Volume 13 Number 1 Article 4

10-15-1986

The Epic Hero and Society: Cuchulainn, Beowulf, and Roland

Eleanor Farrell

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Recommended Citation Farrell, Eleanor (1986) "The Epic Hero and Society: Cuchulainn, Beowulf, and Roland," Mythlore: A Journal of J.R.R. Tolkien, C.S. Lewis, Charles Williams, and Mythopoeic Literature: Vol. 13 : No. 1 , Article 4. Available at: https://dc.swosu.edu/mythlore/vol13/iss1/4

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Abstract Compares legends of Cuchulainn, Beowulf, and The Song of Roland to determine what the portrayal of their respective heroes tells us about the different values of their various cultures.

Additional Keywords Beowulf—Social and political aspects; Cuchulainn—Social and political aspects; Heroes (Epic); Heroes and honor; Roland—Social and political aspects; Sarah Beach

This article is available in Mythlore: A Journal of J.R.R. Tolkien, C.S. Lewis, Charles Williams, and Mythopoeic Literature: https://dc.swosu.edu/mythlore/vol13/iss1/4 MYTHLORE 47: Autumn 1986 Page 25

The Epic H ero and Society Cuchulainnm Beowulf and Roland Eleanor Farrell

The epic hero is a fascinating archetype Tolkien commented on the "fundamental spanning man's entire history, from the unreason" of Celtic things: "They have bright Sumerian epic of Gilgamesh that pre-dates the color, but are like a broken stained glass second millenium B.C., to today's futuristic window reassembled without design."3 This tales of post-holocaust society. Tales of characteristic can be seen throughout the heroes have survived from many early surviving Celtic literature and art, but is cultures, evolving from bardic oral is epitomized in the story of Cuchulainn, recitations into (sometimes) cohesive written Ireland's greatest hero, as told in the Tain stories or poems. The tales survived because Bo Cuailnge and related tales. they were good entertainm ent, but they also serve the additional purpose of being a Cuchulainn is clearly not human. His treasure-store of information about the conception is confusing, to say the least. societies where they originated. The epics His mother Deichtine becomes pregnant first show, if not actual living figures, at least by the sidhe Lug (identified with the Celtic the people the societies imagined themselves sun god), and later by the mortal Sualdam mac to be, with their codes of honor, religious Roich. Added to these elements is a beliefs and political systems; they are suggestion of Deichtine's incest with her passionate, humorous, and surprisingly brother Conchobar, the king. Cuchulainn's o b j e c t i v e . childhood fits the outline of the archetypal heroic figure as described by Joseph The scribes of medieval Europe have Campbell, who sees the hero's life as a preserved several epic tales from roughly "pageant of marvels" culminating in a great contemporary, but distinctly different, central adventure.4 Before reaching the age societies.1 Among these are the Irish Celtic of seven, this prodigy single-handedly tales of the hero Cuchulainn, the Anglo-Saxon defeated Conchobar's entire boy troop and epic poem Beowulf, and the Norman chanson de killed Culann the Smith's savage hound, not g e s t e , The Song of Roland. A comparison of to mention the number of heads of Ulster's the heroes of these tales and of their enemies he collected. But the most colorful adventures will allow us to also compare (and very Celtic) depiction of Cuchulainn is their societies, to discover differences and the description of his battle-rage: sim ilarities among the peoples whose cultures fused to form, ultimately, modern Europe. The first warp-spasm seized Cuchulainn, and made him into a monstrous thing.... Of the three cultures to be considered, His body made a f u rio u s tw is t in s id e the Celtic is the most primitive, in the his skin, so that his feet and shins and sense of having an interplay between the knees switched to the rear and his heels natural and the supernatural, a "tension and calves switched to the front.... between reality and fantasy."2 J.R.R. His face and features became a red bowl: Page 26 MYTHLORE 47: Autumn 1986 he sucked one eye so deep into his head so that his bowels spill out. Cuchulainn that a wild crane couldn't probe it... fastens him self to a rock so that he may die the other eye fell out along his cheek standing up, and Lugaid waits until he is .... Then, tall and thick, steady and dead before cutting off Cuchulainn's head. strong, high as the mast of a noble The hero manages to revenge him self even in ship, rose up from the dead centre of death, however, for as his sword falls from his skull a straight spout of black his hand it cuts off the hand of Lugaid. blood darkly and magically smoking like the smoke from a royal hostel when a In considering the