Guidelines for in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia IUCN – Founded in 1948, The World Conservation World Commission on Union brings together States, government Protected Areas agencies and a diverse range of non- The World governmental organizations in a unique The World Commission on Protected Areas world partnership: over 980 members in all, (WCPA), one of six commissions of IUCN – Conservation spread across some 140 countries. The World Conservation Union, is a world- wide network of some 1,300 protected area As a Union, IUCN seeks to influence, experts. Its members work in a volunteer Union encourage and assist societies throughout capacity to raise the standard of protected the world to conserve the integrity and diversity of nature and to ensure that any area planning and management. use of natural resources is equitable and The WCPA has a number of task forces, ecologically sustainable. each of which tackles policy and program The World Conservation Union builds on issues of importance to park and protected the strengths of its members, networks and area planning and management. The partners to enhance their capacity and to objectives of the Task Force on Tourism and support global alliances to safeguard Protected Areas are to: natural resources at local, regional and • Provide guidance to the WCPA, and global levels. others, on the relationships between tourism and protected areas • Identify the size and characteristics of protected area tourism • Develop case studies to investigate best practice models for tourism management • Develop guidelines for the management of tourism in protected areas • Communicate tourism management theory and practice to planners, managers and others • Provide opportunities for parks and tourism people to work together on shared issues within protected area tourism. Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia

Paul F.J. Eagles Margaret E. Bowman Teresa Chang-Hung Tao

IUCN – The World Conservation Union 2001 Copyright The designation of geographical entities in this book, and the presentation of the material, do not imply the expression of any opinion on the part of the IUCN or the University of Waterloo concerning the status of any country, territory, or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect those of IUCN or the University of Waterloo. This publication has been made possible in part by funding from the Government of , Ministry of the Environment, Nature Conservation Bureau.

Published by: IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK in collaboration with the University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3G1

Copyright: ©2001 International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. Reproduction of this publication for educational or other non- purposes is authorized without prior written permission from the copyright holder provided the source is fully acknowledged. Reproduction of this publication for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without prior written permission of the copyright holder.

Citation: Eagles, Paul F.J., Bowman, Margaret E., and Tao, Teresa Chang-Hung. (2001). Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. x + 99 pp.

ISBN: 2-8317-0579-7

Cover photos: Paul F.J. Eagles, Teresa Chang-Hung Tao and Lew Young.

Designed by: Dianne Keller and Janice Weber, Graphics, University of Waterloo.

Printed by: Waterloo Printing, 50 Bridgeport Road East, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2J 2J6

Available from: IUCN Publications Services Unit 219c Huntingdon Road, Cambridge CB3 ODL, Tel: +44 1223 277894 Fax: +44 1223 277175 E-mail: [email protected] www.iucn.org/bookstore/index.html A catalogue of IUCN publications is also available.

The text of this book is printed on Windsor Offset Recycled, 60 lb., 20% post consumer fiber. Table of EDITORIAL NOTE vii Contents FOREWORD viii CONTRIBUTORS ix 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 CURRENT SITUATIONS AND TRENDS IN TOURISM AND PROTECTED AREAS 1 1.1.1 The Industry of Tourism 1 1.1.2 The Industry of Protected Areas 1 1.1.3 Understanding Park Tourism 3 1.1.4 Current Efforts and Trends 3 1.2 KEY CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS 6 1.3 GOALS OF TOURISM IN PROTECTED AREAS 10 2.0 PROTECTED AREAS AND TOURISM IN EAST ASIA 11 2.1 SETTING THE REGIONAL CONTEXT 11 2.2 PROTECTED AREAS IN EAST ASIA 12 2.2.1 Protected Area Information by Jurisdiction 12 2.2.2 Internationally Recognised Conservation Designations 15 2.3 TOURISM IN EAST ASIA 18 2.3.1 General Tourism Trends 18 2.3.2 Tourism Information by Jurisdiction 20 2.4 TOURISM AND PROTECTED AREAS 24 2.4.1 Infrastructure and Activities 24 2.4.2 Systematic Collection of Data Related to Tourism 25 2.4.3 Policies and Laws Related to in Protected Areas 27 2.5 THE DOWNFALLS OF NON-SUSTAINABLE TOURISM 27 2.6 THE ADVANTAGES OF SUSTAINABLE TOURISM 28 2.7 ACHIEVING ADVANTAGES AND MINIMISING DISADVANTAGES OF SUSTAINABLE TOURISM 31 2.8 SUGGESTIONS 34 3.0 GUIDELINES FOR DEVELOPING SUSTAINABLE TOURISM 35 3.1 INTRODUCTION 35 3.2 DEVELOPING A SUSTAINABLE TOURISM ACTION PLAN 35 3.2.1 Objectives 36 3.2.2 Inventory of Assets 37 3.2.3 Local People 38 3.2.4 Partnerships 41 3.2.5 Zoning 43 3.2.6 Use Levels 44 3.2.7 Appropriate Activities 48 3.2.8 Environmental, Economic, Social and Cultural Impact Assessment 49 3.2.9 and Interpretation 49 3.2.10 Visitor Channelling 52 3.2.11 Market Research 54 3.2.12 Product Development and Promotional Strategy 55 3.2.13 Monitoring 57 3.2.14 Resources and Training 59 3.2.15 Implementation 61 3.3 ACHIEVING BEST PRACTICE 61 3.3.1 Methods of Regulating Actions 61 3.3.2 Best Practice Guidelines 62 3.4 SUGGESTIONS 67 4.0 SUSTAINABLE TOURISM IN HIGH-ALTITUDE AND MARINE ENVIRONMENTS 69 4.1 INTRODUCTION 69 4.2 A BRIEF EXAMINATION OF HIGH-ALTITUDE ENVIRONMENTS 69 4.3 AN IN-DEPTH EXAMINATION OF MARINE ENVIRONMENTS 72 4.3.1 Defining the Marine Environment 72 4.3.2 Approaches to Marine Conservation 72

v 4.3.3 Differences Between Terrestrial and Marine Planning 73 4.3.4 Legislation for Marine Protected Areas 75 4.4 SUGGESTIONS 76 5.0 CONCLUSIONS 77 5.1 IMPLEMENTING SUSTAINABLE TOURISM 77 5.2 SUGGESTIONS 82 5.3 PARK TOURISM PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT: A SUMMARY 83 6.0 REFERENCES 85 7.0 APPENDICES 89 APPENDIX A: PARK AND PROTECTED AREA STAKEHOLDERS 89 APPENDIX B: DEFINITION OF TERMS FOR PARK VISITATION AND TOURISM 89 APPENDIX C: TERMINOLOGY 92 APPENDIX D: CHARACTERISTICS OF 93 APPENDIX E: OPERATIONAL POLICIES FOR TOURISM OF THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL PARK SERVICE 94 APPENDIX F: LIMITS OF ACCEPTABLE CHANGE FRAMEWORK 95 APPENDIX G: A FRAMEWORK GUIDELINE TO DEVELOP ECOTOURISM GUIDELINES FOR PROTECTED AREAS IN ASIA 96 APPENDIX H: SUMMARY OF SUGGESTIONS 97

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Links Between Tourism and the Environment 4 Figure 2: The Size of the International Nature Tourism Market 5 Figure 3: Principles of Sustainable Tourism Development 6 Figure 4: Collection of Nature-based Tourism Terms 7 Figure 5: World Conservation Union (IUCN) Protected Area Categories 16 Figure 6: Summary of Internationally Recognised Protected Areas 17 Figure 7: Growth in Inbound Tourism in East Asia 19 Figure 8: Levels of Program Development for Measurement of Visitor Use 26 Figure 9: Disadvantages of Non-Sustainable Tourism Development 28 Figure 10: Advantages of Sustainable Tourism Development 29 Figure 11: Disadvantages of Sustainable Tourism Development 31 Figure 12: A Sustainable Tourism Action Plan for Protected Areas 36 Figure 13: Objectives of Sustainable Tourism for Protected Areas 36 Figure 14: Inventory for Developing Sustainable Tourism for Protected Areas 37 Figure 15: Building Park Infrastructure 44 Figure 16: Tourism Competencies 59 Figure 17: Characteristics of Successful Guiding Interpretation Programs 60 Figure 18: Objectives of Voluntary Codes of Conduct for Tourism 62 Figure 19: A Suggested Code of Conduct for Tourism Operators 64 Figure 20: Sustainable Tourism Accommodation Characteristics 65 Figure 21: Development of National Marine Protected Area Systems 76

LIST OF CASE STUDIES Case Study 1: Roles of Government Agencies and Non-Government Organisations in Protected Area Management 14 Case Study 2: Private Initiatives Towards Conservation 30 Case Study 3: Issues and Potential Constraints Related to Tourism Development 32 Case Study 4: The Need for Local People Participation and Support 40 Case Study 5: Investing Tourism Funds Into Conservation Through Public/Private Co-operation 42 Case Study 6: Establishing Limits of Acceptable Use 46 Case Study 7: Strategic Planning and Sustainable Funding for Environmental Education 50 Case Study 8: Monitoring Environmental and Economic Impacts 58 Case Study 9: Mountain Area Management 70 Case Study 10: Multi-Stakeholder Involvement in Marine Area Management 74

vi Editorial A primary goal of writing this document, however some gaps still exist. The guidelines Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and are designed so that the lessons and Note Protected Areas in East Asia, is to produce information can be applied to a broad range a collection of material that is useful to of situations, regardless of whether or not planners and managers of parks and specific information has been referenced protected areas in East Asia. within the text. Every effort has been made to utilise appropriate jurisdictional When referring to the East Asia region, references, however, the information countries and jurisdictions included in the presented in this document is not an region are: expression of any opinion concerning the • People’s Republic of (China) legal status of any country or jurisdiction, • , China (Hong Kong) or of its authorities, or concerning the • Taiwan, Province of China (Taiwan) delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. • Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (North Korea) It is hoped that the comprehensive • Republic of Korea () information on sustainable tourism • Japan concepts and projects collected within • this document are useful and informative • Macau for all who are trying to implement sustainable tourism practices within their For convenience, the short English names own environments. (given in brackets) are used throughout the document. Any use of the short English Paul F.J. Eagles name implies this designation given above. Margaret E. Bowman Throughout the writing process, many Teresa Chang-Hung Tao attempts were made to contact potential Department of Recreation and contributors in the various East Asia Leisure Studies jurisdictions in order to have access to University of Waterloo current park management situations and Waterloo, Ontario, Canada accurate tourism information. Despite N2L 3G1 these efforts, specific information was sometimes difficult to retrieve. The authors Telephone: 519-888-4567, ext. 3530 have made the best possible attempts with Fax: 519-746-6776 the resources available to include detailed Website: http://www.ahs.uwaterloo.ca/rec/ up-to-date information on each jurisdiction,

Dr. Paul F.J. Eagles, Margaret E. Bowman Teresa Chang-Hung Tao project director and is a researcher and the is a researcher, author and author for these principal author for these key liaison with East Asia guidelines, is the Chair of guidelines. She earned for these guidelines. She the Task Force on Tourism both a B.A. and an M.A. earned a B.B.A. in Tourism and Protected Areas, of in the Department of at Providence University in the World Commission on Recreation and Leisure Taichung in Taiwan and Protected Areas, and a Studies, University of an M.A. in the Department professor in the Waterloo in Canada. of Recreation and Leisure Department of Recreation She recently completed Studies, University of and Leisure Studies at an economic impact study Waterloo in Canada. She the University of Waterloo of park tourism, and is is currently doing national in Canada. building a career in park tourism analysis. international conservation.

vii Foreword This document has been created primarily General objectives of the document are to: for planners and managers of parks and • Introduce park tourism concepts protected areas. It deals with issues • Describe tourism in East Asia associated with park tourism (defined as • Identify tourism goals linked to protected the planning and management of park areas visitation). It has been designed to help • Outline issues related to tourism to park managers think about the influx of protected areas in East Asia tourism to natural protected areas, and to • Provide suggestions for implementing urge park managers to consciously plan for sustainable tourism practices in parks management of the interactions of tourists and protected areas of East Asia and the natural and cultural environment. • Encourage readers to think about how to Effective planning enables various interest create positive overlap between resource groups to maximise the potential positive protection and tourism, to the benefit of impacts of tourism while minimising the all parties involved various potential negative ones. • Build a common understanding of tourism terminology, existing issues and Readers with a variety of backgrounds may actions that can address these challenges. also find this document to be useful. Local communities, private tourism operators and This document is an important and land-use planners will be able to use welcome contribution to the field of various sections of this document to assist protected area tourism in East Asia. It is a their practices in being more sustainable. valuable resource for park managers and The broader the audience, the greater the other decision-makers involved in park potential for developing a common planning, adding to current practices and understanding of issues and challenges theory used by park managers. The authors shared by the various stakeholders directly have placed an emphasis on human and indirectly involved in the planning and dimensions involved in protected area management of parks and protected areas. management, and encouraged advance National governments, international planning for human/nature interactions organisations and the general tourism and potential outcomes from the tourist sector may also consider the concepts experience. The document contains a presented. In a world of globalisation, comprehensive collection of information many disciplines and sectors must work on best practices, visitor management, together towards mutually beneficial goals, education, stakeholder involvement and such as conserving significant natural and other topics related to protected area cultural features of the world. management. Examples of excellent projects occurring both within the East Asia region General tourism and protected area and beyond provide concrete illustrations of concepts are introduced in Section 1. the concepts discussed. Tourism and protected areas in East Asia are reviewed in Section 2. In Section 3 These guidelines are a vital source of general guidelines for sustainable tourism knowledge for how to develop and manage are outlined in a 15-item checklist. Parks tourism to protected areas in a sustainable and protected area managers can refer to manner. It is hoped that professionals this checklist to guide their efforts in involved in protected area tourism will gain sustainable tourism planning and valuable insight and guidance from the management. Issues related to high-altitude ideas presented within these guidelines. and marine environments are outlined in If each of us can make the effort to adopt Section 4. Conclusions relating to broader and continue to apply these concepts to actions necessary for structural support protected area management throughout behind successful guideline implementation the East Asia region, it will only help to are identified in Section 5. A summary of strengthen the levels of protection and suggestions made throughout the document appreciation given to our magnificent is found in Appendix H. collection of natural and cultural protected areas. The intent of this document is to provide general suggestions that each jurisdiction and park can use when developing their own approaches to policy development, Mr. Kunio Kikuchi funding, implementation and management. Regional Vice-Chair of the East Asia Region World Commission on Protected Areas World Conservation Union

viii Contributors Many people have assisted in the creation Jiuzhaigou World Natural Heritage in of these guidelines, and the authors would China, who provided information on like to acknowledge their important and this site. helpful contributions. First, thanks are Many thanks as well to Dr. Xuegong Xu extended to the EUROPARC Federation, and Miss Yin Zhang of Peking University (previously referred to as the Federation who provided information on protected of Nature and Natural Parks in Europe areas and including three or FNNPE) who invested two years and specific sites with corresponding photos. significant resources to create a document Dr. Xuegong Xu also made suggestions for designed to guide sustainable tourism in other contacts and provided comments on European parks, entitled Loving Them to protected area and tourism information in Death? Sustainable Tourism in Europe’s China. Thanks as well to Mr. Duan Xinyu Nature and National Parks. The EUROPARC from Changli Gold Coast Nature Reserve. Federation kindly granted permission to Feedback on background information about utilise liberally the knowledge and models China was given by Dr. Xianpu Wang and contained within that document in the Dr. Gaoming Jiang at the Chinese Academy production of these sustainable tourism of Science, who also provided one guidelines in East Asia. document on the principles of ecotourism Special thanks to Mr. Kunio Kikuchi of the policy and guidelines and three documents Japan Wildlife Research Center (JWRC) for related to natural protected areas and strongly supporting the creation of this ecotourism in China. document, Guidelines for Tourism in Parks Thanks must go to Dr. Shin Wang and and Protected Areas of East Asia. Special his assistant from the National Taiwan thanks as well to Ms. Shelley Hayes, the University, who greatly contributed to project contact person with the World our understanding of Taiwan’s protected Conservation Union (IUCN) Programme area system, providing the authors with on Protected Areas in Gland, Switzerland, numerous publications, information on who kept the project focused and provided Fushan Botanical Garden with useful insights during the development of corresponding photos, and contacts in the guidelines. Thanks as well to Mr. Daniel the tourism industry. Thanks as well to Egli, also with the World Conservation Dr. Bin-Min Sung, at the National Dong Union (IUCN) Programme on Protected Hwa University, who provided information Areas in Gland, Switzerland, who assisted on a protected area as well as information in the final stages of document preparation. on inbound and outbound tourism in Many people have contributed to a Taiwan and an executive summary report compilation of background information, on Taiwan’s survey. He tourism or protected area statistics and also suggested contacting Ms. Yu-Chun documents, and potential case studies. Wang at the Tourism Bureau. Thanks also The authors would like to thank all who to Mr. Cheng-Tyan Su, Deputy Director at have provided assistance – it is with their Tourism Bureau in Taiwan, for providing help and input that this document has the authors with a brief insight into the taken shape. current tourism context in parks and protected areas in Taiwan, and for The authors appreciate the efforts of providing thoughtful comments regarding Professor Zhihang Chen, at the WCPA/ the document. Mr. Kuo-Shin Hsu at the IUCN East Asian Nature Protection National Dong Hwa University in Taiwan Research, Monitoring, and Education kindly provided books and pamphlets on Centre, for providing information on Mongolia’s natural protected areas and a environmental protection within protected booklet on nature conservation in Japan. areas of China, for offering valuable feedback on the content, and for facilitating The authors are grateful to Mr. Lew Young, contact with Professor Bosheng Li at the the manager for WWF Hong Kong Mai Po Chinese Academy of Sciences. Professor Nature Reserve and Ms. Idy Wong, the Bosheng Li provided a document on Senior Education Officer at Mai Po. ecotourism in China and detailed Ms. Idy Wong provided detailed information on protected areas. Professor information on the educational program Zhihang Chen also suggested the authors in Mai Po Marshes Wildlife Centre along contact Mr. Shanyun Zhang, Director of with corresponding photos. Natural Safeguard Research Centre of

ix The authors appreciate Dr. Fook Yee Wong, Also thanks to Mr. Masahito Yoshida, of at the Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation the Nature Conservation Society of Japan Department in Hong Kong, for referring the (NACS-J) who provided a valuable article authors to a valuable internet site, and for on ecotourism in Japan and East Asia. providing several publications. The authors The authors appreciate the translation extend their thanks to Mr. Mason Hung at efforts of Mr. Philip Feifan Xie and the Hong Kong Tourist Association for Ms. Mio Tonouchi, at the University of providing two interesting documents on Waterloo in Canada. Also thanks to environmentally sustainable development Mr. Xie for providing information and in the Hong Kong tourism industry. Mr. Ap input on the project. at the Polytechnic University in Hong Kong requested the above publications for the The authors would also like to acknowledge authors. Thanks to Mr. Calvin C.H. Leung Dr. Corazon Sinha, previously the Head of who provided information on the current National Parks in the Philippines, for practice of ecotourism in Hong Kong’s providing comments for revisions, and country parks. Also thanks to Ms. Philippa Dr. Julie Wen for providing data on Chau, at the Hong Kong Tourist visitation numbers in China. Thanks to Dr. Association, who suggested contacting the Robyn Bushell, at the University of Western Agricultural, Fisheries and Conservation Sydney in , for facilitating contact Department, and to Ms. Gladys Li in the with them both. Sincere thanks as well to Agricultural, Fisheries and Conservation Anne Ross for her amazing precision and Department, who submitted the definition attention to detail throughout her editing of visitors and indicated that all visitor efforts, to Candace Nykiforuk for her arrival figures are provided by Hong Kong proofreading and helpful feedback, and to Immigration Department. Thanks to Carol O’Connor for her valuable and Dr. C.Y. Jim at the University of Hong Kong insightful editorial input, all from the who provided a helpful context for basic University of Waterloo in Canada. tourism information in Hong Kong. Also, thanks to Ross Constable, a Ranger Thanks to Mr. Seong-il Kim at Seoul with the New South Wales National Parks National University, who generously and Wildlife Service in Australia, for provided two reports on ecotourism providing assistance with the Montague development in and around Changbaishan Island case study. Richard Davies of the Biosphere Reserve in China and on North West Parks Board of South conservation policies and related legal helped with the Madikwe Wildlife Reserve instruments in South Korea. Mr. Seuk-Hee Case Study. Information on Chumbe Island Park, President of Korean Academy of Parks came from Eleanor Carter in Tanzania. & Recreation, kindly made suggestions of Thanks to all members of the Task Force on other people to contact. Tourism and Protected Areas of the World As well, thanks to Ms. Ts Davaasuren, Commission on Protected Areas for leader of the World Wildlife Fund continually providing expert advice on Environmental NGO Strengthening Project many aspects of park tourism management. in Mongolia, for collecting and preparing updated and useful information on tourism in protected areas of Mongolia, including a detailed article written by Mr. Thomas Eberherr.

x Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 1

1.1 CURRENT SITUATIONS all other categories of international trade AND TRENDS IN TOURISM (WTO, 2000a). The ever-increasing AND PROTECTED AREAS importance of the economics of tourism 1.0 has captured the attention of policy makers 1.1.1 The Industry of Tourism in many countries in the world. Tourism is Introduction Tourism is the world’s largest and fastest now an integral part of the global economy. growing sector of the global economy. For many people is easy, fast and The World Tourism Organization (WTO) is relatively cheap. the tourism industry’s most comprehensive Travel and tourism is the world’s largest collector of tourism data. In 1999 WTO employer. According to the World Travel reported an estimated 657 million and Tourism Council (WTTC), tourism international tourist arrivals, which supports 200 million jobs world-wide, generated US$455 billion world-wide (WTO, which represents 8% of total employment 2000a). In other words, the equivalent of or 1 in every 12.4 jobs (WTTC, 2000). roughly 10% of the world’s population Tourism generates 11% of the world gross was transported internationally in 1999. domestic product (GDP), 8% of total Compared to 1950, when 25 million tourists employment, and 5.5 million new jobs per generated US$8 billion, there have been year until 2010 (WTTC, 2000). By 2010 the significant increases in both the volume WTTC forecast predicts that travel and “The last 50 years of international travel and receipts tourism will grow to account for 11.6% have been the most generated. From the period of 1950 to 1999, (or US$6.591 billion) of the global GDP dynamic period in the tourism arrivals had an average annual and support 250 million jobs (9% of total growth rate of 7%. International tourism employment or one in every 11 jobs). history of the tourism receipts (at current prices and excluding industry. During this international costs) had an Not only is the overall travel market increasing, but travel to national time tourism has average annual growth rate of 12% over the same period (WTO, 2000a). parks and other types of protected areas grown from an is also increasing. Recognition of the exclusive activity of The tourism industry has been expanding importance of tourism within the field and diversifying at a tremendous pace. of sustainable development, along with the rich to a mass Over the past three decades, international increased world-wide interest in phenomenon which arrivals have grown steeply from 183 environmental issues, have helped has transformed the million in 1970, to 450 million in 1991, with contribute to the need for the creation figures expected to reach over 670 million of sustainable tourism principles. economics, cultures by the year 2000. It has been predicted that However, it is important to note that this and environments of there will be approximately 937 million vast increase in travel is dependent upon destination regions international tourist arrivals in 2010 (WTO, 1994). Domestic tourism is inexpensive energy. If the costs of energy, across the globe.” increasing as well, although numbers are and most importantly of oil and gas, increase significantly, the volume of travel (Twining-Ward, 1999, difficult to report, since collection methods will be reduced accordingly. p. 187) vary. Domestic tourism is not included in these international arrival figures. The value of domestic tourism is several times 1.1.2 The Industry of Protected larger than international tourism (Eagles, Areas McLean & Stabler, 2000 in press). The establishment of special protected Tourism is the world’s largest industry, areas by society has been a cultural generating a larger gross dollar output than phenomenon for centuries. Such sites any other single industry (e.g., it is bigger have many names, but typically they than the automotive, electronic and involve the creation by government agricultural industries). In 1998 the authorities of special designations for international tourism and international fare historic or ecological protection, and of receipts (the receipts related to passenger special management institutions governing transport of residents of other countries) site use by people. In many cases, travel to together accounted for roughly 8% of the the sites by people have created the initial world’s total export earning on goods and impetus for site designation and protection. services (WTO, 2000a). Total international tourism receipts, including the international Travel to experience protected areas has fare component, amounted to an estimated been an integral part of park operations for US$532 billion in 1998, putting it ahead of a very long time. As visitor numbers grow so do the management challenges. Two

As noted in the introduction, Taiwan refers to Taiwan, Province of China. 2 Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia

changes in recent years are an increased programs that create the opportunity for recognition of the importance of ecological tourism. They have specific objectives in protection, and the need for specialised mind when they do their job. management of the impacts caused by Park managers and tourism operators have visitors. There are many driving forces different, and often competing, objectives. behind tourism flows and volumes in parks. Park managers are driven by legislative These include factors such as increasing mandates and their main goal is to protect wealth, changing attitudes toward the socially-defined values. Private tourism environment, technological evolution, operators are driven by the market and economic restructuring, and civil unrest. their main goal is to make a profit. These influence visitation to parks. These two managerial groups view tourism Parks and protected areas offer ecological, as a means to: educational, recreational, scientific, • promote conservation economic and cultural benefits to domestic • generate revenue and international visitors, surrounding • learn from others communities and society in general. • create employment and income Because people benefit from these areas, • develop long-term sustainable some people will want to be involved in economic activity decisions related to their establishment • manage resource extraction and management. They will want to be • foster research. able to express their opinions about how If parks are the area should be managed. Many will Visitors and Other Users properly designed want conditions that help individuals to Park tourism is ultimately dependent on experience the benefits of the protected and managed, it is visitors for its viability. These individuals area. Individuals and organisations who possible for tourism choose to spend their time and money on have a direct interest in or are affected by places of interest to them. Through their to be consistent park and tourism management policies are experiences, visitors and other users receive called stakeholders. For effective with protected physiological, psychological, social, management and sustainable tourism to area objectives. economic and environmental benefits. occur, protected area managers must These stakeholders view tourism as a (Butler, 1992) involve stakeholders in the management means to: process at the earliest stages possible. • promote conservation and preservation See Appendix A for a complete list of • gain health benefits stakeholders. • enhance personal experiences, including Management of tourism in parks and cognitive objectives (e.g., learn about protected areas is influenced primarily history), affective concepts (e.g., gain by three major stakeholder groups with peace of mind), and psychomotor desires interests in the areas: a) tourism operators (e.g., get exercise) and park managers, b) visitors and other • participate in a social experience users, and c) society. Each group views • achieve family bonding tourism from its own unique perspective. • spend quality time with friends An effective and comprehensive • provide the opportunity for management plan for a park must courtship rituals incorporate an understanding and • engage in a spiritual experience appreciation of the perceptions of each of • meet people with similar interests these groups. Failure to recognise and • achieve group team building address all of the driving forces of tourism • achieve time and cost efficiency will result in short-sighted management • feel personal accomplishment. that only considers a portion of potential There are important users of park resources stakeholders. that are not recreational visitors. These may include local people who have access for Tourism Operators and Park Managers religious purposes, resource extraction, or All successful tourism has professional for passage through the protected area. The management. In parks and protected areas interests of these users may conflict with there are two distinct managerial groups: the interests of the recreational users, and park managers and private sector tourism these conflicts must be dealt with in the operators. These people provide the park management plan. resource base, the facilities, and the Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 3

Society Federation (previously known as the Society at large has objectives for park Federation of Nature and National Parks of tourism. These objectives are often Europe or FNNPE) wisely observe that such embodied in government policy. This “polarised positions are unhelpful to both driving force views tourism as a means to: sides. Conservation should take top priority • achieve redistribution of income in protected areas, but this does not always and wealth mean that tourism cannot bring benefits. • gain foreign currency The future must lie in a much closer • assist community development working relationship between the tourism • promote the conservation of natural sector and conservationists” (FNNPE, and cultural heritage 1993, p. 4). • sustain and commemorate cultural There is a two-way interaction between identity sustainable nature tourism and the • provide education opportunities to environment upon which it depends. members of society Ideally, the goals of nature enjoyment • promote health benefits and contribution to conservation are both • expand global understanding and attainable. Links between tourism and the awareness. environment are outlined in Figure 1. It is crucial that tourism occurring in natural 1.1.3 Understanding Park Tourism protected areas be subject to an adequate and appropriate management regime. “Management is a At the same time that human use and crucial element for the development negatively impact some protected areas, the demand for travel to 1.1.4 Current Efforts and Trends long-term survival of scenic areas of natural beauty increases. Commonly accepted theory, frameworks the environmental The tourism industry is intimately and methods change over time. Consumer connected to the protection of natural and cultural resources demands and preferences change too. and cultural areas. Often, a high quality For example, in the past, one aspect of park upon which ecotourism natural or cultural environment is the main management in North America was strict depends and is attraction that draws the visitors to the prevention of forest fires within park area. It is important that all stakeholders frequently the weak boundaries. Now controlled forest burns are work at developing an understanding of allowed because scientists and managers link in the connection each other’s goals, and at building have realised that the absence of fire between tourism and partnerships aimed at attaining those goals. creates an unnatural system. Many parks One overall goal should be protection of the the environment.” and protected areas used to be managed high quality natural or cultural environment from a natural resource perspective that (Valentine, 1993, that attracts tourists and enriches the placed primary focus on the resources p. 108-109) quality of life of the local people. themselves without considering the human, Some managers of protected areas may not social, cultural and historical environments embrace tourism, since for many, their past in which the natural resources were experience has focused on avoiding or located. Now, integrated ecosystem repairing the damage caused by visitor management takes into consideration impact on protected landscapes (e.g., multiple factors and concerns, including the controlling visitors or restoring damaged interaction between humans and the areas). More overlap between resource natural environment. management and tourism management is Current trends within the protected area desirable, so that protected area managers tourism industry include: have the opportunity to work more closely • linking development and conservation with the tourism sector, learn about it, • increasing travel to protected areas understand it, and actively seek to • increasing consumer demand for influence tourism occurring in their environmentally friendly business protected area. • moving towards self-regulation in the Similarly, federal or regional tourism tourism industry planning is often not closely linked to • acknowledging the important financial protected areas. Few people employed in aspects of tourism to protected areas the tourism industry possess conservation • acknowledging the importance of knowledge or experience. Few tourism or socio-cultural aspects of the sustainable economic specialists are employed in tourism. protected areas. Members of the EUROPARC 4 Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia

Linking Development and Conservation increase as outlined in Figure 2. The market At the United Nations’ Earth Summit in for tourism that is based on the natural Rio de Janeiro in 1992, the vital link environment, wildlife, culture and outdoor between conservation and development pursuits is growing in popularity. National was discussed and accepted on a global parks and their local communities are scale for the first time. “Conservation feeling pressures associated with the organisations now recognise that growing numbers of visitors, an increasing conservation objectives cannot be met in variety of outdoor activities and continuing isolation without also tackling problems demands to develop tourism facilities. Are associated with development. Neither can we in danger of loving our protected areas anyone concerned with development – in to death? Concern exists that beautiful and both the developed and developing worlds remote areas are spoiled as they turn into – ignore conservation” (FNNPE, 1993, fashionable destinations. As p. 5). Sustainable tourism combines tourism to parks and protected areas conservation principles with tourism continues to grow (as do pressures development. Tourism development can be associated with it), effective planning and a threat to protected areas, especially when management of tourism becomes absolutely development occurs rapidly, uncontrolled, critical in order to ensure the ecological and and without proper planning. Sustainable cultural sustainability of these areas. tourism aims to reduce this threat and hopes to turn tourism into an opportunity Increasing Consumer Demand for for parks to gain support of conservation Environmentally Friendly Business objectives. The quantity of green products and services available to consumers has increased steadily over the past 20 years. Products FIGURE 1: Links Between Tourism and the Environment that once belonged to a highly specialised, There are four main links between tourism and the environment: alternative market, supported by only a 1. Components of the natural environment are the basis for a marketable small section of society, are now easily and tourism attraction or product commonly obtained. A product with an environmentally friendly label is perceived 2. Management of tourism operations should minimise or reduce their as more appealing than an otherwise negative environmental impacts identical product without such a label. 3. Direct and indirect economic contributions should be made by funds generated through tourism to conservation of the environment being visited The increase in consumer demand stems from numerous developments over the 4. Attitudes of tourists towards the environment are impacted by the past 20 years. Today issues and concerns environmental and cultural interactions provided by tourism operators and park staff. about the deterioration of the natural environment are more complex and There are environmental aspects to every major component of tourism plentiful than in the past, and these issues business (e.g., products and markets, management, money and people). These environmental aspects are heightened when the locations in which affect human populations on a more global tourism is occurring are protected areas (Buckley, 1994). scale. Technological advances have granted humans the power to modify their surroundings at a previously unprecedented Many private tourism companies are aware rate, often resulting in alterations to the of the importance of maintaining a high natural environment which are negative quality environment, and are developing and destructive. The potential for humans environmental policies to reduce impacts to alter rapidly the landscape, and produce on the environment. An increasing number long-lasting impacts in the process, has of organisations and professionals now grown. So too has public awareness and make a connection between tourism’s understanding of these global economic contribution and the importance environmental issues and concerns. of redirecting some of that benefit directly Consumers are more educated about these to conservation. It is important that tourism issues than in the past, and they are more development is linked to conservation so willing to take action to act responsibly. that both can be sustained (FNNPE, 1993). The pressure to adopt an environmentally friendly attitude, expressed through Increasing Travel to Protected Areas selection of environmentally friendly The international nature tourism market is products, has increased. Producing green already large, and market size continues to products creates an opportunity for Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 5

individuals to act in an environmentally friendly way with relatively little effort, thus experiencing peace of mind.

