimes, code switching is used to add zest to the
message or to repeat the message. An example of this type
of language mixing is "correle, run!" The speaker wishes to
communicate the urgency of the message, so it is restated in
English. McClure (1978) describes these instances as
repetitions in translation. These repetitions serve as
clarifiers and they emphasize the message.
If a child wants to attract the attention of another
speaker, code switching may be used for more effective
communication. When getting someone's attention, it may be more effective to code switch than to continue in the
original language (Olmedo-Williams, 1981). An example which
is often evidenced in bilingual classrooms is the use of mira to say "look." If a child is talking in English to a bilingual classmate and he wants to attract immediate attention, the use of mira is likely to produce a quick re sponse .
A change in languages allows for humor, puns, and teasing. A humorous message may be communicated through code switching by manipulating the words to add a certain 29
flavor to the message. If a person says in English, "I want to take a little siesta," the word siesta communicates a meaning that is difficult to convey in English. The
listener is likely to envision a scorching hot day
interrupted by a peaceful afternoon nap. The use of siesta communicates a fuller mer.sage than the English word "nap" and adds an element of humor to the conversation.
If a person who speaks only English enters a room where
Spanish is being spoken, many times the child will speak
English to accommodate the linguistic needs of the English- speaking person (Olmeda-Williams, 1981). For example, if a principal who is monolingual enters the room, the children will speak to that person in English.
Zentella (1982) found that even young children show a knowledge of when it is appropriate to speak English,
Spanish, or a combination of both. In this study, it was found that children often used Spanish with the elderly or with younger siblings, while English was used with other groups. Those who obviously spoke only
English were addressed in English. Code switching was used to communicate with those who spoke Spanish and
English.
Olmedo-Williams (1981) discusses lexica1ization and clarification as other reasons for code switching. These two reasons for code switching are related to the ability to express oneself better in the other language on a given 30 topic. For example, a speaker may wish to resolve ambiguous statements by code switching. He may know the word in Spanish, but he chooses to use English because it expresses the message clearly. Code switching is influenced by the setting and by the activity. In informal situations, children are more likely to code switch (Olmedo-Williams, 1981). The data from her study were gathered in formal and informal settings within a bilingual classroom. Goodman and Goodman (1979), in a study on writing in bilingual classrooms, found that children often use language switching in spoken language, but rarely in written language. Since spoken language is less formal than written language, this seems to support Olmedo- Williams' conclusion that children code switch less in formal situations. In other instances, lexicalization occurs because the speaker does not know the word(s) in the language he/she is speaking. It is important to realize that code switching occurs primarily for social reasons, but lexicalization does occur . In the classroom, concepts introduced in English may elicit English responses. A child who has always lived in the United States may not know the Spanish word for fireman. If firemen have been called to put out a fire at home, it is likely that they were called in English. For that reason, a class taking a field trip to the fire station may refer to 31 "Los fireman," instead of Los bomberos. In this case, lexi cal ization occurs because the word is unknown in the native language.
In tne classroom, it was noted that students switched
languages to learn vocabulary in the second language. These cases were labeled instructional switches because they served a need which was tied to the activity of the classroom. It was noted that the teacher influenced the nature of code switching. Children used switches that were similar to those the teacher modeled. The teacher set the precedent for language choice in the classroom. It was noted that the assigned task and presence of the teacher also were situational factors in code switching (Olmedo-
Williams, 1981) .
In bilingual classrooms, teachers select the language of instruction and tViey switch to serve a variety of
instructional purposes. A teacher may use English to regulate behavior, switch to Spanish for instruction, and then switch back to English to answer a call on the loud speaker. While state and federal mandates on bilingual education may arbitrarily dictate the language of instruction, teachers ultimately choose the language(s) to be used in a given situation (Fitch, 1983) .
In Texas, for example, the state has published Time and
Treatment Guidelines for bilingual education to regulate the percentage of the day spent using each language. Spanish is 32 given a higher percentage of use than English in kindergarten and the lower grades. The goal of transitional bilingual education is to give initial instruction in
Spanish, but to switch the language of instruction to
English as quickly as possible. Since Texas advocates transitional bilingual education, English is given a higher percentage of use in the upper grades. These guidelines have been set arbitrarily, and while they indicate to teachers the expectations of the state, there is no real way to monitor the use of language(s) in the classroom. The teacher makes this important decision hundreds of times each day (Tipton, 1990).
Olmedo-Williams does not identify code switching for sociocultural identification purposes as one of the nine categories she describes. Other researchers, however, acknowledge that code switching provides a cultural identity for Hispanics. This emotional rationale for code switching occurs when a person sees a bilingual friend and says,
"Que Tal?" instead of "What's happening?" While the surface structure appears to be small talk, the deep structure says that both individuals are affiliated with a distinct cultural group (Fitch, 1983; Scotton, 1979) . This message is significant because it is tied to cultural group identity. The individual cultural identity of people in a bilingual community is clearly marked by the language of choice. The language one speaks gives important information 33
about the cultural identity of the individual. A Hispanic
businessman giving a formal speech in English to a group of
Hispanics may code switch to culturally identify with the
group he is addressing. A bilingual clerk in a store will
address in Spanish strangers who appear to be Hispanic.
Even though the clerk does not know if that person is
bilingual, the message is sent that a cultural identity is
being made.
Language is used to facilitate cohesion within the
cultural group. Cultural conflicts arise over the use of
languages in a given setting. Tension may arise due to a
particular language or dialect (Fitch, 1983). It is
important to consider the mixed emotions which occur among
educators when children do code switch. Educators often
feel that this language switching indicates a lack of
fluency in the primary language (Penalosa, 1981).
Olmedo-Williams discusses the socialized use of
language in home and school settings. The language in the
home is regulated by cultural norms. For example, children may learn that it is not acceptable to interrupt adults or
correct one's elders even if they are in error. Classroom
rules for language use are different and the bilingual child quickly learns which language is to be used in a given
situation. He discovers that code switching may be used for more effective behavior. 34 Code switching varies in different regions of the United States. An in-depth study of over 6,000 children revealed that code switching occurs more in the South and in Texas than it does in other geographic regions (Garcia, 1981) . Perhaps this is due to the close proximity of Latin American countries in these areas. Code switching was found to increase steadily from preschool to first grade in Texas. In other regions, code switching initially increased, then decreased between kindergarten and first grade. Since there appears to be more code switching in Texas than in other regions, it would seem reasonable to assume that some effort should be made to examine the effects of code switching on academic achievement of children in this region (Garcia, 1981) .
Grammatical Concerns There are many types of code switches and there are grammatical rules which apply to code switching. In general, switches may occur at the word level, at the phrase level, at the clause level, or at the sentence level. It is important to note how different researcners classify the various types of switches. Switches which occur at the word level include pachuco or Anglicized words. For example, some words are created by attaching Spanish affixes to English roots. Examples of this type of switching include watchar for the infinitive, to watch; puchar for the infinitive, to push; porche for 35
porch; and yarda for yard. The other type of word switches
include borrowing from the other language. An example of
this is "Viene la teacher." to say "Here comes the teacher."
The word teacher is simply borrowed from English. While it
is likely that the child knows the word Maestra , he chooses
to use "teacher," probably because the language of the
school has been defined as English. This type of switching
indicates a type of code mixing, rather than a distinct code
change.
One researcher defines two types of code switching: code mixing and code changes. However, both code mixing and code changing are considered part of the broader category of code switching. Code changes denote a change of language, such as changing languages to accommodate a person who speaks only English. Code mixes indicate the borrowing of a word from the other language, vvhile code changes alter the actual language being spoken (McClure, 1978).
An example of a code change would be "Aquella Marta, a ella le qusta hacer puro show off. (That Marta, she just likes to show off.) She just likes to be in the middle of everything." In this case, the speaker actually changes the language of communication from Spanish to English. In the case of code mixing, the speaker continues to speak in the same language, but uses borrowed words. An example of code mixing would be: "My jefe (boss) says we have to do it this way." In this case, the word jefe is borrowed, but the Ian- 36 guage of communication is still English (McClure, 1978),
One type of code mixing occurs at the phrase level. In
these cases, speakers insert phrases in the other language.
There may be a variety of reasons for doing this, but one
cited by several researchers is the desire to communicate
more effectively. Some phrases in English do not have
translations which express the given idea as adequately as
does the Spanish language. This may be the case with
idiomatic expressions or colloquialisms. McClure (1978)
gives the example, "No van a aceptar a una mujer que can't
talk business," for, they are not going to accept a woman
who can't talk business. In this case, the phrase "can't
talk business" expresses precisely what the speaker wishes
to say. The speaker cannot locate an equivalent phrase in
Spanish, so the alternate language is used (McClure, 1978;
Medina-Nquyen, 1978).