Anglo-Saxon epic king is coming to be cared for at the Beowulf, we move into a society less steeped close of a winter day .5 in magic and guided by a permeating and pessim istic sense of doom. Like the northern Irish religion was nebulous, with gods, the Germanic (or Anglo-Saxon) heroes numerous local deities who were rarely "are on the right side, though it is not the depicted as deserving (or receiving) reverent side that wins. The winning side is Chaos worship. There was no strong belief in the and Unreason.. . ".8 There are both Christian afterlife, although the boundaries between and pagan religious elements in Beowulf, but the natural and supernatural worlds were all of these are ephemeral to the concept of tenuous and easily crossed. Irish lore fate that controls the hero's actions. The included non-human races, but the immortal only hope of survival in this universe is the sidhe were most often described as living and society, represented by the mead-hall, which fighting like humans. is being directly attacked by Grendel before Beowulf's arrival. Fate was an integral part of Celtic lore and literature, with druids and seeresses As in Celtic society, a code of honor employed to make predictions, especially was predominant in individual conduct, but about battles. An Irish stubbornness can be here it took the form of the personal seen, however, in the frequency with which comitatus loyalty of feudal structure. The characters cheerfully ignore these dire importance of this concept in Anglo-Saxon warnings and plow ahead into ruin. This culture is clearly demonstrated by its attitude stemmed partially from a confidence frequency in the extant literature, perhaps in being able to get around fate through the most succinctly described by the vassal use of fetishes, wile or good luck; but it Byrhtwold, in the heroic poem "The Battle of was also characteristic of the Irish Celts to M aldon": value glory and fame over a longer but duller existence. When Cuchulainn is told that his Courage shall grow keener, clearer the w ill, life w ill be short because he armed himself the heart fiercer, as our force faileth. on a certain day, he replies, "'That is a Here our lord lies levelled in the dust, fair bargain.... If I achieve fame I am the man all marred: he shall mourn to the content, though I had only one day on end e a r t h .'"6 who thinks to wend off from this war-play now. Early Irish society was homogeneous but Though I am white with winters I will not anarchic, the Irish having "little tolerance aw ay, for centralized authority, even their own."7 for I think to lodge me alongside my dear The aristocratic classes had a strong sense o n e, of, and concern with, identity, which is lay me down by my lord's right hand.'9 reflected in the genealogical and place-name lists so frequent in early Irish literature. Beowulf displays all of the virtues of The morality of the Irish Celts was based on the Germanic warrior: bravery, strength, a this tribal identity and consisted of a sense of obligation (he comes to Hrothgar's complicated code of honor that could court partly to repay a family debt), loyalty transcend the bonds of blood kinship. Thus, to his uncle Hygelac, leader of the Geats, Cuchulainn is forced to fight and kill his honor in fulfilling his oaths, and an own son Connla for the honor of Ulster and eagerness for fame and praise. He is Conchobar. Cuchulainn is able to fulfill his credited with prowess equal to that of the honor code and still avoid killing his supernatural (but human-like) Grendel, and friends or kinsmen in several- other episodes, defeats this monster without using weapons. notably by making an agreement with his His greater difficulty and need for foster-father Fergus that each of them w ill supernatural aid in conquering Grendel's run away from the other in one encounter. mother reflects the Anglo-Saxon pessimism: Cuchulainn's death, however, can be directly human success is ultimately impossible, and linked to the obligations of his honor code. the best man can hope for is everlasting As the hero goes to his last fight, he fa m e . violates a geis by accepting some hound's flesh from three crones (who are actually the This mind-set appears in sharp contrast daughters of his enemy the wizard Calatin), to that of the Norman epic, The Song of because he w ill not scorn the offer of poor Roland. Fate is here replaced by a Christian food. During the battle, Cuchulainn is concept of good and evil, with no room for faring far better than his enemies until they moral ambiguities. Characters are either claim his spear, threatening to revile good or bad, mainly according to their Cuchulainn's kin and all Ulster if he religious beliefs. The Saracen knights are refuses. The third time that he parts with granted nobility to make them worthy his weapon, his enemy Lugaid