Moving Towards Self-regulation in the Tourism Industry Driven by consumer demand, and in an attempt to establish a competitive edge, many companies are promoting their practices and products as environmentally Madikwe Game Reserve and Northwest Parks Board of South Africa & Tourism friendly. However, an environmentally The Madikwe Game Reserve, Northwest Province, friendly label affixed to a product or service South Africa, is one of the largest ecological does not automatically ensure that the restorations ever attempted. Ecotourism revenues financed the introduction of over 10,000 large various aspects involved in its production mammals into derelict farmland. and delivery are in fact environmentally friendly. Acknowledging the Important Financial In the tourism industry, businesses that Aspects of Tourism to Protected Areas make efforts to maximise the positive After the assignment of protected status impacts to the host communities and to areas of natural ecological and cultural “The new traveller is environment and minimise the negative significance, the challenge of obtaining described as better ones want to distinguish themselves from sufficient funds for the ongoing educated, more other businesses that also claim to be maintenance, scientific study, operation environmentally friendly but who actually and protection of these areas arises. culturally aware, more are not. An accreditation system offers a Potential sources of funding include environmentally and method of assessing whether or not government budgets, grants from non- culturally sensitive, individual products, tours, services and profit organisations, private industry destinations meet a predetermined base contributions, and business activities and more curious and level of environmentally friendly criteria. operated by the park. analytical.” Rather than enforcing protection of the Often park agency funds and resources natural environment solely through laws (Doswell, 1997, p. 30) are insufficient for effective management. and fines, this additional method of Tourism development provides protected conservation is gaining momentum. areas and the surrounding communities Members of the tourism industry are with an opportunity to generate cash flow developing criteria and voluntarily pledging to the area. For tourism development in to adhere to those criteria in the best parks and protected areas to be sustainable, interests of both the company’s success some percentage of the money generated and in the long term, sustainable use and through visitation to the protected areas conservation of the resource. must be directly reinvested in the ongoing workings of conservation. FIGURE 2: The Size of the International Nature Tourism Market Acknowledging the Importance of Socio-cultural Aspects of Tourism The nature-based tourism industry is large and growing, as indicated by the All tourism has cultural and social impacts. following statistics: • Ceballos-Lascuráin (1996) reported a WTO estimate that nature-based Impacts occur to both the traveller and the tourism generates 7% of all international travel expenditure host. For example, the traveller gains new • The World Resources Institute (1990) estimated that nature travel is insight into local culture, sees his or her increasing at an annual rate between 10% and 30% own culture in a different perspective, and • Lew’s (1997) survey of tourism operators in the Asia-Pacific region found takes home new ideas. However, the annual growth rates of 10% to 25% in recent years (Lindberg & Johnson, traveller is usually only in the trip 1997) destination for a short period and therefore • In 1997 WTO estimated that all nature-related forms of tourism, including ecotourism, accounted for approximately 20% of total international travel will generally experience only a small social (WTO, 1998). or cultural impact from the travel experience. Conclusion: The size of today’s world-wide nature tourism market can be The host is someone who lives in or near estimated from 7% to 20% of the international travel market. Extrapolating the travel destination. Hosts experience a from the WTO forecast of 937 million international arrivals in 2010, an continuous flow of travellers, often for extremely rough estimate of the international nature tourism arrivals for 2010 much of the year. In some situations the would be between 65 million to 187 million. To this one must add the host earns less money and is less formally substantial number of domestic visitors to natural areas. educated than the traveller. This potentially 6 Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia

puts him into a position of inferior power. Sustainable Tourism Social impacts on the host include: In the context of tourism development, commodification of culture, increased levels sustainable tourism refers to “all forms of of service and knowledge-based tourism development, management and employment, demands for foreign language activity, which maintain the environmental, instruction, higher land prices, desire to social and economic integrity and well emulate the tourist’s social and cultural being of natural, built and cultural traditions, foreign investment and land resources in perpetuity” (FNNPE, ownership, introduction of new 1993, p. 5). technologies, increased competition for Tourism can be defined as “the activities of local resources, such as water, fuel wood persons travelling to and staying in one “The world-wide and land, and immigration of others to place outside their usual environment for the area (Borrini-Feyerabend, 1997). upsurge of awareness not more than one consecutive year for Such impacts can be negative, neutral or leisure, business and other purposes” of environmental positive, depending on one’s point of view. (Doswell, 1997, p.6). It can be seen as an issues … is leading to It is important that the host decide the interaction between supply and demand, value of these impacts. growing pressure on where a product (i.e. what the tourist tourism developers All stakeholders that are involved in experiences) is developed to meet a need planning and managing park tourism must (i.e. what the tourist needs and seeks). from both residents of carefully consider social and cultural Sustainable tourism combines conservation the locations of impacts of tourism. principles with tourism development. proposed projects and Sustainable tourism development is about tourists themselves. making tourism more compatible with the 1.2 KEY CONCEPTS They wish to ensure needs and resources of a destination area. AND DEFINITIONS It offers a broader approach to tourism that development for practices and a built-in ability to control tourism is in a form, An understanding of park tourism is the rate and scale of tourism growth – assisted by knowledge of the key concepts on a scale and to if stakeholder responsibility is successfully in the field. Section 1.2 contains definitions exercised (Twining-Ward, 1999). Principles standards which are and a discussion of several key concepts. of sustainable tourism development are sustainable, i.e., which outlined in Figure 3. Objectives, advantages Sustainable Development create minimum and disadvantages of sustainable tourism Human demands in the ever-growing world are discussed in Section 2.6 and disruption of the local population are surpassing the planet’s Section 2.7. ecology and which capacity to support us. For this reason, it is crucial that businesses, industries and avoid overcrowding, governments attempt wholeheartedly to pollution and other adopt sustainable development practices. FIGURE 3: Principles of Sustainable Tourism Development negative environmental “Sustainable development was first impacts.” discussed in the 1960s with the advent of Principles of sustainable tourism development indicate that sustainable tourism will: (WTO, 1994, p. 10) the green movement and the term came into common parlance with the publication 1. Uphold reasonable ethical standards of of the report by the World Commission on operation and minimise adverse social Environment and Development (1987) impacts entitled Our Common Future (commonly 2. Enhance social equity known as the Bruntland report). It was 3. Operate in an environmentally and culturally given further recognition with the United sensitive manner, aimed at promoting Nations’ sponsored conference on the conservation of the site and area environment held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. 4. Seek to minimise the use of non-renewable The meaning, based on the Bruntland resources report, is ‘development that meets the 5. Recognise the capacities of its needs of the present without compromising environment, utilise that environment the ability of future generations to meet sensitively, and monitor it effectively, and their own needs’ (World Commission on 6. Directly and indirectly change the attitudes Environment and Development, 1987, p. of individuals and other businesses toward 43). Sustainable tourism (development) planning and management of its thus simply limits the meaning to those environment. particular elements associated with (Bottrill, 1992, p. 35) tourism” (McMinn, 1997, p136). Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 7

Mainstream Tourism versus Special Nature-based Tourism Interest Tourism Nature-based tourism can be viewed as It is both important and relatively easy the king of special interest tourism. It is a to distinguish between two general general class of special interest tourism categories of tourism. They are mainstream whose common factor is a link to nature. tourism and special interest tourism A relatively simple definition is that (Doswell, 1997). “nature-based tourism is primarily concerned with the direct enjoyment of Mainstream tourism captures the largest some relatively undisturbed phenomenon market segment of tourism. It consists of of nature” (Valentine, 1992, p. 108). people looking for rest, novel experiences and recreation, and often occurs at beaches The degree to which a visitor’s experience and in cities. These travellers desire depends upon nature can vary. There are comfortable and the presence of activities: other tourist accommodations, such as a a) which are dependent on nature (e.g., complex that offers shopping, people seeking to observe animals in the recreation, , entertainment and wild require a natural environment to other facilities and services. This tourism enjoy their experience) often occurs in high volumes, which is why b) which are enhanced by nature (e.g., it is often referred to as mass tourism. people prefer to camp in a forest but the “Tourism is like fire. Visitors are segmented into different activity might be possible with equal It can cook your mainstream tourism markets based on satisfaction for some users without a food or burn your characteristics such as nationality, social purely natural setting) class, spending power, age and stage of life. c) for which the natural setting is incidental house down.” (e.g., if a person’s interest is a cooling Special interest tourism consists of people – R. Fox swim then the setting may be relatively who possess a common special interest that unimportant, assuming unpolluted influences their travel choices*. These water) (Valentine, 1992, p. 110). visitors are segmented by specific interests or motivations rather than by other Nature-based tourism is not automatically characteristics such as age or social class. ecologically sustainable. In general, for The type of travel experience that they seek such tourism to be ecologically sustainable, is strongly related to their special interest. it must be appropriate for the specific Nature tourism, in all its specialised forms, location and should produce no permanent is an example of special interest tourism. degradation of the natural environment. All of the nature-based terms listed in Nature tourism is a sufficiently broad term Figure 4 are contained within the general that it can be applied to a broad range of category of special interest tourism. different landscapes and tourism destinations. It should be stated that * For example, bird watchers of all ages although the term nature-based tourism will choose travel destinations that offer places focus on the natural aspects, it is opportunities to view bird species unique recognised that the natural environment to the area. contains cultural components, and therefore, although not always stated, cultural aspects are included in discussions FIGURE 4: Collection of Nature-based Tourism Terms about nature tourism. Nature tourism As illustrated in Figure 4, many terms Wilderness tourism exist that describe different types of nature- Nature-oriented tourism Anthropological tourism based tourism. These terms attempt to Environmental tourism Travel with Mother Nature Low-impact tourism Jungle tourism differentiate nature travel by more specific Ecotravel factors. There are many subtle and sometimes ambiguous differences between Green tourism Biotourism ethical travel all of these terms, which make identifying Soft adventure tourism Appropriate tourism specific and comprehensive definitions for Ethnic tourism Ecotripping all of these nature-based tourism terms Sustainable tourism Ecoventures difficult and time consuming. This Socially responsible tourism Wilderness tourism Nature Soft tourism document is aimed at addressing issues and Non-consumptive wildlife recreation Ecotourism concerns related to achieving sustainable nature tourism. It is therefore not necessary (Adapted from Butler, 1992) to distinguish between all the variations in 8 Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia

smaller sub-markets of the general nature method used by management to identify tourism category for the purposes of this different segments of visitors, the document. It is useful, however, to definitions must be operational, so that understand generally how the nature concrete actions are incorporated into the tourism market can be further segmented effective management of these visitors. into smaller sub-markets, thus examples Another method of visitor segmentation of how visitors can be segmented are focuses on the destination. Nature-based outlined briefly in Nature Tourism tourism can occur as mass tourism to Market Segmentation. destinations compatible with high volumes of people, such as beach , touring, Nature Tourism Market Segmentation and cruise vacationing. Nature-based Nature plays a primary role in attracting tourism can also occur as special interest tourists to specific destinations, so in this tourism with destinations such as nature sense most tourism may be described as observation in a forest, fishing in a stream, nature-based (Valentine, 1992). Nature- or canoeing in a lake. A group of nature based tourism can be further segmented tourism visitors may all have a more into more specific markets through a specific common interest, such as enjoying variety of methods. Examples of how in mountains. These visitors will visitors can be segmented include activity, choose locations where this is available, motive, destination or volume. making it possible to market to them a Within the Canadian Park System visitors collection of destinations that meet are segmented by activity in the visitor those criteria. activity management program (Parks Motivation is another method of further Canada, 1986). The theory is that visitors segmenting nature tourism. By adding a participating in each kind of recreation motivation component, it is possible to activity have a special set of needs. For see that the types of visitors who choose example, campers and day visitors who special interest tourism are more likely to have come for a picnic could be identified possess motivations that will support the as two types of visitors to a protected area. goals of sustainable nature tourism (recall These groups differ in obvious ways: their that not all nature tourism is sustainable). choices of setting, their activities, the Beach tourists may be motivated by equipment used in those activities, and relaxation and entertainment. This does their motivations. An advantage to this not imply any interest in learning about method is that activities are easily defined, the special natural features of the area, since there is no ambiguity in determining nor any responsibility to ensure that their that skiing is a separate activity from vacation maximises positive impacts to the sightseeing. Regardless of the specific environment and surrounding communities while minimising the negative ones (one of the goals of sustainable nature-based tourism). Nature-based tourists are usually motivated by education and personal enrichment (Bottrill, 1992). The motivations of the latter are closely correlated with objectives of a more specific form of special interest nature-based tourism, called ecotourism. Eagles (1995) provided a motive-based segmentation of nature- based tourism.

Ecotourism Australia’s National Ecotourism Strategy defines ecotourism as “Nature-based Paul F.J. Eagles F.J. Paul tourism that involves education and of Algonquin Provincial Park, interpretation of the natural environment Ontario, Canada. Some older parks have visitor and is managed to be ecologically centres with permanent visitor displays to teach sustainable” (Commonwealth Department the visitors about the natural, cultural and historical features of the park. An informed of Tourism, 1994 as cited in Goodwin, visitor is much more likely to understand and 1996). For tourism to be ecologically follow park conservation regulations. sustainable, there must be an appropriate Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 9

return to the local community and a and educational goals, rather than specific contribution to the long-term conservation recreation and physical activity goals. of the resource (Goodwin, 1996). Tourism Terminology A distinction exists between nature-based When examining tourism’s contribution to tourism and ecotourism. Nature-based the social, cultural and economic tourism is a broader term, concerned in development of a country or region, it is general with the enjoyment of nature important for governments, industries, (which may or may not contribute directly academia and the public to have access to to nature conservation). A specific type of good statistics (Hornback & Eagles, 1999). nature-based tourism is ecotourism. For a Collection of good statistics is achieved specific nature-based tourism experience to through the use of standard tourism qualify as an ecotourism experience, more definitions. Learning the subtle variations specific criteria must be present (than those in tourism terminology builds a solid defined by nature tourism), such as an common foundation for understanding and identifiable contribution to conservation approaching tourism. Implementation of (recall that not all nature tourism standard tourism definitions facilitates automatically contributes positively to comparisons of tourism measurements conservation efforts). Because the term amongst provinces, countries and other has different meanings, it is difficult to Sustainable nature- jurisdictions. It is important that the state exactly all the criteria. based tourism, such as different parties involved use the same Adding to the confusion is the opportunistic terminology when referring to statistics ecotourism, is more and sometimes inaccurate use of the term such as number of tourists, or number of exclusively purposeful in marketing. The terminology is sometimes visitor nights. The World Commission on and focused on the liberally applied to a range of businesses, Protected Area definitions of terms products and services (even though a large commonly used in tourism to parks and enhancement and difference can exist in the sustainable protected areas are found to Appendix B maintenance of natural efforts made by these companies) because (e.g., visitor, visit, visitation, entrant, systems through marketers and advertisers know it appeals visitor nights, entry nights, entry hours, to the consumer’s desire to support visitor day, etc.). Please refer to Appendix tourism. environmentally friendly products. Most C for standardised international tourism (Butter, 1992) ecotourism definitions address some terminology (e.g., tourism, domestic combination of motivation, philosophy, tourism, inbound tourism, outbound conduct and economic benefit to tourism, international tourism, international conservation. Butler (1992) identifies visitor, domestic visitor, tourism ecotourism as: a) an activity, b) a expenditure, etc.). philosophy, and c) a model of how to approach the environment. Examples of Protected Areas eight characteristics that an activity should The World Conservation Union (IUCN) fit in order to be considered ecotourism are defines a protected area as an “area of land listed in Appendix D. and/or sea especially dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological Numerous terms listed in Figure 4 may diversity, and of natural and associated possess links to ecotourism. Some concepts cultural resources, and managed through are common to all the terms (e.g., all of legal or other effective means.” This them are an alternative to mass definition outlines the general purposes of consumptive tourism) but the terms are not all protected areas. In practice, the precise synonymous. Just because an activity is purposes for which protected areas are linked to nature does not mean that it is managed can differ greatly among sites. ecotourism. “For example, adventure may The following are the main purposes of be part of the experience of some management: ecotourism destinations, but adventure • Scientific research travel is not, in itself, the same as • Wilderness protection ecotourism” (Butler, 1992, p. 5). The main • Preservation of species and genetic thing that adventure travellers seek is diversity opportunity for a high-risk physical activity, • Maintenance of environmental services with varying degrees of risk and excitement • Protection of specific natural and cultural obtained through exploring exotic, remote features or wilderness areas (Butler, 1992). In • Tourism and recreation contrast, ecotourists seek to fulfil aesthetic • Education 10 Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia

• Sustainable use of resources from natural 1.3 GOALS OF TOURISM IN ecosystems PROTECTED AREAS • Maintenance of cultural and traditional attributes. In promoting tourism to protected areas, a plan for how best to manage tourism to Numerous terms have been applied to these areas must be developed. Through indicate protected status of an area. Some proper planning the desired goals of variance in terminology occurs amongst tourism are identified. Effective tourism different jurisdictions when identifying management will enable protected areas protected areas. Universal protected area and surrounding communities to attain classifications used by the IUCN World positive impacts and reduce negative Conservation Union (Figure 5) are outlined impacts of tourism. The goals of in Section 2.2.2. sustainable tourism in protected areas are: 1. To provide people with the ability to learn, experience and appreciate the natural and cultural heritage of the site 2. To ensure that the natural and cultural heritage of the site is managed appropriately and effectively over the long term 3. To manage tourism in parks for minimum negative social, cultural, economic and ecological impact 4. To manage tourism in parks for maximum positive social, cultural, economic and ecological impact. Teresa Chang-Hung Tao Teresa

All parks need a prominent entrance, such as this one to Taroka National Park in Taiwan, so that all visitors understand they are entering a special place. Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 11

2.1 SETTING THE REGIONAL million. Rugged mountains can be found CONTEXT in the eastern two-thirds of the island, with flat to gently rolling plains in the west. 2.0 There is a range of different natural areas in Hong Kong is even smaller, covering 1,092 2 East Asia, from many cold alpine plateaus km , with nearly 7 million inhabitants. in the mountains, to tropical climates and Despite its size and population density, Protected coral reefs in the south. Some natural areas, approximately 40% of the natural such as many coastlines and plains, are landscape is protected. Scenic peaks and Areas and located amongst or near large human valleys lie close to the busy harbour and populations, while other areas, such as vast city areas. Japan covers an area of 377,835 2 inland forests, steep mountains and tundra km and consists of four main islands of Tourism in are remote and far from urban populations. volcanic origin. These four islands comprise A common element shared by many 90% of the total area. The majority of the jurisdictions is the presence of extreme population inhabits only 3% of the country. East Asia environments, such as jagged mountain More specifically, over 80% of the 126 peaks and busy ocean coastlines. Numerous million inhabitants live in highly urbanised environments and habitats are contained areas along the coastal plains. The interior within the East Asia region. Many areas is mostly rugged and mountainous. In retain unique cultural traditions that date South Korea, 46 million people live in an 2 back thousands of years. area that covers 98,480 km . There are upwards of 3,000 islands of various sizes Special natural and cultural sites in East off the southern coast. Asia have a long history rich in traditions, 2 religious ceremonies and customs that Covering 1.564 million km , Mongolia captivate local people and international encompasses an area larger than Britain, visitors alike. The East Asia jurisdictions , , and Italy combined. (referring to countries, autonomous districts Unlike the other East Asia jurisdictions, and other political entities) share a long it is entirely landlocked. With 2.3 million and complex history, with each jurisdiction inhabitants, its population density (1.5 2 possessing a unique history, government persons per km ) is the lowest in Asia. 2 and size. North Korea covers 120,540 km and has a population of approximately 21 million In terms of area and population, China has people. Macau covers a small area of the largest of both in East Asia. It is twice only 21 km2 and has a population of the size of Europe (excluding ’s land 374,700 people. area). China covers an area of over 9.5 million km2. Its landscape includes In East Asia, the size of the jurisdictions, divisions of forests, grasslands, deserts, the landscapes and the populations vary plains, hilly lands and highlands and many immensely. Found within the rich and mountains. China is the most populated diverse geographical and cultural nation in the world. At 1.24 billion people, environments of the region are numerous it accounts for approximately 20% of the unique tourism opportunities, including world’s population. Roughly 80% of the visits to parks and protected areas. Due to population live in rural areas. Its enormous the large variety that exists within the East land and natural resources help it to be a Asia jurisdictions, all protected area rapidly growing nation and management plans must take into account urbanisation is widespread. Modernisation, many items distinct to the specific area in urbanisation and communication have been which each park is found. For example, the attached to nearly every tourism destination history of the area, the legal structure, the around China, which is sometimes a existing level of human impact on the problem with the tourism industry. natural environment, the proximity to Sustainable development is a key issue in human populations, and the distribution such a process. of human populations must all be taken into consideration when designing a In contrast, the island of Taiwan covers only management plan for a specific park 36,000 km2 with over 1,140 km of shoreline or protected area. and a population of approximately 22.5

As noted in the introduction, Taiwan refers to Taiwan, Province of China. 12 Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia

2.2 PROTECTED AREAS IN scientifically, and/or special value for EAST ASIA scientific research, and local nature reserves are those other than the national ones 2.2.1 Protected Area Information which are representative and significant for by Jurisdiction scientific research. They can be managed The act of conserving nature and natural by the local governments, autonomous resources dates back to ancient times in regions or municipalities directly under many of the East Asia jurisdictions. the central government. A nature reserve Concepts of nature and nature protection consists of three parts: the core area, buffer are linked to ancient religious philosophies zone and experimental zone. This is one and practices of Confucianism, Taoism example of park zoning used by the various and Buddhism. Thousands of years ago, jurisdictions in East Asia. some of these cultures were aware of All of the park systems in East Asia use relationships between conservation and some form of zoning system that identifies utilisation of natural resources and human varying levels of appropriate use and survival (Ji, Guangmei, Huadong & Jialin, protection in different areas of the park or 1990). In China, the value of forests has protected area. The protection and use of been recorded for at least 2,500 years. each area varies along a continuum, with Temple gardens, restricted hunting areas, strict protection and no human use at one and landscape forests created in the past extreme, and high human use and some have all contributed to species’ protection. infrastructure development at the other Even though the concept of nature extreme. Between these two end points are protection has existed for centuries, the varying degrees of use and development creation of modern day legislation and versus protection and conservation. systems of legally protected areas has Threats of urbanisation as well as occurred within the last century. The small endorsement by the IUCN in the 1960s and densely populated country of Japan helped to establish Hong Kong’s network was the first to attempt to establish a of country parks over a three-year period modern day park system through official in the mid-1970s. A total of 23 country government legislation. In 1873, Japan parks (designated for the purposes of established ko-en (literally meaning public nature conservation, countryside recreation parks) which assigned government and education) and 15 special areas (areas protection to places traditionally visited in with special interest and importance by spring at cherry-blossom time or in autumn reason of their flora, fauna, geological, to enjoy the autumn colours (Sutherland & cultural or archaeological features) have Britton, 1983). A national parks law was been established. Eleven of the special passed in 1931, and twelve national parks areas are located inside country parks. were designated between 1934 and 1936. Country parks and special areas cover a Conceptually, the process of establishing total area of over 400 km2. The smallest national parks in Japan paralleled Britain’s. one is less than two km2. They are Since land was largely privately owned, in designated under the Country Parks order to establish national parks, the Ordinance and managed by the Agriculture, government created them where it recognised the need to preserve nature rather than limiting itself to areas of land owned by the state. Approximately 24% of the whole national park area (primarily in the western part of Japan and in the coastal areas) is privately owned (The Environment Agency, 1995). The first nature reserves in China were declared in 1956. Since then, the area of

protected land and the number of reserves Bao Kexiao have grown steadily, except during the Sustainable tourism planning and development in Cultural Revolution from 1966 to 1976 Changli Golden Beach Nature Reserve, China and effective visitor management techniques when conservation practices were significantly contribute to reducing threats abandoned and protected areas were not associated with improper human use to protected protected. National nature reserves have areas. This is especially important in sensitive significant international influence environments such as this sand based one. Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 13

Fisheries and Conservation Department of Nature and Environment, passed a series the Hong Kong government on the advice of environmental laws, and greatly of the Country and Marine Parks Board. extended the protected area system All the country parks have toilets, path-side (UNDP, 1998). Pressures for non- maps and the larger ones also have visitor sustainable exploitation of the natural centres. Few countries have 10% of their resources are increasing. Mongolia faces the land protected in parks and tourists often challenge of developing the infrastructure find them hard to reach. Yet in tiny Hong and economy while at the same time Kong, 40% of the land lies in its country protecting the natural environment. parks and visitors can reach them easily South Korea has a long history of nature (Stokes, 1999). conservation, dating back over 1400 years Starting in the 1930s, three attempts were (World Conservation Monitoring Centre, made to establish Taiwan’s national park 1992). The first official national park in system. War in the Pacific in the 1930s and South Korea was established in 1967, and a lack of solid legislative support in the South Korea now has 20 national parks. 1960s prevented the success of the first two The concept of national parks is a common attempts. In the early 1970s, support by a occurrence in the realm of parks and world-wide national park movement and protected areas. However, numerous other the growing political influence of Taiwan’s types of protected areas exist. In South scholars and environmentalists helped to Korea for example, protected area categories make the third attempt successful (World have expanded to include natural parks Conservation Monitoring Centre, 1992). By (divided into 20 national parks, 20 the time the national park concept gained provincial parks and 29 county parks), support, establishment of a national park nature forests, nature reserves, marine system was a challenge since the island parks, ecosystem conservation areas, was already highly industrialised and wildlife sanctuaries and wetland protected densely populated. Large tracts of areas. Various types of protected areas have undeveloped land, traditionally used to different mechanisms for establishment, form park systems in other countries, were different purposes and varying levels of not available. Fortunately, the remoteness regulations, legislation and protection. of various mountain regions had left them Protected area legislation and laws vary in fairly pristine condition, and some from jurisdiction to jurisdiction in East mountain areas were designated as parks. Asia. Creating legislation that enables each Not wanting to limit the system to remote jurisdiction to declare and protect natural mountain areas, other national parks were areas of significance is a critical first also designated in areas already important step in the development of a experiencing considerable, and sometimes park system. Even though the specific incompatible land uses (Simpson, 1993). details of legislation differ, the intent In Mongolia, two nature reserves were behind the legislation is common to all established in 1957, and another six jurisdictions – legally to identify and protected areas (e.g., national conservation protect a system of naturally and culturally parks, natural monuments and strict significant areas. The on-the-ground protected areas) were established in 1965. creation of actual parks is the second step. Until recently however, Mongolia’s unique It is equally important that an organisation combination of diverse landscapes, charged with managing these areas be unspoiled habitat and rare wild plant and established and that it receive adequate animal species were unknown to most of political, social and financial support. the world (United Nations Development Jurisdictions in East Asia vary in the Program [UNDP], 1998). The Mongolian classification and titles of administrative Law on Protected Areas was enacted in systems as well as in the types of 1994, and during the 1990s there was a management organisations that look large increase in the numbers of designated after parks and protected areas. Some are areas in Mongolia. As major changes occur, highly centralised and utilise a top-down the government is attempting to strengthen approach. Others extend greater authority centuries-old traditional practices of nature to regional management units. One conservation with modern approaches and challenge is to have cohesion and effective resource management. In the midst of great communication across the entire system of socioeconomic and political changes, the administrative agencies and ministries as government established the Ministry of 14 Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia

CASE STUDY 1: Roles of Government Agencies and Non-Government Organisations in Protected Area Management

The National Parks Association of Japan information exchange, communication and co- and the Environment Agency (Japan) – operation (NPAJ, 1997). In 1992, this network An Example of Nature Conservation was reorganised as a corporate legal entity, Organisations Focusing Joint Efforts on serving to survey, research, protect, preserve National Parks Management and conserve both natural and historic places and to establish procedures on the preservation, Different agencies and organisations are administration and opening of properties acquired responsible for different tasks associated with nation-wide by assisting in the constituent Trust the establishment and management of protected group movements (NPAJ, 1997). The National areas. Government agencies involved in park Parks Association of Japan, (NPAJ) is one management play an important role in specific organisation associated with the network conserving natural aspects of protected areas. that has made valuable contributions to Japan’s Many staff people have backgrounds in natural system of protected areas. science recourse management (versus human interactions, social sciences) and are a source Starting in 1929, the National Parks Association of specialised knowledge. Ideally, these agencies of Japan was established to support the provide a unifying structure through which things government in pursuing the goals of national relating to protected area management can flow. parks. The NPAJ sought to conserve the wildlife They provide a structure through which national and the scenery of the parks, provide for public policies, system zoning and information sharing enjoyment of the parks, and to ensure that the can occur. They are the figurehead in charge of sites remain unimpaired for the enjoyment of facilitating protected area management efforts, future generations. both by themselves and in partnership with The NPAJ was pivotal in getting the National Park other organisations. Law established in 1931, and the first eight In Japan, the overall government organisation national parks designated in 1934. Today, the concerned with management of natural areas Association is engaged in five areas of business is the Nature Conservation Bureau. It consists as stipulated in the Articles of Association: of five divisions: planning and coordination, 1. Comprehensive study, research, and natural parks planning, national parks, reference collections concerning national recreational facilities and wildlife protection. parks and protected areas Within this bureau, the Environment Agency 2. Co-operation and assistance at the level of carries out management of the national park central and local governments, concerning system. This agency is required to create park policy formation and management of national management plans for each national and quasi- parks and protected areas national park, but only manages the national 3. Enlightenment and dissemination of parks (prefectural governments are responsible information for the promotion of national for management of quasi-national parks and parks and protected areas by such activities designation and management of prefectural as lectures, training, exhibitions and parks). It also establishes and manages nature publications conservation areas and wildlife protection areas. 4. Entrusted business regarding national parks and protected areas, and Traditional government agencies should work 5. Other activities necessary for achieving the with other organisations and take advantage of objectives of the Association. opportunities to branch out and adopt more integrative management approaches, policies Funding for the NPAJ comes from annual and techniques. Partnerships enable a good membership fees and entrusted businesses. mix of government agency specialisation while Additional support comes from public agencies, also accessing others’ areas of expertise not corporations and individual citizens. present in the agency. In general, NGOs can play very important roles in The Environment Agency works in close parks. Since park agencies are typically co-operation with prefectural or regional government agencies, there is often a limited governments, relevant municipal authorities, role for interested citizens. NGOs provide an Conservation organizations, landowners and opportunity for individual citizens to become private sector businesses. A range of involved in park issues. Park visitors who are very conservation organisations exist, such as the supportive of national parks can join an NGO and Marine Parks Center of Japan, the Japan direct their efforts to support its operations. Environment Association, the Wild Bird Society NGOs typically lobby for objectives that are more of Japan and the National Parks Association of societal in scope, rather than individual interests. Japan (NPAJ). Activities of these conservation Therefore, NGOs can be seen as representing organisations can be very complementary to the important sectors of society, so their comments protected area system that is in place within the can help park planners and managers look government. In 1983, a network was developed toward broad policy development. NGOs can through which regional and national trusts and support park agencies in conflict situations with conservation organisations could participate in other interest groups, like competing public and Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 15

private interests. In many countries, the NGO system. The NPAJ has provided very important community has played a critical role in long advice to society, so much so that the entire term policy development, such as better future of national parks has been influenced legislation, solid financial arrangement and positively. Private NGOs such as Nature efficient planning policy. Conservation Society of Japan (NACS-J) and grass-roots organisations also played an The National Parks Association of Japan is an important role to reform policy of protected example of a government-oriented NGO that areas in Japan. has worked alongside the government agency responsible for the management of national For Further Information: National Parks parks. The Environment Agency listens to input Association of Japan, Toranomon Denki Bldg., from organisations such as the NPAJ or the 8-1, Toranomon 2 chome, Minato-ku, Tokyo Nature Conservation Council, and makes 105-000. Telephone: +81-3-3502-0488. decisions regarding development of the park Fax: +81-3-3502-1377.

well as within any particular agency reforesting urban areas and improving port between the headquarters and staff working and harbour facilities. These types of at the ground level of a specific site. Even projects are important, however, budgets though government agencies that oversee for managing and improving facilities in protected area systems are not the same, national parks amount to just above some features are common to the various ¥3,600 million, or no more than ¥30 per jurisdictions. For example, even though capita. When compared with other the term national parks is not always countries, this is small. Comparative budget used, most of the jurisdictions have this information for other jurisdiction is type of protected area administered by a generally not available, and more such federal agency. comparisons are required. Often government park agencies are created Tourism can be an effective vehicle in and made responsible for managing park obtaining funds for the management of systems. Other agencies, such as non-profit protected areas and for the well-being of organizations can also make valuable communities surrounding these areas. contributions to the management of Through tourism, the public can be park systems. In Case Study 1, some educated about the importance of contributions provided by a complementary supporting the protection of these areas. non-government organisation (NGO) Overall, tourism can be a key element in involved in management of Japan’s generating support for the protection of protected area system are highlighted, along unique natural areas. with the role of the government agency responsible for national park management. 2.2.2 Internationally Recognised In each jurisdiction varying degrees of Conservation Designations funds and resources have been allotted to Assigning protected area status to a location the formation and continuation of these indicates to everyone that the area has systems of protected areas. One common ecological, cultural or historical reality is that without access to sufficient significance. As mentioned in Section 2.2.1, human and financial resources, it is not the terminology of modern day protected possible to manage the established areas varies amongst jurisdictions. protected area systems effectively. Almost Classifications include national parks, all of the jurisdictions have protected area nature reserves and county parks. Many systems that are under-funded. types of protected areas parallel (or match As an example to illustrate that budget identically with) the six categories of allocation for protected area management protected areas identified by the World receives very low priority in government Conservation Union (IUCN). Figure 5 lists programs in East Asia, a summary of the the six categories. total amount of Japan nature conservation Protected areas, such as national parks, budgets from 1992 indicates that ¥148,882 natural monuments or managed resource million was allocated in the initial budget. protection areas are legally protected However, most of this was spent on through government legislation that creation of artificial nature including park officially designates these areas as project expenses mainly allocated for 16 Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia

protected. Other types of designations can to be granted both legal status of a also recognise an area’s special natural or protected area, and international cultural significance. For example, countries recognition of its valuable significance. One can nominate areas to be accepted as example of this is Mount Sorak in South internationally valuable through different Korea, which was designated as a national conventions. Types of natural and cultural park in 1970 and as a biosphere reserve 12 areas recognised at the international level years later. Throughout this document, the include World Heritage Sites, Biosphere phrase parks and protected areas is used in Reserves and Ramsar Wetlands, all three of the broad sense, to refer to legally protected which are outlined. The numbers of these areas as well as to other conservation types of sites found in various jurisdictions designations discussed in Section 2.2.2. are summarised in Figure 6. In recent years, one of the motivations for These types of international conventions nations to nominate areas for and conservation designations facilitate internationally recognised designations of holistic, global, interdisciplinary efforts to protected areas, such as the World Heritage conserve areas of natural and cultural Listing, has been a perceived link between significance (IUCN CNPPA, 1996). These this designation and the attraction of conventions also make it possible for international tourists to the site (Valentine, conservation efforts to extend across 1992). Once international recognition is political boundaries often associated with granted, visitor numbers will increase. other protected area designations (since It is important to have a well-designed many protected areas are created through system of visitor management in place, federal legislation). It is possible for a site along with methods of collecting some revenue from visitors to the world- renowned areas. It is possible to achieve FIGURE 5: World Conservation Union (IUCN) a symbiosis between conservation and Protected Area Categories tourism. It is both desirable and feasible that some portion of funds generated by CATEGORY Ia: Strict Nature Reserve – Area of land and/or sea possessing tourism to natural areas be reinvested in some outstanding or representative ecosystems, geological or physiological features and/or species, available primarily for scientific research and/or protection and management of those areas. environmental monitoring. World Heritage Sites CATEGORY Ib: Wilderness Area – Large area of unmodified or slightly modified land, and/or sea, retaining its natural character and influence, without A world heritage site is a natural or permanent or significant habitation, which is protected and managed so as to cultural site recognised by the international preserve its natural condition. community (in the shape of the World CATEGORY II: National Park – Natural area of land and/or sea, designated to Heritage founded by the a) protect the ecological integrity of one or more ecosystems for present and General Conference of UNESCO in 1972) future generations, b) exclude exploitation or occupation inimical (harmful) to as possessing universal value, and coming the purposes of designation of the area, and c) provide a foundation for under a collective responsibility. A country spiritual, scientific, educational, recreational and visitor opportunities, all of nominates a site to the Convention, and a which must be environmentally and culturally compatible. decision on whether to include it in the CATEGORY III: Natural Monument – Area containing one, or more, specific world heritage list is made by a 21-member natural or natural/cultural feature which is of outstanding or unique value international committee (UNESCO, 1999). because of its inherent rarity, representative or aesthetic qualities or cultural significance. After a site is approved for inscription into the World Heritage List of Sites, the real CATEGORY IV: Habitat/Species Management Area – Area of land and/or sea subject to active intervention for management purposes so as to ensure work of preserving and conservation the maintenance of habitats and/or to meet the requirements of specific species. begins. There are 630 properties which the World Heritage Committee has inscribed on CATEGORY V: Protected Landscape/Seascape – Area of land, with coast and sea as appropriate, where the interaction of people and nature over time the World Heritage List (480 cultural, 128 has produced an area of distinct character with significant aesthetic, ecological natural and 22 mixed properties in 118 State and/or cultural value, and often with high biological diversity. Safeguarding the Parties) current as of December 1999 integrity of this traditional interaction is vital to the protection, maintenance (UNESCO, 1999). and evolution of such an area. CATEGORY VI: Managed Resource Protection Area – Area containing Biosphere Reserves predominantly unmodified natural systems, managed to ensure long-term The Man and the Biosphere (MAB) protection and maintenance of biological diversity, while providing at the Programme is an interdisciplinary research same time a sustainable flow of natural products and services to meet effort directed towards providing community needs. information for the solution of natural (IUCN, 1994) resources and environmental issues. It is Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 17

FIGURE 6: Summary of Internationally Recognised preparing the nomination. Each nomination is examined by a UNESCO Advisory Protected Areas* Committee for Biosphere Reserves, for Jurisdiction Number of Number of Number of recommendation to the International World Heritage Biosphere Ramsar Coordinating Council of the MAB Sites Reserves Wetlands Programme. This Council takes a decision China 23 sites 16 31 July 1992 on nominations for designation, and the first one declared 7 sites, Director-General of UNESCO notifies the in 1987 surface area State concerned of the decision. Once 588,380 hectares designated, the appropriate authorities Japan 10 sites 4 17 October 1980 are encouraged to publicise their first one declared 11 sites, Biosphere Reserves, for example with a in 1993 surface area commemorative plaque and distributing 83,725 hectares information material indicating this South Korea 5 sites 1 28 July 1997 special status. first one declared 2 sites, in 1995 surface area EABRN (East Asian Biosphere Reserve 960 hectares Network) is an example of a regional North Korea Information 1 Information network. EABRN consists of China, unavailable unavailable North Korea, Japan, Mongolia, South Korea and the Russian Federation. This network, Mongolia Information 3 8 April 1998 unavailable 6 sites, initiated in 1994, has three subjects as surface area priority for co-operation: ecotourism, 630,580 hectares conservation policy and transboundary (UNESCO, 2000a; UNESCO, 2000c) conservation. It also serves as a mechanism to facilitate an exchange of information, * Not all jurisdictions discussed throughout this document are able to have training opportunities and site-to-site co- internationally recognised status assigned for areas of significant natural and operation. On a national level, in 1993 cultural features to their jurisdiction. China set up the first network of its kind (China biosphere reserve network) which consisted of 16 world biosphere reserves “an interdisciplinary programme of research and 67 natural reserves located in China. and training intended to develop the basis, Six meetings have been held so far, the within the natural and the social sciences, last one in 1999 in the Jiuzhaigou for the rational use and conservation of the Biosphere Reserve (also a World resources of the biosphere, and for the Heritage Site) in China. improvement of the global relationship between people and the environment” Ramsar Wetlands (UNESCO, 2000b). As an intergovernmental The Convention on Wetlands, signed in program, MAB presents an opportunity for Ramsar, Iran in 1971, is an intergovernmental international co-operation and a focus for treaty which provides the framework for the coordination of related programs aimed national action and international co- at improving the management of natural operation for the conservation and wise use resources and the environment. There are of wetlands and their resources. As of 368 Biosphere reserves in 91 countries as of March 2000, there were 119 Contracting January 2000 (UNESCO, 2000d). Parties to the Convention, with 1023 There are three zones of management in wetland sites, totalling 74.9 million Biosphere Reserves: the core zone, the hectares, designated for inclusion in the buffer zone and the outer transition area. Ramsar List of Wetlands of International The three zones are usually implemented Importance (The Ramsar Convention in many different ways to accommodate Bureau, 2000b). local geographic conditions and constraints. Ramsar is the only global environmental This flexibility allows for creativity and treaty dealing with one specific type of adaptability, and is one of the greatest ecosystem. The Convention’s mission is strengths of the concept (UNESCO, 2000b). “the conservation and wise use of wetlands National MAB Committees are responsible by national action and international co- for preparing Biosphere Reserve operation as a means to achieving nominations and for involving the sustainable development throughout the appropriate government agencies, relevant world” (The Ramsar Convention institutions and local authorities in Bureau, 2000a). 18 Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia

The Ramsar Convention takes a broad management planning, and international approach in determining the wetlands that co-operation. come under its protection. In general, wetlands are areas where water is the primary factor controlling the environment 2.3 TOURISM IN EAST ASIA and the associated plant and animal life. They occur where the water table is at or 2.3.1 General Tourism Trends The Ramsar Convention near the surface of the land, or where the Tourism is increasing throughout the land is covered by shallow water. They are world. Popularity of visits to natural on Wetlands supports defined as “areas of marsh, fen, peatland or areas is also increasing. As the amount of the concept of wise water, whether natural or artificial, natural space continues to decline due to use to ensure that permanent or temporary, with water that is increasing pressures such as agriculture static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, and urbanisation, these natural areas wetlands are including areas of marine water the depth become more novel and special. Protected conserved. Wise of which at low tide does not exceed six area managers need to be aware of use is defined as metres”. They may also incorporate zones tourism trends and their implications adjacent to the wetlands, and islands or (FNNPE, 1993). “sustainable utilization bodies of marine water deeper than six Vacations are becoming shorter, speciality for the benefit of metres at low tide lying within the tourism markets such as ecotourism are wetlands. The coverage of the Convention mankind in a way emerging, and people are expecting good extends to a wide variety of habitat types, value for their money regardless of their compatible with the including rivers and lakes, coastal lagoons, spending category. Holidays that offer a maintenance of the mangroves, peatlands, and even coral reefs. variety of opportunities to learn about and In addition, there are human-made natural properties of experience local cultures, special themes, wetlands such as fish and shrimp ponds, and countryside access are all increasing the ecosystem” – farm ponds, irrigated agricultural land, in demand. Societies are becoming more sustainable utilization reservoirs, gravel pits, sewage farms, and conscious of their activities and their canals (The Ramsar Convention Bureau, is understood as choices – many individuals, businesses 2000c). “human use of a and governments want to support efforts Over the years, the Convention has wetland so that it to stop using the planet’s resources in published a series of nine Ramsar unsustainable ways. Many travellers want may yield the Handbooks that present the guidelines to avoid congested, overdeveloped areas greatest continuous adopted by the Conference of the that have lost their authenticity or that have Contracting Parties (the main decision- benefit to present environmental problems. These types of making body of the Convention, composed trends will have implications on visitor generations while of delegates from all the Member States). patterns and services. Products can be maintaining its Topics addressed include: wise use of specifically developed for various markets wetlands, national wetland policies, laws potential to meet once the visitor’s needs and interests are and institutions, wetlands and river basin identified. More environmentally friendly the needs and management, community participation, forms of tourism are gaining strength aspirations of future education and public awareness, (FNNPE, 1993). development of the Ramsar List, generations.” Wise use Rapid changes sometimes affect tourism may also require patterns. Social unrest, publicised acts of violence and damaging weather events strict protection. For further information … reduce people’s desire to travel to the Access to the internet provides an almost (The Ramsar Convention affected sites. Protected area managers unlimited number of global information sharing Bureau, 2000c) opportunities. For example, the following web should pay attention to influential changes sites provide access to global conservation such as these. designations and their information resources: Tourism can have large impacts on and • To examine World Heritage Sites in further detail, go to World Wide Web Site importance to an area’s well-being. http://www.unesco.org/mab/ Sustainable development is supported by • To learn more about EABRN (East Asian various national and international Biosphere Reserve Network), go to World organisations. For example, the Asia Pacific Wide Web Site Tourism Awards is a program that supports http://www.unesco.org/mab/eabrn/eabrn.htm environmentally friendly tourism projects, • To access the nine Ramsar Handbooks including some projects that occur in through the internet, go to World Wide Web Site http://ramsar.org/index_about_ramsar. protected areas. Types of projects that could htm#info be supported by conservation organisations Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 19

and programs include protection of industrialised economies that are less specifically interesting or fragile natural apprehensive about their foreign exchange areas, promotion of rural or cultural balances have relaxed international travel tourism and tourism and the environment. restrictions such as exchange rate controls, surcharges, and spending limitations (Fish Part of sustainable development is learning & Waggle, 1997). Much of the travel is to integrate environmental protection into multi-country and between the main cities policies for all industries, including tourism. of the region, and almost half the tourists All tourism opportunities and destinations take sponsored tours (Fish & Waggle, 1997). need to adopt concern for the planet, even The growing middle class and retirees in those which are not viewed traditionally as Asia are using part of their increasing small ecotourist destinations. Tourism incomes and personal discretionary development should be compatible with the disposable free time to engage in overseas environment. An environmentally sensitive travel. They represent at least 73% of the approach to tourism is possible through increase in travel (Fish & Waggle, 1997). actions such as including components that relate to the environment in tourism Stimulated by economic recovery in Asia, legislation. Much of the motivation to travel world tourism grew by 3.2% in 1999, half a is the attractiveness of nature, landscape percentage point faster than in 1998 and cultural features, so these must be (WTOb, 2000). According to WTO protected and used only in a sensitive Secretary-General Francesco Frangialli, after and appropriate fashion. two years of decreasing tourist arrivals, East Asia and the Pacific bounced back strongly in 1999, reaching a growth rate of 7.5% FIGURE 7: Growth in Inbound Tourism in East Asia and a new record total of nearly 94 million 1980 1985 1992 Percentage international tourists (WTO, 2000b). This is Receiving Tourist Tourist Tourist Average nearly five million more tourists than the Country or Arrivals Arrivals Arrivals Annual Change previous record set in 1996. Growth was Jurisdiction (in millions (in millions (in millions From 1980 widespread, with especially good results in of people) of people) of people) to 1992 Singapore (+11%) Japan (+9.6%), South China 3.5 7.1 14.2 + 12.4 Korea (+9.6%), Malaysia (+8%), China Hong Kong 1.7 3.4 6.6 + 11.7 (+7.9%), Hong Kong SAR (+9%), and Taiwan 1.4 1.5 1.9 + 2.8 Thailand (+5.6%) (WTO, 2000b). Macau 1.7 1.7 3.2 + 5.7 According to WTO (1998), all East Asia countries and jurisdictions except North Japan 0.8 2.1 2.3 + 8.8 Korea and Mongolia, ranked in world’s top South Korea 1.0 1.4 3.5 + 11.1 40 tourism earners in terms of international North Korea No No No No tourism receipts (#8 China, #10 Hong Kong, information information information information #21 South Korea, #23 Japan, #29 Taiwan, available available available available #31 Macau). Inbound tourism to East Asia Mongolia No No No No countries has certainly grown over the past information information information information two decades, with 10.3 million tourist available available available available arrivals in 1980, up to 31.9 million tourist (WTO, 1994, p. 33) arrivals in 1992 (WTO, 1994). Figure 7 illustrates the increasing popularity of tourism destinations in principal tourist Asian world tourism has grown from 21 receiving jurisdictions in East Asia. In 1992, million travellers in 1980 to over 58 million within the jurisdictions of East Asia, China travellers in 1997 (Fish & Waggle, 1997). In led the way in both arrivals and average 1996 East Asia and the Pacific generated 94 annual increase in arrivals (14.2 million million arrivals world-wide (one million arrivals in 1992, +12.4% average annual more than North America). Approximately change from 1980 to 1992). Hong Kong three-quarters of trips occurred within the followed with the second highest (6.6 region (WTO, 1997). The spectacular million arrivals, +11.7% average annual growth in Asia-Pacific travel is primarily change from 1980 to 1992), and South due to the rising national prosperity, lower Korea with the third highest (3.5 million airfares, and increasingly liberal travel arrivals, +11.1% average annual change policies among these nations (Fish & from 1980 to 1992). Waggle, 1997). Also, a number of the newly 20 Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia

In contrast to the well-developed inbound foreign visitors would be useful to collect tourism market in most jurisdictions, the (The Economist Intelligence Unit, 1995a). Asian outbound market is either at its One estimate indicates that roughly 60% introductory or growth stage, and rapid of visitor arrivals are for leisure, and 40% expansion is certain for many years to are for business. come, principally in the form of China has been the most popular tourism intra-regional travel (WTO, 1995). destination in East Asia and the Pacific region from 1985 to 1999, with roughly 27 2.3.2 Tourism Information million arrivals in 1999. In 1999, China had by Jurisdiction the fifth highest number of arrivals world- wide, after France, Spain, United States, China and Italy (WTO, 2000b). International Many Chinese communities in the tourist arrivals grew from 1980, when 5.7 jurisdictions of East Asia have ethnic ties million tourists generated US$617 million, with China. No travel or direct personal to roughly 63 million tourists in 1998, contact between these communities and who generated $US12.6 billion (National their homeland was permitted for several Tourism Administration of the People’s decades. Only since tourism in China Republic of China, 1999). China is capable opened up in late 1970s has such travel of playing an important role in the been possible. The growth in ethnic international travel industry. The strong Chinese tourism to China has been rapid, growth of the gross domestic product to over 10 million arrivals in 1992, plus 21 (GDP), the increase in private consumption million excursionists from Hong Kong, witnessed by China over the last years, and Macau and Taiwan. With the incorporation the loosening of travel restrictions on travel of Hong Kong into China in 1997, and to and from China, all contribute to China’s easier travel in and out of China, ability to exert a dominant influence in the opportunities for ethnic tourism between region’s travel and tourism scene. Based on China and countries with substantial WTO predictions, China is expected to be Chinese communities remain high the top tourism destination in the world by (WTO, 1994). the year 2020 (WTO, 1999). A large majority of international tourists to China’s goal for the year 1995 was to China have ancestral ties. Tourism occurs double tourist receipts over that of 1991, mainly in the humid, highly-populated, and to redouble by 2000. From US$2.5 eastern region of the country, where the billion in 1991, the targets were for US$5 majority of the large cities and historical billion in 1995 and US$10 billion in 2000. attractions lie. Tourism in the western Performance in 1992 showed good progress two-thirds of China is limited. There, the towards this target with receipts up 38.9% climate is more arid and the landscape over 1991 to US$3.95 billion and arrivals up is less suited for occupation. Infrastructure 28% to 6.33 million. The state approved is therefore less developed, and the plans to build 11 national holiday resorts, capabilities of supporting tourism are lower. with incentives to attract foreign investors. It is also less appealing to the millions of This is part of the policy to transfer China’s international visitors of Chinese ancestry tourism from traditional sightseeing to the since their ancestors are primarily located combination of sightseeing and holiday in the east (western China is home to most resort tourism (WTO, 1994). of China’s minorities). In 1997 nation-wide statistics were tallied Japan from 11,938 tourism enterprises. The major From 1987 to 1992, continuous growth in markets for China were Japan, Russia, tourism arrivals occurred, and visitor South Korea and the United States numbers reached an all time high of 3.53 (National Tourism Administration of the million in 1991 (an increase of 50%). The People’s Republic of China, 1997). Chinese main stimulus of growth was the Asian visitor counts are divided into numerous market (up 74.6%), notably South Korea categories including compatriots, foreigners (24.4%), Taiwan (18.6%), the United States and overseas Chinese. Most measurements (15.4%) and Hong Kong (4.4%). The three and analysis are done on the foreign key markets are Taiwan (26.9%), South component. Information about the purpose Korea (24%), and Hong Kong. Together of travel and more detailed profiles on they accounted for 72.5% of Asian arrivals Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 21

and 47.4% of Japan’s total inbound market services has been growing significantly in in 1991 (Travel & Tourism Intelligence, 1997). 1990s. This had a positive impact on the travel industry, which is the third largest Visitor arrivals to Japan increased steadily earner of foreign exchange for Hong Kong. in the first three years of the 1990s, but by Tourism contributed HK$64 billion in 1994. 1995, arrival numbers were lower than they The Hong Kong Tourist Association (HKTA) had been since 1990. Major reasons for the established a broad goal of receiving 10 decline in numbers were an earthquake in million visitors, with receipts of HK$130- Kobe and the strong yen, which had a 140 billion in the year 2000. Hong Kong dampening effect on leisure arrivals. Only remains a major entry for foreign visitors to remained strong. In 1996, China, although it is no longer the major with the weakened yen, interest in leisure entry point (The Economist Intelligence travel was slightly revived, with some Unit, 1995b). figures indicating an increase in total arrivals of approximately 15%. Despite this, Japan was Hong Kong’s largest market the industry continued to suffer, with low source from 1971 until 1990, when Taiwan margins and a changing, less lucrative overtook Japan as the major market. Hong market. The average length of stay in Japan Kong has benefited from the sudden surge had fallen, from 14.9 days in 1988 to 9.4 of outbound traffic from Taiwan. The surge days in 1995 (Travel & Tourism Intelligence, is a result of rapid economic growth and 1997). Tourism officials introduced a new the easing of travel restrictions. Hong Kong strategy designed to revive interest in the has benefited in two ways, both as a country and have targeted a doubling of destination that appeals to travellers from visitors to 7 million by 2005 (Travel & Taiwan, and also as the major entry point Tourism Intelligence, 1997). for travellers from Taiwan into China. Barred from travelling to China since 1949, In terms of outbound tourism, in 1987 the it was not until October 1987 that Taiwan Ten Million Program was launched, with citizens were first allowed to travel to China the intention of doubling the number of via a third country such as Hong Kong (The Japanese travelling abroad to 10 million by Economist Intelligence Unit, 1995b). 1991, a target which was reached a year early in 1990. After this success, the In 1994 China became Hong Kong’s largest government of Japan formulated a new, market. Even though Japan is no longer wide-ranging action program called the primary market, it is still very important Two-Way Tourism 21. financially, because Japanese travellers stay a little longer than Taiwanese travellers Intra-regional Asian tourism and ecotourism (2.9 days compared with 2.2) and spend were recognised as the two major trends of substantially more. Japan also has the the 1990s, and efforts have been made to largest leisure percentage among Hong foster and assist the successful expansion of Kong’s major markets (74% of Japanese these two market developments. With the arrivals). sharp influx of Asian visitors (especially from Korea) there is a shortage of qualified The Hong Kong Tourist Association, a guides and interpreters. The Japan National quasi-official organisation promoting Tourist Organization (JNTO) has identified tourism to the international clientele, has three areas to concentrate on for the future recently tried to encourage more visitors to in order to promote inbound tourism. take advantage of the country park system. It plans to: • expand its activities in the Asian market Taiwan • encourage efforts to attract visitors to Taiwan is both a pleasure destination and a Japan’s regional area, and business destination in the Asia Pacific, and • step up the promotion of Japan as a rapid growth of the industry is not foreseen convention and exhibition destination (Republic of China Tourism Bureau, 1996). (The Economist Intelligence Unit, 1992). Visitor arrivals to Taiwan have grown from 14,068 in 1957, to 2,298,706 in 1998 Hong Kong (Republic of China Ministry of Tourist arrivals in Hong Kong have grown Transportation and Communications, 1998). from under 2.3 million in 1980, to over 9 Visitor expenditures in Taiwan have grown million in 1994 (The Economist Intelligence from US$527 million in 1977, to US$3.4 Unit, 1995b). Hong Kong’s role as a centre billion in 1997, an increase of 85% (Fish & for regional trade, transport, tourism and 22 Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia

Waggle, 1997). Average daily expenditures The sharp appreciation of Taiwan’s per visitor have grown from US$72.43 in currency (the New Taiwan dollar) against 1977, to US$193.56 in 1997, an increase of most of the world’s major currencies in the 63%. These numbers are impressive when late 1980s made the destination more examined alone, but in comparison to expensive for visitors. In recent years, the growth in other jurisdictions (e.g., Hong currency has become more stable, making Kong figures rose 160% between 1987 and this issue less significant. 1994), the figure is low (Fish & Waggle, 1997). In 1994 Taiwan had roughly the South Korea same number of visitor arrivals as India South Korea is situated between Asia’s (over 2 million), and less than main most sought after outbound markets, Japan regional destinations such as Australia, and China. In addition, it is located only a China, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Japan, South few hours north of Taiwan’s huge outbound Korea, Singapore, and Thailand. Taiwan’s market, and it is easily accessible from both largest tourism market is Asia-Pacific Southeast Asia and North America. For the travellers, who account for over 70% of Southeast Asians, South Korea provides Taiwan’s market (The Economist four distinct seasons, a novelty for residents Intelligence Unit, 1995d). of the tropics. As an airline hub, South Taiwan’s inbound tourism market has been Korea is comparatively cheaper than Japan heavily dependent on just six countries, and more technologically advanced than which accounted for 81% of the region’s China (The Economist Intelligence visitors from 1977 to 1994. Japan supplied Unit, 1995c). the greatest number of visitors to Taiwan In 1962 only 15,184 foreign tourists visited (45%), followed by Hong Kong (13%) and South Korea. Since then, tourist numbers United States (12%). Also contributing have grown strongly, reaching 100,000 in were South Korea (4%), Malaysia (4%), 1968, 1 million in 1978, and 2 million in and Singapore (3%) (Fish & Waggle, 1997). 1988. In 1998, there were over 4 million While these six jurisdictions have played a (4,250,216) visitors. South Korea’s strong dominant role in Taiwan’s tourism trade, Taiwan’s attractiveness has expanded over growth in tourism arrivals in the 1970s and time. In 1977 only 15% of visitors to 1980s can be attributed to three stimulants. Taiwan came from outside of these six First, the president created a series of five- countries, but by 1994 other countries year economic development plans that accounted for 25%. Most of this gain by produced South Korea’s “economic miracle” other countries resulted from Japan’s and brought increased numbers of foreign decreasing importance to Taiwanese business travellers. Second, South Korea’s tourism. The number of Japanese tourists normalisation of relations with Japan, its increased from 563,000 in 1977, to 824,000 former colonial ruler from 1910 to 1945, in 1994, but based on percentage, the total helped the economy grow, and also visitors actually decreased by 12%, from attracted leisure travellers. Third, inbound 51% of the market in 1977 to 39% in 1994 tourism to South Korea consistently (Fish & Waggle, 1997). achieved double-digit growth during the second half of the 1980s due to the Asian Growth in Taiwan’s inbound market has Games in 1986 and the Seoul Olympics in been slow for most of the past decades. 1988 (The Economist Intelligence Unit, From 1997 to 1999 inbound arrivals have 1995c). remained steady at roughly 2.4 million. According to Fish and Waggle (1997) Tourists account for 72.1% of all arrivals to reasons for the low growth include: South Korea. In 1998 arrivals from Asia • strengthening of Taiwan’s currency in the totalled 3.03 million, followed by 470,000 late 1980s from the Americas, 380,000 from Europe, • a shortage of new or strong international and 40,000 from Australia and New tourist/leisure attractions Zealand. Japan is the primary inbound • tourist attractions not being readily market, followed by visitors from the accessible United States, Hong Kong and the • difficulties in obtaining appropriate travel Philippines (Republic of Korea Ministry of documents, and Culture and Tourism, 1998). • a lack of direct air links between Taiwan and major tourist-generating countries. In 1998 tourists from Japan amounted to 1.95 million (46% of the inbound market). A vast majority (96%) visited South Korea Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 23

for sightseeing. Since the 1970s, Japan has development, education and training, been South Korea’s major inbound market. convention promotion, tourism research Japan once totalled as much as 70% of the and development, and domestic tourism total market, but from 1985 to 1995 it promotion. It provides licensing for tour accounted for approximately 45%, with a guides (by language) and recorded 6,210 temporary peak of 50% just after the tour guides in 1995 (The Economist Olympics. The decrease may be partially Intelligence Unit, 1995c). explained by the fact that a visit to South Korea became considerably more expensive Mongolia in early 1990s due to increased costs of Landlocked between Russia and China, both and commodities. The tourism Mongolia became an independent republic industry has made great effort to attract in 1990 after 69 years of Russian influence. travellers from Japan. For example, the Since then, it has made a rapid transition need for a Japanese visa was waived during from a centralised system to a market Visit Korea Year 1994. This later became economy. permanent (The Economist Intelligence For over 30 years, tourists have come to the Unit, 1995c). Gobi Gurvansaikhan area ,however, great The United States is the second-ranked changes in tourism have happened over the inbound market for South Korea. In 1998 past decade. Recently Mongolia started to visitors from the United States totalled open its borders to foreign visitors. Until 406,000. The majority (72.1%) came as 1997 individual tourists to Mongolia needed tourists. The average length of stay was 9.7 formal letters of invitation from a days, a relatively long period of visit Mongolian or a foreign resident to obtain (Republic of Korea Ministry of Culture and visas (Eberherr, 2000b). Since 1998 when Tourism, 1998). The United States has liberal visa regulations became effective, maintained strong links with South Korea there has been a noticeable increase in the since its participation in the Korean War number of individual tourists travelling to from 1950 to 1953. There are still over Mongolia. Mongolia’s international tourist 30,000 United States’ military personnel market has grown due to this policy. The stationed in South Korea, and at least that Mongolian Embassy records list 200,000 many more civilian workers and visitors in 1995, of which 20,000 were dependants. tourists who generated an annual revenue of $6 to 7 million (Eberherr, 2000b). The long-term Korean Promotion Plan, Improvements in visitor reporting are in established in 1992 by the Tourism Policy progress, but some discrepancy in visitor Council, had a target of 7 million arrivals numbers reported may still exist. Most by the year 2000. Though previous recently, the Mongolian Tourism Centre marketing efforts have been concentrated reported 158,743 visitors in 1999, of which on Japan, new efforts have also been made 34,049 were tourists who generated an to diversify the market. The Government’s annual revenue of $28.8 million. National Comprehensive Tourism Development Plan divides Korea into 24 Based on Mongolia’s relatively undisturbed tourist development areas and aims to landscape and culture, the potential for spread tourism throughout the country. In growth in Mongolia’s nature-based tourism 1994, total inbound tourism expenditures industry is large. Almost all leisure tourists were US$3.8 million, and average visit Mongolia as part of an organised expenditures per visitor totalled US$1.06 . Some tourists choose to make (The Economist Intelligence Unit, 1995c). independent travel arrangements. However, According to the Ministry of Culture and most tourists still need the services of Sports (1994), there were 106,774 tourism operators since travel in the employees in South Korea’s tourism countryside in Mongolia is extremely industry. Jobs by sector include: difficult without a rented car, an accommodation (50,965 jobs), travel experienced driver or guide and an agencies (36,012 jobs), attractions (8,992 interpreter (Eberherr, 2000b). jobs), professional convention organisers According to the Mongolian visitor arrival (286 jobs) and miscellaneous (10,519 jobs). statistics of 1997, Japan is the single and The Korean National Tourism Corporation most important tourism market in Mongolia (the national tourist office) is responsible (30% of the market). The majority of for international tourism marketing, resort Mongolian package tours being offered in 24 Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia

Japan feature an eight to nine-day itinerary. parks are very small compared to other Mongolia is regarded as a special interest park systems in other East Asia tour (SIT) destination for pursuits such as jurisdictions. One estimate suggests there is hunting and fossil digging, which appeal to less than 1,000 people per year who visit a small and very limited market base national parks in West Mongolia (Eberherr, (Eberherr, 2000b). Western Europe is the 2000a). It must be acknowledged that the second largest tourism market (with a reported tourist numbers in parks may not combined share of 39% of the market). accurately capture all tourists – some do For most European tourists, Mongolia is a not register, either because they are not once-in-a-lifetime destination in Asia. aware of the need to register, do not know where to go to register, or try to avoid The tourist season in Mongolia lasts paying the entrance fees at registration only five months of the year (May to (Eberherr, 2000a). September), with over 50% of leisure tourist arrivals concentrated in the months Although tourism in Mongolia is currently of July and August (Eberherr, 2000b). One small scale, it will continue to play an estimate identifies the number of tourism increasingly important role in the region. agencies at over three hundred in 1998 Effective planning is critical in order to (Eberherr, 2000b). Among those 300 address the possible problems brought by agencies, 100 companies are tourism increasing number of tourists. Mongolia entrepreneurs, of which 50 are general government policy has been responsible for tourism operators and another 50 are rapidly establishing a number of protected travel agents. Until recently almost all of areas in the past few years. Under the the tourism agencies have been based in prerequisite of environmental preservation, , and many of them manage tourism is regarded as a promising in the provinces (Eberherr, 2000b). opportunity for Mongolia, with the ability to contribute to additional incomes by Tourism in West Mongolia is in an early creating new jobs for the locals. Challenges stage of development. Recently, to sustainable tourism development include international operators have started poor accessibility to remote areas, lack of bringing a small number of tours to roads, uncontrolled flow of local people to Mongolia, in co-operation with national areas of tourism development, insufficient tourism operators. Tourists interested in the tourism infrastructure and facilities in and nature and primarily around national parks and protected areas, come from industrialised countries such as and the inability for park budgets and staff Japan, Europe, Australia, North America to keep pace with the fast-expanding and South Korea, and have high travelling tourism industry (Eberherr, 2000a). budgets relative to the cost of living in Mongolia. Tourism numbers to national 2.4 TOURISM AND PROTECTED AREAS 2.4.1 Infrastructure and Activities The category of protected area designation determines the type of activities and facilities that are permitted. For example, greater restrictions are placed upon activities and facilities in a nature reserve compared to a national park because of the higher conservation priorities. It is necessary for some infrastructure to exist within close proximity to the park, since travellers require items such as road access, accommodation and restaurants to comfortably visit the area. Teresa Chang-Hung Tao Teresa Well designed facilities, such as these Accommodations in Taroko National Park, Taiwan, provide valuable services to the park visitors, as well as protect Usually accommodations are restricted or the environment through environmentally forbidden in nature reserves, (Category I), sensitive design. national parks (Category II), and national Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 25

monuments (Category III). In some cases areas, in zones where low-level development where parks were established after the area is appropriate. More elaborate tourism was settled, local communities live within facilities such as museums, swimming the park. Category V parks, protected pools, craft workshops, and local industries landscapes, often contain villages and are often located in buffer or peripheral settled landscapes with abundant levels of zones outside the core zones of protection tourist accommodations. It is important to protected areas. gain the support of the local communities and of local accommodation providers if the Transport conservation goals of the protected area are Some public transport is available to certain to be achieved. Two ways of gaining protected areas, however, when travelling to support from local communities include protected areas located in rural areas, many involving them in the management of the visitors arrive by car. As visitation grows, protected area, and ensuring that the local issues such as congestion, pollution and people benefit directly from tourism quality and quantity of parking facilities activities associated with the protected area. must be addressed. Transit by bus or train can be used to concentrate use and reduce Accommodations are typically found in the impact of roads, cars and parking lots. the buffer, or peripheral zones, of national parks and protected areas. Such Managers, policy developments are best located outside the 2.4.2 Systematic Collection of makers and planners park because of the strong emphasis on Data Related to Tourism protection and conservation within the involved in Data and information are critical for park. In many regions of East Asia local effective management decision-making. conservation and local people reside inside and along borders In many jurisdictions systematic data level development of protected areas. Potentially, some collection relating to the natural sciences local people can offer small-scale should be at least has been established as a priority for accommodations to travellers and gain creating and managing protected areas. somewhat familiar with income. This is an example of how tourism It is widely accepted that conducting spending directly benefits the local people, the human (or social) studies or inventories on the flora and and circulates within the local economy. sciences. They are fauna of a given area is a desirable practice. In this way, leakage of tourism spending This data can be useful to park managers. then in a better to outside parties is reduced. Large-scale For example, knowledge learned through accommodation developments are usually position to understand studies about endangered species in the better situated away from these zones the cultural and social area can be applied when determining since their looming presence may be zoning and levels of acceptable use. The processes of the inappropriate in this context. natural science fields provide only a portion people with whom of the overall data related to tourism that Outdoor Activities should be collected. Data collection in the they interact. Many activities that occur in protected social science fields is also an essential (Furze, De Lacy & areas depend on the terrain. For example, component for effective planning and Birckhead, 1996) hiking, and skiing are activities management of human interactions with tourists may participate in while visiting protected areas. mountainous areas, whereas they may wish to swim, scuba dive and go for Social science deals with the human and walks along the beach in marine areas. social dimensions of issues. Within a social Motorised vehicles associated with science framework, the ways in which recreational activities, such as jet skis society operates, how it works, and how its and power boating place additional stress working impacts on various individuals and on sensitive environments of protected groups of people can be considered (Furze, areas. Such vehicles need to be carefully De Lacy & Birckhead, 1996). It incorporates controlled and in some cases prohibited. fields of study such as sociology, psychology, history, anthropology, cultural studies, Facilities politics, economics, communication studies, Protected areas offer rich opportunities leisure studies and geography. It deals with for environmental education. What better people and their relationships (with each place to teach someone the importance other and with nature). Unlike natural and benefits of the protected area and its sciences, there are few natural laws that species than in an outdoor classroom? govern the ways people behave or do not Interpretive trails, visitor centres, and picnic behave. Social sciences must deal with areas are often located inside protected human diversity. 26 Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia

FIGURE 8: Levels of Program Development for Measurement more funding. Even with minimal availability of staff and funding, all of Visitor Use protected areas should monitor use levels Level Staff Time Funding with reasonable accuracy and reliability. Initial 1 person As time permits None Different methods exist to record levels of (other duties assigned) tourism, such as measuring the number of Basic 1 person 10% allocated Nominal visits, visitor hours, entries to the protected (other duties assigned) area, visitor nights, visitor night hours and Intermediate 2 people 25% allocated Same as small entry night hours. For example, one easy (other duties assigned) operating department way to collect substantial amounts of basic Developed 1 person 100% Same as any visitor data (in all parks that collect fees for (dedicated to program) operating department visits) is through information entered into computer terminals at the point of sale Advanced 2 people 100% Enhanced (dedicated to program) when visitors register and buy a permit. Information can be collected at a variety (Hornback & Eagles, 1999, p. 27) of different levels, ranging from a very simple basic level to a complex In terms of tourism in parks and protected specialised program. areas, social science research can help Hornback and Eagles (1999) describe park managers examine and consider five progressive levels of a public-use the impacts of tourism on the local measurement program. Staff, time and communities and better understand funding requirements for the five different tourists’ characteristics, travel motives, levels are outlined in Figure 8. The more expectations and perceptions. Potential highly developed levels result in greater research questions related to the dynamics accuracy of measuring levels of public use between tourism and local people include: and a corresponding increase in resources • What factors must be present for required to run the measurement program. sustainable tourism initiatives to succeed? The level that is selected for each protected • How do local people perceive the area should provide a balance between protected area? effort and applicability of data to park • Why don’t local people obey regulations management needs. The most complex outlined by the government or park program is not necessarily the most management agency? appropriate one for every park to strive for, In order to develop a thorough since an overly complicated program may understanding of tourists, protected area become problematic and impractical to managers should know what their levels implement and maintain. To meet the goal of tourism are, what the levels are in of long-term accuracy, a balance must be peak season, shoulder season and off- found between precision and practicality. season, and what motivations and The first necessity is that some method of expectations their visitors possess. data collection on park visitation be Information on tourism within individual implemented. Once a system is in place, protected areas varies widely but, in most then improvements can be made on the cases, vast improvements still need to be quality of data that is collected. made towards the collection of social scientific data and information as it Without knowledge of visitors, decisions relates to tourism. relating to visitor management are imprecise. Ideally, consistent definitions According to Hornback and Eagles (1999), and methods of measurement should be many parks do not count visitation employed within a protected area system. effectively. Possible reasons include low Lack of consistency makes direct levels of staffing, too many entrances for comparisons impossible and trends proper coverage, or other competing difficult to identify. Efforts must be made management priorities. Proper and effective to collect accurate and comparable statistics reporting of visitation provides government, on tourism related to natural protected the public and other industries with an areas at the regional, national, and accurate impression of the levels of park international levels. system use. In turn, this can lead to a higher level of policy emphasis in government and an ability to capture Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 27

For further information … specific policies relating to tourism within and near protected areas. Policy creation Hornback and Eagles (1999) published the requires planning and forethought. Without first global guidelines that focus specifically planning and forethought (and no policy), on public-use measurement and reporting. tourism development is left to continue at The book is entitled Guidelines for Public Use Measurement and Reporting in Parks and its own, often rapid and uncontrolled, Protected Areas. Topics covered include pace. Unguided and unregulated counting instruments, types of visitor studies, development frequently results in methods of data collection and the importance negative impacts outweighing positive of systematic collection of visitor measurement. ones, and overall damage to the area and surrounding communities.

2.4.3 Policies and Laws Related to It is possible that staff at an individual protected area site may attempt to work Sustainable Tourism in towards sustainable tourism development Protected Areas without guidance from an existing written Governments are involved in park and policy by the management agency, however tourism planning at local, regional, and this is the rare example rather than the national levels. Governments need to common case. Individual park managers consider concepts and tools used in should receive guidance from park It is important to sustainable development. Sustainable management agencies about how to work consider the full range tourism development is one portion towards sustainable tourism development of potential benefits of the larger realm of overall sustainable within and near protected areas. Other development. Conservation can be achieved sources of guidance include international and potential costs through sustainable tourism development, development agencies, environmental when making decisions as can economic development. For the organisations, and the information related to developing concepts of conservation and economic contained within this document. development to be mutually supportive, tourism in an area. tourism policy must be adequately linked Developing policies and laws related with national development policy and to sustainable tourism solidifies and national environmental policy. Without acknowledges a desire to maintain a proper planning and integration, individual high level of commitment to achieving projects tend to operate in isolation, failing sustainable tourism development. Policies to influence either conservation or that recognise tourism as a valuable development. Isolated projects also often element of protected area management fail to generate the policy support necessary provide guidance to managers of these to bring their potential to fruition. areas. Refer to Appendix E for a rare example of a park management Policies and legislation that enable organisation’s specific tourism policies. governments or other organisations to Often park agency tourism policies are very assign protected status to a natural area general and do not have a specific section are critical for the area’s protection. All assigned to them within policy manuals. jurisdictions in East Asia have some form of policies and legislation to address the establishment of protected areas. 2.5 THE DOWNFALLS OF NON- Once the protected status of an area has SUSTAINABLE TOURISM been established, it is important to consider various sources of impacts that may Poor planning and management of tourism threaten the unique species and landscapes development in and around protected areas that are being protected. Tourism is a large can have devastating, long-lasting and and powerful source of potential impacts. sometimes irreversible effects. Non- General tourism policies exist for many of sustainable tourism is negative for the East Asia jurisdictions, however, there is conservation goals, for local communities an absence of policies, laws and legislation and for society in general. Disadvantages specifically related to tourism development associated with non-sustainable tourism are in and around protected areas of East Asia. listed in Figure 9. As the necessary overlap between the It is important that the negative aspects of protected area industry and the tourism tourism development be acknowledged. industry becomes increasingly apparent, a This is especially important in areas that desirable outcome will be the creation of currently have low levels of visitation and 28 Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia

where tourism development is being A more realistic attitude relating to the considered as a method of stimulating the development of tourism in these types of region’s economy. It may be tempting and areas may be to acknowledge that tourism certainly easier to see only the appealing development will bring some negative aspects of tourism development and how impacts (there is no way to avoid all of well it fills the current needs not being them). The acceptance of that as reality will met through other industries. It is easy hopefully inspire all parties involved to act to believe that the benefits will outweigh responsibly and plan together for how to the costs (i.e., and the initiative will be minimise the negatives while creating a sustainable), especially in situations management structure that facilitates the where strong hope exists for the increase opportunity for many advantages to occur. in well-being that these benefits would bring. However, it is important to consider the full range of potential benefits and 2.6 THE ADVANTAGES OF potential costs when making decisions. SUSTAINABLE TOURISM It is also important to fully realise the amount of planning, co-operation, and General objectives of sustainable tourism work that is involved within the process are to create an industry where tourism: necessary to achieve a sustainable tourism a) satisfies both residents and tourists, development situation. b) safeguards the natural and cultural resource base, and c) is economically FIGURE 9: Disadvantages of Non- viable. Precise goals can be defined in the Sustainable Tourism Development context of each unique destination by investigating the needs and goals of the For conservation and protected areas government and local community and the • Environmental damage (such as erosion, disruption of wildlife, destruction of key elements of the environment and protected species) culture of the area (Twining-Ward, 1999). • Excessive visitor pressure Willliams and Budke (1999) outline three • Pollution (such as noise, litter and exhaust fumes) general steps related to the creation and • Consumption of available management support of sustainable tourism: resources, diverting attention away from other management priorities 1. Establish principles of sustainability For local people First, in order for sustainable tourism to • Disturbance and damage to ways of life and occur, sustainable principles must be social structure established, accepted and adopted across a • Higher costs, especially for housing and land broad level. Necessary legislation must exist • Weakening or loss of traditional cultures to assign recognised protective status to For society areas of natural and cultural significance. • Pressures on resources Formation of organisational policies and (Adapted from FNNPE, 1993) proper short-term and long-term planning that incorporate the principles of sustainability will help to guide the management and development of these areas. Also, codes of conduct can help to transfer the broad principles of sustainable development into concrete guidelines for action. Many codes of conduct have been aimed at managing traveller behaviour through emphasising respect for other cultures and encouraging the sensitive use of natural resources. Several tourism organisations have produced their own codes of conduct that focus on the needs of their specific stakeholder groups. Paul F.J. Eagles F.J. Paul Massive negative impacts on the grasslands of 2. Implement sustainable the Serengeti ecosystem in the Masai Mara tourism programs Game Reserve, Kenya were caused by a lack Second, planning for sustainable tourism of proper road construction and weak tourist programs can arise from the adoption of vehicle regulation. Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 29

these sustainable principles. A broad range Sustainable tourism offers numerous of environmental management practices potential advantages to all parties involved and environmentally focused initiatives in protective efforts (McIntyre, 1997). must occur to ensure system-wide Protected areas, the tourism sector, local protection. Various stakeholders (e.g., communities and society in general all tourism operators, non-government benefit from sustainable tourism planning organisations, local communities, travel and and management. Advantages are transportation industry, accommodations, summarised in Figure 10. One key aspect restaurants, etc.) can be involved in efforts of sustainable tourism is proper and to become more sustainable in their effective planning in advance that addresses products and practices. potential impacts and implications of tourism on the environment and communities in question. It is important to FIGURE 10: Advantages of Sustainable Tourism Development plan and anticipate, rather than act hastily For conservation and protected areas and without recognition of the various • Greater public’s and local peoples’ awareness of protected areas and the potential outcomes and implications. environment Potential positive results that can be • Political support which can help to attract funding and support the achieved with proper sustainable tourism designation of new protected areas planning are discussed in Case Study 2 in • Conservation of natural and cultural features through restoration projects the context of the development of Chumbe and direct practical help Island Coral Park and Environmental • Additional from the tourism sector and from businesses Education Centre. For the tourism sector • Government support for businesses and employment As an example of benefits, consider the • Development of new, high quality, environmentally-sound products, based on options that exist if roofed accommodations nature and culture with a long-term future are identified as a desirable element in the • Reduction in development costs through partnerships with protected areas planning process of sustainable tourism • Improvement of company image development of a rural area with small • Attraction of customers looking for environmentally-sound holidays visitor numbers. One option is to develop • Increased tourist awareness of the need to protect the environment and cultural and social values or increase the number of small, locally- owned accommodations. Another is to For local people and society allow a large company from outside the • Improved income and living standards • Revitalisation of local culture and traditional crafts and customs area to build and manage a tourism • Support for rural infrastructure and facilities structure, such as a . The parties • Improved economy involved in decision-making must • Avoids or stabilises emigration of local population determine what their short, medium and • Makes local populations aware of the need to protect the environment and long-term visions are for the area. How do cultural and social values they want the area to look ten years from • Improved physical and psychological health now? Which development options best • Promotion of harmony between people from different areas, facilitating the exchange of ideas, customs and ways of life match the desired vision? (Adapted from FNNPE, 1993) After considering the various options in the context of the desired outcomes, options that likely do not result in the desired 3. Monitor sustainable tourism practices vision can be eliminated. For example, if Finally, once sustainable processes and the vision is to retain the rural character, practices are in place, monitoring must improve infrastructure and increase occur to assess the effectiveness of opportunities for local income to be earned, operational practices in meeting sustainable then the first option to develop small goals. Some tourism companies and park locally-owned accommodations has the organisations have started the process of potential to meet all the necessary criteria developing and implementing monitoring for development, while maximising positive systems. Environmental auditing and impacts and minimising negative ones. sustainable auditing provide methods of In this example, smaller accommodations tracking the level of effectiveness of produce benefits for the protected area. operations in meeting specific goals. They limit the numbers of visitors and the Depending on the size and mandate of potential negative environmental impacts of the organisations, the assessment process visitors and construction. As well, a large varies in the level of formality, structure construction product may not blend well and content. with the natural environment. This low- level development option also benefits the 30 Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia

CASE STUDY 2: Private Initiatives Towards Conservation

Chumbe Island Coral Park and Environmental Education Centre (Tanzania) – An Example of Private Initiative and Money Developing a Sustainable Tourism Industry that Contributes to Conservation Chumbe Island is a private marine park in the Indian Ocean off the coast of Zanzibar, Tanzania. The park is centred on an uninhabited island covered by a very significant coral rag forest and

surrounded by a coral reef of exceptional Chumbe Island Coral Park biodiversity and beauty. The aim of this operation is to create a model of sustainable area The Chumbe Island development reveals management where ecotourism supports considerable long-term vision in the selection of conservation and education. objectives and in planning. The project took a decade, from the early 1990s to the present, to The Chumbe Island Coral Park & Environmental develop. Key factors contributing to the success Education Centre is a private nature reserve of the project involved: developed by a company created for that 1. The involvement of local people in all aspects purpose in 1992, the Chumbe Island Coral Park of the development Ltd. (CHICOP). Chumbe Island is a rare example of a pristine coral island ecosystem in an 2. The local residents acting as park wardens otherwise heavily over-fished and over-exploited proved to be effective in minimising area. Based on the initiative of CHICOP, the destructive activities to the reef ecosystem island was gazetted in 1994 as a protected area 3. The careful design of the tourism facilities by the Government of Zanzibar. The reserve resulted in minimal negative environmental includes a reef sanctuary, which has become the impact during construction and during first gazetted marine park in Tanzania, and a operation forest sanctuary. The management of these has 4. The restoration of the native forest and the been entrusted to a private company, CHICOP. recovery of the breeding bird populations The project to establish the marine reserve and were considerably enhanced by the complete to create the tourism facilities was funded by removal of a plague of introduced rats several sources. About two thirds of the US$1 5. The protection of the globally significant million cost was privately financed by a private coral reef was assisted considerably by the individual who initiated the project. The tourism project remainder came from various international 6. The gazetting of the marine reserve, the first governmental, non-governmental and private in the country, by the national government donors. The idea of developing an ecotourism was stimulated by the project site that could contribute to conservation and community development was attractive to many 7. The creation of national law to allow for the people. As a result more than 30 volunteers, private management of conservation areas from several countries, provided professional was stimulated by the project, and support to the project. 8. Chumbe Island now visibly represents part of the Zanzibari and Tanzanian cultural heritage. The management of the site by CHICOP is assisted by an Advisory Committee with The Chumbe Island Coral Park won the 1999 representatives from neighbouring fishing British Airways Tourism for Tomorrow Award as villages, the Institute of Marine Sciences (IMS) of the best example of sustainable tourism in the the University Dar es Salaam and Government world. officials of the Departments of Environment, Web sites: http://krypton.org.chemie. Fisheries and Forestry respectively. The Advisory uni-frankfurt.de/~mirko/CHUMBE/GIFFILES/ Committee meets one or more times per year. progressreport.htm The tourism facilities include seven bungalows http://www.chumbeisland.com/ and that offer accommodation on the island for up to http://www.xtra-micro.com/work/chumbe/ 14 guests at any one time. In addition, day trips Start.htm are offered to 12 more visitors per day. Groups For further information: Eleanor Carter, of school children, totalling up to 1,600 per year, Chumbe Island Coral Park & Environmental are brought on day for environmental Education Centre, PO Box 3203, Zanzibar, education purposes. Tanzania. Telephone and fax: 00256-64-31040. Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 31

tourism sector by appealing to balance is achieved. Examples of concerns environmentally-minded tourists who relating to sustainable tourism development want to select environmentally-friendly are outlined in Figure 11. businesses that support local people. The potential negative impacts listed in Moreover, growth of the tourism industry Figure 11 are not as destructive and is less likely to occur at a rapid and irreversible as the onslaught of negative unplanned pace if infrastructure is designed impacts that result from non-sustainable to support a gradual growth in numbers. tourism development listed in Figure 9. Local people benefit because local Sustainable tourism development implies ownership means that profits remain in sensitivity of all parties involved in the area. As a result, leakage of profit to planning and development – a sensitivity outside sources is reduced. Products and to the environment, to surrounding services associated with the management communities, and to potential issues that of those accommodations will likely be arise from unavoidable changes associated purchased locally, spreading the benefits with development. Being sensitive to the of tourism more evenly amongst the potential negative impacts enables planners, community. As well, an opportunity exists managers, developers, tourism operators, for visitors to share in the local culture, government agencies and communities to which may not be as evident in a hotel formulate plans for action that address development. these anticipated impacts. Sensitivity to the potential positive and negative changes FIGURE 11: Disadvantages of Sustainable associated with development is an overall Tourism Development challenge faced by organisations, individuals, agencies and businesses Even tourism development that is based on sustainable development anywhere who are working on sustainable principles and designed to be environmentally and culturally friendly will usually be accompanied by negative impacts. Sustainable tourism development has planning and development. More tangibly, the potential to: some specific challenges associated with • Increase consumption of resources and, in cases that are poorly planned sustainable tourism development are and managed (and are not sustainable), exhaust the resources outlined in Case Study 3 in the context of • Increase waste and litter production West Mongolia’s young tourism industry. • Upset natural ecosystems, and introduce exotic species of plants and animals Anticipating plausible negative results in • Lead to population movement towards areas of tourist concentration advance of their outcome provides an • Lead to a loss of traditional values and a uniformity of cultures opportunity to plan for ways to minimise • Increase prices and the local population potentially loses ownership of land, the negative impacts. Anticipation and houses, trade and services planning enables some impacts to be • Encourage purchase of that are sometimes rare natural elements • Take up space and destroy the countryside by creating new infrastructures minimised to an extent where they are and buildings. mostly avoided. For example, if maintenance of traditional values is an (Persaud & Douglas, 1996, p. 59) important goal that has been determined by the local community, then tourism policies 2.7 ACHIEVING ADVANTAGES and development should be designed to AND MINIMISING support achievement of that goal. Interpretation can be designed to include DISADVANTAGES OF information about the valued aspects of the SUSTAINABLE TOURISM unique culture of the local people living in and near the protected area. Tourists learn It is necessary to acknowledge that with to appreciate the special nature of the the development of tourism – even tourism traditional values held by the local people, which is environmentally friendly and and the local people apply an increased classified as sustainable – not all of the sense of pride and importance to their resulting impacts and changes to the values that are admired by tourists. environment and surrounding communities will be positive and/or desired. Sustainable Other impacts may not be avoidable. For tourism planning aims to minimise the example, population movement towards resulting costs and maximise the resulting areas of tourist concentration is sometimes benefits. Examination of potential issues an unavoidable result of tourism and concerns arising from tourism development. This movement is sometimes development during the planning process unanticipated by planners, developers and helps create a desirable situation in which government, and it is only after the 32 Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia

CASE STUDY 3: Issues and Potential Constraints Related to Tourism Development

Parks and Ecotourism in West Mongolia future the tourism market must be aimed at (Mongolia) – An Example of the Opportunities people who are willing to have flexibility in and Constraints for Ecotourism their travel plans. 3. Agency resources Introduction The newly-established park system is under West Mongolia contains a rich landscape with development. The new park administrations high ecological diversity and a vibrant culture. are sparsely staffed and have little experience This area is composed of three provinces, in tourism. One big problem is the very small Bayan-Ulgii, Khovd and Uvs, and covers number of rangers and small budget 191,000 km2. The western Altai Mountain compared to the immense size of the parks. Range and the eastern Basin of the Great Lakes Now that the basic park system is in place, it contain rich biological resources. West Mongolia is important that funds be found to increase has many resources that are of considerable the number of park rangers and the level of interest to ecotourism. This case study will expertise in tourism management. illustrate that many challenges must be addressed during the process of building a 4. Tourism infrastructure vibrant tourism industry that will help to protect Due to the low numbers, there is a very small and develop the area in positive ways. A number tourism infrastructure. Campsites, hotels, ger “Gradual, sustainable of challenges will be outlined, and comments sites (tent structures), information signs, development is will be made on possible solutions. maps, designated routes, and information centers are almost non-existent. Important At present, only a small number of tourists come better than blind services such as qualified guides, foreign to West Mongolia. In 1998 only 400 people language interpreters and car rental services progress that leads visited Tavan Bogd National Park, while numbers are not present. These gaps are very of visitors for other areas were much smaller, to destruction.” challenging for tourists. The earliest stages of such as 10 visitors reported at Uvs Lake, and tourism occur under such conditions. As 100 visitors at Khar Us Nuur. Given the potential – P. Ochirbat (former) tourism develops, it stimulates an increased importance of park tourism to economic cited supply of services and programs. This area development in the region, it is necessary to in UNDP, 1998, p. 1 would be a good place of emphasis by foreign understand the constraints that limit ecotourism. aid projects. Since Mongolia is such an interesting ecologically and culturally rich area, it is likely 5. A support network and partnerships that nature-based tourism will develop over time. The local tour operators are just starting in business. They tend not to have international Potential Constraints business contacts or experience. The few 1. Short tourist season operators that do exist find that they must be Visitation to the area occurs primarily during very self reliant, and as such make little the months of July and August. Although, contact with the park managers or the local these are the warmest months, they also are communities. These first, hardy tour operators the months with the highest levels of will forge the way for many that will follow precipitation. May, June, September and later as the conditions improve. October would be better months for visitation, and need to be developed further. Conclusions Many people have heard that tourism will bring 2. Accessibility benefits. These hopes are often too inflated, and The remote location is another potential are not balanced by a good understanding of the constraint. The road distance from the capital requirements and the costs of ecotourism. It is city, Ulaanbaatar, to the western provinces is important to establish realistic expectations. 1425 km, of which only 430 km is paved. It takes a jeep three or four days of hard travel This situation in West Mongolia shows tourism to make the trip one way. An alternative is constraints that are common challenges in many the Mongolian airline, MIAT, which was locations throughout the world. Once constraints experiencing financial, scheduling and safety are recognised, then planning can begin to problems in the mid-1990s. Since that time, address them. Fortunately, some efforts have financial and safety conditions have been made by the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) improved, and flight schedules now change and the United National Development Program only when bad weather occurs. Two more (UNDP) to identify constraints faced by the private air companies have been created tourism industry in Mongolia, and these which serve tourists by helicopter and plane. organisations are undertaking valuable work Access and uneasy travel provide a very to address these, and other, park management difficult challenge for tour operators, who and ecotourism issues. must operate a regular and predictable Tourism volume and impacts will grow in schedule. As tourism volume grows, more Mongolia. In the 1990s, efforts were directed funds will flow into the travel industry and towards establishing a protected area system in conditions will improve. However, for the near Mongolia. Creating legislation to protect areas of Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 33

natural and cultural significance was a successful For further information: Thomas Eberherr, beginning to the sustainable tourism Email: [email protected] development process. Efforts must now be Union of Mongolian Environmental NGOs directed to careful planning during these next (UMENGO) or WWF in Mongolia, NGO Strengthen stages in order to ensure that the changes and Project. Telephone: 976-1-315306 the impacts associated with tourism are in the Fax: 976-1-311659. Email: [email protected] most positive of directions. Mongolia has tremendous ecotourism potential, due to the rich Society for National Parks of Mongolia. natural and cultural resources associated with it. Telephone: 976-1-326592. Fax: 976-1-326611. The planning to fulfil this potential must address Email: [email protected]. these challenges and focus on building a Web site: sustainable tourism program that is culturally, http://www.geocities.com/snpm2000/home.html environmentally and fiscally responsible. Environmental Protection Agency of Mongolia Telephone: 967-1-326617. Adapted from: Eberherr (2000a). Fax: 976-1-328620. Email: [email protected]

problem becomes apparent that it is in a more organised and less detrimental addressed. Anticipating direct negative manner. impacts or results of tourism development Determining the underlying causes of is only the first step. Often, it is also the problem and developing a mixture of necessary to examine the underlying causes potential solutions that address the negative of the impact. Why have local populations impact is more realistic and useful than shifted to areas of high tourism simply announcing that population concentration? Answers to this question migration is a negative impact and trying help determine solutions that minimise the to prevent it from occurring. problems associated with the original negative impact (i.e., population migration). An interdisciplinary team with Sometimes by focusing on the less visible, representatives from government planning, less direct, underlying causes, negative private developers, park managers and local impacts can become more treatable. communities should examine the potential advantages and disadvantages of In the example of population migration, an sustainable tourism development in their explanation for the migration could be a area (British Columbia Round Table on the higher perceived quality of life attainable Environment and the Economy, 1992). through involvement with tourism Costs and benefits need to be weighed compared to a lower quality of life against each other, and a conclusion made through continued practice of traditional as to whether the benefits outweigh the jobs. The result is an influx of rural people costs. If they do not, then a different plan to tourism centres. must be proposed (e.g., development may If the underlying aim of the migrating still be desirable for the area but at a lower people is to earn better money in order to level than currently being considered, or increase their standard of living, then once perhaps it is decided that development local governments and organisations realise would be too harmful to promote). this as the underlying cause of migration, When considering sustainable development, steps can be taken to develop policies or this cost-benefit ratio must be examined programs that address this concern. For both directly in terms of tourism, and example, one potential solution is to holistically, taking into consideration the provide financial incentives to farmers to range of activities and industries present in subsidise production. Another option is to the area as a whole. Sustainability within encourage hotels and restaurants to sectors such as agriculture, manufacturing purchase produce from local farmers, and tourism (especially in locations where thus increasing demand for their products. the economy is heavily dependent on these Often a combination of solutions can be industries) is vital to achieving overall implemented together. The desired result is sustainable development. a more even distribution of wealth and benefits associated with the increased tourism to the area. Plans that accomplish this will enable tourism migration to occur 34 Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia

2.8 SUGGESTIONS protected areas’ management. Systems should be compatible between different All park systems require a tourism policy. areas (i.e., collect data for the same A few general policies that are applicable units of scale). Jurisdictions should all across a broad range of situations are as possess standard definitions for key follows: elements of a park tourism statistical program. 1. Strong links between private tourism businesses and protected area systems 8. All park systems require a public use are necessary. Representatives from all and tourism policy as well as a legal sectors need to work together to structure that enables the policy to be develop sustainable forms of tourism implemented. Review existing legislation for protected areas. to make sure it is compatible with sustainability goals, and make 2. Integrate environmental concerns into adjustments as necessary. Ensure that national and regional tourism policies written instruments that provide a and projects in East Asia. Sustainable legally enforceable framework are in nature-based tourism needs to be made place (e.g., laws, governmental policies, a fundamental part of government and property rights). policies relating to tourism. 9. Further development of networking 3. Establish and implement national systems for parks and protected area strategies for sustainable tourism that managers to discuss issues and related identify current opportunities and gaps. management options and solutions is 4. Tourism development in and around desired. Better information channels protected areas should only occur if it is are needed to enable experiences ecologically, culturally, socially and to be shared. financially sustainable in the long term. 10. Governments should encourage and 5. The private tourism sector should assist support the conservation of nature and in maintenance of the natural and culture as the major resources for cultural resources of the protected area tourism, and provide policies, plans on which it depends. and a legal framework for carefully controlling tourism so that it brings 6. Senior governments should develop substantial benefits without generating national strategies and policies that serious problems (McIntyre, 1993). place protected areas and their surroundings into a larger land-use 11. The tourism industry should emphasise planning context. Protected areas also general policies and strategies, major need to be placed within an economic development plans and programs and strategy and a tourism strategy. marketing. More specifically, they can establish policies, laws and incentives 7. For efficient management, it is for socially conscious tourism necessary to have competent systems (McIntyre, 1993). of tourism information collected by the

Every park requires competent, efficient management. This national park office in Taroko National Park in Taiwan provides a good work environment for the many specialists who are

Teresa Chang-Hung Tao Teresa required to operate a modern national park. Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 35

3.1 INTRODUCTION 3.2 DEVELOPING A SUSTAINABLE TOURISM In order to succeed, tourism must be ACTION PLAN 3.0 planned and managed to improve the quality of life of residents and to protect A protected area management plan is the Guidelines the local, natural and cultural environment. primary management tool to determine, Tourism is not feasible for every place, publicise and implement objectives and and the potential for developing it must priorities (Sharp, Odegaard & Sharp, 1994). for be examined in each instance. In areas All management plans should include a where some level of tourism development section on sustainable tourism is appropriate, guidelines for sustainable management. Ideally, a national sustainable Developing tourism are needed. Guidelines help to tourism strategy exists that will guide the combat the potential errors associated with development of strategies for individual a rapid pace of development and help to protected areas. What works for one Sustainable defend the protected areas from the variety jurisdiction can rarely be applied without of pressures that can damage them. modifications to another ecological or Protected area managers who make use socio-economic environment. However, Tourism of sustainable tourism concepts actively there are strategic principles, common involve themselves in planning and issues and consequential steps which are decision-making in the area surrounding universally applicable to the development the park. The process of preparing a of management plans. sustainable tourism action plan is key. Figure 12 is a checklist of all the major “Protecting the environment and achieving steps associated with creating a plan for successful tourism development are sustainable tourism development within inseparable” (McIntyre, 1993, p. 3). protected areas. Some items, such as Special interest groups, such as local creating an inventory of natural, cultural communities that are affected by the and tourism resources, are best placed in plan or whose help will be needed in the early planning stages. If tourism implementing the plan, should be involved development is already in progress without from the very beginning of the process. a plan, it is never too late to incorporate A checklist for producing a sustainable steps from the checklist in an attempt tourism plan is provided in this section. to better plan for development and Items discussed in this section include: associated impacts. • A 15-item checklist that outlines all the It is neither necessary, nor desirable to key areas in which efforts to develop and implement items in the sustainable tourism implement a sustainable tourism action action plan checklist in the sequential order plan must be made in which they are listed. Determine a list of • An in-depth explanation for each of the priorities that are best suited to the needs 15 items contained within the sustainable and current situation of the specific site to tourism action plan checklist which they are being applied. Some items • Key concepts including limits of follow a logical discrete sequence, such as acceptable use, stakeholder involvement determining the limits of acceptable change in the decision-making and management before assessing new proposals for tourism process, partnerships, environmental development. Other items describe ongoing education, developing tourism inventories efforts, such as developing partnerships or and the use of marketing to promote involving local people in park planning and an area operations. The sustainable tourism action • Case studies as they relate to the plan that is developed in consultation with concepts discussed all interested parties should be written into • Best practice guidelines for various a working document, such as the park parties involved in the tourism process. management plan, that is updated regularly, based on results of ongoing monitoring.

As noted in the introduction, Taiwan refers to Taiwan, Province of China. 36 Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia

FIGURE 12: A Sustainable Tourism Action Plan for 3.2.1 Objectives Protected Areas ITEM 1: State clear objectives for sustainable tourism for each park. Summarised in the following checklist are all they key areas in which efforts to develop and implement a sustainable tourism action plan must be made. The first step in developing a sustainable A sustainable tourism action plan should be part of the protected tourism action plan is to identify the area’s management plan. Each item is discussed in more detail throughout desirable objectives of sustainable tourism. Section 3.2. The overall goal of sustainable tourism Item 1: State clear objectives for sustainable tourism for each park. within protected areas must be to conserve protected areas in the long term. This Item 2: Compile an inventory of natural and cultural features, as well and other objectives should be discussed as of existing tourism use and potential. Map and analyse and agreed upon by the stakeholders of the information. the protected area. Certain zones within protected areas will require stricter Item 3: Involve local people. This is key. protection from visitors. Item 4: Work in partnership with local people, the tourism sector and Sustainable tourism benefits the protected other regional and local organisations. area, local communities, the tourism sector Item 5: Utilise zoning to identify and plan for areas where higher levels and the visitors to the area. Stakeholders of tourism impacts may occur without harming areas of can discuss and agree upon the ways in ecological significance. which they anticipate sustainable tourism will benefit the area. Figure 13 provides Item 6: Develop the limits of acceptable use for all parts of the protected some examples of conservation, cultural, area, set environmental standards, and ensure they are met. social and economic objectives. Discussion amongst stakeholders may result in Item 7: Determine which tourism activities are compatible with the protected area and which are not, and develop related policies. identification of additional objectives and/or more specific objectives than those Item 8: Assess the environmental, economic, social and cultural impacts of proposals for tourism development. FIGURE 13: Objectives of Sustainable Item 9: Develop education and interpretation programs for visitors and local people that increase understanding and appreciation of the Tourism for Protected Areas area’s environment, culture, heritage and important issues. Environmental Objectives • Ecological conservation, including Item 10: Design methods to channel visitors through desired areas with conservation of biodiversity, land minimal negative impacts. conservation, watershed management, and air quality maintenance Item 11: Survey and analyse tourist markets and visitors’ needs and expectations. Ideally, this occurs both before and after Cultural Objectives developing ideas for new forms of tourism. • Better knowledge and awareness of conservation among local people and visitors Item 12: Brainstorm tourism products to be potentially developed and • Appreciation of local natural and cultural influence types of visitors choosing to visit. Identify the values heritage and image of the protected area on which to base sustainable • Making sustainable tourism part of local tourism and outline a promotional strategy for them. and national culture Item 13: Establish a program for monitoring the protected area and its Social Objectives use by visitors. At appropriate intervals evaluate the success of • Visitor satisfaction and enjoyment the plan in ensuring that tourism use maintains environmental • Improvement of living standards and skills standards. Revise the plan as needed. of local people • Demonstration of alternatives to mass Item 14: Assess resource needs and sources, including provisions for and package tourism and promotion of training. sustainable tourism everywhere • Enabling all sectors of society to have the Item 15: Implement the plan. chance to enjoy protected areas (Adapted from FNNPE, 1993) Economic Objectives • Improvement of the local and national economies • Provision of local business and employment opportunities • Generation of increased revenue to maintain protected areas (Adapted from FNNPE, 1993) Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 37

identified here. Conservation in the long the purposes of sustainable tourism. term is the essential overall goal. Information about current infrastructure Conservation objectives contained within a and available resources is needed in order tourism action plan, or within an overall to plan and manage tourism in protected management plan, are one of many crucial areas effectively. Planners and managers elements that a good plan addresses. must examine natural resource data (such as location and frequency of species’ distribution), as well as human structures, 3.2.2 Inventory of Assets the context of the wider area, available ITEM 2: Compile an inventory of natural and resources and the existing infrastructure cultural features and of existing tourism use that will support tourism development. and potential. Map and analyse the For example, regardless of the ideal location information. for a park entrance based on distribution of species, existing roads and infrastructure Performing inventories within a protected largely determine the location of access area traditionally refers to identification of points, unless they can be blocked off and flora and fauna species and the frequency new ones can be afforded. and location of species’ distribution. For ecosystem management to be based in Figure 14 outlines the types of inventory science, adequate baseline information information necessary for proper planning about the physical, geographical and and management of protected area tourism biological characteristics, and existing to occur. An interdisciplinary team should and potential uses of the conservation create a full inventory of the protected area area must be collected. This information and its surrounding peripheral or buffer guides planning and management of the zones. The inventory should be created area and can be used to develop public through a partnership between park education programs (Parks Canada, 1994). management staff, the tourism sector, By examining inventories of species and local communities. (especially the identification of sensitive Data analysis and identification of further areas and endangered species) park necessary information are two important managers can determine the best (and steps in this process. Protected area worst) areas for tourism activity and managers can apply data about the development. Strict protection and condition of natural and cultural features possible scientific study should be as they relate to visitor numbers in order assigned to certain areas in which to determine the limits of acceptable tourism is not appropriate or potentially change of an area (this topic is discussed in highly destructive. more detail in Section 3.2.6). Knowledge of This information is just one element visitor numbers, distribution, and activities necessary for developing an inventory for will assist in the creation of effective visitor management measures to reduce negative human impacts on the protected area.

FIGURE 14: Inventory for Developing Sustainable Tourism for Good information systems and modern Protected Areas technology software are desirable for storage and analysis of the data. For The inventory should ideally be comprised of the following: example, GIS software (Geographical • The natural and cultural features of the area and their condition in relation Information Systems) is practical for to current visitor levels handling map-based data. Application of • Tourism organisations and structures, activities, facilities and visitor use, visitor attitudes and expectations within the protected area and its this software makes it possible to establish surroundings a GIS study on tourism and recreation that • Data on visitor numbers, distribution, time and patterns of visits and aims to identify and document the tourism trends environmental effects of tourism on the • Current development policies and plans park and its communities. Visitor surveys • An assessment of the tourism potential of the protected area and it can identify visitor locations, patterns and surroundings trends inside the park and in the buffer • Constraints to development (e.g., specially protected areas, legislation, highly sensitive areas, existing problems from tourism use) landscape protection zone. Alternative • Opportunities for tourism development and the use of special local skills management options can be modelled • Knowledge of likely sources of support or opposition to tourist through the computer program so that developments. solutions can be found to issues such (FNNPE, 1993, p. 23) as traffic patterns and concentrations, 38 Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia

location of toilets at campgrounds and the area. Local people can be effective vulnerability of vegetation in high use messengers for informing visitors about the locations. history, culture, and special features associated with the protected area. 3.2.3 Local People The conservation philosophy that has traditionally been used in the past in the ITEM 3: Involve local people. This is key. creation of national parks has been a closed A primary motive for supporting nature- protection model. Parks were designed on based tourism is its potential to assist in the assumption that they were free from “Sustainable tourism nature conservation. This can only be human influences. Large areas of land were involves informed successful if local communities obtain set aside for protection. In non-populated clear, sustainable and adequate benefits areas, this system has advantages. participation by local from the presence of tourism. The support The challenge in East Asia is that in many people in their future.” of local people is key. Multiple-use planning potential locations where parks were to be will be more likely to succeed if the needs (Wight, 1996, p. 20) designated, people were already living in and desires of local, regional and some part of the area, and human international users are fully expressed and influences were present. Using a traditional understood, and if local people are made model, park agencies inform local part of the planning process. By enlisting communities of the specific park their support, managers of protected areas boundaries and tell them which activities make connections with people who are well are permitted and which are no longer informed, who are able to provide quality permitted. Much attention is given to tourism services, and who may be the first regulations and enforcement. In the and main point of contact visitors have in traditional model very little consideration is given to the interests of communities in and around protected areas (Kim, Kang & Kim, 1999). Often no efforts are made to involve local people in the planning and management of the area, even though many regulations imposed by the park staff impact on the livelihoods of the residents. The results include poor relations between government park staff and local communities, confrontations, and lack of support for conservation activities. One example of an alternative to the rigid conservation-focused traditional approach to protected areas is the biosphere reserve. Like national parks and other protected areas, one of their official functions is to protect genetic resources, the environment, the flora and fauna, etc.(conservation function). Biosphere reserves also have two other functions that address the human dimensions of park-human interactions. They are designed to facilitate sustainable development in socio-cultural, ecological and economic terms (development function) and to assist research, monitoring, environmental education and training, and information exchange related to issues on sustainable development at the regional, national and global levels (logistic support

Teresa Chang-Hung Tao Teresa function). This is just one example where Local people can benefit from park tourism attempts are made to incorporate human policies. This aboriginal person is a park considerations into the process of interpretive guide in Taroko National Park, Taiwan. development and conservation. Park visitors and managers can benefit from local people’s knowledge of the area. Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 39

All protected area systems need to will benefit more directly from tourism incorporate human dimensions into their development in and around the protected planning, management and decision- area than where control is held by foreign making processes. Ideally, in all park investors or large organisations. Local systems, local needs and concerns are control can help minimise negative social listened to, and mechanisms for local and cultural costs, and increase economic involvement exist. Often this is not reality, benefits. Local people will be more and many problematic situations arise. This involved in decision-making, and a larger is especially true for parks that have been percentage of tourism spending will go created without consideration for human directly to the local area. If park agencies influence in populated areas. Projects that retain a large degree of control, it is do not take into account local interests and necessary to work at taking steps towards human resources, and that are imposed involving local communities in the from the outside with no local involvement, management and decision-making usually do not support sustainable tourism processes. Various degrees of decision- development as a conservation tool. One making power need to be shared if the example of local community resistance to broader interests of local people are park agency imposed restrictions was at considered along with economic Mount Sorak National Park and Biosphere development goals. “Effective management Reserve, discussed in Case Study 4. This Efforts must be made to secure consent and case study illustrates that planning efforts of tourism growth active support from local inhabitants in can fail if local people are not involved order for management of protected areas requires more than and they disagree with what they are being that overlap with communities and private legislation and told to do. land ownership to be successful. When enforcement to ensure When park agencies encourage involvement local residents get benefits from reserves, that negative impacts and try to gain support of local communities, they will become guardians of biodiversity the tourism sector and other local and conservation (Kim et al., 1999). Three ways are controlled. It also regional organisations, they actively to enhance benefits to local residents requires that people contribute towards the development of through ecosystem conservation include: with a vested interest sustainable tourism in protected areas. 1. Admit property rights (ownership or Ideally, stakeholders are involved early in right to use) of local residents to be able to reap the the planning process, however if planning natural resources benefits accrued by and decision-making is already in progress, 2. Compensate local people for society- management. This is it is still never too late to facilitate local wide benefits arising from natural community involvement (regardless of the resource conservation equally true for local planning stage). 3. Encourage participation in conservation communities, brokers, and management of the resources On an individual basis, local people can (Reid, 1997). and the tourists contribute valuable local knowledge when themselves.” identifying opportunities and areas of By involving the local communities in (Agardy, 1993, p. 237) concern. Problem solving discussions planning efforts, potential impacts on the require their input. On a larger level, natural, social and cultural environment effective and capable local organisations are more likely to be considered from the and initiatives are worth the effort to perspective of the local communities. develop and strengthen. Building the Each community has different values and capacity of local agencies is more different priority issues. In one location sustainable in the long term than getting cultural erosion may generate community foreign experts simply to do all the work opposition to tourism development. In to create a plan which gets left with local another location environmental issues people who were uninvolved in the may be a primary concern. As well, decision-making and planning processes. communities vary in their ability and Without involvement in the planning willingness to absorb and benefit from process, there is no ownership to the plan. visitors. The plans and decisions are more Capacity building of local people living in likely be supported by local communities if and around protected areas should be a they have been involved in the process and focus of sustainable tourism development. benefit from the decisions. In situations where local control of tourism operations is possible, local communities 40 Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia

CASE STUDY 4: The Need for Local People Participation and Support

Mount Sorak National Park and Biosphere residents is that park staff could not expect Reserve (South Korea) – An Example of the assistance from local residents to fight fires. Importance of Working with Local People in Management and Decision-Making Attempting to Move Through the Conflict Processes Recently, the Mount Sorak National Park Office established a Mount Sorak National Park Background Information Ecosystem Conservation Plan from 1998 to Mount Sorak was designated as a nature reserve 2007 to investigate ecosystem status and in 1965, and as the fifth national park in South environmental conditions, examine conservation- Korea in 1970. In 1982 it was also designated oriented policies and systems, implement as South Korea’s only biosphere reserve. ecological park management and establish a Approximately 90% of all biosphere reserves in base for ecological park management. It is the world are overlapped with protected area hoped that an improved management approach designation such as national parks. The will be created. It is expected that in a national biosphere reserve covers 393.49 km2 and park management plan some attention is crosses one city and three counties. Roughly devoted to natural resources. However it is 66% of the area is national and public land, and also necessary to address issues of visitor 34% is overlapping with private lands or temple management and local involvement. This is property. It attracts roughly 3.5 million visitors especially true in many parks in East Asia, since Objectives for per year. Even after receiving a biosphere many local people live in and near borders of designation, nature conservation continued to be protected areas. In order to encourage protected areas the main focus of management, with little sustainable development, park staff must pay are unlikely to be attention given to issues related to the attention to the needs and demands from local development and logistic support functions communities in park development and buffer achieved without the associated with biosphere reserves. Park zones (e.g., in South Korea national parks these co-operation, support managers just recently started to take human are Human Settlement and Mass Facility Zones). influences into consideration (Shim, 1999). and continued To create a common focus, discussions amongst the various stakeholders are one basic The Source of Conflict involvement of those mechanism through which learning processes After the park was created, local residents were and negotiations are started. most directly affected informed that they could no longer continue their by their establishment. traditional resource use of the land. Obtaining After a long history of complaints and poor mountain vegetables, mushrooms, acorns and relations, park agency staff at Mount Sorak (Parks Canada, 1994) sap was totally banned in the name of park began to listen to local people’s needs and protection. Enforcement occurred through concerns. In 1995 the National Parks stationing guards at the entrance of trails and Association decided to examine the feasibility of assigning patrols in different regions. For many the park boundary every 10 years and modify years residents in Mount Sorak National Park park zones if necessary, with the understanding have refused to co-operate in managing the that the total park area must remain the same. park. In resistance to park regulations that The ecosystem management plan proposes that were imposed without consideration of human it is realistic to exclude some areas from park activities and needs in the area, some residents, zoning, which shows that some progress is being tourists and professional collectors averted made. Park staff are making the effort to listen regulations and restrictions and plucked to and understand the motives behind local mountain vegetables illegally. Since the 1980s people’s resistance. Rather than viewing local they have also filed many complaints attempting residents as troublemakers and the source of to get various small areas ranging from one to complaints, park staff must work on viewing eight km2 excluded from the national park them as partners for park management. Efforts boundaries. to establish mutual co-operation and coordination, and the involvement of local The relationship between ecosystem communities (rather than excluding them) conservation and development of local must also be made. communities should not be confrontational, but negative feelings existed on both sides. Park As well, park agency staff realised that staff came to expect local communities to be the conservation objectives could not be achieved source of complaints, and communities came to only through regulations that were not developed distrust and resent park staff. in consideration of local community concerns. As a result, the regulation that banned mountain There are many drawbacks to poor relationships vegetable plucking was reviewed in the context between government park agencies and local of local residents. In 1999 permits were given to communities. A direct negative result is that local residents in three communities that allowed local communities do not want to support them to once again legally pluck mountain conservation efforts such as obeying regulations. vegetables for subsistence and income for the An indirect negative side effect of hostile first time in almost two decades. relationships between park agencies and local Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 41

A Policy that Addresses Local Concerns Summary The new vegetable plucking permit program Conservation policies that focus only on supports the conservation concerns of the park ecosystem conservation and exclude local agency as well as the local communities’ desire community interests, especially in areas where to continue with traditional land use in a human settlement existed long before the parks sustainable manner. Vegetable plucking is were declared, do not support sustainable allowed in designated areas. Only applications development as a conservation tool. Many from co-operating bodies are accepted (no disputes between local residents and individuals can apply for a permit). Plucking of conservation authorities over the use and access certain vegetables whose numbers have sharply of natural resources have occurred in the past. decreased is not permitted. Restrictions are Using strong enforcement tactics does not placed on the types of tools that can be used for resolve the conflict. Discussions are the basic plucking. Obtaining plants in their blossoming or mechanism through which learning processes breeding season is totally banned as well. A few and negotiations are started. All stakeholder other conditions of permission are clearly groups must be willing to listen to the concerns outlined in the policy. of the other parties involved and then begin to work towards actions that are acceptable to all. Even though the mountain vegetable plucking Local community participation in planning and policy was enforced for the first time in 1999, management efforts are a key method used many positive effects are already visible. to gain support of the protected area’s Most of the residents are complying with permit conservation objectives. conditions. They are also patrolling illegal plucking by strangers and showing much Park agencies must begin to see parks and friendlier relations towards park management. It protected areas not just in the natural is too early to make conclusions on the effects conservation context, but also in the cultural and of the policy, but initial results are encouraging. socio-economic contexts of local communities. These positive effects may be a temporary initial New approaches need to be developed and response to being allowed to pursue traditional applied that support sustainability of all of these economic activities that have been restricted for aspects. Protected areas cannot implement their decades since the park designation. Regular own functions when they are isolated from local monitoring of the impacts of local resident use communities. They can best fulfil their role when on the ecosystem should be conducted in order a co-operative system based on partnership with to assess the effectiveness of the new vegetable local communities is established. plucking policy. Adapted from: Kim, Kang & Kim (1999) The permit of vegetable plucking in Mount Sorak National Park is one of the most noticeable For further information: Dr. Seong-il Kim, events in federal park policies. It illustrates the Department of Forest Resources, Seoul National possibility of achieving both ecosystem University, 103 Seodun-dong Kwonsun-gu, conservation and sustainable development. Suwon, Republic of Korea. Web site: http://ecotour.snu.ac.kr

3.2.4 Partnerships conservation or community development programs, or they can be general and broad ITEM 4: Work in partnership with local based, covering a range of issues. Examples people, the tourism sector and other regional of contributions made by non-government and local organisations. organisations include conveying to Partnerships are the foundation for government ways in which management of accomplishing environmental initiatives. a protected environment can be improved, This is a simple lesson to understand, but educating communities on conservation not necessarily an easy one to achieve. principles, and developing voluntary Much effort and commitment must be guidelines. invested in order to form and maintain If there is some hope that local people will working partnerships. Partners can be involved in the planning and exchange skills in tourism, the environment management efforts, then they must acquire and other disciplines. Examples of adequate skills. Sometimes training is compatible organisations include beneficial and necessary. Partnership with conservation groups, research facilities, outside companies can provide valuable zoos, universities and museums. opportunities for local people to gain Partnerships with non-governmental experience and training. Training organisations contribute to effective opportunities may be available for example, planning and management of protected through international development aid areas. Organisations can specialise in things programs. Partnering with outside agencies such as the advocacy of natural area or organisations that are equipped to 42 Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia

provide support enables local organisations community or depleting the resource. to be developed and strengthened. Community-based partnerships help to Existence of capable local organisations conserve the special quality of a place, provides a structure though which promote recreation opportunities and permanent local involvement in planning support the local community. and decision-making can occur. Another example of what can be A key element to achieving sustainable successfully achieved through working tourism development is finding a together is the establishment of new harmonious relationship between the place, protected areas or the adjustment of the visitor and the host community. The boundaries on existing areas. Co-operation objective is to avoid leaving the visitor with other levels of government along with feeling unsatisfied, exploiting the local public consultation make such a large task

CASE STUDY 5: Investing Tourism Funds Into Conservation Through Public/Private Co-operation Madikwe Game Reserve (South Africa) – reserve, including elephant, rhino, buffalo, An Example of Ecological Restoration lion, cheetah, cape hunting dog, spotted Designed for Tourism and Paid for by Tourism hyena, giraffe, zebra and many species of antelope and herbivores. Leopard already Established in 1991, Madikwe Game Reserve existed in the reserve. is managed by the North West Parks Board of Madikwe functions through a system designed to South Africa. The reserve contains a restored benefit the three main stakeholders involved in African savanna ecosystem. Most of the reserve the reserve. These are the North West was once derelict farmland. Many farm buildings Parks Board, the private sector, and the local and structures, hundreds of kilometres of old communities. All three work together in a fencing, and many alien plants were removed. mutually beneficial partnership in conservation Some buildings were kept and now serve as park and tourism. The Parks Board is responsible for offices and workshops, while various outposts setting up the necessary infrastructure and the were built to house game scouts and other management to run Madikwe as a major reserve staff. Approximately 60,000 hectares of protected conservation area in the North West the reserve were enclosed in a perimeter fence, Province. It also identifies suitable sites within measuring 150 kilometres. This was electrified the reserve which are leased to the private to prevent the escape of elephants and the sector for tourism-based developments larger predators. Where possible, local business and activities. and labour were used to demolish and clear unwanted structures, erect fences, construct The private sector provides the necessary roads and build dams and lodges. Several game capital to build game lodges and to market and lodges have already been built. Other lodges will manage the lodges and the tourism and trophy be developed in the future. hunting activities in the reserve. In this way private sector money, rather than government Wildlife reintroduction began early in 1991, funds, is used to develop the tourism potential of shortly before the perimeter fence was the reserve. By 1999, with only three of 10 completed. Operation Phoenix, as the planned lodges constructed, the economic reintroduction program is called, is the largest impact of the tourism was already larger than game translocation exercise ever undertaken in that of the farms operations that were removed. the world. More than 10,000 animals of 28 Only with co-operation from all sectors was species have so far been released into the success of this project possible. The Madikwe Wildlife Reserve was granted the British Airways/World Conservation Union award for park tourism in 1998. It is a superb example of ecological restoration, public/private co-operation and advanced ecotourism design.