Code switching occurs at the clause level when a
predical portion of an equational sentence is expressed in
the other language. An example of this structure is,
"And my uncle Sam es el mas agavachado." In this case, it
is probable that the phrase in Spanish more adequately
expresses the idea that Sam was the most Americanized than would the same words in English. Agavachado indicates that a person who is not an Anglo has adapted the culture and
language of Anglos and that he has relinquished his own
language and culture. This cultural overtone seems to have 37 been the reason for the language choice of Spanish. While these types of language mixes do occur, switches within phrases and clauses occur less frequently than do borrowing or switches that occur at the sentence level (Gumperz & Hernandez, 1975). Code switching between sentences often serves social purposes, such as accommodation, intimacy, or shifting topics. If a monolingual Spanish speaker enters a room where bilinguals are conversing in English, the speaker may shift to Spanish to include the monolingual Spanish speaker in the conversation (Olmedo-Williams, 1981). Conversely, the speaker may shift languages to exclude someone from the conversation. If an individual wishes to confide private thoughts, a language switch may occur in order to set the mood for more intimate thoughts. If the speaker wishes to change the topic for other reasons, code switching may be employed. In these cases, the speaker may change languages because the subject of conversations demands the use of English. For example, two women discussing a shopping trip might have a conversation such as this: L. Y yo fui a la tienda para comprar carne y me enoje. (I
went to the store to buy meat and I got mad.) S. Por que te enojaste? (Why did you get mad?) L. Porque estaba en la linea y habia una gavacha trabjando. (Because I was in the line and there was a white girl 38 working.) And she said ma'am, can you please move to
the other line? I'm about to close. And I said, "No way! I've been waiting, too."
In this discourse, the speaker finds it easier to
switch to English to quote the clerk and herself speaking in
English. Since the clerk did not speak Spanish, the woman
was required to use English in the store. Other places
which require English include the bank, the post office,
school, work, etc. Therefore, when discussing these
situations, speakers may choose to use English. There are
various reasons for code switching and the research has
revealed a complex grammatical system for code switching.
Code changes and code mixes for lexical need and for
social reasons are part of the complex rules that govern
code switching. Some switches are considered grammatically
correct, while other switches are infrequent because they
are not considered acceptable. For example, research has
shown that it is acceptable to attach Spanish affixes to
English roots, but it is relatively unacceptable to attach
English affixes to Spanish roots (McClure, 1978; Pfaff,
1976). For this reason, the English word "watch" can be converted to watchando (watching) in code switching, but the
Spanish word mira (watch) cannot be converted to miring.
In addition to this rule, Pfaff notes other rules practiced by bilinguals who code switch. One of these rules is that English verbs are acceptable if they are preceded by 39 Spanish verbs which set the mood and tense or if the English verb is the infinitival complement of a conjugated Spanish verb (Pfaff, 1976). It is unlikely that a structure such as "Do"<3e work?" would be used to ask the question, "Where docs he work?" However, a sentence such as "El estaba working" (He was working) is a common example of a structure used by code switchers.
The types of code switches can vary with age. McClure
(1978) describes instances of children code switching between questions and answers. Younger children tend to relexicalize structures in the original language, while older children are likely to respond in the traditional grammar of the second language. McClure cites the question
"Who is hungry?" as an example of different responses ^hich occur between age groups. In Spanish, "Quien tiene hambre?" translates literally, "Who has hunger?" Younger code switchers would be likely to respond, "I do." Older code switchers would probably respond, "I am," as if the question had been posed in English. There seems to be a greater sense of grammatical rules peculiar to each language as children mature.
Garcia (1981), in an extensive research project on code switching, found that children usually increased their code switching as they learned English. After a fluency was established, children decreased their level of code switching in school. This was not true for children in 40
Texas. They tended to continue increasing their levels of code switching as they got older. In general, Hispanics in
Texas have not lost the Spanish language; they have continued to maintain the language over many generations.
This is especially true of Hispanics in the Rio Grande
Valley (Crawford, 1989). The fact that Hispanics in Texas increased code switching as they got older, along with the fact that Hispanics in Texas are likely to maintain the
Spanish language, indicate that code switching in this area is a sociocultural function of communication.
Labov (1972) identifies several component parts of a narrative. All narratives do not necessarily contain all of the component parts, but consideration of these aspects of the narrative help clarify code switchiiig styles. When code switching is examined, certain styles of communication manifest themselves. It is necessary to understand the style of the code switcher in order to realize the full potential of language mixing as a communication enhancer
(Kioke, 1987) . Labov (1972) identifies the abstract, orientation, complicating actions, evaluations, resolution, and codas as the primary components of the narrative. The abstract is a short summary of the story that is related before the story is recounted in full. The orientation tells the time, place, characters, and situations. The complicating actions form the core of the narrative and tell what happened, while 41 evaluations are used to express the point of the narrative. The resolution tells the outcome and the coda closes off the story and signals that the narrative is finished. In addition to these basic narrative components, other elements are used to enhance narratives. Through intensifiers or quantifiers or repetition, the narrator selects one of the events and strengthens or intensifies it. Comparators compare events which did occur to those which did not occur. They may be negatives, imperatives, or modals (Labov, 1972). Correlatives move the story away from the narrative events to consider events that may happen. Correlatives may also bring together two events that did occur so that they can be joined into one independent clause. They may employ progressive theses using be + ing, appended participles, or double appositives. Explicatives express some evaluation or explication in separate clauses. They may be qualifiers headed by conjunctions such as while or though, or they may be causal clauses, introduced by since or because (Labov, 1972) . Code switching occurs along narrative boundaries. As was mentioned earlier, code switching enhances communication and may be used as a tool to improve the narrative. For example, code switching can be used to orient the listener. When used for this purpose, the other language is used to describe the setting, characters, and the mood of the 42 narrative (Kioke, 1987). if a bilingual speaker wishes to dramatize the climax of the discourse, code switching adds a zesty effect and marks the beginning of the complicative actions (Kioke, 1987; Valdes, 1976). Valdes (1976) discusses more complicated uses of code switching in iiarratives. In one example, she defines code switching along the guides provided by Labov. The speaker used English for the orientation. English was also used for complicative actions, but Spanish discourse markers such as y luego (and then) were sometimes used to enhance the narra tive. The explicative emerged in Spanish and the speaker switched back to English for the correlative. In another instance, Kioke (1987) shows through a series of taped conversations that speakers use different languages for different purposes. She gives the example of a speaker interrupting to evaluate in English, adding a complicative action and orienting information in Spanish and then switching back to English for the remainder of the discourse. Although English serves as the primary language of the rest of the disccurse, a series of interruptions in Spanish are used throughout the conversation to change the topic or to insert information (Kioke, 1987). Considering these instances, code switching is not a random language behavior in narrative. Although the speaker may not consciously decide to break between narrative components, code switching organizes the narrative and helps 43 build a dramatic effect (Kioke, 1987). Code switching within narrative boundaries serves to enhance communication and a logical pattern of language mixing emerges.
Code Switching and Bilingual Education
When learning a new language, most students code switch
in the native language as they acquire new vocabulary in the second language. Students find that the new lexical items add breadth to their vocabulary. This language behavior may be perplexing for those who are responsible for placing these students in an appropriate educational setting. An effort should be made to find out what effects this code switching has on academic achievement in the native language.
It is crucial to view code switching within the boundaries of quality research. Those who do not understand code switching tend to assume that code switching is a deviant behavior and that speakers who mix languages are not fluent speakers of any one language. This point of view is shared by school personnel who make decisions regarding placement for bilingual children. If an administrator feels that the child is not fluent in either language, the child may be placed in an all-English curriculum even when bilingual education would benefit the child (Ovando &
Collier, 1986; Penalosa, 1986; Stein, 1985).
The research clearly shows that bilingual education is effective for language minority students, but the effects of 44 code switching on academic achievement is still unclear. While the research regarding code switching seems to indicate that its primary purpose is to communicate more effectively, there is still a need to consider how this language behavior affects academic achievement. Social aspects of language should be considered when placing children in a bilingual education program. Children may have a certain level of communicative competence, which helps them function socially without having a functional academic competence in the second language. This ability to communicate and converse may be misunderstood as fluency in the second language, when in fact the level of language necessary for academic success has not been reached (Cummins, 1984a). As commonly is expected in schools, the state-mandated bilingual program in Texas states that its goal is to exit children from Spanish reading instruction as soon as possible. The goal of bilingual education programs in Texas is to help children adjust to the all-English curriculum by giving them initial instruction in Spanish, while English is acquired. Since the transition to English is highly valued, it is possible that educational personnel may decide to place code switchers in an all-English program, since it is assumed that code switching occurs because children lack fluency in either language (Lessow-Hurley, 1990). 45
Cummins (1984a) has called for criteria to examine bilingual education. Efforts have been made to conduct statistically sound research in bilingual education, and research is crucial to evaluation in bilingual programs
(Crawford, 1989) . There is a need to integrate the extensive research on code switching with sound resear':h in bilingual education. A link should be established between the linguistic abilities and behaviors of language minority students and their academic achievement in bilingual education programs. CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
The review of literature suggests that code switching among bilingual children is not a debilitating or harmful linguistic behavior. Code switching is used for a variety of purposes and research has shown that children are aware of the situational factors that govern code switching. The effects that code switching has on academic achievement is not defined clearly through research. It is important to find the effects code switching may have on academic achievement. Reading achievement is frequently used as a measure for predicting success in school; therefore, it is important to examine the reading success of code switchers to determine the best possioie reading instruction for this group of children. This study will address the issue of native language reading instruction and whether this type of instruction is the best option for code switchers. No previous research was found which described the relationship between code switching and reading achievement. A high rate of code switching has been found among students in Texas (Garcia, 1981). This suggests that Texas would be a good place to examine the code switching behavior of students and its effects, if any, on reading achievement. Students in a bilingual education program were used in the current study. Students in bilingual education programs
46 47 should receive reading instruction in the native language and a school district which provides this service to bilingual students was identified. This study should help to determine if native language reading instruction is the best option for students who have a high rate of code switching.