strikes the hero opponents of Roland and the other Peers, but MYTHLORE 47: Autumn 1986 Page 27 one can sense that the evil natures of honor. It is this code that controls the Marsilion and the traitor Ganelon are destinies of each of these heroes, sometimes intended to be described using capital with tragic consequences, as when Cuchulainn l e t t e r s . kills his son in battle or when Roland leads his rear guard into total annihilation. The Song of Roland is characterized by a However, because the concept of honor1 is simplicity that is not found in the other essential to the survival of a society based epics, but which reflects medieval Norman on personal loyalty, the honor code is never culture -- a m ilitaristic feudalism based on repudiated, even when it leads to disaster, personal loyalty. Roland, with all his and in fact is emphasized in all of these faults, is still the hero, possessing the epics. Roland might be guilty of stupidity, typical virtues of the feudal knight: he is Beowulf of arrogance, or Cuchulainn of brave, loyal, generous, single-minded and stubbornness, but not one of them can ever be rash. Charlemagne epitomizes the ideal accused of violating their personal honor. feudal lord, a noble, wise and ageless monarch. But in addition to a cultural The death of the epic hero is an identity, this epic, by the time it was integral part of his story, and reflects the written down around 1100, evolved into a cultural ideas of fate, honor and religion. quasi-religious tract supporting the Church It is tied to the position of the hero as M ilitant's crusades against the Moslem being separate from, or outside of, the infidels. The battle between Charlemagne and society in some way. The hero, as the the Emir Baligant is the archetypal conflict embodiment of the society's ideals and a between Good and Evil, involving the warriors source of-strengths unavailable to the common of the entire Christian and pagan worlds. man, cannot live the life of an ordinary Roland's heroism is still applauded as m o r ta l. martyrdom, but a sense of the shift from personal to national pride might be seen in Cuchulainn's brief life is predicted by the poet's attention to Oliver's reproaches his teacher Scathach and by the druid of his friend's foolhardiness. Cathbad; Cuchulainn himself more or less chooses fame over longevity. His death, as Both Oliver and Roland live according to already mentioned, results from an adherence a cultural code of honor, which is emphasized to a code of personal and clan honor. also through its opposite -- the treachery of Roland's death, also, stems from a sense of Ganelon. Despite his persuasiveness and honor, and although the hero's pride and bravery in his first encounter with recklessness are criticized by the more Marsilion, Ganelon is presented as being prudent Oliver, it is Roland's body that is thoroughly evil and his treachery fittingly carried into heaven by angels. Fate cannot punished: he is tied to four horses and his be said to be involved here, although body literally torn apart. Even in the more Charlemagne is given an allegorical vision of complex and centralized society that France Roland's death in a dream, and seems to is portrayed as becoming, the bonds of expect the treachery of Ganelon. Perhaps loyalty and honor maintain their position of this is as close as medieval Christianity predominant importance. would allow Fate to intervene in the lives of her heroes. Although the tales of the heroes Cuchulainn, Beowulf and Roland are not In this respect, the Anglo-Saxon epic completely parallel, there are several points fits somewhere between the Celtic and Norman of direct comparison that can also be used to ideas of fate and death; it has some compare the values of the respective cultures Christian elements, but hasn't incorporated the heroes represent. The first of these is these in any cohesive form. C.S. Lewis made the hero's relationship to the supernatural, an interesting comparison of Celtic and a characteristic common to cultural heroes.10 Germanic myth (in commenting on Matthew Cuchulainn has the greatest supernatural Arnold's On the Study of Celtic Literature): attributes, both in the particulars of his birth and in his physical abilities. Beowulf The Celtic was much more sensuous: also is unusually strong and is able to swim into less homely: also, entirely lacking in the monsters' underwater cave, which takes an reverence, of which the Germanic was entire day -- a long time to hold one's full. Then again the Germanic glowed in breath! However, he has to rely on God's a sense with rich sombre colours, while help and grace to kill Grendel's mother. the Celtic was all transparent and full Roland, on the other hand, has no super-human of nuances - evanescent - but very qualities; his strengths are those of the b r i g h t . human hero, purity of heart and faith in God. He continues: These different emphases reflect those of the corresponding societies: the Celtic mosaic of One sees that the Celtic is essentially overlapping natural and supernatural worlds, Pagan, frivolous under all its melan­ the Anglo-Saxon chaotic reality of gods and choly, incapable of growing into reli­ monsters, which occasionally conflict with gion, and - I think - a little heart­ humanity, and the Norman Christianity where l e s s . 