Web site: http://www.parks-nw.co.za/madikwe/ index.html For further information: North West Parks Board, Tlhabane House, Tlhabane, PO Box 4124, Rustenburg 0300, South Africa. Telephone: (01456) 55-854 / 5 / 6 and 55 960 / 1 / 2 / 3. Fax: (01456) 55-964. Madikwe River Lodge and Board of South Asia & Tourism Northwest Parks Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 43

possible (Parks Canada, 1994). Madikwe 3.2.5 Zoning Game Reserve, outlined in Case Study 5, ITEM 5: Utilise zoning to identify and plan illustrates how the sum of the total efforts is much greater when various stakeholders for areas where higher levels of tourism combine efforts. impacts may occur without harming areas of ecological significance. Extended achievements that are made possible through partnerships include Zoning is an essential part of all protected working on joint projects and marketing, area management plans. Its main purposes developing packages of complementary are to define and map the different levels of products, linking transportation networks protection and use that will occur in the and using economies of scale (FNNPE, protected area and to separate potentially 1993). For example, many small conflicting human activities. Zoning must destinations can unite their promotional be comprehensive, but also as simple as efforts and market themselves as part of a possible. This ensures it can be readily tourism circuit in order to attract more understood by the public and be translated visitors overall to the area. Alone, any one into management actions and regulations of the individual small destinations might that are easy to comply with and enforce. not be sufficient to convince a tourist to To avoid unnecessary regulation of human choose that location as a destination but if activities, each zone should have clear and marketed together, they offer a broader justifiable objectives (Parks Canada, 1994). variety of opportunities that will more Examples of zoning designations include strongly appeal to a larger group of areas of strict protection, low level use potential visitors. Development costs can (e.g., scientific study or backcountry also be shared. non-motorised travel in small groups), One example of creating linkages to market intensive use (e.g., visitor facilities such one destination with others is being as washrooms, reception, parking lots and considered in Xizang Autonomous Region. education centers, etc.), and park Efforts are planned to develop Lhasa, its operations (e.g., administrative offices, capital, as a tourism centre which is linked maintenance sheds, waste disposal to other destinations and attractions inside facilities, etc.). If additions to park tourism the region (e.g., Mount Everest Protected infrastructure are necessary, a few items Area). As well efforts are planned to link (outlined in Figure 15) should be considered. with cross border tourism centres such as Integrated management that addresses a Nepal, whose strong ecotourism industry range of threats and accommodates a range may provide an additional source of tourists. of stakeholder interests can be achieved Despite the hard work and ongoing effort through multiple-use zoning. Zoning forces to establish and maintain partnerships, the planners and managers to think ahead and results produced by partnerships are often to quantify present and future social and worth the efforts required to build and environmental impacts (Agardy, 1993). maintain them. This method of planning commonly utilises zoning for different uses and varying degrees of use. Multiple-use zoning For further information… schemes can be used to minimise impacts on ecologically critical or sensitive areas. Read more about community involvement in Community Involvement in Wetlands The design, nature and regulatory Management: Lessons from the Field (1994), framework of a multiple-use protected area available for direct download from the will depend on the primary objectives of internet. Published by Wetlands International the area. Zoning a protected area for (a global non-profit organisation concerned multiple uses can ensure that critical core with promoting the conservation and wise areas are not impacted (Agardy, 1993). In use of wetlands), this document outlines some cases, environmentally or culturally community involvement and co-management, including designing and implementing a sensitive sites may require special co-management approach, with 14 case management but do not fit the existing studies to highlight issues. zoning designations. Management plans should include the guidelines necessary for the protection and use of such sites (Parks Canada, 1994). 44 Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia

FIGURE 15: Building Park of limits are: a) environmental, b) cultural and social, and c) psychological. Infrastructure Environmental carrying capacity is the Zoning determines the location of appropriate tourism development, including the most traditional concept of the three. construction of buildings and other facilities Environmental limits are assessed according related to visitor management and park to the “degree to which an ecosystem, operations. When adding to park infrastructure, habitat or landscape can accommodate the the following should be considered: various impacts of tourism without damage • Construct the minimum necessary being caused or without losing its ‘sense of • Construct to aid visitor management place’” (FNNPE, 1993, p. 26). The assigned (e.g., location and size of car parks) • Structures should interfere as little as limits may vary depending on the season. possible with the natural ecosystem For example, wildlife is more sensitive at • Structures should not dominate their natural certain times of the year, such as during surroundings and should, where possible, breeding season, and weather conditions reflect local traditions and local materials and water levels can alter the ability for • Environmentally friendly design should be habitat to withstand the pressures placed applied to building design, construction and upon it. functioning. Consider waste minimisation and collection systems – energy saving Cultural or social carrying capacity Strong resolve and should be encouraged, using renewable refers to the “level beyond which tourism resources where possible, recycling waste developments and visitor numbers political will are water, and using natural filtration systems adversely affect local communities and necessary to uphold for sewage waste disposal • Accommodation should be modest, their ways of life.” (FNNPE, 1993, p. 26). guidelines of comfortable and unpretentious. Tourism levels that are too high will sustainable tourism (The Royal Society for the Conservation interfere with local people’s ability to go of Nature, 1998) about their necessary daily routines, and and protection of the after the initial curiosity and excitement ecosystem by putting associated with potential economic benefits restrictions on the Zoning practices should also extend beyond fades, the local people may begin to resent the boundaries of the protected area when tourists. Once communities become type and quantity of possible and when necessary. For example, adversely affected (i.e., a once peaceful use that is appropriate where visitor demand is high, more place becomes very busy and congested or for the protected area resilient areas outside the park boundaries a historic site is damaged), their ability to can be developed to accommodate attract visitors declines. (Butler, 1992). overspill, with alternative trail systems, Psychological carrying capacity is the picnic sites and information points. “level beyond which the essential qualities The private sector may be involved in that people seek in the protected area (such some of these operations. as peace and quiet, few other people, few signs of human developments) would be 3.2.6 Use Levels damaged by tourism developments” (FNNPE, 1993, p. 26). Each visitor to a ITEM 6: Develop the limits of acceptable protected area has certain expectations, use for all parts of the protected area, set including approximately how many other environmental standards, and ensure they visitors he or she expects to encounter. are met. At a beach on a hot day a visitor can Limits of Acceptable Use expect crowds of people, whereas on a A concept that is fundamental to the backcountry hike a visitor will expect less management of sustainable tourism is the people. Psychological carrying capacity development of desirable limits of addresses this expectation. When visitors’ acceptable use. Simply stated, it measures expectations are not met, visitors may the types and levels of use that are leave feeling unsatisfied and unhappy with sustainable. Examples of questions to their experience. consider when determining these limits are “How much damage can the environment Determining acceptable use levels and take?” and “How much degradation will be assessing damage through indicators acceptable to tourists?” There is evidence How many visitors are appropriate? In that as environments become damaged or determining the answer to this question, use levels and type changes, some tourists planners and managers may consider go elsewhere (Valentine, 1992). Three types setting different limits for different areas Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 45

and determine whether or not current limits Management Options to Control are realistic (i.e., should they be increased Visitor Impacts or decreased?). The assignment of such Problems associated with limits of limits is subjective and arbitrary. Therefore, acceptable use are frequently related to the planning process used to determine the the behaviour of visitors rather than the limits is critically important, more actual visitor numbers. Most impacts are important than the numbers themselves. behaviourally dependent, not density dependent. Density issues are briefly Due to the highly complex nature of outlined, and general strategies to control interrelations contained within the visitor impacts are discussed. ecosystem, damage is sometimes difficult to discern until obvious degradation (e.g., It is crucial that an accurate assessment be erosion, vandalism or the disappearance made as to whether or not visitor density is of certain species) is already occurring. the true primary problem, before steps are A habitat or cultural site may be taken to reduce visitor numbers. Without permanently damaged, and even when this assessment, it is like applying a healing restoration is possible, it is a difficult and treatment to an injured area without expensive process. Therefore, when accurately assessing what is wrong. The developing carrying capacities, it is wise selected treatment may not be the best to choose a more cautious approach, match and, therefore, not be entirely In assigning levels especially in sensitive areas. effective in addressing the problem. Would of acceptable use, many negative impacts be reduced through One of the challenges in assessing carrying encouraging changes in visitor behaviour the planning process capacity is determining specific indicators regardless of a change in visitor density? used to determine the that are outlined in a way that After weighing these considerations, if limits is critically measurements can be made and limits can it is concluded that too many visitors are be established (McMinn, 1997). Certain causing too much negative impact, different important, more elements can be measured with a high management options that address density important than the degree of accuracy (e.g., a minimum size concerns include: numbers themselves. of a fish species that can be kept by a) reducing visitor numbers in areas where sport fishermen in order to allow for numbers are too great replenishment over time and to avoid over- b) limiting visitor numbers in areas before fishing). Other elements, especially those they reach critical or unacceptable levels associated with the social environment, are c) changing the type of tourist travelling to much more difficult to measure. Any one the area. site will possess many different factors, It is also important to consider whether the each with their own carrying capacities goal of reducing visitor numbers is realistic. (and many with extremely subjective Is it even feasible to attempt to control or criteria whose values depend not only limit the numbers of visitors who arrive on the element itself, but also on the people the site? It is possible to control visitor making the judgement). Decisions numbers through pre-registration systems sometimes become political ones, and and effective marketing and promotions. immediate social and economic needs are positioned against longer-term Since many negative visitor impacts are the environmental factors. Efforts must be result of visitors behaving in harmful ways, made to consider both the short-term revising visitor behaviours is an important goal. Education of visitors, discussed in and long-term factors. more detail in Section 3.2.9, is a key For further information on indicators and element in getting visitors to change how to measure them, there is an abundant their behaviours. In Case Study 6, the body of literature on the “limits of experiences of Fushan Botanical Garden acceptable change” concept, including provide one example of methods that were information published by McCool (1990), implemented to control visitor impacts. and Sirakaya, Jamal, and Choi, (2000 in Visitor impacts can be controlled and press). Refer to Appendix F for steps reduced (or carrying capacities can involved in the Limits of Acceptable sometimes be increased) through various Change Framework used by the United administrative and operational methods. States Forest Service. These include zoning, user fees, schedules, activity regulation, infrastructure, quotas, visitor movement and access points. Each is outlined briefly. 46 Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia

CASE STUDY 6: Establishing Limits of Acceptable Use

Visitation to Fushan Botanical Garden (Taiwan) – An Example of Establishing Limits of Acceptable Use Through Effective Planning in Reponse to a Challenging Situation

Background Information The Fushan Botanical Garden (FBG) belongs to the Fushan Research Station of the Taiwan Forestry Research Institute in Taiwan. The purpose of the FBG is to collect, preserve and

replant low to middle-latitude plants and Jiun-Chuan Lin vegetation systematically, to offer forestry research (teaching opportunities and 2nd stage: Initial Development of a Limit of internships), eco-environmental education, and Acceptable Use to preserve the genetic diversity of the forest The recreation function is only a small ecosystem. The recreation function is only a percentage of the total purpose of the garden. small part of the objectives of the garden. It is Nevertheless, it became obvious that it was dramatically different from the general recreation necessary to determine how many people should areas that can be found in Taiwan. be allowed to enter the FBG for recreation The area is separated into three zones, and only purposes. The managers decided to use a a small part of one zone is open to the public. standard that allocated use according to the Now few people get inside this carefully guarded area of the reserve. The hypothesis behind this reserve, whereas in the past the reserve had principle is that 10 visitors in one hectare have open access to all people. When open access the appropriate level of acceptable impact on the was granted to the public, it tended to occur at natural resources. Therefore, given the size of very high use levels and created high levels of the reserve, a maximum capacity of 300 people negative impact. Management recognised the per day was established. Various factors need to develop limits of acceptable use. influenced the selection of this number, including Presently, groups apply for a one-day pass to the narrow road width (the road to the garden is walk through the central part of the reserve to only suitable for small to mid-sized vehicles) and see some of Fushan’s 503 different species of the limited amount of space available for trees and plants, its 103 species of birds, and parking. In light of these physical entrance perhaps glimpse some of the many rare and restrictions, 300 people per day seemed to be a endangered species of animals that live in the reasonable limit. area. A maximum number of 400 people are Once the limit was decided upon, allocation of permitted per day. In addition, a few researchers the available spaces had to be done. A mail who have permission are allowed to enter the reservation system was developed, which reserve area. required people to register 15 to 60 days prior to their visit. Applications were evaluated and a 1st stage: Uncontrolled Access certificate that had to be presented upon arrival FBG opened its gates to the general public for at the garden was mailed back to the applicant. the first time in 1991. Initially, there was no Each day, once the 300-person access limit was system in place to receive or manage visitors. reached, access was denied to further visitors. There were no limits on the number of people Upon developing these principles, the FBG that could visit, nor were there any educational reopened at the beginning of December 1993. materials available on how the park should be used. The lack of management in these areas Due to expansive media coverage of the planning resulted negatively on the garden’s integrity as of the garden, the public’s awareness of the area large numbers of visitors attended during increased and the number of applications holidays, for barbecues and picnicking with no soared. For example, one day 1,000 applications restrictions on where they went or what they did. were received. Because this was the first Facilities and plant life were destroyed in this location to implement this system, there was no first period of being open to the public. model to follow. There were numerous administrative challenges at first. Staff members Moreover, the public did not pay to visit the FBG. spent a great deal of time processing the However, the increase in public use caused application forms, but after one and a half years, increased amounts of money and manpower to the number of applicants settled to about 100 be spent to maintain the garden and keep it per day. A process for evaluating applications clean, especially after large visits. The condition was determined. For example, one of the criteria of the road connecting the gardens to the main specified that a group had to be no greater than highway was also in poor condition. After one 20 individuals, but since a 20-person size limit month of operation, the garden was closed for was not realistic for school groups, the maximum repairs. It was decided at this stage that the group size was increased to 50 people, and the visitor management policies of the garden had daily limits were changed to 400 people per day. to be reexamined. The Fushan Botanical Garden managers hoped Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 47

that this change would encourage outdoor activities to the remainder of the site’s education and internship opportunities. environment was reduced. Second, the hours of operation of the garden are from 9:00 a.m. to 3rd stage: Re-examination of Limits of 4:00 p.m., which keeps visitors away from the Acceptable Use wildlife during the food hunting hours of many After a period of operation with these new visitor animals. The garden closes in March every year limits and allocation procedures, administration to prevent negative impact from human beings re-examined their policies. First, the hiking trail during the blooming season of plants and the was reviewed. They determined that there was breeding season of wild animals. In terms of no soil or plant cover destroyed, and concluded, management of visitor recreation behaviours, therefore, that the number of people allowed in activities which have larger impacts on the every day was acceptable. The examination also environment are prohibited, such as camping, found that even though there are no waste fires, barbecue, and picking plants. Meanwhile, receptacles in the garden, visitors did not litter private vendors are not allowed to sell food and and managed their own waste as a result of beverages in the garden, nor are permanent educational efforts. residents allowed in the garden. These visitor use management techniques proved Management Principles from the Fushan to be greatly helpful in maintaining the ecological Experience health of the garden. By doing so, the garden The implementation of limits of acceptable use is can keep its most primitive appearance and also one of the most important steps in maintaining help serve the very large public demand for the natural resources in Fushan Botanical observation of the nature in the Fushan Garden. However, for this kind of semi-primitive Botanical Garden. and undisturbed area additional planning measures needed to be carried out that would For further information: Forestry Extension sustain the natural resource. First, by locating Education Centre, Fushan Research Station of the administrative area and major display area in Taiwan Forestry Research Institute, P. O. Box a heavy use zone, the direct impact of human #132, I Lan, Taiwan.

Zoning: Zoning is a fundamental Quotas: Managers often must limit the management component that enables number of visitors who are granted access protected area managers to assign specific (this is the most direct method, but it does uses to specific geographical areas. In not address the importance of changing the intensive use areas a decision may be made problematic behaviour which is causing the to “harden the site” and monitor impacts negative impact). rather than try to control the number of Visitor movement: Park visitors move visitors entering. through a park. The path a visitor takes User fees: It is usually necessary for park can be influenced by the provision of managers to charge sufficient fees to cover clearly posted signs and trails. Education the costs of visitor management. However, can increase visitor awareness of the charging user fees limits user numbers importance and significance of species, and based on an ability to pay. Differential impacts, leading to care when travelling in pricing policies are sometimes used (i.e., a park. Guides are often used to direct certain groups are charged more than visitor movement. Physical structures can others). direct and control movement (e.g. mooring buoys to reduce anchor damage or Schedule of use: Use can vary, for example boardwalks to reduce foot erosion). through seasonal closure or assigned time intervals. Access points, reception areas, gateways: At entrance points park managers have Activity regulation: Some activities can the most control over visitor numbers, be prohibited or restricted. distribution and behaviour. Ideally when Infrastructure: Infrastructure development visitors arrive, they proceed immediately controls how visitors use the site. For through a reception area where they can be example, location and size of parking lots met, have regulations explained, numbers influence visitor use. The best and largest counted, entrance fees collected and tours parking areas should be located within arranged. Information about the site should intensive use zones. Numbers of visitors be provided. Information about the and activities can be limited by the importance and need for visitor controls availability of lodgings, restaurants, can also be explained. A well-designed tourism operators, etc. entrance will ensure visitors have 48 Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia

information about where to go, what to do actual ecological and social impacts” and what not to do during the visit, and (Payne & Graham, 1993, p. 192). why it matters. A comprehensive collection of environmental standards relating to best Setting Standards practice guidelines for behaviour of visitors, Once the limits of acceptable change tourism operators, park managers and have been assessed, the next step is to companies operating or building near or set standards based on people’s use, inside the park is found in Section 3.3. understanding and valuation of the natural area. These standards are developed through input from technical and 3.2.7 Appropriate Activities recreational park staff and discussion with all stakeholders. Once standards and ITEM 7: Determine which tourism activities management methods to maintain them are are compatible with the protected area and developed for the site, monitoring which are not, and develop related policies. (discussed in more detail in Section Some recreational activities are acceptable, 3.2.13) must be done in order to determine whereas others are not. It is critical that whether or not standards are achieved management policies are developed which and maintained. The management agency, outline the criteria used to evaluate the stakeholders and members of the public acceptability of activities. In general, are responsible for monitoring and acceptable activities are low impact, reporting on a regular basis how well non-consumptive, promote education and the standards have been met. “This awareness building, and fit with the goals participative or co-operative management and objectives of the protected area. function enables those involved to modify Appropriate activities often occur in small standards or visitor use in response to groups rather than large tours (the exception to this is school groups arriving for an environmental education program). Pursuits that require large infrastructure development, such as downhill skiing or involve motorised vehicles are examples of activities that are usually not acceptable. Major sporting events such as the Winter Olympics are not considered to be appropriate because of the scale and intensity of building and engineering work in sensitive areas (FNNPE, 1993). Sports events focus on competition rather than the enjoyment of the natural area, and place unnecessary pressure on the protected area. Large, organised groups are often not appropriate in many zones of the protected area, and specific management interventions are necessary to prevent erosion of trails for example. Limitations should be stricter in Category II national parks than in other protected area landscapes where larger communities can absorb tourism development. Most protected areas have legally-enforceable regulations restricting the types of activities which are permitted. Paul F.J. Eagles F.J. Paul Foot traffic caused severe erosion to the sand dunes at Pinery Provincial Park in Ontario, Canada. A poorly designed trail eroded more than one metre after just a few years of high use. Erosion was solved through construction of a well-designed boardwalk. Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 49

3.2.8 Environmental, Economic, Other environmental management tools Social and Cultural Impact include environmental auditing (a way of Assessment assessing the environmental damage caused by a business), environmental management ITEM 8: Assess the environmental, systems (EMS offers a structured and economic, social and cultural impacts of systematic way of incorporating proposals for tourism development. environmental considerations into all It is possible for sustainable tourism to aspects of a business) and environmental play a positive role in the conservation reporting (a way of communicating of a protected area. As this concept gains environmental objectives, practices and acceptance among local businesses, the achievements to stakeholders) (UNEP, interest in capitalising on tourism 1998, p. 40). opportunities rises. Proposals for tourism development increase. Private outside 3.2.9 Education and Interpretation investors may be interested in capitalising on the protected area. International aid ITEM 9: Develop education and organisations may also want to get interpretation programs for visitors and involved. Planners and managers need to local people that increase understanding combine their own vision for appropriate and appreciation of the area’s environment, sustainable tourism development for the culture, heritage and important issues. protected area with external demands for Park managers play an important development. Tourists may also demand leadership role in environmental education. infrastructure development. Interpretation and public education All tourism proposals need to be carefully programs promote the development of an assessed for their environmental, economic, environmental consciousness in the public social and cultural impacts. Environmental and a willingness to take personal and impact assessments are the most familiar collective action to protect and maintain assessment. One general question it the environment. Through interpretive addresses is how will the natural programs, visitors can develop a better environment change based on tourism understanding and appreciation of the impacts? Social and cultural impact area’s environment, culture and heritage, assessments are used less often, but they and the issues affecting it and the are also valuable. They combine objective surrounding region. Through public (technical information) with subjective education programs, and in co-operation (political, social interaction, etc.) with others, a stronger environmental ethic information in order to understand the can be built, and support for conservation opportunities and constraints presented by can be broadened (Parks Canada, 1994). local communities to particular projects Interpretive facilities, such as visitor (Furze et al., 1996). Economic impacts centres, and publications, such as a are becoming increasingly common. brochure on the area, are designed with After doing an inventory and tabulation of at least one of four purposes: the impacts, planners and managers must 1. To increase visitors’ awareness about a assess whether the identified and resource or attraction (e.g., local anticipated impacts are appropriate. It is legends, history, unique landmarks and critical that extensive public consultation sites). This gives visitors an idea of what be undertaken during the assessment and life in the community is actually like. value determination. 2. To alter the behaviour patterns of visitors and residents. Explain why Ecolabels can certify that specific, certain things should or should not be successful efforts have been made to apply done, rather than just telling people not concepts of sustainable tourism and reduce to do it. For example, a sign saying “Stay environmental impacts. Ecolabels can be a off the trail” only makes people more management tool used to improve the curious about what is on the trail, versus sector’s sustainability (incorporating a sign saying “Overuse of this trail has recognition, correction and monitoring of caused erosion – Help nature rebuild it environmental impacts). Ecolabels are an by choosing another route”. important complement to regulatory tools, which should be designed to stimulate improvements that go beyond the regulations already in place (UNEP, 1998). 50 Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia

CASE STUDY 7: Strategic Planning and Sustainable Funding for Environmental Education

Environmental Education by a Non- include farming, wetland ecology, wildlife and the Government Organisation at Mai Po Marshes history of gei wai shrimp farming. A network of (Hong Kong) – Efforts, Outcomes and paths, trails, bridges and boardwalks give easy Reasons for Success access to the main areas around the reserve. Small camouflage shelters provide birdwatching opportunities. The education programs are very important to school children, who otherwise would have little understanding of the importance of traditional shrimp fishing activities to the creation and maintenance of the Mai Po habitat, or of the productivity, diversity and overall value of the mangroves and other elements of the Mai Po ecosystem (Nelson, 1993). Approximately 10,000 primary and secondary school students visited Mai Po in

K.W. Kwan K.W. 1998-1999 as part of one of the 400 specially guided school visits. Introduction Environmental Declared as a Ramsar site in 1995, this area Key Stakeholder Input into the Creation of awareness and strong is recognised as one of China’s seven most the Environmental Education Program important wetlands. Mai Po Nature Reserve There was very little awareness of wetland support can be raised (380 hectares) covers an area of almost three importance and limited government support for through education. kilometres long and one kilometre wide, inside the first education centre to be developed by a the Deep Bay and Mai Po Ramsar site (1,500 non-governmental organisation in the 1980s Located in the midst of hectares). The area has been managed and when the education centre and program were a heavily populated developed since 1984 by World Wildlife Fund being established. Other challenges also Hong Kong (WWF HK), and assisted by the included lack of knowledge about education area, Mai Po Nature Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation programs and lack of experience in managing Reserve provides Department. Mai Po has Hong Kong’s only the gei wais and fish ponds. A wetland ecologist extensive system of traditionally managed was recruited by WWF HK to guide the creation a locally relevant prawn ponds, and its largest mangrove stands. of the education centre and its programs. Local Increasing agricultural and industrial pollution experts – the villagers of Mai Po – were recruited context for educating and domestic sewage are negatively affecting as contractors to handle construction and then the public about the numerous important bird populations in Deep as field staff of the nature reserve to bring Bay. Many gei wais (shallow tidal pools) have traditional wisdom to the program development. the importance of been converted to sites for rice production, new More experienced organisations provided conserving wetlands, housing, commercial fish cultivation, and other assistance in the planning and development of uses associated with rapid growth of the area education facilities and programs. Scientific its ecological (Nelson, 1993). WWF HK is attempting to information based on university research at the functions and conserve gei wais and their important ecological marshes was incorporated into the functions through the purchase and continued environmental education curriculum. traditional sustainable operation of them. Approximately 40,000 resource use. people visit Mai Po each year, one quarter of Outcomes and Positive Local Impacts of the which are students. Environmental Education Program 1. Raised levels of environmental awareness Environmental Education at Mai Po Through interpretation programs, visitors The protection of Mai Po is not sustainable are encouraged to think about the value of in the long term without public support for the wetland, to consider the causes of conservation. WWF HK has aimed to develop threats to conservation of the area, and to conservation policies and legislation and to raise support its protection. The broader concept levels of awareness in order to build appropriate of sustainable development and the need social context and capacity for conservation for sustainable planning in Hong Kong (Tilbury, 1999). The education program is are illustrated. designed to create appreciation and awareness 2. Increased government support for and to arouse concern about wetland environmental education conservation in Hong Kong by providing learning Gradually as public awareness of Mai Po experiences at Mai Po Nature Reserve. The Marshes and the recognition of its centre provides a locally relevant context from conservation status have grown, government which levels of environmental awareness and input has increased (I. Wong, personal concern can be raised amongst the general communication, March 16, 2000). In the public in Hong Kong. 1980s, the Education Department provided Education and awareness are promoted at Mai funding as a means to purchase services Po through a number of facilities, including a from WWF HK to organise field trips to assist well-designed wildlife education centre. Topics biology teachers in fulfilling curriculum Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 51

requirements. Increasing recognition of the and the fund-raising strategy) is a key to importance of environmental education in strategic planning (Tilbury, 1999). the 1990s helped to solidify the Education 2. Effective Communication Process Department’s view that funding the school In addition to the development of more visits program is an effective investment in formal structures of integrated planning, environmental education. In 1999, funding opportunities have been developed so that was stated as a means to support staff working in nature reserve management, environmental education in the 1999 conservation and communication attend government policy address issued by the regular meetings to discuss the progress of Chief Executive of the Hong Kong SAR education programs. Also, communication government. The strong institutional support between departments is encouraged and for environmental education programs is strengthened through education staff verified through an increase in financial attending meetings of other departments, support from 50% in 1996 to 100% of and through an internal newsletter. Internal the current running costs in 1999 (Tilbury, processes such as these enable education 1999). The Education Department now funds activities to focus sharply on local and over 300 secondary and 100 primary school regional conservation needs and to respond visits annually. to changing priorities (Tilbury, 1999). 3. Raised profile of environmental education 3. Self-Sustaining Financing from Diverse across sectors Sources Over the past six years, a higher profile for The reserve receives funds from the It is unrealistic to environmental education in the Education government for training and for the school Department and the Environmental Protection expect any earnest visit programs. Financial support from the Department has resulted from WWK HK Education Department for the school visits efforts towards activities (Tilbury, 1999). Educators, NGO program is essential to the success of that staff and others have also been influenced conservation portion of the environmental education to promote that increased attention be programs. However, the education programs to succeed if the given to environmental education through could not occur without sufficient finances to their work. The profile of environmental ecology of an area is run the entire site. Funding sources include education in the school system has also the gei wais (these provide a source of steady underrated by the been raised, with demand for school visits income through the sale of traditionally exceeding availability. people who should be harvested prawns) and revenue from visitors to the Education Centre. These sources its custodians. What has led to the success? enable Mai Po to be a self-financing reserve. 1. Strategic Planning in Environmental (The Green Since being designated as a Ramsar site in Education Travel Guide, 1998) 1995, the Agriculture, Fisheries and Strategic planning is a fundamental element Conservation Department also provides in the success of environmental education at funding for the wetland management work Mai Po Marshes. It is necessary to consider conducted inside the nature reserve. A semi- multiple plans simultaneously and as part of governmental green fund, the Environment an ongoing process rather than a one-time and Conservation Fund, was set up in 1995. accomplishment. For example, the creation WWF HK also regularly applies for funding of An Education and Environmental Strategy from this trust to support the development and Three Year Plan (1997-2000) facilitates of new education programs in recent years effective planning and a conscious integration (I. Wong, personal communication, March of WWF’s mission with the nature reserve’s 16, 2000). management plan, and ensures that environmental education work at the centre is Web site: http://www.wwf.org.hk/en/maipo.htm highly relevant to local conservation needs. For further information: World Wide Fund for Coordination of the education strategy with Nature Hong Kong, Tramway Path, Central, other strategies (e.g., the communication Hong Kong. Telephone: (852) 2526 1011. strategy, the conservation strategy, Mai Po Fax: (852) 2845 2734. Email: [email protected] five-year plan, the WWF HK business plan

3. To explain community, organisation, or Properly planned and designed interpretive agency goals and objectives to visitors programs relay a theme and a message and residents. This not only increases to visitors. A theme is a concept, idea, or awareness of their purpose, but also message that visitors take away with them. fosters community support of them. A major program theme should relay a 4. To orient visitors to the area. Providing message or concept. Topics relay a list of different attractions and information related to the theme. Themes resources and directions on how to get incorporate three learning components: there, helps visitors identify which they 1. Educational component – What are interested in seeing and simplifies information do you want people travel routes during their visits. to learn? 52 Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia

2. Emotional component – How do you motivates a long-term sustainable change in want them to feel after experiencing it? behaviour. Once people understand the 3. Behavioural component – What actions significance and special nature of the do you want to suggest they take? resources (and provided they have suitable alternative options), they are more likely to For example, an interpretive sign to keep accept the rules that exist to protect the area. visitors out of a fragile wetland area would explain impacts of visitor use on the area When local people recognise the value of (educational), how this harms flora and their environment, stewardship and a fauna of the area (emotional), and how vested interest in conservation and visitors can prevent this impact by staying sustainability can ensure long-term on boardwalks (behavioural). effectiveness. Designing well-planned tourism, ensuring income is distributed to Educating tourists through interpretation local people and fostering a sense of pride programs is a desirable goal. Education can in the environment are ways to encourage also be applied to local people. Laws local people understand the full value of perform a necessary function of prohibiting their environment. Case Study 7 outlines a improper and damaging use of protected very well-designed environmental education area resources. Sometimes local people who program and the positive impacts it has have used the land and its resources long made on the local area. before the area attained protected status resent being told to act differently and do not understand the larger situation. In this 3.2.10 Visitor Channelling case, laws will not resolve the fundamental problem of attitude and motivation. These ITEM 10: Design methods to channel issues are best addressed through visitors through desired areas with minimal education. Whereas law enforcement negative impacts. externally motivates people to change their Examples of questions that planners and illegal behaviours, education internally managers should consider when designing channels for visitor movement throughout the park include: • How do visitors arrive? (e.g., cars, buses, walking, bicycles) • How should visitors arrive? Is it better to maintain the current methods of arrival or to encourage alternative forms of transport? • Where do they arrive now? Do they arrive in sensitive areas? How do concentration points fit with the zoning scheme? Are existing movement patterns accommodated in the zoning scheme? • Where should visitors arrive? Are there possible access points in or near intensive use zones? How many access points are most desirable (e.g., one or more than one)? How will points of access be controlled? • Where should visitors go after they arrive? Ideally, visitors will be directed to the different use zones that have been prescribed in the plan, and will correspond to predicted numbers and frequency. Does the zoning plan

Paul F.J. Eagles F.J. Paul acknowledge traditional use areas Interpretive signs are one means of communicating and distribution patterns and any messages to park visitors. The sign in the Pinery desired changes? Provincial Park, Ontario, Canada shows “No • How will visitors reach these areas? picking wildflowers”, “All dogs on a leash”, and “No bicycles allowed” on the nature trail. Since Walk on trails? Is vehicle access the messages are communicated through permitted? How do people travel in pictures, no translation is required. the area now? Changing existing use Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 53

patterns can be difficult. One possibility Bookings, information and promotion may be to have different forms of access Some sites only allow visitors to enter if in different areas. they have pre-booked their visit. For this • What kinds of experiences are available method to work the park needs to be able or desirable for visitors to have? to control access and enforce the need for Different levels of experience can be pre-bookings. Information needs to be offered to visitors, from large-group tours, provided to visitors before they decide to to wilderness adventures in small visit, which can be accomplished by controlled groups. What types of creating good links with tourist information accommodations are available? Are trails centers, hotels and tourism operators. self-guided or accompanied by a guide? Information and promotional materials Decisions are guided by the zoning plan, must explain regulations for visiting and tourist markets being targeted, and procedures for permit application. Foreign available resources. tourist guidebooks also need to have rules and booking procedures explained (The Shuttle buses Royal Society for the Conservation of Shuttle buses can be an effective way of Nature, 1998). regulating entry and distribution of visitors. They can also be an attraction in their own Registration right. The park agency can control how Registration at the point of entry provides often they are run (e.g., one per hour or a means for monitoring visitor numbers, on demand). Resources considerations activities and types (e.g., nationality, age include sufficient parking space, back-up range, group size, etc.). transportation if a shuttle breaks down One example where conscious efforts are and maintenance, safety and being made to channel visitors through requirements. the area via two designated routes is at Changli Golden Beach Reserve in China. Trails One land route and one water route have The location and destination of the trails been designed to encourage visitation to largely determines the on-site distribution certain areas (i.e., to spread out the high of visitors. Trails should be carefully concentration of visitors in over-used areas) planned. They can offer different levels and to keep visitor traffic away from other of experience and duration, and should be areas (i.e., with the aim of reducing the accessible from the main access point. negative impacts to the environment). Well-designed trails will: • be easy to find A second example of innovative visitor • take visitors to interesting or well-known channelling is at Jiuzhaigou Nature Reserve features in China. Air pollution from cars and • accommodate a range of walking terrible traffic congestion inspired a creative abilities (e.g., short, moderate, long, solution to develop an environmentally difficult, and easy) friendly public transport system to take • be easier to walk on than surrounding land visitors to and from the various scenic spots • be contoured on hills inside the reserve. Each public car has a • encourage a one-way flow of traffic trained interpreter who describes the value (e.g., loop trails) of the scenery and unique characteristics of • have direction indicators at crossing each scenic spot. The green environmental points and in confusing sections of trails car service helps to protect the natural • avoid very sensitive habitat types or environment (i.e., since it’s implementation species. sulfur-dioxide emissions have been reduced by 56%, carbon-monoxide by 92% and Self-guided trails that visitors navigate hydroxide by 80%), enhance mobility of themselves are usually located in intensive visitors and improve traffic order. This use zones. Trail guides and good, easy-to- management program is part of a well- read maps are critical. Park staff or private designed attempt to take an active role tourism company guides may be desirable in protection, education and co-operation for larger groups and for travel into more with others. sensitive areas. Park staff should be available for information provision, enforcement and monitoring. 54 Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia

3.2.11 Market Research not visiting and why? Potential tourism markets can be identified through this line ITEM 11: Survey and analyse tourist of questioning. If park managers want to markets and visitors’ needs and expand to different markets, this type of expectations. Ideally this occurs both questioning is very useful as a means of before and after developing ideas for new identifying potential tourism markets. It can forms of tourism. also identify types of changes that may Protected area managers must do market need to occur (e.g., in marketing strategies, research in order to understand their visitor types of programs offered or facility design) profiles. Examples of relevant questions in order to attract these potential visitors. that should be asked by planners and What are the perceived and realised managers include: benefits of tourists? Through interactions • Who are the visitors, and what are with visitors and also through partnership their characteristics? with social scientific research, park • Where do they come from, and how managers can identify components of did they get here? satisfaction of the experience, what • What percentage of visitors are local, expectations visitor hold, how their domestic and international? expectations can be developed, and decide • How long do they stay? whether their expectations are realistic. • How many visitors are currently attending the site? Simple marketing research is very useful for • What do they do during their stay? a tourism development plan. As well as • What attitudes and expectations considering the present condition, it is do they have? important to anticipate future conditions. • What would visitors like to see? Have any predictions been made? If the site • What motivated them to choose a specific is already well known, how much of a protected area as their destination? change can be expected in visitor numbers • How satisfied are they with their visit? over the next 10 to 20 years? If the site is not well known, is it desirable to make it Learning about and analysing visitor needs more known, and if so, what is the and expectations better enables park expected amount by which visitor numbers managers to provide satisfying experiences will rise? What are the best ways of that will meet visitor needs and managing this type of influx? expectations. Focusing on specific market segments enables park managers to target Travel companies that design and visitor services more effectively. It is also coordinate trips and tour operators and worth noting that although sometimes guides who control activities in the visitors may express a certain desire for a destination should share a conservation particular experience, this demand may not ethic. Interactions between these be true to the area’s image. For example, stakeholders and park staff enable visitors may express a desire for luxurious information to be shared and a common accommodations within the protected area understanding of one another’s goals to be in order to wake up to a breath-taking developed. Park managers should make the view. However, developing this type of effort to educate these stakeholders on the infrastructure may be inappropriate, importance of conservation and to outline depending on the goals of the protected the goals and appropriate activities for area and on the proposed location (e.g., different types of parks within the is it outside park boundaries?). It is jurisdiction. The shared ethic of conservation important to decide what the specific provides the framework within which all area’s ability is to meet demands of marketing and travelling efforts take place. tourists. It is acceptable to declare a market Basic components include: demand as infeasible to implement, in light • increasing public awareness of the of protection or the non-sustainable nature environment of a proposal. • maximising economic benefits for local communities Visitor profiles can reveal important • fostering cultural sensitivity information to the manager. Information • minimising negative impacts of the travel should be collected for various visitor environment. groups. One group that is often ignored is the non-visitor. However, this group can By making the effort to educate these also provide valuable information. Who is stakeholders who are involved in the early Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 55

planning stages of tourists’ trips, planners appropriate goal is to encourage visitation and managers are actively influencing the by desirable target markets through a types and expectations of visitors to the magazine article about the protected area. site. As a result, this reduces the level of Park managers should think about what on-site damage control efforts related to types of people read different publications. visitor management issues such as dealing Most likely visitors possessing an with visitor conflicts, inappropriate environmental ethic will read environmental behaviours and dissatisfied visitors publications so that is one example of an (The Royal Society for the Conservation appropriate place to advertise in order to of Nature, 1998). attract the desired target market. Two marketable aspects of a destination are attractiveness to travellers (e.g., high 3.2.12 Product Development and biodiversity, abundance of species, breath- Promotional Strategy taking scenery, unique geography, culture and traditions) and the tourism infrastructure ITEM 12: Brainstorm tourism products to (e.g., adequate accommodation, be potentially developed and influence types transportation, guides, access to natural of visitors choosing to visit. Identify the areas and cooperative governments). values and image of the protected area on which to base sustainable tourism and It may be necessary Marketing, advertising and communications outline a promotional strategy for them. to change people’s should be designed to appeal to specific, desired target markets. Visitors can be Marketing and product development are attitudes and segmented based upon demographic commonly used terms for activities in perceptions of a (e.g., age, sex, household income, advertising and private industry. Since protected area in education level, etc.), psychographic protected area management focuses on (e.g., motivations, values, etc.) and conservation of natural and cultural order to promote an geographic (e.g., country of origin) resources, advertising terms and activities image that is more characteristics. Park managers must identify used by private industry are likely true to the area’s anticipated characteristics of specific visitor unfamiliar territory to protected area groups in order to target these potential managers. Developing a sustainable tourism qualities, or to target visitors with programs and services that action plan through multi-disciplinary tourists who seek correspond to their interests. partnerships will enable park managers to gain an appreciation of the role that these these qualities. Identifying the types of activities that park non-traditional park terms and activities visitors like enables planners and managers can play within protected area management also to identify appropriate sources of by developing multi-disciplinary advertising. Magazines and journals may partnerships with organisations more be a good place to advertise. For example, familiar with such terms. many nature tourists are amateur photographers, so photography publications Since many tourists want a varied are a potential source. Specialised experience, there are good opportunities magazines, some of which are affiliated for partnerships in marketing. Product with internationally recognised organisations linkages can be extended into marketing (e.g., National Audubon Society), are a linkages. A key strategy is to develop a prime source of advertising. Upscale travel marketing mix that is attractive. For magazines and special travel supplements example, instead of promoting marine in newspapers are other sources. Planners tourism all by itself, marine tourism in the and managers can collaborate with tourism area can be linked to culture, recreation, operators to develop brochures. Travel nature, wildlife viewing, etc. brochures should indicate the purpose Sustainable tourism development needs and uniqueness of the destination. to be market based, focusing on the image Promotions can generate consumer and special qualities of the specific excitement and expand the message of protected area, and targeting tourism sustainable nature tourism to a wider markets which will be interested in audience. High profile partners with clients buying these products. Protected area possessing similar demographics make good managers are thus able to have a greater partners for tourism operators. influence over the types of visitors who come to the protected area, than through In summary, planners and managers of implementation of the market-led approach protected areas may decide that an (developed according to demands of the 56 Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia

market). In this way, managers can opportunities should be encouraged encourage individuals who possess to thrive? characteristics that support conservation In terms of promotion, park managers efforts, who wish to participate in should be aware of the types of appropriate activities, and who want expectations that visitors possess. Many to learn about the areas special features, travellers have come to expect a certain to come to the park. standard of comfort on a holiday (e.g., a Many visitors have a keen interest in level of quality of restaurants and hotels), learning about what features make the and many people desire to see spectacular area significant and unique. Park managers views with as little effort expended as should explore opportunities to develop necessary. Formation of expectations occurs tourism products that take advantage of through images and messages presented educational aspects. Once visitors gain a through advertising, which is why protected deeper understanding of the area’s areas and tourist organisations should be significance, they will be more likely to careful about what images are portrayed support its protection. Park managers can when promoting tourism of protected also discourage visitors whose behaviour or areas. For example, promoting the natural interests do not correspond to park goals. beauty or spectacular wildlife of the area while at the same time also promoting Private sector tourism Consumers are concerned about the easy access and high standards of environment, and will likely ask questions. operators should work accommodations and entertainment may Basic interpretation facilities are a valuable cause conflict and unrealistic tourist with protected area tool through which common questions can expectations. If easy access and high managers to develop be addressed. To address more complex standards of tourism infrastructure are questions from highly-educated visitors one accurate images of not permitted in a sensitive protected area, option is to establish partnerships with then advertising must provide realistic protected areas and compatible organisations such as images so that appropriate tourist associated values. conservation groups, research facilities, expectations can be developed. When tourists are zoos, universities and museums who may be interested in developing programs that Parks Canada has now established a visitor properly informed provide specialised information. satisfaction goal for each national park and about what to expect each national historic park in Canada. This Protected area managers should brainstorm is the first time that a park management during the experience, ideas and proposals to create various agency has set specific targets for client educational programs, themes for park reasonable satisfaction. tours, trail development, etc. that are expectations result in appropriate to the area’s objectives and It is important that both protected areas a satisfying visit. resources. Managers should keep in mind and tourist organisations work to portray the inventory of park assets and facilities, the protected area destination accurately, along with facilities and assets of the both in terms of the special natural and surrounding communities when cultural features it possesses, as well as in developing ideas. terms of the realistic limitations associated with conserving its naturalness. Proposals for new developments in and near protected areas may be based in Images should reflect the true value of the commercial development. Before permitting area, promoting a message of visiting development, planners and managers nature on its terms, rather than massively should carefully examine a variety of altering the landscape to provide deluxe relevant factors, including whether the facilities that are insensitive to the primary development will result in excess use, and attraction – the natural environment. whether the use is appropriate. An analysis Good standards of tourist services can be of the proposal for commercial development provided near protected areas but they should be shared with appropriate planning should incorporate good sustainable design and legislative agencies. In appropriate principles, including harmonising with the cases an environmental impact statement local environment. “Much of the should be prepared (Parks Canada, 1994). infrastructure normally associated with Reference should be made back to the ‘mass’ or package tourism is not compatible inventory of tourism and infrastructure with beautiful views, undisturbed nature resources. In terms of product development, and the peace and quiet of protected areas” what opportunities to develop tourism (FNNPE, 1993, p. 25). products and businesses exist? What Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 57

One example of an appropriate message seeking partnerships with research that could be conveyed through institutions, protected area planners and promotional images of protected areas is managers may logically and intuitively that breath-taking scenery and glimpses focus on the collection of environmental of wildlife will only be fully revealed to data (since it is often the physical natural visitors who take the time to integrate environment of which they are in charge of themselves into the natural environment protecting). However, it is equally important and experience its glory. These types of to collect data on social, cultural and visitors will want to participate in low- economic impacts of tourism. Examples of impact activities. This message might the types of social and cultural questions discourage visitors who want to rush that research studies can address include: through it in a hurry to complete their • How should nature conservation benefit checklist of stopovers. Their activities from commercial activities of nature may be more consumptive in nature. tourism? • How does tourism development in the Quiet, low-impact activities, compatible area contribute to social and economic with values supported by protected areas, well-being of local communities? are desirable and should be encouraged, • What skills are necessary for local people especially in promotional materials. If to participate in a community-based images convey only activities that are nature tourism project? compatible with sustainable tourism, • What factors may prevent the success of visitors who desire more undisciplined such projects? and unruly activities may choose to travel Montague Island Nature Reserve provides elsewhere. If accurate images that portray an excellent international example of the underlying values supported by environmental and financial impact protected areas are developed, self selection monitoring (refer to Case Study 8). of visitors will enable management to avoid potential negative impacts caused Develop indicators by certain types of visitors. Planners and managers must choose indicators of change. Indicators are 3.2.13 Monitoring dependent on site objectives. Is the site’s primary interest natural, archaeological, ITEM 13: Establish a program for cultural, historical, etc.? For example, if the monitoring the protected area and its use by site’s primary interest is natural, then many visitors. At appropriate intervals evaluate the monitoring parameters will relate to its success of the plan in ensuring that tourism ecology. These are linked to ecological use maintains environmental standards. carrying capacity. Other indicators, linked Revise the plan as needed. to social and cultural, and psychological carrying capacities should also be Monitoring is required to detect changes considered. Common environmental over time through comparison of two points indicators include: in time, and determines whether these • Loss and/or change in the vegetation changes are due to natural causes or to structure: Vegetation is easily affected stress caused by human activities (Parks by people or vehicles travelling over it. Canada, 1994). Monitoring visitor impacts A simple way to monitor changes is enables park managers to assess whether through fixed point photography (pictures visitors are causing unacceptable levels of taken facing the same direction, using the impact and whether management controls same coordinates and at the same time are effective and sufficient. each year). Sample areas can be chosen with common sense. They should be Incorporate links to scientific research Managers of protected areas can work comprised of highly visited and less closely with universities to create an visited areas of the same vegetation ongoing research portfolio. Results of community. studies that examine environmental impacts • Trail width and depth: The amount to of tourist use can be compared to inventory which trails get wider and deeper reflect information recorded in the early planning visitor pressure. Proper design and good and development stages (benchmark positioning can minimise deterioration. information). If a preliminary inventory has If trails become difficult to walk on, not yet been recorded, then this must be visitors may travel on undisturbed made a priority, and completed. When areas. Sample sections near the 58 Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia

CASE STUDY 8: Monitoring Environmental and Economic Impacts

Montague Island Nature Reserve (Australia) island. In 1999 a well-designed regional – An Example of Tourism Planning, Impact economic impact study determined that Monitoring and Community Development expenditures by visitors to the island contributed an estimated A$1.4 million in gross regional output per year to the regional economy. This included A$965,000 in gross regional product, including household income of A$468,000 paid to 19 people in the local economy. In 1999 the Montague Island Nature Reserve was given the British Airways/World Conservation Union Award for park tourism. This award was given due to the following features of this project:

Montague Island Nature Reserve 1. Careful development of a capacity limit for use Montague Island is located off the south-eastern 2. Thorough financial management so that coast of Australia. The Reserve is a unique tourism use pays for the essential example of a protected area agency using management elements of the park tourism to provide essential financial support for 3. Good co-operative arrangements with the conservation and the local community in an local community and with local universities environmentally and politically sensitive protected area. 4. An openness to continual monitoring and evaluation of all aspects of park operation The nature reserve contains both natural 5. A highly professional economic impact study ecosystems (penguins, seals, sea birds) and cultural features (European and aboriginal 6. Good integration of both cultural and natural history) of national importance. The island heritage elements in the tourism program became a Nature Reserve in 1990 and was 7. National ecotourism accreditation at the placed under the care and control of the New highest level South Wales National Parks and Wildlife Service. 8. An obvious professionalism by the From 1990 to the present the New South Wales government agency staff members in all National Parks and Wildlife Service developed a aspects of tourism management system to determine the Island’s tour participant 9. The use of tourism to protect and manage carrying capacity. The visitor use was monitored some very important biological features, and for both environmental and economic impacts. 10. The ability of the site to serve as a best Wildlife monitoring required the development of practice example for park tourism managers new measurement methodologies and joint co- elsewhere. operation with commercial vessel operators to assess the impact of close approach tourism Web site: http://www.npws.nsw.gov.au/parks/ (e.g. when tourism vessels approach marine south/sou018.html wildlife in attempts to get a good view) to the island’s prominent marine wildlife. For further information: New South Wales National Parks & Wildlife Service, Level 1, In 1998 the nature tours grossed A$200,000 43 Bridge Street, (PO Box 1967), Hurstville, from the 4,300 participants that landed on the NSW 2220, Australia.

beginning, middle and ends of trails endangered species, should be avoided or can be measured for width, depth and have strict use limits so that disturbance profile to monitor changes. Sometimes is minimised. serious degradation in high use areas • Visitor control: One indication of where trails have not be effectively ineffective visitor control is the number designed is highly noticeable, even of people found in sensitive areas. Park without scientific measurements. staff could record visitors seen in off-limit • Hot spots: Changes to areas where areas, walking off trails, attempting to visitors congregate should also be enter illegally, etc. monitored. Through development of a monitoring • Disturbance to animals: This is more program, it is possible to identify the difficult to monitor, since animals are various steps and decisions associated with not stationary. One method is to perform different development projects, and to note annual counts of target animals, however their contribution to successful protection this is time consuming and expensive. or degradation. Feeding and nesting areas, especially of Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 59

Monitoring is time consuming and is FIGURE 16: Tourism Competencies neglected by some organisations. For monitoring to work over the long term, The eight tourism competencies that must be some of the techniques should be simple, present within a protected area agency are: inexpensive, easy to repeat with non- 1. Understanding visitors’ needs and wants specialists, and if possible, should become 2. Service quality management part of the routine work of site staff (The 3. Leisure pricing policy Royal Society for the Conservation of 4. Leisure marketing Nature, 1998). 5. Tourism and resource economics 6. Finance 3.2.14 Resources and Training 7. Tourism management ITEM 14: Assess resource needs and 8. Interpretation. sources, including provisions for training.

Management plans should indicate staffing 1. Understanding visitors’ needs needs and identify major functions. and wants Volunteers, consultants, and head office This topic of market research is addressed staff involved in the planning process in Section 3.2.11. should also be identified as this will provide a more accurate indication of 2. Service quality management staffing levels. Incorporation of this step It is critical that visitor services are allows deficiencies to be predicted and provided at the highest standard of service recommendations suggested. possible. Some park agencies have All protected areas require staff with developed service quality goals, into their specialised training in visitor and tourism management goals. One example of a management. The staff functions are many. service quality goal is to have the majority Eagles (2000 in press), identifies eight of the visitors feeling that they received tourism competencies that must be present excellent service levels. within a protected area management agency, outlined in Figure 16. It is 3. Leisure pricing policies important that the park agency hires people Most sites charge admission. Therefore, with these skills, or encourages existing there must be a policy that determines the personnel to gain education in these fields. levels of prices. Many questions must be It is also important that all park staff addressed. Are fees to be charged per receive training in how to react to accidents person or per group? Are there different and other emergency situations. Visitor fees for different stakeholders or user safety, accidents, liability and search and groups? Are there different fees according rescue are issues that must be considered to times of the day or seasons of the year? by park tourism managers. One example of differential pricing is to charge higher fees for higher levels of visitor services. Park planners and managers should develop a policy on fee collection.

4. Leisure marketing It is important that park tourism managers understand the market for their services. What are the potential park visitors looking for? When do they want to visit? What services do they want to find at the site? How much are they willing and able to pay? These and many more key questions must be addressed in a marketing plan. Paul F.J. Eagles F.J. Paul Accidents do happen, and parks must be More information on this topic can be prepared to deal with them. Safety issues should found in Section 3.2.12. be discussed and parks should develop a response to all potential emergencies. Staff and 5. Tourism and resource economics visitor training on safety, such as this canoe safety Tourism is often a primary revenue source course instruction in Algonquin Provincial Park in for the local economy and the country. Canada, enables a fast and effective response. 60 Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia

At the national level, government needs to • flexibility in pricing policy be convinced that tourism will supply a • a flat management structure significant amount of foreign exchange in • flexibility in the application of licences order for them to provide technical and and contracts for concessions financial support for the protection of • innovation in service delivery parks and protected areas. Actions must • a visitor-focused administration also be initiated and sustained through • flexibility in staff reward, including continuous investments until conservation incentives for good practice objectives are met. Governments alone are • high levels of private – public not able to provide funds for protected area coordination, and operations. Financing conservation efforts • staff with visitor management expertise. requires mixed strategies involving a Parks Canada is one agency whose combination of approaches and management structure has been redesigned partnerships. Examples include grants and so that they now utilise some of these loans, user fees, development of components. Importantly, the vast majority public/private partnerships and community- of the income for this new approach comes based, co-management arrangements that from park visitors and park tourism. For build on local incentives. example, costs of operating visitor services can be paid for by through park visitor fees. 6. Finance Eagles (1999), identifies nine potential Sufficient finance to cover park management sources of income from park visitors: is a universal issue. All parks need money. • Park Entrance Fees Development and implementation of • Recreation Service Fees, Special Events management plans, interpretation, and Special Services education, training, research, monitoring, • Accommodation and enforcement programs all require • Equipment Rental financial resources. Often these funds come • Food Sales (e.g., and store) from general government tax revenues. • Parking However, in recent years, the creation of • Merchandise Sales (e.g., equipment, new parks and protected areas has clothing, souvenirs) outpaced the ability of governments to pay • Licensing of Intellectual Property for management. Many park agencies have • Cross Product Marketing. developed finance structures that allow a more business-like approach to park It is critical that park staff have good levels management. Simply stated, these new of understanding of park and tourism management models encourage park finance. All plan implementation must be agencies to function like a private monitored, to see if the policies are being corporation. Key components include: successful. If problems are found, the • all revenue stays with the agency implementation procedures must be • multi-year carry over of budget alerted or the goals must be changed.

7. Tourism Management FIGURE 17: Characteristics of Successful Guiding Much of this document deals with managing Interpretation Programs park tourism. It is important for park Characteristics of successful guiding interpretation programs include: agencies to have specialised expertise in • Provision of basic foreign language skills the planning and management of tourism. • Selection of guides should include some self-selection, and favour park buffer zone for high likelihood of employment – individuals who make a 8. Interpretation sizeable sacrifice to attend training sessions (i.e., financial or social) may be more likely to complete the full training One of the most visible tourism • Course content development through collaboration with tourism operators, competencies is that of interpretation. participants and conservation groups Most successful guide training programs • Focus on environmental interpretation, storytelling and conversation share a number of characteristics. These awareness, which have a higher focus than biological facts characteristics are outlined in Figure 17. • Encouragement for full-time trained teachers from the area, since often In Section 3.3.3 best practice guidelines after some training, they make better instructors than visiting academic including suggestions for private tourism authorities such as botanists or ornithologists • Opportunities for trainees to work as apprentices to more highly qualified operators, such as guiding companies are national or international guides outlined. • A suitable time frame (i.e., length of courses are sometimes designed based on their budget rather than participant needs). Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 61

3.3 ACHIEVING BEST PRACTICE 3.3.1 Methods of Regulating Actions Legal Regulations Government regulations are an essential component to good overall environmental strategy. National and regional governments must provide certain standards of protection. Regulations define the legal framework within which the private sector should operate and establish minimum Paul F.J. Eagles F.J. Paul standards and processes (UNEP, 1998). Pinery Provincial Park, Ontario, Canada. Parks It is essential that governments and park can rent recreation equipment to the park visitors. staff have the ability to enforce regulations This equipment satisfies a need of the visitors and of protection, and to punish those who generates funds for the park. do not comply. This means that they have the legal structure to develop, implement 3.2.15 Implementation and enforce visitation rules. A lack of ITEM 15: Implement the plan. consistent and fair enforcement of the tourism regulations can lead to a complete The sustainable tourism action plan should breakdown of the planning system. All be implemented. Later, adjustments may be stakeholders, including the park managers, made based on monitoring and project must comply with the tourism regulations. results. Publicising successful projects so that others may learn valuable management Certainly, legal regulations, enforcement lessons from others’ experiences is useful. and punishment play a key role in protection of natural areas in certain It is very important the park tourism situations. However, in terms of ensuring plan be part of the overall management long-term commitments and improvements, plan for the entire site. Tourism must be particularly in an industry such as tourism considered along with resource where small and mid-sized businesses have management, personnel management, a vested interest in not degrading the public relations and all of the other environment, voluntary approaches may important issues that are addressed in a also be effective (UNEP, 1998). park management plan. A balance must be found between planning, implementation Ecolabels and evaluation. Does a protected area Of the most successful voluntary achieve its management objectives approaches are programs where awards or (including tourism objectives)? ecolabels (sometimes also referred to as A common reason that protected areas voluntary codes of conduct) are granted to do not achieve management objectives is companies or industries that attain high because resources outlined in the planning environmental standards. phase exceed the amounts that are actually Ecolabels are designed to improve available for implementation (Hooten & environmental performance in the tourism Hatziolos, 1995). Even less attention is industry. Awards can be promoted by given to evaluation of success of different organisations (e.g., private management. In order for protected areas to businesses, industry associations, public achieve their management goals, once the authorities, non-government organisations), management plan (or tourism action plan) and be aimed at an international, regional, has been implemented, it is essential that national, or sub-national level. Possible monitoring and review occur regularly. objectives associated with implementing Monitoring and review should be part of all voluntary codes of conduct are outlined in management programs. Sufficient financial, Figure 18. technical and human resources must be provided over a timeframe that is long Increasingly, consumers are looking for enough to allow for effective creation, more environmentally responsible products implementation, monitoring and review and services (UNEP, 1995). Ecolabels offer of management plans (Hooten & a means of promoting a product. They Hatziolos, 1995). certify that specific efforts have been made 62 Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia

FIGURE 18: Objectives of Voluntary Codes of Conduct and the Audubon Cooperative Sanctuary System, run by Audubon International for Tourism (a non-government organisation). The objectives of voluntary codes of conduct are to: Benefits associated with implementing • Serve as a catalyst for dialogue between government agencies, industry sectors, community interests, environmental and cultural NGOs and other voluntary codes of conduct in the tourism stakeholders in tourism development industry include a shift in focus towards • Create an awareness within industry and governments of the importance of long-term viability (rather than solely on sound environmental policies and management, and encourage them to short-term profits) and strengthening the promote a quality environment and therefore a sustainable industry industry’s long-term future. Improvements • Heighten awareness among international and domestic visitors of the in the management of tourist impacts on importance of appropriate behaviour with respect to both the natural and natural environment result in improved cultural environment they experience • Sensitise host populations to the importance of environmental protection sustainability of the tourist industry. In an and the host-guest relationship, and industry where sometimes more emphasis • Encourage co-operation among industry sectors, government agencies, host is placed on short-term profits rather than communities and NGOs to achieve the goals listed above. on long-term gain, this shift in emphasis is (UNEP, 1995, p. 8) crucial to the industry’s sustainability. Ecolabels also offer short-term benefits by creating a competitive edge through the to reduce environmental impacts. They favourable image associated with them, provide environmental information to thus maximising the recipient’s ability to consumers, which helps them make an attract tourists who are seeking informed choice. By incorporating environmentally responsible forms of recognition, correction, and monitoring of tourism. Also, the quality of the product is environmental impacts, they can also be a improved, which offers the destination a management tool used to improve the competitive edge. sector’s sustainability (UNEP, 1998). Introducing ecolabel schemes to the tourism industry raises environmental For further information... awareness (of the industry, local authorities Key elements necessary for a tourism ecolabel and consumers) and improves to be effective, credible and efficient are environmental performance, especially in described in Ecolabels in the Tourism Industry areas where improvement is most needed (UNEP, 1998). These elements include framing the criteria for qualification, having a procedure (UNEP, 1998). Park managers can assist for assessing the performance of applicants, with the development of best practices by and using a sound monitoring system. insisting that all tourism operators have Required levels of financial and human suitable levels of accreditation. resources, membership fees, and the amount of technical assistance provided are outlined, Many awards are directed at accommodation and the means of assessing effectiveness are (i.e., decreasing the use of resources such discussed. as energy and water), such as the Green Leaf program in Thailand run by the Board of Environmental Promotion of Tourism 3.3.2 Best Practice Guidelines Activities. Implementation of best practices Codes of conduct, or best practice in energy and water conservation and guidelines can help to guide people’s waste minimization reduces operating behaviours, so that their actions are costs. Other aspects of the industry also supportive of achieving sustainable goals covered by awards include transportation, of tourism within protected areas. recreation facilities, travel agencies, tourism Guidelines can be thought of as ideals that operators and overall destinations. should be followed as closely as possible. The National Ecotourism Accreditation Pressure to follow guidelines may stem Program in Australia, run by the from internal guilt at the thought of Ecotourism Association of Australia (EAA), disobeying the guidelines. Pressure may focuses on facilities, services and location also stem from external peer pressure, (accommodation, natural attractions and where the thought of being outcast from tourism operators). The PATA Green Leaf the group if guidelines are not followed Program, run by the Pacific Asia Travel motivates compliance. Association (PATA), focuses on all aspects. International examples of award programs Guidelines exist for all major stakeholder are Green Globe, run by the World Travel groups involved in protected area and Tourism Council (industry association) management. Sometimes it is useful to Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 63

have a pre-made list of guidelines that but also the process of getting the answer, outlines general suggestions for how to which is important. For example, rather act and how not to act. Park than focusing solely on the levels of use, concessionaires or development companies it is important to focus on the levels of can benefit from guidelines developed by impact that these levels of tourist use have a park organisation. Other times a more on the protected area. Numerous tools are participatory approach to guideline available to assist protected area managers. development is more appropriate, such In the case of determining appropriate as with local tourism operators. Greater levels of use and corresponding impact support will exist for guidelines that are limits of acceptable change, guidelines help produced in consultation with the people provide a reference for park managers on who are affected by the guidelines. how best to act and the types of processes involved in determining solutions for the Some examples of general guidelines given situation. are presented in order to provide an understanding of the types of issues Numerous books offer guidance to planners addressed through guidelines. These are and managers for sound decision-making meant as examples only, to be used as a in regards to park management issues. starting point in the development of For example, the World Commission on guidelines created for a specific area by the Protected Areas (WCPA) has a series of four Developing guidelines park staff and other stakeholders involved. publications that discuss best practice involves the Each area should make guidelines specific protected area guidelines, including preparation of a to the natural and cultural resources that National System Planning for Protected are protected within the area. For example, Areas (Davey, 1998), Economic Values of road map for top at a workshop on biological and cultural Protected Areas: Guidelines for Protected performance, given diversity in Japan in 1997, in-depth Area Managers (World Commission on the right tools, discussions were held to develop a solid Protected Areas, 1999b), and Guidelines for understanding of how to define ecotourism Marine Protected Areas (Kelleher, 1999). circumstances, guidelines, who they are meant for, who This document (Guidelines for Tourism in expertise, and funds should be involved in preparing them, Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia) are available and how they are meant to be used provides an introduction to the topic from a (Yoshida, 1997). A summary of workshop tourism perspective. (The Ecotourism Society, findings is located in Appendix G. 1993). Tourism Operator Guidelines Park Manager Guidelines Many companies provide visitors with All park management involves three basic designed tours of parks. It is important that issues: a) resource management, b) visitor their operations follow park rules, provide management, and c) personal, legal and accurate and up-to-date information to financial management. With park visitors, are sensitive to the environmental managers, the issue is not so much what and cultural features of the site and are they do, as much as how they do it (e.g., willing to become a positive force for such as how they make decisions). One of effective management. “Nature-based tour the most important messages for park operators in particular are confronted with managers is that it is not only the answer, the task of finding ways of embedding the principles of responsible stewardship and sustainability into their day to day business activities” (Williams and Budke, 1999, p. 15). A crucial step in the development of operational principles involves creating codes of conduct designed to self-regulate behaviour in the interest of ecological and cultural sustainability. The presence of a

Nature , Collingwood, New Zealand. Private tour operators can provide a valuable service to the public and to the park, but they have to be managed carefully to ensure maximum positive impacts and minimum negative impacts. Some parks require that all visitors use a guided

Paul F.J. Eagles F.J. Paul tour in the most sensitive sites. 64 Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia

code of conduct does not mean that the tours and urges all tourism operators to specifications will automatically be adopt them as goals. Seven major points honoured. For a code of conduct to be are wildlife, sustainability, waste disposal, effective, the guidelines must be deemed environmental appreciation, strengthening fair and appropriate by interest groups local conservation, respecting bans on trade involved and accepted on these grounds. in endangered species, and respect for cultures visited. The American Society of When making best practice guidelines, Travel Agents (ASTA) has developed similar often the process of developing the guidelines in association with Club Med. guidelines, listening to concerns of different stakeholders and working towards More recently, the Tourism Council of consensus is as important as the final Australia (1999) published an excellent product (i.e., the codes of conduct that are booklet describing basic procedures for produced). A participatory approach that sustainable tourism operators. This booklet involves local stakeholders can result in provides useful ideas for all aspects of the ownership and strong support of best travel experience, from planning activities, practice guidelines that are developed. through site management to dealing with In other words, the process driving the special types of . The code’s conception is often as important as Ecotourism Society (1993) also produced a the actual content of such guidelines. series of guidelines for nature tourism Using a community-based process in operators that outline specific guidelines the development of tourism operator associated with pre-departure programs, guidelines helps facilitate communication guiding programs, monitoring programs, and strengthen social ties between the management programs, and local operators (Williams and Budke, 1999). accommodations checklist (refer to Figure 19). One of the early efforts to develop guidelines for nature travel was made by Visitor Guidelines the National Audubon Society. These Visitors may do damage to the natural guidelines are called Travel Ethic for environment either through ignorance, lack Environmentally Responsible Travel. of care or purposeful action. To address Audubon promotes these as rules for its problems caused by visitors unknowingly behaving in unacceptable ways, a code of conduct for visitors can be developed and FIGURE 19: A Suggested Code of Conduct for distributed effectively. Codes of conduct for Tourism Operators visitors are a relatively new phenomenon • Prepare travellers. One reason visitors choose to travel through a tourism (Mason & Mowforth, 1995). operator rather than as free and independent travellers is to receive guidance. How can negative impacts while visiting sensitive environments In order to be effective, visitor codes need be minimised? How should one interact with local cultures? What is an to be readily accessible to the public, both appropriate response to begging? on-site and in pre-visit information. They • Minimise negative visitor impacts. Prevent degradation of the can be included in travel pamphlets and environment, and/or the local culture by offering literature, briefings, brochures, or posted on the protected area’s leading by example, and taking corrective actions. To minimise internet web site. Visitor codes also need to accumulated impacts, use adequate leadership, and maintain small be phrased in language that is easy to enough tour groups to ensure minimum group impacts on the destination. Avoid areas that are under-managed and over-visited. understand and in statements that are short • Minimise nature tour company impacts. Ensure managers, tourism and to the point. When busy group tours or operator staff and contract employees know and participate in all aspects wandering tourists pass by signs outlining of company policy to prevent negative impacts on the environment and acceptable and unacceptable behaviours, local communities. the information is easy to assimilate. • Provide training. Give managers, tourism operator staff, and Translation of visitor codes into languages contract employees access to programs that will upgrade their ability spoken by international visitors may be to communicate with and manage clients in sensitive natural and cultural settings. a consideration. • Contribute to conservation of the regions being visited. Lack of care can be addressed through • Provide competitive local employment in all aspects of business education. Often experiential, on-site operations. • Offer site-sensitive accommodations that are not wasteful of local learning is highly effective in changing resources or destructive to the environment and that provide ample people’s attitudes and opinions towards opportunities for learning about the environment and sensitive interchange protected areas, endangered species, and with local communities. conservation. Once people learn why it is (Adapted from TES, 1995) important to protect these areas, many will take more care. Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 65

FIGURE 20: Sustainable Tourism Accommodation circumstances present at each site, a more abstract and universal code of sustainable Characteristics practices that travellers can adopt includes Accommodations should be designed to: goals to: • Act in harmony with local natural and cultural environment, using principles • Travel in the spirit of humility and with a of sustainable design genuine desire to meet and talk with the • Minimise use of non-renewable energy local people • Work in harmony with the local community offering jobs with a wide range • Respect the ways of life and local of responsibilities and employment via contract with locally-owned vendors • Work to provide benefits to public and private local conservation and customs of the other environment or research initiatives country. Respond and adapt to them • Offer excellent interpretive programs to educate the visitor about the local • Act in a responsible and sensitive manner environment and culture towards the people, culture and physical • Offer a tourist an educational and participatory experience environment • Protect its operating environment. • Do not seek to exploit any economic (Hawkins, Epler Wood & Bittman, 1995) advantage the tourist may have which would diminish the standing of the host However, some damage may be caused – pay fair prices by visitors who place a high emphasis • Leave any place visited in at least as on personal goals. Some visitors have healthy a state as when the tourist first intentions to damage purposefully the arrived protected area in order to attain some • Remember that you are only one of objective they see as worthwhile. For thousands of visiting tourists. Do not example, some people may pick wild expect special privileges. flowers to decorate their picnic table. Others may collect plants for food. Others Guidelines for Companies Operating or may try to poach wildlife for medicinal Building In or Near a Protected Area purposes. While it is important that local Commercial developments inside protected people be able to acquire sustenance, it is areas should be regarded as exceptions, also important that unique species be impositions and interferences. Zoning of protected. In some situations regulations protected areas provides guidance for and police enforcement are necessary, appropriate and inappropriate location for especially when damaging and illegal park tourism infrastructure. For example, behaviour is occurring. It is hoped that no buildings should be erected within these types of visitors are uncommon – if zones of high levels of protection, such not, then in conjunction with strict as wilderness zones of a national park or enforcement, protected area managers core zones of a biosphere reserve. If should also take immediate actions to infrastructure already exists, efforts for encourage better self-selection of visitors sustainable operations should be made. whose belief systems will support goals of Where existing facilities conflict with the conservation and protection over self-benefit aims of the protected area, there should be of personal goals. a policy to re-design or remove them. In commercial development proposals, the Example of the types of statements that can development should be justified before be contained within a visitor’s best practice being built, and should remain justifiable code while in the protected area include: and within the confines of appropriate use. • Stay on marked paths • Carry out with you whatever plastic, If infrastructure is being developed outside cans, bottles, etc. you brought in the protected area boundaries, a number of • Stay a proper distance from animals well-understood characteristics can be (park specific, so park defines this) implemented to make the design more • Do NOT remove any shells, wood, environmentally friendly. Infrastructure stones, etc. should be developed and managed in an environmentally and culturally sensitive Another complementary method to manner. The philosophy of ecological remind visitors of their obligation to act sensitivity that underlies and defines appropriately and responsibly during their sustainable tourism operations should be visit to a protected area is to post signs that applied to buildling design. Other key depict permitted and prohibited activities. characteristics of sensitive design related to While it is important to outline specific the construction of tourist accommodations codes of visitor behaviours that relate to the are outlined in Figure 20. 66 Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia

In general, when creating environmentally United States and then summarised in a friendly building designs, various factors publication entitled Design that outlines should be considered, including: structures, plans, designs and layouts for a) environmental elements (e.g., various situations, are sometimes hydrology, climate) appropriate to construct (U.S. National Park b) human factors (e.g., local culture, Service, n.d.). Other times, something more historic site uses, owner’s plan) and creative or natural looking may be desired. c) the surrounding context (e.g., What Before the decision to build is made, are the adjacent land uses? Who are questions to consider include: the neighbouring communities? How • Who monitors the impact of the project can the design achieve harmony with the after its implementation? landscape and local architecture?). • Is tourism really appropriate for the Buildings should incorporate energy and specific area and site? water efficiency, environmentally friendly • If it is, how does it fit into the broader materials, sustainable methods of spectrum of sustainability? construction, and waste management. To be sustainable, development does Traditional infrastructure design, such as not have to be large and overwhelming. park structures and facilities which have The concept of small is beautiful can been built and proven successful in the be applied to both infrastructure and operations. Buildings do not become the focal point of the landscape, and local communities and people reap greater benefits when tourism operators and businesses remain independent and small scale (compared to international corporations whose purchasing and employment commitments are based off-shore).