The procedures described in this chapter were used to
collect and analyze data on first grade students in a
bilingual education program in a small comm.unity in rural
West Texas. Bilingual program students in this community
are given a curriculum which employs Spanish as the medium
of instruction for initial reading experiences and for
instruction in the content areas. English as a second
language skills are developed formally for 45 minutes per
day and informally in many other situations.
Design
A basic correlation design followed by two, two-way
ANOVAs (analyses of variance) was employed in a descriptive
type quasi design. No experimentation was used; information
about subjects was obtained and organized to make inferences
about the population. A quasi-type study was used since it
was necessary to obtain adequate subjects for the project.
The quasi design uses all of the subjects in a given population; in this case, all of the first graders enrolled
in the bilingual education program. 48
The data were analyzed using frequency distributions,
the Pearson correlation coefficient, and a two-way ANOVA.
The Pearson correlation coefficient was calculated for all
of the variables and each variable was tested on every other
variable. After this information was determined,
independent variables were chosen for the analysis of
variance. Frequency distributions were determined for all
data used in the study. These frequency distributions were
usod to calculate the analysis of variance between the
dependent variable (reading achievement) and three main
independent variables (code switching, oral language fluency
in Spanish, and the amount of schooling the parent felt was
necessary).
Code switching was the primary independent variable and
oral language and necessary schooling were secondary
independent variables. Two, two-way ANOVAs were calculated
to determine the effect of each of the independent variables
on the dependent variable and to establish any interaction between the independent variables. The first procedure used
reading achievement as the dependent variable with code switching and oral language fluency in Spanish as the
independent variables. The second procedure used reading as
the dependent variable and code switching and necessary schooling as perceived by the parent as the independent var iables. 49
Subjects and Setting
The target population for this study was the first grade students enrolled in the bilingual education program in the public schools from a small West Texas community for the academic year 1988-1989. Most of the students in this program were of lower socioeconomic status as compared to other students in the district. Students in this program qualified for this program because it was determined that
Spanish was their dominant language.
It was determined by the district that children should be placed in this program. This was done by administering a home language survey to the parent(s) when the child enrolled in school. If the parent(s) indicated that the child heard or spoke a language other than English, then the child was given an oral language test to determine language dominance. The Language Assessment Scales: Linguametric
Group (LAS) test was given to each child whose parent indicated that the child spoke a language other than
English. This test was administered in English and in
Spanish. After the test was scored, the child's language dominance was determined. This information was considered, along with teacher input and achievement by a Language
Proficiency Assessment Committee (LPAC), who then determined if the child was to be placed in a bilingual classroom.
Forty-three subjects were identified as being enrolled in the bilingual program. Of the 43 students, 2 were 50 disqualified because there were no standardized test results available for these students. One student moved during the time the study was being conducted, and since the testing was not completed at that time, that student was disqualified from the study. The remaining 40 students participated in the study.
The setting for this study was a small town in rural
West Texas. The economy in this community is supported primarily through agriculture and oil industries. The population of the town is approximately 12,000. There are approximately 2,600 students enrolled in the school district. Of these children, approximately 70% are
Hispanic, 27% are Anglo, and 3% are black or of other or igins .
Procedures
The following procedural sequence has been developed to address the research objectives stated in Chapter I.
1. Forty children were selected from the bilingual
education program. All children who were enrolled in
the first grade bilingual education program and who had
taken the Texas Educational Assessment of Minimal
Skills (TEAMS) and the Science Research Associates
(SRA) achievement tests were used in the study.
2. Two language samples of at least 100 words per sample
were obtained from each child identified for
participation in the study. Two researchers elicited 51 these samples using a series of pictures, with each researcher obtaining a langi;age sample from each child. The language used by the researchers was Spanish,
3. Each language sample was analyzed using the following procedures:
a. The rules outlined by Garcia (1981) and Brown
(1973) were used to calculate the mean length
utterance of each language sample.
b. Code switching was defined as the alternate use of
languages within a single utterance.
c. The number of utterances involving code switching
was calculated for each child.
d. This figure was used for determining correlation
between code switching and reading achievement.
4. Informal reading inventories (Houghton Mifflin, 1984),
TEAMS reading scores, and SRA reading scores were used
as the measures of reading success.
5. Home Language Surveys were examined from permanent
records to determine the language(s) spoken at home.
6. A home or school visit was made with parents of
children used in the study. The parent interview was
used to determine socioeconomic status, level of
parental education, numoer of siblings, occupation of
parents, parental value of education, and to verify
languages spoken at home.
7. The data were analyzed to deter in ine relationships 52 between reading achievement (dependent variable) and code switching (independent variable) and other independent variables as outlined in the study. A correlation and an ANOVA were employed to calculate the results .
Instruments Home Language Survey
This instrument was used by the school district to determine the language spoken and heard by the child at home. The principal researcher was given access to this information for the children used in the study. The survey consisted of the two following questions: 1. What language does your child hear at home? 2. What language does your child speak at home?
Science Research Associates (SRA) Achievement Tests This instrument was used by the school district to measure the English reading success of each child and these test scores were made available to the researcher,
Texas Educational Assessment of Minimal Skills (TEAMS) This instrument was used by the school district to determine the Spanish reading success of each child in the bilingual program, and these scores were made available for this study. 53 Language Assessment Scales
This instrument was used by the school district to determine oral language fluency in English and in Spanish for each child placed in the bilingual program. The results of these tests were made available for this study (test published by Linguimetrics Group).
Procedure for Determining Percentage of Code Switching
Each child was shown 10 pictures by each researcher.
The children were tested individually and each child was asked to describe what was happening in the picture. Each language sample was tape recorded. A language sample of at least 100 words was obtained from each sample and the samples were transcribed. A procedure (Garcia, 1981) was used to determine the amount of code switching in each sample. The procedure is as follows:
1. Start with the first utterance,
2. Only fully transcribed utterances are used; none with
blanks. Portions of utterances, entered in parentheses
to indicate doubtful transcripts are used.
3. Include all exact utterances repetitions (marked with a
plus sign in records). Stuttering is marked as
repeated efforts at a single word; count the word once
in the most complete form produced. In the few cases
where a word is produced for emphasis or the like (no,
no, no) , count each occurrence. 54 4. Do not count such fillers as "eh," "mjn," or "oh," but count "no," "sj.," "oye," "eee," and hola."
5. All compound words (two or more free morphemes), proper names, and ritualized reduplications count as single words.
o. Count as one morpheme all irregular pasts of the verb (hice, fui, and puse).
7. Count as one morpheme all diminutives (perrito, mama/ mamacita).
8. Count as separate morphemes all auxiliaries.
9. Count as separate morphemes all inflections.
10. Count as separate morphemes all single articles and demonstrative pronouns.
11. Count as separate morphemes all contractions.
12. Count as additional morphemes article-noun and pronoun
agreement for both number and gender.
Houghton Mifflin Informal Reading Inventories
These reading tests were administered in English and in
Spanish to each of the subjects in the study. Each test consisted of graded passages which the child was asked to read aloud. Each passage is followed by several oral questions which are used to determine the comprehension level of the child. Therefore, two areas are examined: oral reading and comprehension. The primary purpose of 55 these tests was to assure that the results from the TEAMS and SRA tests were valid.
Parent Interviews
An interview was administered to parents of the
subjects to determine demographic data. A copy of the
parent interview may be found in the appendix.
Limitations
The study was limited to a small rural agricultural
town. The study included only children enrolled in
bilingual education in the first grade. Therefore, it is
likely that the results of this study could be generalized
to similar populations. There was a relatively small
population used in the study, so statistical design was used
to help negate the effect of having few subjects.
Contributions of the Study
The study provided the district with data for placement procedures for bilingual children. The information was helpful in terms of placing students in Spanish or English
reading programs. Since no study had previously been done
for the purpose of determining how code switching affects reading achievement, this information demonstrated preliminary findings in the area of code switching and reading achievement for students enrolled in a bilingual education program. This study should prove helpful for other rural communities with similar students. Knowledge of 56 the effects of code switching on reading achievement will help administrators and others responsible for decision making. If it is found that code switching does not affect reading achievement in the native language, administrators can be confident about placing children in native language reading programs. If code switching does affect reading achievement, an alternative solution to reading placement problems may be suggested. The results of this study may be used by other rural school districts and the study could be replicated in urban areas. Other grade levels could be studied as well. The design for this study could be used to obtain data for other districts and grade levels. CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS OF DATA
The purpose of this study was to determine if code
switching, that is, the alternation between two languages
within a single utterance, significantly affects reading
achievement of bilingual students and to see if differences
could be explained by other variables, such as the oral
language level of the child as determined by the Language
Assessment Scales (LAS) test, the language spoken at home as
recorded in permanent record files at school, and the
interaction between these variables.
Demographic variables, including household income,
number of siblings, extended family, level of parental
education, parental value of education, and the language(s)
used in the home and community, were elicited through parental interviews. These variables were considered, along with academic information obtained through permanent records
in the statistical analysis of data.
Several measures were used to validate data obtained in the study. Two researchers tested each child and a Pearson correlation coefficient of .84 was calculated, thus promoting interrater reliability. Permanent records were used to obtain standardized reading tests, the Texas
Educational Assessment of Minimal Skills (TEAMS) test scores were available for Spanish reading scores, and the SRA test results provided English reading scores. In order to
57 58 validate these data. Informal Reading Inventories (Houghton Mifflin, 1987) were given to each child identified for the current study. These measures served to strengthen the validity of data obtained from the permanent record files.