11 angels can counsel kings but faith is required to get things done. In considering Beowulf as an epic hero One of the elements that seems to figure, I have chosen to consider only his permeate all heroic literature is a sense of youthful exploits at Hrothgar's court. The Page 28 MYTHLORE 47: Autumn 1986 later part of the poem -- the aging king's and are reflected, in the medieval battle with the dragon — presents Beowulf in a c c o u n t s . a completely different role, that of the wise but failing ruler, the guardian of the land's 2Jeffrey Gantz, trans., Early Irish Myths well-being. Although Beowulf dies a noble and Sagas (Harmondsworth, Middlesex: death, it is an unusual end for an epic hero. Penguin Books, 1981), p. 1. The essential position of the hero as outside the society normally leads to his dying 3Humphrey Carpenter, ed., The Letters of (young) in glorious battle or riding off J.R.R. Tolkien (Boston: Houghton Mif­ victoriously into the sunset. Looked at in flin Company, 1981), p. 26. this way, Beowulf does the latter. He travels to Denmark, kills the monsters, and 4Joseph Campbell, The Hero with a Thousand then leaves, having gained gifts, gratitude Faces (Cleveland and New York: Merid­ and fame but not attempting to become part of ian Books, 1949), p. 319. Hrothgar's court. The combination of roles in Beowulf is one of the most curious 5Thomas Kinsella, trans., The Tain (London: inconsistencies between this and the other Oxford University Press, 1969), pp. epics studied. Perhaps not enough time had 150-1 5 3 . elapsed between the history and the epic for the characters to develop fully into heroic 6Kinsella, The Tain, p. 85. archetypes. 7Gantz, Early Irish Myths and Sagas, p. 14. Or, perhaps Anglo-Saxon society had a shortage of wise kings, and the epic heroes 8Walfeer P. Ker, quoted in J.R.R. Tolkien, had to do double duty in these roles. It is Beowulf: The Monsters and the interesting to note that the age of the epic Critics (Folcroft, Pennsylvania: Fol- heroes was also a time of great decline in croft Library Editions, 1972), p. 19. the society. Various tales in the Irish Ulster cycle have warriors awestruck by the 9Michael Alexander, trans., The Earliest feats of a seven-year-old boy (even if he is English Poems (Harmondsworth, Middle­ Cuchulainn s son), or fighting over a dog, sex: Penguin Books, 1966), p. 123. while the king himself is openly treacherous. Charlemagne can find only one knight to 10quoted by Nancy-Lou Patterson, "Bright-Eyed support him when he confronts Ganelon's Beauty: Celtic Elements in Charles obvious treachery. Hrothgar's hall is Williams, J.R.R. Tolkien, and C.S. besieged for twelve years by Grendel while Lewis," Mythlore 35, Spring 1983, p.9. the entire Danish court has no heroes to combat the monster. 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The epic hero is a universal concept, Chute, David. "The Ayatollah of the Movi­ found not only in the tales of primitive ola," Film Comment 18 (July-August 1982), societies throughout the world, but also in 26-3 1 . contemporary mythology (preserved on celluloid instead of parchment): the Gantz, Jeffrey, trans. Early Irish Myths wandering gunfighter in "Shane", the and Sagas. Harmondsworth, Middlesex: m asterless samurai of "Yojimbo", the amoral Penguin Books, 1981. loner cruising through a post-apocalyptic outback in "The Road Warrior". They all have Kennedy, Charles W., trans. Beowulf. Ox­ the qualities of a Cuchulainn, a Beowulf or a ford, London and New York: Oxford University Roland: bravery, loyalty, and most of all, Press, 1971 (1940). honor -- values that transcend any single time and place. Kinsella, Thomas, trans. The Tain. London: FOOTNOTES Oxford University Press, 1969.

1For societies such as these being consid­ Moorman, Charles. Kings and Captains: Vari­ ered, which span several centuries, ations on a Heroic Theme. Lexington, Ken­ the "contemporary" quality may be as­ tucky: University Press of Kentucky, 1971. cribed to the period during which they were all put into writing. How­ O'Connor, Frank. A Short History of Irish ever, the values and customs of the Literature: A Backward Look. New York: particular cultures still remained, G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1967. Continued on page 50 Page 50 MYTHLORE 47: Autumn 1986

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