For further information … Numerous publications exist that discuss best practices. For example, Best Practice Ecotourism – A Guide to Energy and Waste Minimisation (Commonwealth Department of Tourism, 1995), outlines new practices and technologies in energy and waste minimisation and provides practical information to assist tourism operators in modifying facilities, practices and business objectives to be more environmentally friendly. The Ecolodge Sourcebook for Planners & Developers (Hawkins, Epler-Wood & Bittman, 1995) describes in detail how to develop environmentally friendly accommodations. Paul F.J. Eagles F.J. Paul Kingfisher Bay Resort, Fraser Island, Queensland, Australia, is a large-scale, sensitively-designed, private ecotourism resort developed adjacent to a national park. The resort has won awards for environmentally sensitive design and operation. The extensive landscaping with native Australian plants helps the resort fit into the natural environment. Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 67

3.4 SUGGESTIONS all available information and professional judgement to develop levels Building upon the policy suggestions from of acceptable use for their areas. Once Section 2.8, the following recommendations levels of acceptable use are established, will further guide sustainable tourism desired standards to be maintained development in parks and protected areas: through sustainable tourism need to be identified. The degree to which these 1. Governments, protected area managers, standards are maintained needs to be and tourism sector staff in East Asia monitored regularly. should utilise the 15-item sustainable tourism action plan checklist (outlined 8. Requirements to set limits of acceptable in Figure 12) to guide sustainable use should be embodied in protected tourism development in and around area legislation. Managers of protected protected areas. areas should have the power to act quickly if inappropriate activities are 2. A sustainable tourism action plan should occurring to prevent or reduce damage be created for each protected area. This that may be caused. should be done in consultation with the tourism sector and the local communities. 9. All parks and protected areas should This tourism plan should be part of the use visitor management methods such overall park management plan that all as zoning, visitor channelling, protected areas must have for successful education, interpretation and policy long-term planning and management enforcement to ensure that tourism to occur. Conservation and tourism levels and impacts remain within objectives for each protected area need acceptable limits established for the to be identified. area. A monitoring program should be established to evaluate the success 3. Compile an inventory of each site’s of these management tools. Indicate natural and cultural characteristics, as how often evaluations will occur and well as existing and potential tourism how revisions will be incorporated opportunities. Park managers should use when necessary. hands-on knowledge and scientific research to develop an understanding of 10. All park agencies should support visitors’ needs, expectations, behaviours development and additions to and characteristics. environmental education and interpretation programs. Through such 4. The value of involving local people in programs visitors and local people planning and protection activities is increase their understanding and enormous and should be viewed as a appreciation of the area’s environmental necessity. Park managers should make and cultural features. Scientific research efforts to have ongoing contact and can be applied to the development of good working relations with local these programs. communities. Promote domestic capacity for participation in management of the 11. All proposals for tourism development protected area and enable benefits to in or near protected areas should be be distributed to local areas. subject to an environmental, social, cultural and economic assessment. 5. All stakeholders associated with Whenever possible, large-scale tourism tourism in parks and protected areas developments should not be located in should examine and pursue possible and around protected areas. Carefully partnership opportunities that bring consider small-scale tourism about greater sum benefits than when development proposals in the context of working alone. conservation and tourism objectives of 6. Zoning should be used in the planning the protected area, appropriate zoning process to identify areas which are best and desirability. Create or refine a suited for higher use levels along with formal evaluation process that can be the range of appropriate use levels for used to assess tourism development the areas of the site. proposals. 7. Limits of acceptable use should be part 12. Protected area agencies and staff should of the management plan for each site. learn and apply concepts of market Managers of protected areas must use research and product development to 68 Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia

management. Ideally, at least one staff 14. Both ecolabels and codes of conduct person within the agency should are aimed at improving environmental possess marketing expertise. Another performance within the tourism option is to build partnerships with industry, in all sectors (e.g., private other organisations or agencies whose companies, government agencies, staff can provide this type of input. visitors, etc.), and therefore should be further encouraged and supported. 13. Sufficient resources and training are needed to encourage the development of sustainable tourism, to repair existing damage, and to develop visitor management. All parks should assess resource needs and sources. All protected area agencies need to train and hire individuals who possess skills related to tourism competencies. Each protected area should have staff people who possess specialised training in visitor and tourism management. Paul F.J. Eagles F.J. Paul

Marenco Beach and Rainforest Lodge, , is an ecolodge on the Pacific Ocean coast adjacent to Corcovado National Park. It provides ecotourism accommodation and guided education experiences. All visitors move from the resort to the park by small boat (a low impact type of travel), as no roads or trails are provided. Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 69

4.1 INTRODUCTION 4.2 A BRIEF EXAMINATION OF HIGH-ALTITUDE Sustainable tourism development is a ENVIRONMENTS 4.0 desirable and necessary component of the overall planning and management regime Some jurisdictions in East Asia contain Sustainable of all protected areas. However, some areas high-altitude systems that are sensitive are more susceptible to tourism pressures to environmental and cultural changes than others. Certain environmental, social associated with an influx of tourists. Tourism in and cultural factors make particular For example, China has many mountains locations highly sensitive and harder to and boasts all of the world’s 14 highest repair if exposed to an onslaught of mountain peaks that are all more than High-Altitude unanticipated and poorly managed impacts 8,000 meters above sea level. of non-sustainable tourism. What makes High-altitude areas such as these contain certain areas so susceptible and what fragile ecosystems. and Marine precautions can be taken to ensure tourism development is sustainable in these areas? Mountain environments are fragile in relation to the introduction of new Two environments that are potentially agricultural and forestry land uses and Environments more susceptible to tourism pressures are technologies often associated with slow-growing, high-altitude areas and immigration. Tourists are often drawn to marine areas. Section 4 examines qualities areas where traditional ways of life are still that make these areas unique and why practised by unique cultures, or to extra care should be taken to plan for protected areas that are located far from sustainable tourism development in these developed urban areas. As increasing fragile environments. numbers of tourists travel to these areas, Fragile ecosystems are considered to be: interest in sustainable tourism development those plant and animal communities which often increases. Development of rural ethnic are particularly vulnerable to damage by areas to accommodate tourist interest and humans but those in slow-growing alpine demand brings with it improvements to regions and those in high latitudes in health care, improvements to transportation particular that have suffered very and education systems, and increased considerable destruction due to the low employment opportunities. These changes powers of regeneration and recovery. Wetland raise the level of social and economic living communities… are also considered fragile conditions and improve the overall quality communities in that they require very specific of life of area residents. As a result, people conditions of wetness and pH for their from other areas are sometimes drawn to survival (Jones, 1990, p. 180-181). tourism centres in hopes of also being able Fragile ecosystems are fragile either to benefit from the improvements inherently (e.g., wetland communities) associated with tourism development. or in relation to human activities (e.g., Two common themes expressed by fragile alpine and high-altitude ecosystems, and high-altitude mountain environments most desert and savannah ecosystems). world-wide are increased population The fact that human beings have become pressure and integration into external agents of change at a global scale (e.g., economic systems, which often coincides human population growth, urbanisation, with changes in patterns of land tenure. industrialisation, pollution and climate These are major contributing factors to change) has resulted in a the term fragile undesirable changes in the biophysical environments being used more generically environment (Price, 1996). Not only is the in a global sense. biophysical environment fragile, but so too are social structures. Examples of population pressure and tourism pressure experienced in Huangshan Mountain Scenic Spot are outlined in Case Study 9.

As noted in the introduction, Taiwan refers to Taiwan, Province of China. 70 Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia

CASE STUDY 9: Mountain Area Management

Huangshan Mountain Scenic Spot (China) – East Asia where migration to parks is occurring An Example of Pressures Caused by Tourists at a fast rate. and Local Migration to a Mountain Tourism Tourism development in Huangshan Mountain Area Scenic Spot offers important economic opportunities to farmers who live around the Introduction park. Thousands of farmers go to the mountain Huangshan Mountain is located 1,200 km south scenic spot to sell various services and products. of Beijing in the southern part of Anhui Province. Potential negative impacts include environmental Although it is not a mountain of religious problems (e.g. destruction of forest coverage significance, it has been worshipped since and reduction of wildlife and wild plant ancient times for its unique beauty, and has resources) and social problems (e.g. driven by inspired in a rich legacy of art and literature. benefits of selling product, some farmers were It is famous for its unusual pine trees, strange pushy, forcing visitors to buy their products rock shapes, spectacular sea of clouds through and sometimes cheating visitors with “Just as traditional which the peak protrudes, and thermal spring. expensive prices). uses of soils, water, It is considered to be a prime example of classic Chinese scenery. Other concerns include water supply, sewage plants, and animals – disposal and garbage management. The water The total area covers 1,200 km2 and extends supply at Huangshan Mountain is limited. often developed over across four counties, however, the main Underground water is the main source of water concentration of scenic spots cover an area of centuries (or longer) of to the area. Accommodations located in the core 154 km2. One of 44 major scenic sites, visiting area must carry bed sheets down the Huangshan Mountain Scenic Spot is one of experimentation to mountain to be washed and then brought back China’s top 10 attractions and the only mountain up. Restaurants in the core visiting area must minimise change in a listed in China’s Top Ten Scenic Spots. It is also wash and clean vegetables and other fresh foods a World Heritage Site designated by UNESCO for community’s outside the core visiting area, and then transport both cultural and natural heritage. biophysical life-support them to the restaurants. Right now the huge Several areas within the property have been amount of farmers and individual businesses system – may be intensely developed for visitors. A network of going to the area has magnified the problem. rapidly degraded by footpaths connects the various main scenic Other issues include sewage disposal and spots. Three routes lead up to the top of garbage. Garbage management and treatment external influences, Huangshan Mountain: a short but difficult route is a problem in East Asia, particularly around (3 hours long, 7.5 km), a long but easy route, tourism destinations. the community’s and a cable car. A minibus shuttles visitors from societal structures are the Huangshan Gate near the eastern steps to Actions to Address Concerns the lower cable car station. The ride up to the In 1987 the Huangshan municipal government equally susceptible to summit is short but line-ups can be over an hour was established in order to provide a unified change by external wait. If hiking, visitors travel for 10 hours on a administration over both the mountain and its round trip circuit. If visitors are planning on surrounding area. Its role is to protect better the human forces, whose staying overnight in one of the accommodations natural heritage of Huangshan Mountain, while magnitude and located on the mountaintop, it is also possible to also developing sustainable tourism options. hire a sedan chair pulled by two men. Conservation regulations adopted in by the potential impacts municipal government in 1989 resulted in the are not always Visitor Numbers establishment of the Huangshan Mountain Apart from temples being constructed and Scenic Spot Management Committee. The predictable.” access routes built the property remained largely management committee is responsible for undeveloped until this century. Now some areas protection, management and development of the (Price, 1996, p. 5) are extensively developed. In 1979 there were property, including the implementation of the approximately 280,000 visitors to Huangshan, Huangshan Mountain Scenic Spot General almost none of which were foreigners. At that Management Plan. time, facilities could accommodate 4,000 The primary objective of the management plan is visitors overnight. In 1989 visitor numbers to conserve the beauty and natural resources of roughly doubled to approximately 500,000. the site. Issues addressed include pressures of The area now receives over one million visits high visitor use, technical capabilities for fire- annually. Visitor numbers can be as large as fighting, communications, environmental 10,000 visitors per day on holidays such as monitoring and pollution control. Regulations International Labour Day (May 1st) and prohibit harmful activities (e.g. cultivation, National Holiday (October 1st). collecting wood for fuel, livestock grazing, mining enterprises, etc.). Construction is prohibited Management Concerns within the buffer zone if it is likely to harm the The large numbers of visitors that ascend environment. The property is divided into six Huangshan Mountain is a major management tourist zones and five protection zones. Scenic issue. A second management issue relates to resources are graded on a scale of one to three, migration to the area. Numerous farmers have each grade having its own set of conservation moved to the area to reap benefits associated regulations. with tourists (e.g. opportunities to earn money). Huangshan is one of many places throughout Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 71

Within the plan, various strategies are being businesses and instituting regulations. In order to implemented in order to relieve pressure from enhance the local people’s knowledge of the intense visitor numbers. These strategies include public proclamation, the management committee methods to control visitor impacts (as discussed sent education teams to the villages around the in Section 3.2.6) including guiding visitors’ park to educate people, and to connect the idea behaviours through education, restricting access of protecting Huangshan Mountain with tangible or visitor numbers in certain areas, and benefits associated with sustainable tourism implementing differential pricing fees. development. If the local farmers benefit from tourism, they will be more likely to support A key strategy being implemented is to develop conservation efforts. The management the area around Huangshan Mountain in order to committee also tried to establish concentrated relieve pressure from high levels of use on the living areas, and arrange other jobs or mountaintop. The mountain environment can be supplementary money to encourage local people highly sensitive to visitor pressures. Development to stop harmful businesses and have their losses of areas that are located at lower, less sensitive supplemented as ways to address the sites is an excellent way of addressing this problematic situation. concern. An example of such development is in the Yang Lake area near the northern park gate Now 80% of the farmers who live in and around of Huangshan Mountain. Development of areas Huangshan Mountain have become rich. Good that are not on the fragile mountaintop can relationships between the local community and redirect visitors from overcrowded areas and thus the park have promoted stability and relieve some pressure experienced in key areas. development of Huangshan Mountain Scenic It also facilitates day visits to Huangshan Spot. The management committee also Like other Mountain with an opportunity to sleep in the less connected with local government and 23 nearby uncontrolled forms of fragile development areas at night. villages to sign a fire-fighting treaty, and also improved infrastructure including communication In regards to pressures associate with migration migration, rapid and fire-fighting equipment. to the area, a main goal of encouraging tourism tourism development to the area is to improve local economic This case study reveals the need for a clearly causes development. If individual farmers were management plan that understands the tourism prohibited from running their business, the issues as well as provides options and solutions problems, and the best conflict between scenic spots and the to these issues. It is critically important to have a community would grow stronger, and this ban competent management agency that is capable counter to this, again, would also go directly against the purpose of of long-term implementation of the plan. The may be found in encouraging tourism as a means of improving management plan is currently being local economic development. The management implemented, and the results and success of the institutions strongly committee worked with Huangshan city council project are being monitored. supported, if not to establish and officially announced the existence of the Huangshan Scenic Spot General Web site: http://www.intohuangshan.com initiated, at the local Management Plan and public proclamation Email: [email protected] declaring that protection of the area was a level, and the sensible For further information: primary goal, along with satisfying visitors and Huangshan Scenic Spot Management Committee implementation of meeting local peoples’ needs. Directors: Xuefan Hu and Zhi Li Anhui Province, 242709 policies that carry a The management committee is trying to relocate the farmers down the mountain in 2 to 3 years People’s Republic of China wide range of by educating people, suppressing illegal Telephone: 86-0559-5562190 or 86-0559-5562848 community approval.

(Price, 1996) For more information: conferences in the Asia-Pacific region. The International Centre for Integrated Mountain The Asia Pacific Mountain Network (APMN) is a Development (ICIMOD) based in Kathmandu, regional network consisting of mountain Nepal serves as the Secretariat of the APMN and inhabitants, peoples, communities, coordinates the network. professionals, planners, and decision-makers. Launched in November 1995 with a grant from Contact Information: the Swiss Agency for Development Cooperation Asia Pacific Mountain Network (APMN) Website: (SDC), APMN works to raise mountain issues at http://www.apmn.mtnforum.org the local, national, and international levels, Email: [email protected] facilitate dialogue and improved communication between mountain communities and decision- Mountain Forum Website: makers, and catalyse global action towards http://www.mtnforum.org/mtnforum/index.html equitable and ecologically sustainable mountain International Centre for Integrated Mountain development. It enables distant mountain areas Development (ICIMOD) to rapidly share successful interventions and best Website: http://www.icimod.org.sg practices. It also serves as Asia and the Pacific regional node for the Mountain Forum (a global ICIMOD Mailing Address network for sustainable mountain development) P.O. Box 3226 which provides APMN members with a direct link Kathmandu, Nepal to the global mountain community through Telephone: 977-1-525313 electronic discussion lists and electronic Fax: 977-1-524509/536747 72 Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia

4.3 AN IN-DEPTH The variety and complexity of threats in EXAMINATION OF coastal zones is large. Examples of direct MARINE ENVIRONMENTS degradation include over-fishing, debris build-up through ocean dumping, poisoning of marine organisms, wetlands conversion, 4.3.1 Defining the Marine coastal deforestation, dynamiting of coral Environment reefs, harvesting endangered species and The marine environment is critical to the habitat alteration of sea walls, dykes and natural and cultural heritage of the world. harbours (Agardy, 1993). Indirect impacts Coastal and marine areas are abundant may seem insignificant due to their subtle “The nature of throughout the East Asia region. On a nature, however, over time they can inflict the marine global scale, identification and management chronic damage to the environment. environment is such of marine protected areas is a recent Examples include downstream effects of development in comparison to terrestrial river pollution, nutrient loading of coastal that there are national systems. The World Conservation Union waters from upstream rivers and runoff, and international defines a marine protected area as any changes in ecosystem community structure responsibilities for the “area of intertidal or subtidal terrain, due to loss of a key species or introduction together with its overlying water and of a foreign species, and changes in proper stewardship of associated flora, fauna, historical and ecosystem functions caused by loss or the living and non- cultural features, which has been reserved degradation of a linked critical habitat living resources of by law or other effective means to protect (Agardy, 1993). part or all of the enclosed environment” coastal and deeper (Kelleher, Bleakley & Wells, 1995, p. 2). ocean seas and the 4.3.2 Approaches to Marine The designation marine or coastal protected Conservation seabed to ensure area encompasses a range of areas, from Effective coastal management must their maintenance and small marine parks assigned to protect a accommodate human needs and potentially appropriate use for the specific endangered species, a unique habitat or a site of historical or cultural conflicting uses in a systematic and direct benefit and interest, to vast reserves that target a whole comprehensive way (Agardy, 1993). The marine environment is a large and enjoyment of present range of conservation, economic and social intricately linked system. This means that and future objectives (Agardy, 1993). Generally, large protected areas such as multiple-use marine attempts to conserve it need to focus on generations. The parks embrace a wider range of objectives more than protecting small individual components or sectors one at a time. development of such managed through a more complex set of The close interaction between the marine stewardship requires jurisdictions than small parks. Types of protection include parks, biosphere environment and the adjoining land coordination and reserves, and marine sanctuaries “imposes an urgent need for the integration of protected area management and an integrated (Agardy, 1993). overall conservation strategy in the coastal management of a Coral reefs are among the world’s most zone” (Kelleher et al., 1995, p. 5). Marine number of potentially biologically rich and productive ecosystems protected areas should be managed as part on earth. These and related ecosystems of a broader program. Wherever possible, competing uses at such as mangroves, seagrass beds, wetlands management of marine protected areas international, regional, and estuaries support a large diversity of should be coordinated with the national, and local plants, animals and habitats. They provide management of adjacent land areas. food, minerals, pharmaceuticals, levels” construction materials and many other Kelleher and Kenchington (1991) identify three general approaches to marine (Kelleher and Kenchington, products. Along with the aforementioned 1991, p. 10). ecosystems, beaches, dunes and cliffs, conservation: islands, deep sea and open ocean are also 1. Regulation and management of included under the umbrella category of individual marine activities (e.g., marine protected areas. Despite the commercial fishing) by specialist valuable contributions made by marine agencies, not necessarily with resources to overall human well-being, coordination of regulation between many marine ecosystems face serious different agencies nor coordination of threats, such as overexploitation, management of adjacent lands pollution, conflicting uses of resources and degradation and destruction of habitat 2. Establishment of small marine protected (Hooten and Hatziolos, 1995). areas that provide special protection for particularly valuable areas within the Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 73

broad areas which were subject to 4.3.3 Differences Between regulations in the first approach or to no Terrestrial and Marine regulation at all Planning 3. Establishment of a large, multiple-use The primary reasons for creating marine protected area with an integrated protected areas are the same as for management system that provides terrestrial protected areas, however, varying levels of protection throughout differences in the nature of marine the area. Ideally this approach includes ecosystems must be considered. coordinated management of marine and Marine protected areas are almost always terrestrial areas in the coastal zone and associated with large, dynamic, open beyond, however due to complexity of ecosystems and where rates of change boundaries and competition of associated with many important ecological jurisdictional responsibility, this is not processes involve relatively little time. In always feasible. contrast, terrestrial parks are usually Regardless of the specific approach, an associated with semi-closed ecosystems overall management plan for the area is dominated by components that are necessary. Similar to terrestrial park essentially fixed in space and subject to management plans, marine park rates of change over relatively long periods management plans should include a section of time (Parks Canada, 1994). Events and that addresses human use and tourism impacts originating outside the protected influences. General functions incorporated area travel more freely through the within an integrated management plan marine environment. This means that the minimum size necessary for viability is include: limiting levels of inputs to the many times larger than minimum viable marine environment, establishing size of terrestrial reserve. sustainable levels of harvesting or resource extraction, and designating areas for The water column pollutants reference, research, non-extractive from far distances (e.g., atmosphere, recreation, and subsistence of local people. upstream run-off) making marine protected areas vulnerable to downstream effects. In Case Study 10, examples of the multiple Planners and managers need to be aware considerations that must be addressed in of events occurring outside the boundaries marine park planning and management of the protected marine area, so that they are outlined for Soufrière Marine are able to take action against potentially Management Area. damaging inputs arriving through the The complex interaction of socio-economic water column. From a positive perspective, and political factors within the communities because marine populations are more that use and influence the marine area affected through the water column by influences the type of approach that works events originating outside the area, best for each situation. Australia’s Great marine ecosystems have a higher Barrier Reef Marine Park Act has a single capacity to restock and regenerate than integrative, legislative mechanism that is terrestrial communities. successful. The best approach usually On land, most often the habitat that is involves collaboration between many critical for the survival of an endangered parties across national and international species is protected. This type of protection jurisdictional boundaries (Kelleher & on land usually receives support. In the sea Kenchington, 1991). UNEP Regional Seas though species survival is not usually Programme is an example of a framework linked to one specific site. This is because that recognises the linkage of management species are rarely restricted to a specific issues. “Usually effective management for habitat location. Several species undertake protection, conservation and sustainable far-ranging migrations associated with their use of marine environments will require feeding or reproductive cycles. In the sea, collaboration and co-operation across protected area boundaries are not usually jurisdictional boundaries within and based on a specific habitat linked to the between several nations” (Kelleher & survival of a specific species. More often Kenchington, 1991, p. 13). water boundaries are either based on protection of a particularly good example of habitat type with high genetic diversity of species, or protection of critical habitat for 74 Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia

CASE STUDY 10: Multi-stakeholder Involvement in Marine Area Management

Soufrière Marine Management Area (St. Lucia) – An Example of Tourism Management Considerations in a Sensitive Marine Environment

Soufrière Marine Management Area was established in 1994 to protect and manage marine resources, including coral reefs, near the island of St. Lucia in the Caribbean Sea. It is funded by various government agencies, and by the sale of goods, user fees and an

active Friends Group of volunteers. The park Chris Huxley is managed by the Soufrière Foundation and video and the internet are used to disseminate Department of Fisheries, under the guidance information on the park and its use. Private dive of a Technical Advisory Committee comprised of operators are required to give specific training key management authorities and user groups. and guidance to divers. Each year the park attracts around 3,600 yachts, 5,000 boats, 21,000 snorkellers and The Soufrière Marine Management Area has 12,000 divers. monitoring programs designed to measure change of the ecosystem in response to human The park was created after a lengthy negotiation activities and environmental impact. The routine process between the government, the local measurements attempt to track environmental, fishing community, dive operators and other biological and socio-economic variables at key shore-based interests. The park tourism replaced locations in the area over the long term. some of the local reliance on fishing. The Research projects are designed to improve fisherman gave up access to near-shore fishing knowledge and understanding of the structure areas in return for other employment and function of the marine ecosystem of the opportunities, provision of small business loans, Soufrière coast. They range from studies of and other economic alternatives. The marine coral fish migration to profiles of the reserve now provides excellent fisheries’ Soufrière community. spawning and replenishment functions for a much larger area. This Marine Park was granted the 1997 British Airways/World Conservation Union Award for The park area is divided into zones, each with excellence in park tourism. It is a good example an activity profile. Some polluting activities are of careful community development, multi- placed into zones acknowledging the activity. The stakeholder management, sensitive tourism park managers established a visitor management development, and good planning. The program, with specific emphasis on controlling management frameworks allow visitor use the numbers and activities of the divers attracted without negative impact on the marine resource. to the marine resources. Yacht anchoring is As a result of all the efforts, an important marine restricted to a few selected areas. In these yacht resource in the Caribbean Sea is protected and zones approximately 60 mooring stations have well managed. been installed for anchoring. Marine biologists have confirmed that some reefs are already Web site: http://www.smma.org.lc/ showing progress in recovering from previous damage due these management actions. For further information: Soufrière Marine Management Area Box 305, 3 Bay Street, The park has an active education and Soufrière, St. Lucia, West Indies. Telephone: interpretation program. Lectures, brochures, (758) 459-5500. Fax: (758) 459-7799

commercially or recreationally important The effects of pollution and over- species. exploitation are critical concerns in marine protected areas since the gradual alterations Buffer zones, often applied successfully to they cause on the physical, chemical and terrestrial protected areas, are sometimes biological processes are not often impractical in marine protected areas due immediately apparent. Critical concerns on to the linear nature of some coastal land are more often related to habitat loss environments, along with heavy established and fragmentation linked to forestry, use. Because of the open nature of the agriculture and transportation which are marine system, attempts to protect a more visible. community or fragile habitat may only be achieved by making protected areas On land, management plans usually sufficiently large so that some part of the obstruct the removal of native species, critical community remains relatively whereas establishment of marine protected undisturbed. areas is often feasible only if controlled Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 75

exploitation is allowed to continue in some protection of marine resources is a new or areas of the protected area. This exploitation recent endeavour for which adequate must be compatible with the protection of legislation may not yet exist. Review and the area. Consideration of continuing revision of existing legislation and human use within and adjacent to marine development of new legislation is helpful protected areas should play a role in their when developing a management program selection, design and management. Even (Kelleher & Kenchington, 1991). Review though protection without alteration by helps confirm that legislation concerning human activity is often adopted as an living resources provides sufficiently for acceptable management philosophy to conservation, and also provides the terrestrial areas, it is necessary to embrace opportunity to strengthen the capacity to a wider number of concepts including implement conservation legislation. preservation, maintenance, sustainable Declaration and management of new use and restoration of the natural marine marine protected areas can be achieved environment in the management of marine through a range of options, from creating protected areas. new specific purpose legislation to continued use of existing legislation with 4.3.4 Legislation for Marine minor modifications (Kelleher & Protected Areas Kenchington, 1991). The complexity of legislation and Objectives for education, conservation, jurisdictions affecting the marine recreation and scientific research should environment can be challenging. Federal be written into legislation. If it is not done, acts, regional acts, and international and conservation is not given a high conventions and accords all relate to the priority, then declaring protected areas may protection and use of marine environments be an empty political gesture. Conservation and resources. Close collaboration and co- must be a primary objective in resource operation across many jurisdictions and management legislation in order to ensure boundaries are necessary for long-term sustained use and enjoyment of the protection of marine environments, resource (Kelleher & Kenchington, 1991). especially considering the open nature Zoning is an essential part of the national of the ecosystem and the strong link to marine conservation area management upstream terrestrial activities (World plan (World Commission on Protected Commission on Protected Areas, 1999a). Areas, 1999a). Zoning reflects a continuum For some countries, a broad, integrated of protection and use. Types of zoning approach to conservation, management and that are especially effective in marine environments include temporal and vertical zoning, since they provide flexibility and objectivity in harmonising use. For example, temporal zoning could prohibit visitor access to, or commercial fishing near, a particular fish spawning ground, sea bird colony or whale calving area during the reproductive season but allow it throughout other, less critical periods. Depending on the factors involved, the time span may be long-term, seasonal, cyclical or even daily. Vertical zoning at different depths below the water’s surface may also be appropriate in some situations where, for example, certain species or habitats require absolute protection while fishing, transportation or recreational uses continue at or near the surface of the water (Parks Canada, 1994). Paul F.J. Eagles F.J. Paul Motorized recreational vehicles, such as this jet boat in Hanmer Gorge, New Zealand, can have negative impacts on both the ecology and on the leisure experience of other users. 76 Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia

In other cases, a marine conservation area 4.4 SUGGESTIONS may encompass an existing protected area where the degree of protection and allowed Suggestions for special areas within the uses do not correspond precisely to the protected area systems in East Asia include: national marine conservation area zoning definitions. In this situation, where the 1. Incorporate any special considerations existing protected area contributes to the related to protected area management of overall purpose and objectives of the fragile high-altitude environments. conservation area, it may be designated 2. Recreation groups, such as divers or as a special-use zone to ensure its mountain climbers, can often be key function and identity remain intact allies in alpine and marine area (Parks Canada, 1994). conservation. Park managers should Since protected area systems in the marine make special effort to work co- environment are less developed than operatively with such groups. terrestrial systems, it may be necessary 3. Confirm and improve the comprehensive first to focus on proper system selection design and effective management of a and establishment before addressing other representative system of marine issues such as visitor management and protected areas. sustainable tourism development. Necessary steps for encouraging 4. Continuing human use within and development and effective administration adjacent to marine protected areas of a national marine system are should play a role in the selection, summarised in Figure 21. The concepts design and management of marine can also be applied to any terrestrial system protected areas. The framework provided to confirm and improve the comprehensive by UNEP’s Regional Seas Programmes design of the system. encourages regional co-operation for integrated planning for the use and protection of large marine ecosystems. 5. Marine conservation is often poorly FIGURE 21: Development of National Marine Protected understood by the public. Therefore, Area Systems high levels of marine conservation In the context of encouraging development and effective administration of a education needs to be provided in all national marine (or terrestrial) system all relevant stakeholders should: marine conservation areas. • Agree on a classification system, including identified bio-geographic regions • Review existing protected areas, to establish the level of representation of 6. Many countries in the world are each classification category within those areas encountering similar challenges with • Determine existing and planned levels of use and the likely effects of marine and alpine conservation. East those uses Asia park agencies should encourage • Identify potential areas consistent with above objectives and determine their managers to establish and maintain priorities for their establishment and management contacts with park managers in other • Develop and implement extensive community education programs aimed at countries that have similar conservation specific groups to stimulate crucial community support and awareness and to achieve substantial self-regulation challenges. Such contacts can be • Allocate sufficient resources for development and implementation of invaluable for the exchange of valuable management plans, for review processes, for interpretation, for education, management experiences. for training, for volunteer programs, for research, for monitoring, for surveillance, and for enforcement programs. (Kelleher & Kenchington, 1991) Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 77

5.1 IMPLEMENTING SUSTAINABLE TOURISM

5.0 Striving for sustainable tourism is a challenge faced by all people involved in protected area tourism. Some progress is Conclusions being made, but a portion of tourism is still unsustainable and is damaging these special areas. Especially in rural areas,

short-term economic benefits of mass Jiun-Chuan Lin tourism can cloud the greater long-term Long-term planning, such as establishing limits of benefits of more sustainable forms of acceptable use, affect how a site is developed. tourism. Implementing sustainable tourism This bridge, which is a structure in Fushan Botanical Garden in Taiwan, was designed to ensures long-term benefits to both the accommodate the 400 people granted entrance environment and communities within. per day. Necessary elements of sustainable tourism have been highlighted throughout this Other decisions need to be made as a result document. In order for sustainable tourism of issues, conflicts or situations that are efforts to succeed, there is a clear need for: presently occurring and have caught the • Combined long-term planning efforts and attention of park managers. For example, immediate action if a visitor accidentally starts a fire that • Ongoing and continual efforts begins to burn out of control, the park • Encouragement to adopt sustainable manager must deal with this situation practices immediately. Unplanned developments of • Communication amongst all stakeholders this sort are an expected part of routine • Widespread political and financial tasks and problem solving. Another support example involves the distribution of • Sustainable financing. management funds. Each year the park manager must examine the available budget, prioritise projects, and designate The Need for Combined funds accordingly. These types of decisions Long-term Planning Efforts affect immediate and short-term situations and Immediate Action in the park, and are often made by the park Making tourism sustainable requires the manager alone, or in consultation with a ability to look to the future and focus on small number of others. These decisions are long-term relationships amongst tourism, often reactionary rather than designed with development and the environment. It also forethought. When dealing with current requires the ability to insert this long-term management situations on a regular basis, vision into daily efforts that focus on how it is possible to forget to refocus on the best to respond to the current tasks and long-term issues and vision of the future as issues immediately facing park managers well. Park managers must try to achieve a that day, or week or month. balance between focusing on long-term planning and tasks that require Long-term planning decisions must be immediate doing. made regarding limits of acceptable use, facility design, energy use, transportation, The degree to which different decisions waste disposal, and available resources support or impede sustainability of the when designing tourism facilities and project varies. For example, it may be services. These types of decisions will cheaper to use non-local material, but impact the overall, long-term tourism benefits of using local building material development of a site. For example, may be increased harmony with the deciding upon limits of acceptable use environment. On the other hand, using will determine the types and amounts of local material may have a local negative infrastructure that is required within the environmental impact if the required park. This infrastructure will be in place materials are scarce. Whatever choice is for years to come. Decisions such as these made, it will impact sustainability of the are often very complex, and it is good to area. Decisions such as this one are seek opinions and assistance from a broad partially based on individual judgement. range of other people during the decision- Sometimes park managers must be able making process. to consider the various issues and make As noted in the introduction, Taiwan refers to Taiwan, Province of China. 78 Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia

a decision without much guidance. areas for improvement. A balance must Fortunately, guidelines, frameworks and be created between long-term visionary other sources are available to assist in the planning and immediate actions that fulfil decision-making process. present needs. Although immediate action is often used to address some pressing While some decisions are based largely needs, hopefully some portion of immediate on individual judgement, others are based actions involve consideration of how the on regulations or restrictions. For example, present actions will impact the natural and if developers are legally required to human dimensions of the area in the long conduct an environmental impact term. Through this, a sustainable planning assessment as part of the approval process and management process will occur. The for development, the decision to conduct process should be aimed at improving such an environmental impact assessment and/or protecting the environmental, social, may mean that developers are simply economic and cultural elements in any following the rules. If they do not conduct given location. one, it is easy for park managers to make the decision to not accept the proposal, since the regulation was not fulfilled. It is The Need for Ongoing and the responsibility of every individual, Continual Efforts organisation and business to act in an “A structured and well-planned approach is ethical and conscientious manner when essential if tourism in and around protected making decisions that will possibly affect areas is to become sustainable” (FNNPE, the local people, the tourists and the 1993, p. 60). The 15-item checklist for environment. Government legislation and developing a sustainable tourism action policies can be created to encourage plan outlined in Figure 12 offers a set of unwilling participants to think about the guidelines or a framework to support impacts that today’s choices can have on proper and effective planning of new and tomorrow’s outcomes. existing tourism developments within parks Long-term planning ensures that the future and protected areas. It is through the is considered during the decision-making continual and ongoing application and process. Focusing on long-term planning revision of this framework that sustainable encourages decision-makers to ask the tourism developments are achieved. question “How do we want this area to be Do not think of sustainable tourism as a twenty years from now?” A common vision checklist where items can be checked off can be determined, and referred to when and are not referred to again. Instead, think choosing between alternative paths upon of it as a never-ending dance that revisits which to proceed. Identifying short-term the same important elements (outlined in and medium-term goals as action steps or Figure 12) to the process time and time benchmarks for long-term planning enables again. These issues need to be examined stakeholders to prioritise the areas of the repeatedly to assess their current state project where energy and finances are to be (which changes continually if efforts are concentrated. Often there is not enough being made to induce change) from the money, time or staff available to accomplish perspectives of both long-term vision and an ideal amount of change. An old adage immediate action. advised that a journey of a thousand miles begins with the first step. It is necessary to Understanding the theory behind sustainable identify the resources that are currently tourism development is one accomplishment. available, and then allocate where they are It is possible to read this document and most needed in order to begin the process understand the concepts being discussed. of consciously choosing to plan and A more difficult accomplishment is to manage protected areas in a sustainable transfer the theory successfully to real manner. These immediate choices can situations in real locations. be guided by overall long-term goals that Efforts to apply sustainable development act as reminders of desired future concepts are being made throughout the accomplishments. world. A small portion of projects have As illustrated through the case studies successfully adopted sustainable tourism presented in this document, different concepts and applied them to all major projects advance at different rates, and domains of operation. Examples of such each situation has different strengths and projects include the four international case Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 79

studies that illustrate outstanding park grandchildren will look very different. tourism, as well as the Mai Po case study. This should be sufficient motivation to It is very likely that the valuable natural, change the damaging and thoughtless cultural, social and economic integrity of behaviours that are destroying areas rich these areas will remain intact based on the in natural and cultural significance. current situations that exist. However, no Unfortunately, this realisation is not project is ever at the point where no further universal, and there are many barriers on efforts for improvement need to be made. the path to adopting sustainable practices. Once the project is running smoothly, more Motivation to pursue sustainable practices efforts can be invested in monitoring and can be derived from the realisation by evaluating the success in different domains. stakeholder groups that, once established, Also, unexpected changes sometimes sustainable tourism will generate resources occur for which adjustments will need for conservation of the protected areas and to be made. for the local economies. Emotive and Many projects are still working to apply logical reasons that motivate people to sustainable tourism concepts to the various take action to change sometimes do not domains of operation. The levels of success produce sufficient momentum to vary between different aspects of any successfully work through barriers. particular project. Some domains of For example, a lack of resources to begin “In the end we will operations will be well developed, whereas the project may prevent people from even conserve only what other domains will still need considerable thinking about how to make their we love; we will love efforts before a sustainable state is reached. operations and decisions sustainable. In For example, limits of acceptable change some situations, change is desired, but only what we may be well understood and applied to there is no hope or understanding of how understand; and we planning and management of a particular to transfer the idea into reality. Understanding will understand only site. However, the site may rely on the importance of adopting sustainable government funds as its sole source of practices is a good start. what we are taught.” income and the amount the government One incentive to adopt sustainable practices provides is insufficient. An area of – Baba Dioum is provided through learning about how improvement at this site would be to people will benefit from their efforts. broaden methods of generating further Intrinsic motivation (e.g., desire to do that income. Case studies from East Asia were which is best) is usually not sufficient on used to highlight strong aspects of various its own to change peoples’ actions. Other projects. In many projects, some aspects incentives must also be used. Especially of sustainable tourism development are for projects that are being converted from running smoothly while other aspects still traditional non-sustainable forms of need more work. Efforts to create tourism, short-term resources and sustainable tourism must be ongoing since incentives may be necessary in order to there are so many domains that need work. speed up the process and repair damage It is important to recognise sustainable that has already occurred. Incentive tourism development as a process rather measures are one way to encourage local than a one-time event. people, tourism operators and other stakeholders to adopt sustainable tourism The Need for Encouragement to practices. It is possible to create Adopt Sustainable Practices inducements that are specifically intended to motivate government, local people, and Whenever any person actually pauses international organisations to conserve from the hectic world that is driven by biological diversity. Incentives are used profit and productivity and steps out of the to divert resources such as land, capital, self-centred, self-important roles to which and labour towards conserving biological humans unconsciously assign themselves, resources and to facilitate the participation it becomes highly evident that our planet is of certain groups or agents in work which in peril. The earth’s natural spaces are will benefit these resources (McNeely, 1988). being consumed at an alarming rate by development, urban sprawl, pollution, A desirable option is to involve local farming, and other human activities. communities as early as possible during the Ideally, the realisation occurs to each planning stages. A fundamental assumption person that without drastic and immediate behind incentive measures is that they action, the world that is passed to our influence the decision-making process, 80 Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia

which means that input from relevant The Need for Communication stakeholders is necessary throughout the Amongst All Stakeholders review, design and implementation process. Communication is a key element to Environmental and cultural conservation achieving success in the process of should always remain the top priority, since establishing sustainable tourism practices. without the precious wildlife, landscapes, First, it is important that governments and and cultures, the very foundation of institutions provide a method for effective tourism will be lost. and ongoing communication between higher authorities (e.g., head offices in For further information… government agencies) and park staff at individual sites located throughout the A technical paper on incentive measures jurisdiction. One aspect of achieving (Bagri & Vohries, 1999) entitled, Incentive operating effectiveness within the Measures to Encourage the Application of the government or agency is to create open Wise Use Principle, urges contracting parties to the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands to review communications between employees, which their existing, or evolving policy, legal and facilitates the sharing of goals, problems institutional frameworks. They were are and concerns, and potential solutions. encouraged to identify and promote those measures which encourage conservation and Looking beyond any specific institution or wise use of wetlands and to identify and group, protected area managers, tourism remove any counterproductive measures. The business staff and local people need to paper presents a useful table of categories of make frequent efforts to communicate instruments or measures available for the with one another. Through communication, conservation and sustainable use of biological each other’s needs and concerns can be resources. Three general categories (tax policy, expressed and understood. They can be enforcement, institutional mechanisms) have various sub-categories, for which there are taken into consideration when negotiating several instruments available. The paper decisions related to the tourism and can be accessed online at web site: management of the park and surrounding http://ramsar.org/cop7_doc_18.3_e.htm areas. Ongoing communication makes it possible to build working partnerships. It also develops a closer working relationship that facilitates skill and knowledge contribution from all interested parties towards the ongoing planning and management of the area. Often, more can be accomplished in partnership than through unconnected individual efforts. Examples where efforts are being made to design new projects or convert existing situations into sustainable tourism need to be shared amongst professionals on a national and international level, at conferences, workshops, and other meetings. The East Asia meeting of WCPA members provides one such venue for valuable knowledge-sharing opportunities. Attempts by individual park managers or Paul F.J. Eagles F.J. Paul tourism operators to convert tourism Long Point Provincial Park, Ontario, Canada. practices in protected areas to sustainable Parks provide valuable resources for all levels of environmental education for school children, ones are an essential component. Political including advanced education in ecology for and financial support for sustainable university students. Here Professor Eagles tourism from higher authorities at a provides instruction in sand dune ecology. system-wide level is also critical. Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 81