Demographic Information Demographic data were collected by the principal investigator in the study. Interviews were conducted with parents in the language (Spanish or English) the parent preferred. One parent was not located for an interview; therefore, of the 40 subjects, 39 interviews were obtained. Tables 1 through 4 illustrate demographic information. (Some information regarding fathers was missing since five of the homes were single-parent homes with the mother being the only parent in the home.) It was found that the subjects in the study came from low-income families and that most of the fathers were employed in unskilled labor. Most of the mothers were housewives and stay-at-home mothers. Of the mothers interviewed, 37 listed their occupations as housewife, 1 was a cook, and 1 was a housecleaner. Of the fathers surveyed, 13 listed their occupations as farm laborers; 8 were employed in other unskilled jobs; 6 were skilled laborers; 6 were unemployed, disabled, or retired; 1 was a preacher; and 5 of the homes were single-parent homes where no father was identi fied . 59
Table 1
Monthly Income
Monthly Income N %
$ 0-$ 400 12 30.0
400- 600 7 17.5
600- 800 15 37.5
800- 1,000 2 5.0
1,000- 1,200 2 5.0
1,200- 1,400 2 5.0
Table 2
Number of Siblings
Number of Siblings N %
0- 2 14 35.0
3- 6 16 40.0
7-15 9 22.5 60
Table 3
Parental Education
Mother Father* N N N %
Parents educated in Mexico
Yes* 17 43.59
No 22 56.41
Level of Education
0 - 4th Grade 12 30.80 13 37.10
5th- 9th Grade 20 51.30 13 37.80
lOth-llth Grade 6 14.14 7 20.00
High School Diploma or G.E.D. 0 0.00 2 5.70
1 Year of College 1 2.60 0 0.00
*A yes response indicates that at least one parent was educated in Mexico for at least two years.
**Some data is missing on fathers since some homes are single-parent (mother only) and the mothers did not know the information about the father. 61
Table 4
Parental Attitude Regarding Education
N
Importance of Finishing High School
Not Important 5 12.8
Somewhat Important 1 2,6
Important 9 23.1
Very Important 24 61,5
Level of Education Necessary for Child
Less than High School 5 12.8
Completion of High School 10 25.6
Conpletion of Trade School
(Beyond High School) 3 7.7
Coirpletion of Some College 8 20.5
Conpletion of Four-Year College 12 30.8
Education Beyond Four-Year College 1 2.6 62 Information regarding total monthly income was obtained through the parental interviews. Of the 39 parents interviewed, 12 identified their monthly incomes as being less than $400. There were 7 families who identified their monthly incomes as being between $400 and $600, while 15 families identified their monthly incomes as being between $600 and $800. There were 6 families who identified their monthly incomes as being between $800 and $1,400. Table 1 illustrates data on monthly income. Most of the children came from large families, and only one parent reported that her child had no siblings. This means that the majority of the subjects came from poverty- level homes, based on the number of siblings and the total household income. Eight of the parents reported that they had extended family members living in the house with them. Six of these parents reported one additional person in the home, while one reported two extended family members and one reported four extended family members. Seventy-two percent of the families reported that they had four or more children living in the home. In the information presented in Table 2, only children still living at home were included in the calculat ions . The parents were asked about their educational levels, and it was found that most of the parents had not completed high school. Of the parents interviewed, only one had completed any schooling beyond the high school level, and 63 she had completed one year of schooling at a nearby college, but stated that she was unable to continue her education due to financial difficulties. There were 17 homes in which one or more of the parents were educated in Mexico. This information was deemed important, since these individuals were taught to read in Spanish and might have been more able to help their children learn to read in Spanish than the parents who had been educated in English only. Several of the parents mentioned voluntarily that they were illiterate despite the fact that they had been schooled for several years. Many of the parents mentioned that they had been "passed on," that is to say that they were promoted despite the fact that they had not been successful in the previous grade. Several parents also mentioned that they had not always attended a full year of school when they attended, due to working with the crops, helping at home, and moving frequently. Most of the parents expressed that they wished that they could have completed more schooling. This idea was evidenced again when the parents were questioned regarding the schooling that was necessary for their children. The parents were asked how important they felt it was that their children complete high school. Parents were asked to respond on a four-point scale with one of the following responses: not important, somewhat important, important, or very important. The majority of the parents 64 voiced their desire to see their children complete high school. Of the 39 parents questioned, 33 felt that it was .••mportant or very important that their children complete high school.
About half of the parents gave additional comments
about the cnild's ability and desire to complete high
school, indicating that they were unsure if the child would
be academically able to complete high school or that it was doubtful that the child would want to finish high school by
the time he/she was 15 or 16. Many parents recounted
stories of older siblings who lacked the motivation or the academic skills necessary to complete high school. Seven of the parents even said that they did not feel that they could make their children finish high school, since they themselves had been unsuccessful in finishing high school.
Parents were asked to state the level of education that they felt was necessary for their children to be successful.
Fifteen of the parents felt that a high school education or less was adequate, while three parents felt that trade school was necessary.
Twenty-one of the parents felt that at least some college was necessary, and of those 21, 13 felt that their child needed to complete at least four years of college.
Twenty-five of the parents said that they felt the child should complete as much schooling as he/she wanted to complete. Fifteen parents said that the child should 65 complete as much school as was financially possible. Many of them said that they would not be able to send their children to college because it costs too much money. This was a voluntary response, and when parents mentioned this dilemma, the interviewer followed up by asking why the child could not apply for financial aide from the government. None of the 15 parents who mentioned financial difficulties knew anything about government financial aide programs for college students.
Tables 3 and 4 illustrate the education of the parents
and the value of education that the parents expressed in the
interview.
Hypotheses
A Pearson correlation coefficient was utilized to examine the relationships between all of the variables, demographic and academic. Each variable was tested for correlation with each of the other variables. Using this
information, it was determined that there was a slightly significant relationship between reading achievement and oral language proficiency in Spanish as measured by LAS scores and between reading achievement and the amount of education that the parent perceived was necessary as measured by the parent interview.
Using the results of these correlations, two, two-way
ANOVAs were designed, as suggested by Gravetter and Wallnau
(1988) , and the data were analyzed to check for validity in 66 relationships between the dependent variables and the independent variables. The two-way ANOVA allowed the researcher to examine the interaction between independent variables, as well.
Hypothesis 1
Hypothesis 1 stated that code switching would not
significantly affect the Spanish or English reading achievement scores of bilingual first grade students as measured by the TEAMS test, SRA test, and informal reading
inventories. A Pearson correlation was run between these variables and no significance was found based on this correlation (Table 5) . In order to be considered significant, the Pearson correlation coefficient should be greater than .5; thus, the conclusion for Hypothesis 1 is not to reject the null hypothesis.
It is significant to note that a high correlation was found between the scores of all of the reading tests. Thus, it was decided that the TEAMS scores were valid. Table 5 illustrates the correlation between the different reading tests, the correlation between researchers taking the language samples, and the lack of correlation between reading achievement and code switching.
Hypothesis 2
Hypothesis 2 states that there would be no significant correlation between native language fluency and Spanish 67
Table 5
Pearson Correlation Regarding Reading and Code Switching
IRI IRI SRA TEAMS Researcher Researcher English Spanish Scores Scores Two One
Researcher One -0.130 -0.060 -0.170 -0.130 0.840 1.000
Researcher Two 0.080 0.240 -0.060 -0.003 1.000 0.840
TEAMS Scores 0.650 0.640 0.670 1.000 -0.003 -0.130
SRA Scores 0.820 0.680 1.000 0.670 -0.060 -0.170
IRI Spanish 0.840 1.000 0.680 0.640 0.240 0.060
IRI English 1.000 0.840 0.820 0.650 0.080 -0.130 68 reading achievement. A Pearson correlation coefficient was calculated for these variables, and a marginal relationship of .47 was determined for the TEAMS Spanish reading scores and a coefficient of .47 for the Individual Reading Inventories was found. The null hypothesis was thus rejected; however, it is important to remember that the results are marginal, based on the Pearson correlation coefficient. An analysis of variance was calculated for the TEAMS scores and Spanish oral language proficiency. Oral language proficiency was measured by the Language Assessment Scales .
Several interesting results can be observed from the correlation analysis of the English reading scores with the test of oral language fluency (LAS) and the Spanish reading scores (IRI and TEAMS). It is notable that a Pearson correlation coefficient of .18 was found for the English LAS test when correlated with the English SRA reading scores.
The English IRI reading scores showed a .12 Pearson correlation coefficient. Thus, these results are not significant. It appears that the English test of oral language had little effect on the English reading scores; however, it is interesting to note that a Pearson correlation coefficient of .49 resulted from the calculation of the correlation of English reading scores to Spanish language scores (LAS) fluency. This suggests as strong a relationship between Spanish language fluency and English 69 reading scores as there is between Spanish language scores (LAS) fluency and Spanish reading scores. No significant correlation was found between English oral language (LAS test) scores and Spanish reading scores. Table 6 illustrates the results of these analyses. Results from SRA tests (English reading) and English LAS tests are included to show any correlation that has occurred with English scores. A two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) model was created to measure the effects of code switching and language fluency on reading achievement. This measure allowed the researcher to examine the combined effects of the independent variables of language fluency and code switching on the dependent variable of reading achievement. The two-way ANOVA allowed the researcher to examine the interaction between the two independent variables. A high correlation coefficient of .84 was found between the two researchers, so it was decided that only one language sample should be used in the ANOVA. It was then decided to proceed with the ANOVA, using only the TEAMS scores, since these scores were validated by the other measures of reading achievement. Thus, the two-way ANOVA was created using the model illustrated on Table 7. Table 7 illustrates the model created to measure the effects of Spanish language fluency and code switching on reading achievement. The means are illustrated, as well as 70
Table 6 Pearson Correlation Coefficients Regarding Reading Scores and Oral Language
TEAMS SRA Spanish English LAS LAS Reading Reading IRI IRI Spanish English Scores Scores Scores Scores Scores Scores
LAS English 0.003 0.180 0.150 0.120 0.490 1,000
LAS Spanish 0.470 0.490 0.470 0.490 1.000 0.490
English IRI 0.650 0.835 0.830 1.000 0.490 0.120
Spanish IRI 0.640 0.680 1.000 0.830 0.470 0.150
SRA Reading 0.660 1.000 0.680 0.835 0.490 0.180
TEAMS Reading 1.000 0.660 0.640 0.650 0.470 0.003 71
Table 7
Table of Means of Reading Achievement Considering Code Switching and Spanish Language Fluency
Variables and Categories N Means
Code Switching
10% or Less 21 744.76
More than 10% 19 747.80
Spanish Language Proficiency
Levels 1 and 2 19 630.84
Levels 3, 4, and 5 21 805.30 72 the total number of subjects per cell. As can be seen in Table 8, subjects who scored relatively high (levels 3, 4, and 5) on the test of Spanish language fluency (LAS) tended to score higher on the TEAMS reading test than did those subjects who scored relatively low (le/els 1 and 2). However, the results of a high percentage of code switching (above 10%) did not result in a significant difference in reading achievement. Table 8 illustrates the model developed for the consideration of reading achievement, code switching, and language fluency.
Table 9 illustrates the results of the ANOVA
calculation. Of the main effects, Spanish language
proficiency is the only one which shows any significance.
The P value showing the probability of the difference for
Spanish language proficiency is .0039, indicating that this variable is significant in predicting the reading scores of the subjects. No significance was found from the variable of code switching, nor was significance found as a result of the interaction between code switching and Spanish language proficiency.
Hypothesis 3a
Hypothesis 3a stated that there would be no significant correlation between reading achievement of bilingual first grade students and parental occupation and monthly income.
After carefully analyzing the demographic data, it was decided that there was not enough variance in the parental 73
Table 8
Two-way ANOVA Model Considering Reading Achievement, Code Switching, and Language Fluency
Code Switching
10% or Below Above 10%
N N
Language Level on LAS Test of 1 & 2 10 672.50 690.11
Language Level on LAS Test of 3, 4, and 5 11 810.45 10 799.70
Range = 454-994. 74
Table 9 ANOVA Summary Table Considering Code Switching, Spanish Language Fluency, and Two-Way Interaction
Source of Sum of Degrees Mean Variation Squares of Freedom Square
Main Effects
Code Switching 91.430 1 91.430 .01
Spanish Oral
Proficiency 154,575.330 1 154,475.330 9.52*
Two-way Interaction 2,001.418 1 2,001.418 .12
Error 584,326.220 36 16,231.280 PR > F *Significance at p = .05. 75
occupation to warrant analyzing this information, since 28
of the fathers were working in unskilled jobs or were
unemployed. Another five of the homes in the study had no
father figure. Therefore, it would have been difficult to
compare these variables, since there was virtually no comparison group. Although all of the subjects in the study
came from low income homes, monthly income varied between
$400 and $1,400 per month. No significant correlation was
found between the monthly income and the reading scores of the subjects. This was true of all of the measures of reading success, as is illustrated in Table 10. Thus, the null hypothesis was not rejected.
Hypothesis 3b
Hypothesis 3b states that there would be no significant difference between Spanish reading scores and the number of siblings and extended family present in the home. No significant correlation was found between the number of siblings and reading achievement. No significant correlation was found between the number of extended family members and the reading scores of the subjects; hence, the null hypothesis was not rejected. Table 11 illustrates this informat ion.
Hypothesis 3c
Hypothesis 3c states that the level of parental education would not significantly affect the Spanish reading 76
Table 10 Pearson Correlation Coefficient between Monthly Income and Reading Scores
SRA TEAMS IRI IRI English Spanish English Spanish Scores Scores Scores Scores
Monthly Income .25 ,11 .12 ,09
Table 11 Pearson Correlation Coefficient between Number of Family Members and Reading Achievement
TEAMS SRA IRI IRI Spanish English Spanish English Scores Scores Scores Scores
Number of Brothers -.17 -.23 -.26 -.27
Number of Sisters -.23 -.17 -.31 -.18
Number of Extended Members -.35 -.26 -.25 -.20 77 scores of the subjects in the study. A marginal level of significance of .5 on the Pearson correlation coefficient was found between Spanish Informal Reading Inventories and the mother's level of education. No significance was found between the .nother's level of education and the other reading scores. There was no significance found between the father's level of education and any of the four reading scores. The null hvpothesis was not rejected, since there was only a marginal level of significance between the mother's level of education on one of the measures of reading success and since there were no indicators of a relationship between the father's level of education and the reading scores. As Table 6 illustrates, there was a high correlation between all of the reading scores; thus, if the mother's educational level was significantly aifecting reading achievement, it would seem that all of the reading scores would indicate a significant level of correlation. The results of the Pearson correlation coefficients for reading achievement and the parents' levels of education is illustrated in Table 12.
Hypothesis 3d Hypothesis 3d states that there would be no significant difference between the reading achievement of bilingual first grade students and the amount of schooling parents felt was necessary. Parents were asked how many years of schooling were necessary for their children. While the vast 78
Table 12
Pearson Correlation Coefficient between Reading Achievement and Parental Education
TEAMS SRA IRI IRI Spanish English Spanish English Scores Scores Scores Scores
Mother's Level of Education 30 ,34 38 ,50
Father's Level of Education -.05 -.02 -.03 -.19 79 majority felt that high school was necessary, there were some who felt that college was necessary, while others felt that high school was sufficient.
A Pearson correlation coefficient of .51 was found
between the parents' perceptions of how much schooling was
necessary and the reading achievement of the subjects.
Although this was a marginal amount of significance, it was
decided to create a two-way ANOVA to examine the effects of
code switching and parents' perceptions of necessary
schooling on the reading achievement of the subjects. The
two-way ANOVA allowed the researcher to examine the
interaction effects of code switching and parents'
perceptions of necessary schooling.
Of the main effects (code switching and parental
perception of necessary schooling), the parental perception
of necessary schooling was found to be significant with a P
value of .05. There was no significance found between code
switching and reading achievement, nor was any significance
found in the interaction effects of code switching and parental perception of necessary schooling.
Since there was significance found between reading achievement and parental perception of necessary schooling, the null hypothesis was rejected. Table 13 illustrates the correlation between reading achievement and parental perception of necessary schooling. Tables 14, 15, and 16 illustrate the ANOVA information. 80
Table 13 Pearson Correlation Coefficient between Parental Perception of Necessary Schooling and Reading Achievement
TEAMS Reading Scores
Parental Perception of Necessary Schooling .50 81
Table 14
Table of Means of Reading Achievement Considering Code Switching and Parental Perception of Necessary Schooling
Variables and Categories N Means
Code Switching
Less than 10% Code Switching 21 751.100
10% or More Code Switching 19 747.789
Necessary Schooling
High School Only 18 703.000
College Necessary 21 787.333
Table 15
ANOVA Model Considering Reading Achievement, Code Switching, and Parental Perception of Necessary Schooling
Code Switching
Less than 10% 10% or More
NX N
High School Necessary 8 703.125 12 783.080
College Necessary 10 702.900 9 797.660 Table 16 ANOVA Summary Table Considering Code Switching, Parental Perception of Necessary Schooling, and Two-way Interaction
Sum of Degrees of Mean Source of Variation Squares Freedom Square
Main Effects
Code Switching 106.785 1 106.785 .01
Ling 72,705.460 1 72,705.463 3.91
Two-way Interactiomn 522.800 1 522.800 .03
Error 650,802.690 35 18,594.360 PR > F
Significance at p = .05. CHAPTER V
CONCLUSIONS
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between the dependent variable, reading achievement, and the independent variables, code switching, language fluency, and parental attitude regarding schooling. This chapter will examine (1) the results of the current study, (2) the implications of the current study, (3) limitations of the study, and (4) suggestions for further research.
At the beginning of the study, it was decided that several measures would be taken to enhance the validity that the data obtained were indeed valid. It was decided to use two interviewers to obtain the language samples from which code switching was established. Four measures of reading achievement were used to assure that the scores of the standardized tests were indeed valid for the children in the study. It was decided that demographic data were necessary so that more possible variables could be examined. These procedures were followed and the results of these measures are explained in the following paragraphs.
Two interviewers spoke to each child in the study. A total of 80 language samples were obtained for the study. Each language sample contained a minimum of 100 words. An interrater reliability of .84 v/as established using a Pearson correlation coefficient. It was then decided that
83 84 the calculation of all 80 language samples would be used for obtaining correlation data with other variables, but that it was necessary to use only one set ot 40 samples to do the other statistical analyses.
The results of all 80 of the language samples were
analyzed using the procedure outlined by Brown (1971) and
Garcia (1981). The mean length utterance was calculated by
calculating the number of morphemes per utterance. Code
switching was determined by dividing the number of
utterances containing switches by the total number of
utterances. This resulted in a percentage of code switching
for each language sample. The results of this data were
correlated with reading achievement scores.