The Need for Widespread protection. With abundant opportunities Political, Institutional, Legal and for park interpretation, environmental Financial Support education, school education and consultation in decision-making, people All parks and protected areas function will gain a life-long love and respect for within a society. They are established by the park and its special resources. When government laws and regulations. Funding sufficient numbers of people have such usually comes mainly from government. feelings, then political, institutional, legal Local people are impacted by park and financial support should follow. decisions. Local visitors and tourists spend scarce money and time on their visits. Allocation of financial and human resources Companies and individuals that provide by national and jurisdictional governments services to the park are very interested in is currently insufficient in many areas of the park and its policies. Clearly, the park East Asia, and greater political and financial and all its policies are critically dependent commitments must be made. A critical step upon the support of many groups and towards gaining these commitments is the stakeholders, such as governments, local development of a mobilised constituency of people, and tourists. interested and committed park visitors. If parks and protected areas are to thrive, “Just as land they must have sufficient financial The Need for Sustainable Financing resources and sufficient staffing and and resource All planning and management actions are political resources. None of this can exist only possible if sustainable financing exists. development must without public support. Parks must have It is necessary that every protected area be environmentally public support. Therefore, it is critical that have a realistic budget. Without a sufficient park managers and other park supporters sustainable to meet budget for basic and essential operating make it a high priority to help the park gain costs (e.g., wages, vehicles, building long-term objectives widespread political, institutional, legal maintenance), in the long term, no for improving and financial support. protected area can succeed. A secured human welfare, so The most critical group of all is the park minimal annual budget supplied by the conservation efforts visitors, the tourists. These people must be protected area government agency frees sufficiently satisfied with the park, its staff to seek additional project funding must be financially environment, programs and facilities, to from other sources. If funds are not sustainable to become motivated supporters. If the park sufficient to cover basic operating costs, ensure long-term develops a sufficiently-large, motivated it is more difficult to attract high calibre constituency of park visitors, it will soon professionals to manage parks and work environmental gain political support from governments. within the protected area system. protection and The park visitors will make it their business Government budgets are limited, and to inform government officials of the value continuous benefits.” often the funds that are available from and the needs of the park. The visitors will (Hooten and Hatziolos, government agencies who manage also take on the job of protecting the park 1995, p. v) protected areas are not sufficient. It is from the assaults from non-sustainable necessary to develop innovative approaches activities such as resource extraction. and to form partnerships to generate The visitors will help fund the park sufficient funds so that sustainable through the payment of fees. They may financing occurs. Hooten and Hatziolos lobby government for more funds when the (1995) and IUNC (1996) discuss methods needs of the park become obvious to them. of generating finances, which include: They become a key part of the park’s • Challenge grants where governments political structure. promise to match private donations How can the park gain the support of its • Farm partnerships with non-government visitors? When people visit the park they organisations and the private sector must be given opportunities to learn about • Hold annual donation campaigns the unique and important environments • Use tax incentives, such as tax that exist there. It is important that visitors deductions for donations to protected feel special, feel connected to the unique areas, or tax charges for development environments and cultural resources of the projects that result in losses of site. The site’s environmental and cultural biodiversity significance must be emotionally connected • Collect rent for resource uses from to the life of the visitor. They must come fisheries or tourism to accept some responsibility for the park’s 82 Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia

• Sell attractive items such as publications, to again. Instead, think of it as a never- videos, badges and other souvenirs ending dance that revisits the same • Conduct research that evaluates and important elements to the process time publicises the economic benefits of and time again. protected areas and feasibility of 3. Develop incentive measures that will integrated conservation and development influence the decision-making process. • Establish and utilise trust funds. Create inducements that are specifically Parks, for example, can generate funds intended to motivate government, local through tourist levies, entry charges, people, and international organisations royalties and user fees. As well, private and to conserve biological and cultural voluntary sectors can be encouraged to diversity. Review existing legislation and invest in the park system. International economic policies to identify and organisations and the tourism sector are promote incentives for the conservation also able to contribute funds towards and sustainable use of the resources, sustainable nature-based tourism efforts. stressing removal or mitigation on incentives that threaten biological For further information… diversity. For an excellent source of information about 4. Make ongoing efforts to communicate developing political and financial support, refer with all stakeholders, including to A Regional Action Plan for Protected Areas government agencies, tourism in East Asia (IUCN, 1996). Also included in this organisations, non-profit organisations, report are chapters discussing the legal private businesses, and other framework, improving management, boosting constituencies. training, developing public support, and working together. For in-depth information on 5. International organisations need to protected area financing, refer to the IUCN encourage governments to make publication on Guidelines for Financing improvements in the following critical Protected Areas in East Asia (2000), produced in conjunction with this publication. areas: • Support for effective legislation, with adequate resources for implementation • Development of a management plan 5.2 SUGGESTIONS for each protected area, covering all activities, including tourism, to ensure When considering key elements from that objectives are achieved and Section 5.1 that are necessary for successful resources are well used adoption of sustainable development • Creation of national policies on practices, overall suggestions for achieving protected areas and the management sustainable tourism practices include: of tourism (as well as education about the environment and conservation). 1. Sustainable tourism practice is a long- term commitment. Think long term, but 6. Invest and assign some tourism revenue also set realistic short and mid-term to local communities, so that local goals to be accomplished. Individuals, people see direct financial benefits from businesses and organisations must be park tourism. aware that benefits are long term. Do not 7. Allocate sufficient funds for effective expect to experience benefits planning and management of protected immediately once the first efforts to areas, including the management of establish sustainable practices are tourism. A professional management implemented. Instead, expect to team should be in place, with funding, experience only a small portion of before the area is opened to tourism. benefits soon after tourism development, and larger portions of benefits only after 8. Ensure every protected area has a three or four years of continued effort. realistic budget. 2. For assistance, refer to Figure 12: 9. Encourage creative and innovative Checklist for Developing a Sustainable methods for raising revenue for protected Tourism Action Plan for Protected Areas. areas. However, do not think of sustainable tourism as a checklist where items can be checked off and never referred back Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 83

5.3 PARK TOURISM PLANNING No easy step-by-step answers can be AND MANAGEMENT: provided. Each site and each situation will A SUMMARY be unique. Instead, using the concepts and issues presented as tools, all professionals involved in any aspect of conservation of The various concepts and issues that have protected areas need to continue to interact been discussed throughout this document with local people living in and near these have the power to influence significantly areas and other organisations working in the thoughts and actions of those involved related fields. As professionals and as in the protected area and tourism human beings, it is our responsibility to industries. Various key concepts have been seek out paths and solutions that will be discussed, and some specific suggestions beneficial today, but that will also preserve have been identified. A summary of the our environment for future generations. The suggestions made within the document is process of interacting and communicating found in Appendix H. Contained within the with fellow humans from different pages of this document, one cannot find all backgrounds, interests, knowledge and Tourism is a dynamic the answers. In fact, the only thing that perceptions enables situations, concerns, becomes entirely apparent is the high industry, and visions, alternative courses of action and degree of complexity and intricacy of strategies must be potential impacts to be identified and humankind’s interactions with our shared. Often it is this journey which is flexible and able to environment and each other. infinitely more valuable than the specific respond to changing When trying to adopt sustainable tourism tangible outcomes produced as a result of situations. The process practices for protected areas, it is important the process. It is hoped that the knowledge undertaken to develop to integrate (versus separate) contained within this document is a useful environmental, social and economic companion along each unique journey. strategies, codes of development. Striving for sustainable conduct or other development integrates decision-making actions is more and demonstrates that the elements can be mutually supportive and advantageous. important than finding Integrated planning for a successful a correct answer. sustainable tourism venture within an There are no definitive overall management plan involves: • carefully defining objectives answers. Only the • understanding the natural resources base desire to strive and ecosystems towards sustainability. • understanding land ownership, resource management and use patterns • understanding the park visitor • understanding threats to the ecosystems • designing an ecotourism strategy as part of an overall land and water management plan, and • preparing detailed plans for development • attaining sufficient funds to implement the plan and manage the park (Wight, 1996).

Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 85

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Wight, P. (1996, November). The Coastal marine World Tourism Organization. (1997). Tourism environment as a tourism resource in Japan: The market trend: The world. Madrid, Spain: World Challenge of balancing conservation and Tourism Organization. development. Paper presented at ISE-SHIMA World Tourism Organization. (1998). Tourism International Oceanic Conference: The Quest to market trend: Americas 1988 – 1997. Madrid, Sustain a Rich Ocean and Environment, Mie Spain: World Tourism Organization. Prefecture, Japan. World Tourism Organization (1999, April-May). Williams, P.W., & Budke, I. (Eds.). (1999). Chinese expo highlights ecotourism. WTO News. On route to sustainability – Best practices in Retrieved June 12, 2000 from the World Wide Canadian tourism. Ottawa: The Canadian Web: http://www.world-tourism.org/newslett/ Tourism Commission. mayjun99/kunming.htm World Commission on Environment and World Tourism Organization. (2000a, March). Development. (1987). Our common future. WTO Tourism Highlights 2000, March 2000 Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. (1st ed.). Madrid, Spain: World Tourism World Commission on Protected Areas. (1999a). Organization. Retrieved June 12, 2000 from Guidelines for marine protected areas (Best the World Wide Web: http://www.world- Practice Protected Area Guidelines Series No. 3). tourism.org/esta/monograf/highligh/HL_MK.htm Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. World Tourism Organization. (2000b, January World Commission on Protected Areas. (1999b). 25). News from the World Tourism Organization Sustainable financing for protected areas (Best – Asia/Pacific comes back to drive world tourism. Practice Protected Area Guidelines Series No. 2). [Press Release]. Madrid, Spain: World Tourism Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. Organization. Retrieved June 12, 2000 from the World Wide Web: http://www.world- World Conservation Monitoring Centre. (1992). tourism.org/pressrel/00_01_25.htm Protected areas of the world – A review of national systems: Vol. 2. Palaearctic. Gland, World Travel and Tourism Council (2000). WTTC Switzerland, IUCN. key statistics 1999. Retrieved June 12, 2000 from the World Wide Web: http://www.wttc.org/ World Resources Institute. (1990) World resources: economic_research/keystats.htm A report. New York, NY: Basic Books, Inc. Yoshida, M. (1997, Sept. 25). Perspectives of World Tourism Organization. (1994). National ecotourism in Japan and East Asia. Japan and regional tourism planning. Methodologies InfoMAB, No. 21, Newsletter on MAB activity and case studies. New York, New York: of Japan. Japanese Coordinating Committees Routledge. for MAB. World Tourism Organization. (1995). Global tourism forecasts to the year 2000 and beyond: Vol. 1. The world. Madrid, Spain: World Tourism Organization. Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 89

APPENDIX A: APPENDIX B: Park and Protected Area Stakeholders Definition of Terms for Park Visitation and Tourism 7.0 Parks and protected areas have identifiable stakeholders that are interested in various For the comparison of public use Appendices aspects of park tourism. All of these measurements, over time and between stakeholders are interested in participating sites, it is necessary to adopt a standard in the various planning and management set of definitions of the terms and concepts functions associated with park tourism. involved. The following definitions Examples of stakeholders include: comprise the basic terms that describe • Park managers public use of parks and protected areas. • Park volunteers The definitions are grouped as they relate • Park visitors to each other, rather than in alphabetical • Governments order. • Allied and competing government agencies A) VISITOR: a person who visits the lands • Profit-making private sector and waters of a park or protected area for • Non-governmental organisations (NGO’s) purposes mandated for the area. A visitor is • Local community not paid to be in the park and does not live • Native community permanently in the park. • Educational institutions • Research bodies Typically, the mandated purpose for the • Media visit is outdoor recreation in natural parks • Park employees and cultural appreciation for historic sites. • Tourism operators • Concessionaires, licencees and permit B) VISIT: a measurement unit involving a holders person going onto the lands and waters of • Residents with private inholdings a park or protected area for the purposes (private land parcels within the park) mandated for the area. • Resource extraction interests. Each visitor who enters a park for a purpose mandated for the area creates a visit statistic. Typically, the visit statistic has no length of stay data associated with it. However, the collection of additional data on the length of stay of a visit allows for the calculation of visit-hour and visit- day figures. The purposes mandated for the area typically are recreational, educational or cultural. Non-mandated purposes could include passage through the park on the way to a site outside the park, or entrance by park maintenance vehicles. This definition of visit means that if a person leaves the park and re-enters at a later time, then a second visit data unit is recorded.

C) VISITATION: the sum of visits during a period of time. Visitation is usually summed for use at periods such as daily, monthly, quarterly or annually.

D) ENTRANT: a person going onto lands and waters of a park or protected area for any purpose. The entry figure for a park is typically larger than the visit figure. The entry figure 90 Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia

includes data for all recreational or cultural hunting and fishing, traditional visits as well as data for people who are in ceremonies), unless there are legal or the park for activities not related to the official requirements to report. purposes mandated for the area. For Most excluded traffic is of a type that can example, the entrant figure may include be issued identification, such as with park visitors, plus those just driving windshield stickers, to facilitate passage through, local people who may pass and to help park staff keep track of the through a corner of the park, or the daily traffic volume. It is important to keep activities of park workers. These non- track of the exclusions, so this data may be visitors are usually not there for subtracted from the total entry counts that recreational or cultural purposes, but their may have been derived from manual use of park resources, such as roads, do counters such as road counters. have an impact and therefore their activities are worthy of note. For management purposes, data on the exclusions can be useful in its own right. E) EXCLUSIONS: park or protected area For example, tenants at private cottages in use which is not visitation for statistical the park may use the roads. Knowledge of reporting purposes. this use is important for maintenance purposes. Similarly, data of the levels of For park management purposes, it is useful subsistence fishing in the waters of the to record all entrants to the park. Later, for park is needed for fisheries management a variety of reasons, some types of entrants purposes. Therefore, it is important that all may be subtracted from or excluded from data on all use be documented. the figures that are reported as park use. Even though all entrants to a park have In high use areas it may be difficult to some degree of impact, there are reasons detect recreational use from activities to exclude some types of use from that normally excluded. Visitor studies of a reported as park visits. Entries that are sample of the park users may be necessary usually not considered park visits include to ascertain the reasons for use. traffic from commuters along major roads or railways crossing the park, traffic of F) CALCULATIONS: determining or refining attendees at non-park related activities visitation by mathematical conversion of (craft shows, races, or civil ceremonies), counts, partial counts, study data, recorded and traffic from residents of villages observations or judgement. Common types surrounded by park land. Traffic for which of calculations are given below. counts are adjusted includes traffic of Adjustment, meaning a change of a individual residents, movement of park visitation or entries count to remove employees, volunteers working on park exclusions, e.g., a traffic count might be activities, travel of concessionaires and reduced by 25% to adjust for local traffic their employees, and the travel of that is just passing through. tradespeople delivering supplies to the park. Also excluded is brief traffic across Correction, meaning a change of an short sections of park land or waters, instrument reading to reflect error that persons engaged in the pursuit of specific has been determined by independent legal rights such as subsistence hunting, calibration (by visual, multiple instrument fishing, or native ceremonies. Sometimes counting, etc.). law or policy dictates the type of traffic that Constant, meaning a fixed number for is required to be reported, such as cruise minor volumes of activity determined by ship passages, aircraft overflights, or a one-time measurement, a special study, commercial fishing use. or the judgement by staff. Examples of common exclusions include: Approximation, meaning a number • trips by tenants or residents within park assigned to an uncounted area based on boundaries (including guests), measurements at nearby or comparable • travel by employees of, volunteers at, or areas, where studies have determined the contractors to the park (including relationship between the two sites. concessionaires and their employees), • brief, incidental passage into the park by Estimate, meaning a number derived from pedestrian or vehicular traffic, and a methodical computation based on regular • persons engaged in the pursuit of specific but partial counts. An example is a figure of legal rights of use (e.g., subsistence 2.3 persons per car, an estimate based on a Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 91

one-week sample gate count collected at I) ENTRY NIGHTS: the count of persons the beginning of the peak season. staying overnight in a park or protected area for any purpose. Substitution, meaning the use of a previously recorded number for an area Entry nights data are larger than visitor when current data are temporarily nights data. Entry nights include all visitor unavailable, for example when the traffic nights, plus the nights of people who are counter is temporarily broken. An example not visitors. For example entry nights might might be the use of the number from the include the data of overnight stays of park same month the previous year. staff or concessionaire employees. Conversion, meaning the change of a J) VISITOR HOURS: the total length of number from one indicator to another. time, in hours, (both continuous and Several conversions are typically made. It is intervals) that visitors stay in the park common to convert from visit hours to visit while visiting for a purpose mandated days, for example one person may stay for for the area. four hours, which converts to .33 visitor days when one is using a definition of 12 K) ENTRY HOURS: the total length of time, hours for a visitor day. Another conversion in hours, (both continuous and intervals) is from visitor nights to visit days. Since that visitors and entrants stay in the park many campers or lodge users stay for an for any purpose. entire 24-hour period, it is common to equate one visitor night, of 24 hours, as L) VISITOR DAYS: the total number of being equal to one visit day of 12 hours. days that visitors stay in the park. Many agencies simply count the number of entrants to a park, without recording the The visitor day figure illustrates levels of length of stay for each entrant and without park use. It is calculated for comparative checking to see if the entrant is really a purposes between sites and between time visitor. To convert entrants to visits, it is periods. Visitor day data can be recorded necessary to find the number of entrances directly from the visitors. For example, in that are not related to the park. This can some parks all visitors sign in and sign out be done by sampling the stream of traffic of the park, thereby providing very accurate entering the park and asking the people records on length of stay. However, such the reasons for their entry. Once the sample precise data is rare. Therefore, the visitor data is obtained, the percentage of day figure is usually calculated from visit entrances that are really visits can be figures multiplied by the length of park calculated, then multiplied by the entire stay. The length of stay is often an average entrance data set to get the actual visitor figure derived from visitor surveys of a numbers. Similar logic can be applied to sample of visitors. A “visitor day” is often finding visitor hours. Sample surveys of defined as 12 “visit hours” of park use, visitors can be done to find the average however this varies amongst agencies. The length of stay. This average length of stay total visitor day data is generated by the can then be multiplied by the total visit addition of various lengths of stay. Small figure to get visitor hours. parks and historic parks may have short average lengths of stay, say three hours, G) COUNT: the direct observation and which means that it will take several visits immediate recording, measurement by to add up to one “visitor day.” Large instrument, or recording by registration national parks often have long periods of form (such as fee collections) of park or stay, say three days, which means that a protected area use. single visit constitutes more than one “visitor day.” The visitor day indicator H) VISITOR NIGHTS: the count of persons makes a comparison possible between staying overnight in a park or protected historical and natural sites, between area for a purpose mandated for the area. different park systems and between different countries. Typically people stay in the park either in a lodge or in a camping area. Many parks M) TOURIST: a person travelling to and record data on such use as bed nights or staying in a place outside their usual camper nights, figures comparable to environment for not more than one visitor nights. consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes. 92 Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia

The definition of a tourist involves two APPENDIX C: elements, travel of a certain distance from International Tourism Terminology home and a length of stay. For most parks a portion of the visitors will be tourists, A strong statistical base is essential for a the rest being considered local residents. good understanding by governments, It is often useful for the park’s visitor industries, academia and the public of management personnel to report on the tourism’s contribution to the social, cultural percentage of park visitors that are tourists. and economic development of a country. The definition of tourist varies amongst For the comparison of tourism countries. Consultation with the national measurements in different jurisdictions, tourism body is necessary to ensure that it is important for standard definitions to be the collection of visitor data from a park used. Listed below are the standard tourism can be done in a way that is consistent definitions accepted by the United Nations with the collection of tourism data for Statistical Commission. the country. Tourism: the activities of persons travelling CONSISTENCY WITH NATIONAL to and staying in places outside their usual TOURISM STATISTICS environment for not more than one It is important that data on park visitors consecutive year for leisure, business and be defined and collected in such a way that other purposes. it is consistent with the broader tourism data collected for the country. For example, Domestic Tourism: involving residents of one key aspect of the definition of a tourist a given country travelling only within their is the length of travel from home to the own country. visitation site. However, this varies. Canada typically uses an 80-km distance (50 miles), Inbound Tourism: involving non-residents but the USA typically uses 160 km (100 visiting a country other than their own miles). Therefore, the designers of data country. It is essential to classify visitors collection effort in a park system need to by country of residence rather than by be aware of both the national and the nationality. international approaches. The World Tourism Organization developed guidelines Nationality: the government issuing the on international tourism. These guidelines (or other identification document), were subsequently adopted by the United even if the person normally resides in Nations Statistical Committee and another country. published in report format. Appendix C contains a more complete set of tourism Outbound Tourism: involving residents definitions. travelling in another country.

Source: Hornback & Eagles (1999, p. 8-11). Internal Tourism: comprises domestic and inbound tourism.

National Tourism: comprises domestic tourism and outbound tourism.

International Tourism: consists of inbound and outbound tourism.

International Visitor: any person who to a country other than that in which he has his usual residence but outside his usual environment for a period not exceeding 12 months and whose main purpose of visit is other than the exercise of an activity remunerated from within the country visited. Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 93

Domestic Visitor: any person who resides APPENDIX D: in a country, who travels to a place within Characteristics of Ecotourism the country, outside his usual environment for a period not exceeding 12 months and According to Butler (1992), there are eight whose main purpose of visit is other than characteristics that an activity should meet the exercise of an activity remunerated from in order to be considered ecotourism: within the place visited. 1. It promotes positive environmental Overnight Visitors: visitors who stay at ethics (fostering preferred behaviour least one night in a collective or private in its participants). accommodation in the place visited. 2. It does not degrade the resource (e.g., fishing may be part of wildland (green) This definition includes cruise passengers tourism but is part of adventure who arrive in a country on a cruise ship tourism). No consumptive erosion of and return to the ship each night to sleep the natural environment occurs. on board even though the ship remains in port for several days. Also included in this 3. It concentrates on intrinsic values rather group are owners or passengers of yachts than extrinsic. Park facilities are used and passengers on a group tour to facilitate the visitors’ experience with accommodated in a train. the intrinsic resource but they do not become attractions in and of themselves Same-day Visitors: visitors who do not nor do they distract from the natural spend the night in a collective or private attraction itself. accommodation in the place visited. 4. The philosophy is biocentric rather than homocentric. Visitors accept the Tourism Expenditure: the total environment on its terms rather than consumption expenditure made by a visitor expecting to change it or have it or on behalf of a visitor for and during his modified for their convenience. or her trip and stay at a destination. 5. It must benefit the wildlife and To obtain the full report, titled environment. Ways to measure Recommendations on Tourism Statistics, benefits include socially, economically, contact the World Tourism Organization at scientifically, managerially, or politically. [email protected]. The report presents There should be a net benefit to the a conceptual framework, classification sustainability and ecological integrity system and an overview of future of the environment. challenges. 6. It is a first-hand experience with the natural environment. This means movies Source: United Nations and World Tourism and zoological parks do not offer an Organization (1994). ecotourism experience. Visitor centres and interpretive slide shows do when they direct people to a first-hand experience. 7. It has an “expectation of gratification” measured via education and appreciation rather than thrill seeking and physical achievement (such as in adventure tourism). 8. It has a high cognitive and effective experiential dimension. Ecotourism involves a high level of preparation and knowledge from both leaders and participants, and the satisfaction derived from the experience is felt and expressed strongly in emotional and inspirational ways.

Source: Butler (1992, p. 6). 94 Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia

APPENDIX E: As part of this effort, the Service will Operational Policies for Tourism of work to ensure that all who provide the United States National Park Service information to visitors are well informed and provide accurate information about park activities and The 1995 White House Conference on resources, including current Travel and Tourism established a basis conditions and seasonal variations. and framework for closer co-operation and mutual understanding between land- 4.6. Pursue practices, such as the use of managing agencies and the tourism universal design and the inclusion of industry. Regional and state tourism metric measures on signs and printed conferences have brought park managers media, that will contribute to the and tourism operators together. This safety and friendly accommodation dialogue has fostered many of the of all visitors. principles incorporated in the following 4.7. Encourage visitor use of lesser-known operational policies: parks and under-utilized areas; use during non-peak seasons, days of the It is National Park Service policy to: week, and times of the day; and 4.1. Develop and maintain a constructive visitation to related sites beyond park dialogue and outreach effort with state boundaries, as appropriate, to tourism and travel offices, and other enhance overall visitor experiences public and private organizations and and protection of resources. businesses, using a variety of 4.8. Specifically address long-term strategies, including but not limited tourism-related trends and issues, and to memberships in organizations, their implications for park plans and participation in conferences and management decisions. symposia, and internet-based information resources. 4.9. Represent park needs and realities during the preparation of plans and 4.2. Collaborate with industry professionals proposals for gateway community to promote sustainable and informed services and park tour operations that tourism that incorporates socio- could impact park visitation, cultural, economic, and ecological resources, visitor services, and concerns, and supports long-term infrastructure support. preservation of park resources and quality visitor experiences. This 4.10. Promote positive and effective collaboration will be used as an working relationships between park opportunity to encourage and concessioners and others in the showcase environmental leadership tourism industry to ensure a high by the Service and by the tourism quality of service to park visitors. industry, including park concessioners. 4.11. Identify desired resource conditions 4.3. Encourage practices that highlight and visitor experiences, and work to America’s diversity and welcome park establish supportable, science-based, visitation by people of all cultural and park carrying capacities, as the basis ethnic backgrounds, ages, physical for communicating acceptable levels abilities, and economic and and types of visitor use, recreation educational means. equipment use, tours, and services. Carrying capacities are defined for 4.4. Foster good relationships with park each park as an outcome of the neighbors by promoting visitor and National Park Service planning industry understanding of, and process. sensitivity toward, local cultures, customs, and concerns. 4.12. Participate in and monitor travel industry research, data gathering, 4.5. Provide cost-effective park visitor and marketing initiatives to ensure orientation and information services to that the Service is fully informed of visitors in parks and, as funding and demographic changes and visitor partnerships allow, at the visit trends. planning stage, at park gateway communities, and at appropriate 4.13. Work with partners to provide timely, threshold locations within park units. accurate, and effective park Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 95

information, and to ensure that APPENDIX F: realistic situations and safe, resource- Limits of Acceptable Change Framework sensitive, recreational practices are depicted in promotional materials and The Limits of Acceptable Change advertising. This includes providing Framework utilised by the United States appropriate information as early as Forest Service consists of four basic possible to the tourism industry components: regarding changes in operations 1. Identifying acceptable and achievable and fees. social and resource standards 4.14. When feasible, and consistent with 2. Documenting gaps between desired and park resource protection and existing circumstances budgetary needs, schedule 3. Identifying management actions to close construction, repairs, and resource these gaps management practices, such as 4. Monitoring and evaluating management prescribed burns, in ways effectiveness. and at times which keep key visitor There are nine steps through which the attractions and services accessible for framework is implemented. public use during peak visitation STEP 1: Identify area concerns and issues periods. This will help to minimize STEP 2: Define and describe management adverse impacts on visitors, as well as objectives on park-visitor-dependent businesses. STEP 3: Select indicators or resource and 4.15. Establish and maintain lines of social conditions communication and protocols to STEP 4: Inventory resource and social handle the impact of park conditions emergencies and temporary closures STEP 5: Specify standards for resources and so that state tourism offices and the social indicators public, including tourism STEP 6: Identify alternatives communities and tourism-related STEP 7: Identify management actions for businesses, have the best and most each alternative current information on when park STEP 8: Evaluate and select an alternative services will be restored. STEP 9: Implement actions and monitor conditions 4.16. Inform visitors, state tourism offices, gateway communities and tourism- Visitor planning and management related businesses about current frameworks should be integrated into the conditions of key park resources and existing park management frameworks to current protection and recovery/ address a wide range of visitor management restoration measures. Establish a issues, from how to deal with pressures common understanding on what is associated with high levels of visitation to needed to ensure adequate protection conflicts between different user groups. of those resources for present and Other examples of visitor planning and future enjoyment and how this can management frameworks include the contribute to sustainable park-related Recreation Opportunity Spectrum (U.S. businesses and economies. Forest Service), Visitor Impact Management (U.S. National Park Service) and the Visitor 4.17. Develop new partnerships to help Activity Management Process (Canadian implement Service-wide priorities, Parks Service). Each framework has its and seek partnership opportunities strengths and weaknesses associated with with the industry to fund products its use. and programs mutually beneficial to accomplish National Park Service Source: Payne & Graham (1993, p. 190-191). mission goals.

Director’s Order #17: National Park Service Tourism Approved: Robert Stanton, Director, National Park Service Effective Date: September 28, 1999 Sunset Date: September 28, 2003 96 Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia

APPENDIX G: WHO is going to prepare and A Framework Guideline to Develop use this guideline? Ecotourism Guidelines for Protected • Five sectors related to ecotourism should be asked to join this preparation process. Areas in Asia • Scientists can play [an] important role in this process, because the scientific Participants of the Workshop on Biological understanding on natural/cultural and Cultural Diversity and Protected Areas resources is essential. in the Asian Region that was held on July • Participation of local community could 9, 1997, discussed intensively and be very important to implement this concluded that: guideline. • [The] Mission of Ecotourism is to achieve • Participation of guides could raise the conservation of the biological/cultural awareness in protected natural/cultural diversity and sustainable development of resources. local community through promotion of • Support from local government will be environmentally sound tourism. essential to implement this guideline. • The mission can be achieved when five sectors related to ecotourism (local HOW to use this guideline? inhabitants, central/local government, • It should be used to collect and provide researchers, travel agents and tourists) information on ecotourism in the have cooperated with each other. protected area. • There is urgent need to develop a local • It should be used to establish a ecotourism guideline for each protected mechanism to monitor and control an area, where it will be appropriate, and to acceptable impact on biological/cultural deliver it to every sector related to diversity. ecotourism. • The ecotourism guideline for each WHEN this guideline should be used? protected area should be developed to • Public participation to information adjust a specific condition of the gathering process could raise a public protected area through discussion with consciousness to ecotourism. every sector related to ecotourism. This • Conservation of natural/cultural workshop provides a framework guideline resources should be monitored and to develop a specific ecotourism guideline benefit to local community through in each protected area. ecotourism should be guaranteed by this guideline. (If appropriate, an opportunity WHAT is an ecotourism guideline? cost for management of traditional • It should clarify the mission of ecotourism. landscape should be considered). • It should clarify the role of every sector related to ecotourism. WHERE to deliver this guideline? • It should be prepared to provide a • A guideline of tourists (Code of Ethics) carrying capacity [or limits of acceptable should be delivered to them effectively use] of the protected area to avoid impact not later than their entrance to the on natural/cultural resources. protected area. • It should clarify the economical value of • A guideline of guides could be delivered protected areas (including uncountable to them through a training seminar value of ecological services and human organized by the guide association or welfare) to persuade decision makers. park authority.

Source: Yoshida (1997, p. 8-9). Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 97

APPENDIX H: managers to discuss issues and related Summary of Suggestions management options/solutions is desired. Better information channels 1. Strong links between private tourism are needed to enable experiences to businesses and protected area systems be shared. are necessary. Representatives from 10. Governments should encourage and all sectors need to work together to support the conservation of nature and develop sustainable forms of tourism culture as the major resources for for protected areas. tourism, and provide policies, plans 2. Integrate environmental concerns into and a legal framework for carefully national and regional tourism policies controlling tourism so that it brings and projects in East Asia. Sustainable substantial benefits without generating nature-based tourism needs to be made serious problems (McIntyre, 1993). a fundamental part of government 11. The tourism industry should emphasise policies relating to tourism. general policies and strategies, major 3. Establish and implement national development plans and programs and strategies for sustainable tourism that marketing. More specifically, they can identify current opportunities and gaps. establish policies, laws and incentives for socially conscious tourism 4. Tourism development in and around (McIntyre, 1993). protected areas should only occur if it is ecologically, culturally, socially and 12. Governments, protected area managers, financially sustainable in the long term. and tourism sector staff in East Asia should utilise the 15-item sustainable 5. The private tourism sector should assist tourism action plan checklist (outlined in maintenance of the natural and in Figure 12) to guide sustainable cultural resources of the protected area tourism development in and around on which it depends. protected areas. 6. Senior governments should develop 13. A sustainable tourism action plan national strategies and policies that should be created for each protected place protected areas and their area. This should be done in surroundings into a larger land-use consultation with the tourism sector planning context. Protected areas also and the local communities. This tourism need to be placed within an economic plan should be part of the overall park strategy and a tourism strategy. management plan that all protected 7. For efficient management, it is areas must have for successful long- necessary to have competent systems term planning and management to of tourism information collected by the occur. Conservation and tourism protected areas’ management. Systems objectives for each protected area should be compatible between different need to be identified. areas (i.e., collect data for the same 14. Compile an inventory of each site’s units of scale). Jurisdictions should all natural and cultural characteristics, as possess standard definitions for key well as existing and potential tourism elements of a park tourism statistical opportunities. Park managers should program. use hands-on knowledge and scientific 8. All park systems require a public research to develop an understanding of use and tourism policy, as well as a visitors’ needs, expectations, behaviours legal structure that enables the policy and characteristics. to be implemented. Review existing 15. The value of involving local people in legislation to make sure it is compatible planning and protection activities is with sustainability goals, and make enormous and should be viewed as a adjustments as necessary. Ensure that necessity. Park managers should make written instruments that provide a efforts to have ongoing contact and legally enforceable framework are in good working relations with local place (e.g., laws, governmental policies, communities. Promote domestic and property rights). capacity for participation in management 9. Further development of networking of the protected area and enable systems for parks and protected area benefits to be distributed to local areas. 98 Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia

16. All stakeholders associated with tourism 22. All proposals for tourism development in parks and protected areas should in or near protected areas should be examine and pursue possible subject to an environmental, social, partnership opportunities that bring cultural and economic assessment. about greater sum benefits than when Whenever possible, large-scale tourism working alone. developments should not be located in and around protected areas. Carefully 17. Zoning should be used in the planning consider small-scale tourism process to identify areas which are best development proposals in the context suited for higher use levels along with of conservation and tourism objectives the range of appropriate use levels for of the protected area, appropriate the areas of the site. zoning and desirability. Create or 18. Limits of acceptable use should be part refine a formal evaluation process of the management plan for each site. that can be used to assess tourism Managers of protected areas must use development proposals. all available information and 23. Protected area agencies and staff should professional judgement to develop levels learn and apply concepts of market of acceptable use for their areas. Once research and product development to levels of acceptable use are established, management. Ideally, at least one staff desired standards to be maintained person within the agency should through sustainable tourism need to be possess marketing expertise. Another identified. The degree to which these option is to build partnerships with standards are maintained needs to be other organisations or agencies whose monitored regularly. staff can provide this type of input. 19. Requirements to set limits of acceptable 24. Sufficient resources and training are use should be embodied in protected needed to encourage the development area legislation. Managers of protected of sustainable tourism, to repair existing areas should have the power to act damage, and to develop visitor quickly if inappropriate activities are management. All parks should assess occurring to prevent or reduce damage resource needs and sources. All that may be caused. protected area agencies need to train 20. All parks and protected areas should and hire individuals who possess skills use visitor management methods such related to tourism competencies. Each as zoning, visitor channelling, protected area should have staff people education, interpretation and policy who possess specialised training in enforcement to ensure that tourism visitor and tourism management. levels and impacts remain within 25. Both ecolabels and codes of conduct acceptable limits established for the are aimed at improving environmental area. A monitoring program should performance within the tourism be established to evaluate the success industry, in all sectors (e.g., private of these management tools. Indicate companies, government agencies, how often evaluations will occur and visitors, etc.), and therefore should be how revisions will be incorporated further encouraged and supported. when necessary. 26. Incorporate any special considerations 21. All park agencies should support related to protected area management development and additions to of fragile high-altitude environments. environmental education and interpretation programs. Through 27. Recreation groups, such as divers or such programs visitors and local mountain climbers, can often be key people increase their understanding and allies in alpine and marine area appreciation of the area’s environmental conservation. Park managers should and cultural features. Scientific research make special effort to work co- can be applied to the development of operatively with such groups. these programs. 28. Confirm and improve the comprehensive design and effective management of a representative system of marine protected areas. Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 99

29. Continuing human use within and 34. Develop incentive measures that will adjacent to marine protected areas influence the decision-making process. should play a role in the selection, Create inducements that are specifically design and management of marine intended to motivate government, local protected areas. The framework people, and international organisations provided by UNEP’s Regional Seas to conserve biological and cultural Programmes encourages regional diversity. Review existing legislation and integrated planning for the use and economic policies to identify and protection of large marine ecosystems. promote incentives for the conservation and sustainable use of the resources, 30. Marine conservation is often poorly stressing removal or mitigation on understood by the public. Therefore, incentives that threaten biological high levels of marine conservation diversity. education needs to be provided in all marine conservation areas. 35. Make ongoing efforts to communicate with all stakeholders, including 31. Many countries in the world are government agencies, tourism encountering similar challenges with organisations, non-profit organisations, marine and alpine conservation. East private businesses, and other Asia park agencies should encourage constituencies. their managers to establish and maintain contacts with park managers 36. International organisations need to in other countries that have similar encourage governments to make conservation challenges. Such contacts improvements in the following critical can be invaluable for the exchange of areas: valuable management experiences. • Support for effective legislation, with adequate resources for implementation 32. Sustainable tourism practice is a long- • Development of a management plan term commitment. Think long term, for each protected area, covering all but also set realistic short and mid-term activities, including tourism, to ensure goals to be accomplished. Individuals, that objectives are achieved and businesses and organisations must be resources are well used aware that benefits are long term. • Creation of national policies on Do not expect to experience benefits protected areas and the management immediately once the first efforts to of tourism (as well as education establish sustainable practices are about the environment and implemented. Instead, expect to conservation). experience only a small portion of benefits soon after tourism 37. Invest and assign some tourism revenue development, and larger portions of to local communities, so that local benefits only after three or four years people see direct financial benefits of continued effort. from park tourism. 33. For assistance, refer to Figure 12: 38. Allocate sufficient funds for effective Checklist for Developing a Sustainable planning and management of protected Tourism Action Plan for Protected Areas. areas, including the management of However, do not think of sustainable tourism. A professional management tourism as a checklist where items can team should be in place, with funding, be checked off and not referred to before the area is opened to tourism. again. Instead, think of it as a never- 39. Ensure every protected area has a ending dance that revisits the same realistic budget. important elements to the process time and time again. 40. Encourage creative and innovative methods for raising revenue for protected areas. 100 Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 101 102 Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia 103 104 Guidelines for Tourism in Parks and Protected Areas of East Asia