Four measures of reading achievement were used to
establish validity between the tests. The Texas Educational
Assessment of Minimal Skills (TEAMS) test was given to the
subjects in Spanish. The SRA test was given to the subjects
in English. Informal Reading Inventories were given in
Spanish and English to all of the subjects in the study. A
Pearson correlation coefficient was calculated to determine the reliability of each of the tests. A Pearson correlation coefficient of.64 was found between the Spanish IRI and the
TEAMS reading scores. A Pearson correlation coefficient of
.82 was found between the SRA (English) and the English IRI.
A Pearson correlation coefficient of .67 was found between the TEAMS and the SRA reading tests. These figures clearly 85 show a high level of validity between the measures of reading achievement used in the current study.
Effects of Code Switching on Reading Achievement There was no relationship found between reading
achievement and code switching. This information was
determined by calculating a Pearson correlation. There was
no significant correlation between any of the measures of
reading achievement and code switching. This information
was confirmed through the calculation of Analysis of
Variance (ANOVA). This information seems to relate to other
research regarding code switching. Research has shown that
social reasons were found to be the main purpose for mixing
languages (Garcia, 1981; Olmedo-Williams, 1981; McClure,
1978; Zentella, 1981). Since code switching is a behavior which simply enriches language and communication, it would
seem that the mixing of languages would not have a negative effect on reading achievement.
Olmedo-Williams (1981) indicated nine categories of code switching. These areas include emphasis, sociolin- guistic play, clarification, accommodation, lex ica 1 ization , attracting attention, regulating behavior, and a miscel laneous category. McClure (1978) includes sociocultural identification in addition to the categories Olmedo-Williams mentioned. The idea that the reason for code switching is primarily social was documented by Zentella (1981). She 86 found that 78% of code switching was done for social reasons and that the remaining 22% of code switching was done for lexical reasons. A child who code switched for lexical reasons was unable to recall the vocabulary in the language in which he was speaking. Fitch (1983) found that patterns of code switching in children followed the patterns of adults around them. This is another indicator that code switching is done primarily for social reasons. If code switching does not indicate a lack of language fluency, then it would seem that it would have little effect on reading achievement. The current study documented these results, by showing no correlation between the amount of code switching and the Spanish reading achievement of children in a bilingual program.
Effects of Language Fluency on Reading Achievement The current study correlated the results of the Language Assessment Scales (LAS) test with scores on stan dardized reading achievement tests. There was a slightly significant correlation between oral fluency in Spanish and reading achievement. This significance held true for all reading tests regardless of whether they were conducted in Spanish or English. The results of a two-way ANOVA showed that oral fluency in Spanish was a strong predictor of reading success for the subjects. 87 There was no correlation between the English language fluency of children and any of the measures of English or Spanish reading proficiency. This finding indicates that Spanish language fluency is a better predictor of reading success than is English language fluency for children who are limited in English proficiency. This finding was very interesting to the researcher, so an effort was made to find out if current research supported this finding. Johnson and Roen (1989) and Williams and Snipper (1990) report similar findings of current research. It seems that when a student is limited in English, the degree of limitation is not as important as is the fluency in the native language. The fluency in the child's first language is the best predictor of reading success in either language. This finding seems to have strong implications for firmly establishing a firm academic foundation in the first language as a vehicle for introducing the second language. Cummins and Swain (1986) suggest that a strong foundation is necessary in the language the child understands best in order for the child to be successful in school. It would seem, then, that limited English-proficient children would benefit from a greater amount of instruction in the native language.
Effects of Demographic Data Demographic data were gathered to determine any relationships between the child's home life and reading 88 achievement. it was found that the majority of children came from poverty-level homes and that most of the parents of the children in the study were not well educated.
Although it was found that the majority of parents valued education for their children, many of the parents made the comment that education might not be within reach of their children. They cited the lack of academic ability, the lack of motivation, and the lack of funds as reasons for the perceived inability of their children to obtain a high school and/or college education.
All of the parents of the subjects in the study indicated that Spanish was spoken at home at least part of the time. Some of the parents spoke no English and others were able to communicate well in English. Of the 39 parents interviewed, 17 indicated that at least 1 parent in the home had been schooled in Mexico. It was thought that parents schooled in Mexico would likely be more literate in Spanish than those schooled in the United States, since those who attended school in the United States were schooled in
English. It seemed possible that this factor might have some effect on how well the subjects were reading in
Spanish; however, no significant correlation was found between reading achievement and the country where the parent(s) were schooled. A possible explanation for this could be that the level of schooling that the parents received in Mexico was minimal. Most of the parents 89 schooled in Mexico indicated that second or third grade was as high as they had gone in school.
Implications of Parental Attitude toward Schooling The majority of all of the parents of the subjects had lower than a ninth-grade education. Only 3 of the parents had completed high school or had finished a G.E.D. One of these 3 had attended college. Despite the fact that the majority of the parents did not complete high school, 33 of the 39 parents felt that it was important or very important for their children to complete high school. The parents felt that high school was necessary for economic success. Many of the parents commented further on the educational outlook for their children. Several of the parents mentioned that older siblings of the subjects had failed to complete high school. While some parents said that they did not have academic skills necessary, others cited the lack of motivation as the reason for not finishing "nigh school. Many of the parents said that the child should complete as much schooling as he/she desired, indicating that the decision was left to the student as to whether or not he/she wanted to complete high school and/or college. Many of the parents said that their children would be unable to attend college because they could not finance this education. 90 The hesitation of the parents to say that they felt their child should attend college may have stemmed from the lack of knowledge of financial programs available to aide low-income students. For example, during one interview, both parents were present and neither parent spoke English. The parents began to question the interviewer about college when the question regarding necessary schooling was asked. The parents spoke of a 17-year-old daughter who was a straight "A" student, but could not attend college because they could not finance this level of education. When the interviewer mentioned scholarships and government financial aid programs, the parents stared in amazement and the father commented that someone should have told them sooner that these programs were available. Of the parents who mentioned that financial problems would keep their children from attending college, none of them had heard of financial aid. This may have affected goals for their children; thus, this question may have been answered differently, had the parents known about financial aid for college students. Despite this information which may have skewed the results of the parent interview, a positive correlation was found between the reading achievement of the subjects and the amount of education the parents perceived as necessary. A Pearson correlation coefficient of .51 was found between these two variables. A two-way ANOVA procedure did not validate this finding. Parental perception of how much 91 schooling is necessary significantly affected the reading scores of the subjects. It is possible that had the parents been aware that it was financially possible for their children to attend college that the results may have differed significantly. Overall, it seemed that the majority of the parents did value education for their children. This study is limited to children of parents in a rural setting. Most of the fathers of the subjects were employed in unskilled jobs. Virtually all of the mothers were housewives. Therefore, this group is very limited in scope and it is possible that the results could be different in an urban setting where parents are more upwardly mobile. Further research would be needed to determine if these findings would hold true to an urban population. Since this study was done in a small community, a small sample was employed. Therefore, further research should be substantiated with different populations and with a larger group of subjects. It would be especially interesting to repeat this study in states other than Texas, since Garcia (1981) found that children in other areas had different patterns of code switching. It is also important to note that Garcia (1981) found that children code switched more as they got older. The current study was intentionally limited to very young children so that initial effects of code switching could be 92 examined. Further research is needed to determine the effects of code switching on the reading achievement of older children.
The current study employed a fairly small number of subjects and the age range of the subjects was between six and eight years old. Therefore, a larger number of subjects would strengthen the results of the current study.
According to the results of the current study, it appears that children who code switch do not score lower on tests of reading achievement. Children who show proficiency in Spanish should be placed in a Spanish curriculum for initial reading instruction, since research has shown that this is the best approach for Spanish speaking children.
Code switching seems to be a language activity which is engaged in by all bilingual individuals and according to the current study, it does not seem to affect the reading ability of first grade bilingual students. More research on different populations would be helpful. REFERENCES
Anderson, J- 'Boyer, M. (1970). Bilingual schooling in the United State?. Austin, TX: Southwest Educational Devel- opaent Laboratory >
Baker, K., & deKanter, A. (Eds.). (1983). Bilingual educa tion: A reappraisal of federal policy. Lexington. MA: Lexington Books.^
Blanco, G. M. (1978). The implementation of bilingual/bicul- tural education in the United States. In B. Spolsky & R. Cooper (Eds.), Case studies in bilingual education (pp. 454-503). Rowley, MA: Newbury House. Briggs, L. T. (1982). Understanding the role of language in bilingual education. In M. Montero (Ed.), Bilingual education teacher handbook II (pp. 13-35) . Cambridge, MA: Evaluation Dissemination and Assessment Center. Brisk, M. E. (1982). Language policies in American edu cation. In M. Montero (Ed.), Bilingual education teach er handbook (pp. 1-12). Cambridge, MA: Evaluation Dis semination and Assessment Center. Brown, R. (1971). A first language: The early stages. Cam bridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Cordasco, F. (1976). Bilingual schooling in the United States. New York: McGraw-Hill. Crawford, J. (1989). Bilingual education: History politics theory and practice. Trenton, NJ: Crane. Cummins, J. (1981). The role of primary language development in promoting educational success for language minority students. In California State Department of Education, Schooling and language minority students; A theoretical framework (pp. 3-49). Los Angeles: National Evaluation, D i ssem ina t ion and Assessment Center, California State University. Cummins, J. (1984a). Bilingualism and special education: Issues in assessnTent and pedagogy. Clevedon, England: Multi1ingual Matters. Co-publisned in the U.S. by College Hill Press, San Diego. Cummins, J. (1984b). Wanted: A theoretical framework for relating language proficiency to academic achievement among bilingual students. In C. Rivera (Ed.), Language proficiency and academic achievement (pp. 3-19). Avon, England: Clevedon. 93 94 Cummins, j., 4 Swain, M. (1986). Bilingualism in education: Aspects of theory, research and practice. London: Lonq- maru ~~~—
Duncan, S. E., & DeAvila, E. A. (1984). Language Assessment Scales. San Rafael, CA: Linguametrics Group. •"
Edelsky, C. (1986). Writing in a bilingual program habia una vez. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Evans, C. E. (1955). The story of Texas schools. Austin, TX: The Steck Co.
Fishman, J. A. (1976). Bilingual education: An international sociological perspective. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Fitch, K. L. (1983, Nov.). Research methods into language/ code switching and synthesis of findings into theory. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Speech Communication Association, Washington, DC. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. 240 633)
Garcia, E. (1981). A national study of Spanish-English bi lingualism in young Hispanic children of the Unite'H States. Washington, DC: OBELMA.
Garcia. E. (1986, Nov.) . Bilingual development and the education of bilingual children during early childhood. American Journal of Education, 95, 96-121.
Gonzalez, G. (1977). Teaching bilingual children. In Bi lingual education: Current perspectives. Arlington, VA: Center for Applied Linguistics (Monograph).
Goodman, K., Goodman, Y., & Flores, B. (1979). Reading in the bilingual classroom; Literacy and biliteracy. Ross- lyn, VA: National Clearinghouse for Bilingua1 Educa tion.
Gravetter, F. J., & Wallnau, L. B. (1988). Statistics for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed .) . St. Paul, MN; West Publishing Co.
Gumperz, J. J. (1976) . Tne sociolinguistic significance of conversational code-switching. Berkeley, CA: University of California, Berkeley, Language Behavior Research Laboratory (Monograph). 95 Gumperz, J., 4 Hernandez, E. (1975). Cognitive aspects of bilincyual communication. Working papers of the language behavior research lab. No. 28. Berkeley: University of California. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 138 103)
Gunther, V. (1980). A comparison of bilingual oral language and reading skills among limited English-speaking stu dents from Spanish-speaking backgrounds. Chicago, IL: Latino Institute.
Hakuta, K., & Gould, L. J. (1987). Synthesis of research on bilingual education. Educational Leadership, 44(6), 38- 45. ~~
Hardwick, H., & Travis, M. (1986, Jan.). Issues in serving young special needs children in bilingual bicultural settings^ Paper presented at the Fairbanks Association for the Education of Young Children and Tanana Valley Community College. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 269 922)
Hernandez, L. (1979). Language of the Chicano. Bilingual Education Paper Series, 2(^^' Washington, DC: OMBELA (Monograph) .
Informal Reading Inventory. (1987). Boston, MA; Houghton Mifflin Co.
Jacobson, R. (1980). The implementation oZ a bilingual instruction model: The new concurrent approach. In R. V. Pad ill (Ed.) , Ethnoperspectives in bil ingual edu cation research. Vol. 2: Tneory in bilingual education (pp. 165-181). Ypsilanti, MI; Eastern Michigan Univer- sity.
Johnson, D., & Roen, D. (1989). Richness in writing; Empowering ESL students. White Plains, NY; Longman.
Kioke, A. D. (1987). Code switching in the bilingual Chicago narrative. Hispania, 7j0(l)/ 148-154.
Labov, W. (1972). Language in the inner city. Philadelphia, PA; University of Pennsylvania Press.
Lam, A. S. (1985, Apr.). Vocabulary and other considerations in reading comprehension; Implications across the cur riculum. Paper presented at the reg iona1 seminar on Language Across the Curriculum. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 269 968)
Lau V. Nichols, 414 U.S. 563 (1974). 96 Lessow-Hurley, J. (1990). The foundations of dual language instruction. White Plains, NY: Longman Co.
Mace-Matluck, B. j. (198H, Nov.). Teaching reading to bi lingual children. Study final repoLt National Institute of Education, Washington, DC. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 267-624)
Mackey, W. F., & Beebe, V. N. (1977). Bilingual schools for a bicultural community. Rowley, MA: Newbury House Pub lishers .
McClure, E. (19783) • The acquisition of communicative compe- tence in a b icultural setting. Washington, DC: National Institute of Education. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 150 877)
Medina, M., Saldate, M., & Mishra, S. (1985). The sustaining effects of bilingual instruction: A follow-up study. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 1^(1), 132-139.
Medina-Nquyen, S. (1978). Overgeneral izat ion in a group of Spanish-English bilingual children. Paper presented at the Second Language Research Forum, Los Angeles, CA. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 172 535)
Miller, H. A. (1916). The school and the immigrant. Phila delphia, PA: Wm. F. Fell Co. Printers.
Mortensen, E. (1985, Sep.-Dec.). Reading achievement of native Spanish-speeking elementary students in bi lingual education programs in bilingual vs. monolingual programs. Bilingual Review, ^{3), 209-218.
Olmedo-Williams, I. (1981, Jun.). Functions of code switch ing in a Spanish/English bilingual classroom. Bilingual Education Paper Series, 4^(11) (Monograph) .
Ovando, C. J., & Collier, V. (1985). Bilingual and E.S.L. classrooms, teaching in multicultural contexts. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co.
Penalosa, F. (1980). Chicano sociolinguistics. Rowley, MA; Newbury House Publishers.
Penalosa, F. (1981). Some issues in Chicano sociolinguistics in Latino language and communicative behavior. New York: R. Duncan. 97
Pfaff, c. (1976). Functional and structural constraints on syntactic variation in code-swiich ing. Papers from farasession on iJeachronic Syntax. L'hicago: Chicago Linguistic Society.
Ramirez, D. (198S, Nov.). Comparing structured English iairaersion and bilingual education; First year results of a national study. American Journal of Education, 122-148. •'^~ ' —'
Sandoval-Martinez. (1982). Findings from the head start bilingual curriculum development and evaluation report. NABE Journal, 1{l), 1-12.
Science Research Achievement Test. (1985). New York: Science Research Association, Inc.
Scotton, C. M. (1979). Explaining linguistic choices as identity negotiations. In H. Giles, W. P. Robinson, & P. M. Smith ( Eds.), Language: Social and psychological perspectives (pp. 26-33). New York: Pergamon Press.
Spolsky, B. (1978). American Indian bilingual education. In B. Spolsky & R. L. Cooper (Eds.), Case studies in bi lingual education (pp. 1-10) . Rowley, MA: Newbury House Publishers.
Stein, C. B. (1986). Sink or swim. New York: Praeger Pub lishers.
Texas Educational Assessment of Minimal Skills. (1984). Aus tin, TX: Texas Education Agency.
Thomas, D. A. (1980). Reading achievement of Chicano children as a function of language spoken and language preference. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Univer sity of Michigan.
Tipton, R. (1950). Bilingual education and English as a second language. In C. W. Funkhouser (Ed.), Education in Texas: Policies, practices and perspectives, 5th ed (pp. 234-237). Scottsdale, AZ: Gorguet Scarisbrick Publishers .
Trioke, M. S. (1973). Bilingual children: A resource docu ment . Arlington, VA: Center for Applied Linguistics.
Valdes-Fa 11 is , G. (1978). Code-switching and the classroom teacher. In Language in education; Theory and practice 4^. Arlington, VA: Center for Applied Linguistics (Mono graph) . 98 Willig, A. C. (1985, Pall). A ••ta-analyais of selected studies on the effectiveness of bilingual education. Review of Educational Research, 5^(3), 269-317. Wright, L. B. (1962). The cultural life of the American col onies. New York: Harper and Row, Inc. Zentella, C. A. (1982). Kablamos los dos. We speak both; Growing up bilingual in El Barrio. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania. APPENDIX
PARENT INTERVIEW
99 100
Child's Name
Date
Parent's Name
1. What is your occupation?
2. What is your spouse's occupation?
3. What is your monthly income? Less than $400 $ 800-$l,000 $400-$600 $1,000-$1,200 $600-$800 $1,200-$1,400 More than $1,400 4. How many brothers and sisters does your child have?
5. Are there other people living in your home?
6. What grade did you complete in school?
7. What grade did your spouse complete in school?
8. Did you attend school in Mexico? 9. How important do you think it is for your child to com plete high school? Not important Somewhat important Important Very important 10. What amount of education do you think is necessacy? Completion of grade Completion of high school Completion of trade school Completion of som.e college Completion of 4-year college Beyond r years of college
11. What language is used at home for each of the follow ing? meals discipline instruction reading conversing calling someone 12. What language is used in the community for the follow ing? playmates relatives stores movies entertainment radio TV REFERENCES
Anderson, T., & Boyer, M. (1970). Bilingual schooling in the United States. Austin, TX: Southwest Educational Devel opment Laboratory.
Baker, K., & deKanter, A. (Eds.). (1983). Bilingual educa tion: A reappraisal of federal policy. Lexington. MA: Lexington Books.
Blanco, G. M. (1978) . The implementation of bilingual/bicul- tural education in the United States. In B. Spolsky & R. Cooper (Eds.), Case studies in bilingual education (pp. 454-503) . Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Briggs, L. T. (1982). Understanding the role of language in bilingual education. In M. Montero (Ed.), Bilingual education teacher handbook II (pp. 13-35) . Cambridge, MA: Evaluation Dissemination and Assessment Center.
Brisk, M. E. (1982). Language policies in American edu cation. In M. Montero (Ed.), Bilingual education teach er handbook (pp. 1-12) . Cambridge, MA: Evaluation DTS^ semination and Assessment Center.
Brown, R. (1971). A first language: The early stages. Cam bridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Cordasco, F. (1976) . Bilingual schooling in the United States. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Crawford, J. (1989). Bilingual education: History politics theory and practice. Trenton, NJ: Crane.
Cummins, J. (1981). The role of primary language development in promoting educational success for language minority students. In California State Department of Education, Schooling and language minority students: A theoretical framework (pp. 3-49). Los Angeles: National Evaluation, Dissemination and Assessment Center, California State University.
Cummins, J. (1984a) . Bilingualism and special education; Issues in assessnTent and pedagogy. Clevedon, England; Multi1ingual Matters. Co-publisned in the U.S. by College Hill Press, San Diego.
Cummins, J. (1984b). Wanted; A theoretical framework for relating language proficiency to academic achievement among bilingual students. In C. Rivera (Ed.), Language proficiency and academic achievement (pp. 3-19). Avon, England; Clevedon. 93 94 Cummins, j., s, Swain, M. (1986). Bilingualism in education: Aspects of theory, research and practice. London: Lonq- man.
Duncan, S. E., & DeAvila, E. A. (1984). Language Assessment Scales. San Rafael, CA; Linguametrics Group. Edelsky, C. (1986) . Writing in a bilingual program habia una vez. Norwood, NJ; Ablex. Evans, C. E. (1955). The story of Texas schools. Austin, TX: The Steck Co.
Fishman, J. A. (1976). Bilingual education: An international sociological perspective. Rowley, MA; Newbury House. Fitch, K. L. (1983, Nov.). Research methods into language/ code switching and synthesis of findings into theory. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Speech Communication Association, Washington, DC. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. 240 633) Garcia, E. (1981). A national study of Spanish-English bi lingualism in young Hispanic children of the United States. Washington, DC; OBELMA. Garcia. E. (1986, Nov.) . Bilingual development and the education of bilingual children during early childhood. American Journal of Education, 95, 96-121. Gonzalez, G. (1977). Teaching bilingual children. In Bi lingual education: Current perspectives. Arlington, VA: Center for Applied Linguistics (Monograph). Goodman, K., Goodman, Y., & Flores, B. (1979). Reading in the bilingual classroom: Literacy and biliteracy. Ross- lyn, VA; National Clearinghouse for Bilingual ^Iduca- t ion. Gravetter, F. J., & Wallnau, L. B. (1988). Statistics for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed .) . St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Co. Gumperz, J. J. (1976) . Tne soc iol ingu ist ic sic^nificance of conversational code-switching. Berkeley, CA; University of California, Berkeley, Language Behavior Research Laboratory (Monograph). 95 Gumperz, J., i Hernandez, E. (1975). Cognitive aspects of bilingual communication. Working papers of the language behavior research lab. No. 28. Berkaleyl University of Ca 1 i fornia . (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 138 103) Gunther, V. (1980). A comparison of bilingual oral language and reading skills among limited English-speaking stu dents from Spanish-speaking backgrounds. Chicago, IL: Latino Institute. Hakuta, K., & Gould, L. J. (1987). Synthesis of research on bilingual education. Educational Leadership, 4^(6), 38- 45. Hardwick, H., & Travis, M. (1986, Jan.). Issues in serving young special needs children in bi 1 inguai~l)icultural settings. Paper presented at the Fairbanks Association for the Education of Young Children and Tanana Valley Conmunity College. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 269 922) Hernandez, L. (1979). Language of the Chicano. Bilingual Education Paper Series, 2<^)* Washington, DC: OMBELA (Monograph). " Informal Reading Inventory. (1987). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Co. Jacobson, R. (1980). The implementation o^ a bilingual instruction model; The new concurrent approach. In R. V. Pad ill (Ed.) , Ethnoperspectives in bilingual edu cation research. Vol. 2: Theory in bilingual education (pp. 165-181). Ypsilanti, MI: Eastern Michigan Univer- sity. Johnson, D., & Roen, D. (1989). Richness in writing: Empowering ESL students. White Plains, NY: Longman. Kioke, A. D. (1987). Code switching in the bilingual Chicago narrative. Hispania, 7^(1), 148-154. Labov, W. (1972). Language in the inner city. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. Lam, A. S. (1985, Apr.). Vocabulary and other considerations in reading comprehension; Implications across the cur riculum. Paper presented at the regional seminar on Language Across the Curriculum. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 269 968) Lau v. Nichols, 414 U.S. 563 (1974) . 96 Lessow-Hurley, J. (1990). The foundations of dual language instruction. White Plains, NY: Longman Co. Mace-Matluck, B. J. (198**, Nov.). Teaching reading to bi lingual children. Study final report National Institute of Education, Washington, DC. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 267-624) Mackey, W. F., & Beebe, V. N. (1977). Bilingual schools for a bicultural community. Rowley, MA: Newbury House Pub lishers . McClure, E. (1978). The acquisition of comjnunicative compe tence in a bicultural setting. Washington, DC: National Institute of Education. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 150 877) Medina, M., Saldate, M. , & Mishra, S. (1985). The sustaining effects of bilingual instruction: A follow-up study. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 1^(1), 132-139. Medina-Nquyen, S. (1978). Overgeneral izat ion in a group of Spanish-English bilingual childretTI Paper presented at tne Second Language Research Forum, Los Angeles, CA. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 172 535) Miller, H. A. (1916). The school and the immigrant. Phila delphia, PA; Wm. F. Fell Co. Printers. Mortensen, E. (1985, Sep.-Dec). Reading achievement of native Spanish-speaking elementary students in bi lingual education programs in bilingual vs. monolingual programs. Bilingual Review, 2.^2), 209-218. Olmedo-Williams, I. (1981, Jun.). Functions of code switch jin. g in a Spanish/English bilingual classroom. Bilingual EEducatiod n Paper Series, 4(11) (Monograph). Ovando, C. J., & Collier, V. (1985). Bilingual and E.S.L. classrooms, teaching in multicultural contexts. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co. Penalosa, F. (1980). Chicano sociolinguistics. Rowley, MA; Newbury House Publishers. Penalosa, F. (1981). Some issues in Chicano sociolinguistics in Latino language and communicative behavior. New York; R. Duncan . 97 Pfaff, C. (1976). Functional and structural constraints on syntactic variation in code-swi fcch ing . PapersTro^ farasession on oeachrinlc tlyntax. L'hicago: Chicago Linguistic Society.
Ramirez, D. (1986, Nov.). Comparing structured English immersion and bilingual education: First year results of a national study. American Journal of Education, 1^^ ~1.4o. ^^^^^^^^^^'^^^"'^"^^^^•••^^^^^^^
Sandoval-Martinez. (1982). Findings from the head start bilingual curriculum development and evaluation report NABE Journal, ]_{1) , 1-12.
Science Research Achievement Test. (1985). New York: Science Research Association, Inc.
Scotton, C. M. (1979). Explaining linguistic choices as identity negotiations. In H. Giles, W. P. Robinson, & P. M . Smith (Eds.) , Language: Social and psychological perspectives (pp. 26-33). New York: Pergamon Press.
Spolsky, B. (1978). American Indian bilingual education. In B. Spolsky & R. L. Cooper (Eds.), Case studies in bi lingual education (pp. 1-10). Rowley, MA; Newbury House Publishers.
Stein, C. B. (1986). Sink or swim. New York; Praeger Pub lishers.
Texas Educational Assessment of Minimal Skills. (1984). Aus tin, TX: Texas Education Agency.
Thomas, D. A. (1980). Reading achievement of Chicano children as a function of language spoken and language preference. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Univer sity of Michigan.
Tipton, R. (1990). Bilingual education and English as a second language. In C. W. Funkhouser (Ed.), Education in Texas: Policies, practices and perspectives, 5th ed (pp. 234-237). Scottsdale, AZ: Gorguet Scarisbrick Publishers .
Trioke, M. S. (1973). Bilingual children: A resource docu ment. Arlington, VA; Center for Applied Linguistics.
Valdes-Fallis , G. (1978). Code-switching and the classroom teacher. In Language in education; Theory and practice 4^. Arlington, VA: Center for Applied Linguistics (Mono graph) . 98 Willig, A. C. (1985, Pall). A meta-analysis of selected studies on the effectiveness of bilingual education. Review of Educational Research, 5^(3), 269-317. Wright, L. B. (1962). The cultural life of the American col onies. New York: Harper and Row, Inc. Zentella, C. A. (1982). Hablamos los dos. We speak both; Growing up bilingual in El Barri'c Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania. APPENDIX
PARENT INTERVIEW
99 100 Child's Name
Date
Parent's Name
1. What is your occupation?
2. What is your spouse's occupation?
3. What is your monthly income? Less than $400 $ 800-$1,000 $400-$600 $1,000-$1,200 $600-$800 $1,200-$1,400 More than $1,400 4. How many brothers and sisters does your child have?
5. Are there other people living in your home?
6. What grade did you complete in school?
7. What grade did your spouse complete in school?
8. Did you attend school in Mexico? 9. How important do you think it is for your child to com plete high school? Not important Somewhat important Important Very important 10. What amount of education do you think is necessary? Completion of grade Completion of high school Completion of trade school Completion of some college Completion of 4-year college Beyond r years of college
11. What language is used at home for each of the follow ing? meals discipline instruction reading conversing calling someone 12. What language is used in the community for the follow ing? playmates relatives stores movies entertainment radio TV