26 [2018]2[56] A SCHOLARLYJOURNALOFARCHITECTUREANDURBANPLANNING ZNANSTVENI ÈASOPISZAARHITEKTURUIURBANIZAM 7-12 [2018] 217-404 26 [2018]2[56] CODEN PORREV UDK |UDC71/72 10.31522/p https://doi.org/ ISSN 1330-0652 ARCHITECTURE FACULTY OF OF ZAGREB, UNIVERSITY FAKULTET ARHITEKTONSKI U ZAGREBU, SVEUÈILIŠTE PROSTOR POSEBNI OTISAK/SEPARAT 282-295 Znanstveni prilozi Nikolina Gradečki Nenad Lipovac

Scientific Papers UDC 711.424.6:72.031.8(72:728Yucatan)”1-14” https://doi.org/10.31522/p.26.2(56).6 Scientific SubjectReview Settlement PatternsandStructureTypes Mayan CitiesofYucatan OFFPRINT UDK 711.424.6:72.031.8(72:728Yucatan)”1-14” https://doi.org/10.31522/p.26.2(56).6 Pregledni znanstveničlanak Oblici naseljaivrstegrađevina Majanski gradoviYucatana 282

Fig. 1 Characteristic structures of a Mayan city, Sl. 1. Znakovite građevine majanskog grada, Mayapan Scientific Papers | Znanstveni prilozi 26[2018] 2[56] PROSTOR 283

Nenad Lipovac, Nikolina Gradečki

University of Zagreb Sveučilište u Zagrebu Faculty of Architecture Arhitektonski fakultet Croatia - 10000 Zagreb, Kačićeva 26 HR - 10000 Zagreb, Kačićeva 26 [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

Scientific Subject Review Pregledni znanstveni članak https://doi.org/10.31522/p.26.2(56).6 https://doi.org/10.31522/p.26.2(56).6 UDC 711.424.6:72.031.8 (72:728 Yucatan) ”1-14” UDK 711.424.6:72.031.8 (72:728 Yucatan) ”1-14” Technical Sciences / Architecture and Urban Planning Tehničke znanosti / Arhitektura i urbanizam 2.01.02. - Urban and Physical Planning 2.01.02. - Urbanizam i prostorno planiranje 2.01.04. - History and Theory of Architecture 2.01.04. - Povijest i teorija arhitekture and Preservation of the Built Heritage i zaštita graditeljskog naslijeđa Article Received / Accepted: 26. 11. 2018. / 11. 12. 2018. Članak primljen / prihvaćen: 26. 11. 2018. / 11. 12. 2018.

Mayan Cities of Yucatan Settlement Patterns and Structure Types Majanski gradovi Yucatana Oblici naselja i vrste građevina

Mayan cities gradovi Maja Mayan structures građevine Maja Mayas and astronomy astronomija Maja Mayas of Yucatan Maje Yukatana Mesoamerican settlements naselja Srednje Amerike

The research results on prehistoric Mesoamerican settlements in are Rezultati istraživanja srednjoameričkih prapovijesnih naselja na području presented through the planners’, rather than the archeological, point of view. Meksika prikazani su s planerskog, a ne arheološkog gledišta. Vrsta i veliči- Numerous settlement types and sizes were analyzed by comparing the archeo- na naselja istražena je uspoređujući postojeće arheološke rezultate s osob- logical data and the personal experience gained during the research in situ. nim doživljajem pojedinih lokaliteta pri njihovom obilasku in situ. Dobiveni Even though the cities were unplanned, derived results proved the astonish- rezultati pokazuju da, iako je većina gradova nastala neplanski, postoji vrlo ingly high level in the construction of structures and buildings in relation to veliki stupanj promišljanja kod gradnje građevina na temelju astronomskih astronomical phenomena. promatranja. 284 PROSTOR 2[56] 26[2018] 282-295 N. Lipovac, N. Gradečki Mayan Cities of Yucatan Scientific Papers | Znanstveni prilozi

Introduction secure height enough to protect it from fre- quent flooding and the attack of the enemy. Uvod The site itself had a very diverse shape: sev- eral small hilltop villages ruled by San Loren- zo urban center government, which faced its decline at 900 BC. The most recognizable remnants of the Olmecs culture are the colos- sal stone heads (Fig. 3) up to 3 meters of height, representing human heads that might represent the ruler’s heads. The other struc- tures found and considered to originate from Olmecs are stone aqueducts built of hun- dreds and thousands of basalt carved blocks (brought from nearly a 100 km distance) laid in a continuous slope that provided the con- stant flow of water from the source to the fi- nal point. San Lorenzo is not as a famous as some of the Mayan sites in Mexico, but surely is a significant historical and cultural center and archaeological site as the Olmecs are considered to be the ”parent” culture that Mayas arose from. The other site - La Venta ( state), was inhabited between 1,200 BC and 400 BC and served as a civic and a ceremonial center (proved by a large number of buried offer- ings, tombs, stelae and altars dispersed among the earthen mounds and platforms on the site. La Venta is considered to be the first his paper represents preliminary results ”planned” pre-Hispanic settlement. The domi- T nant structure is a conic mound (which ini- reached during the scholar research on pre- historic Mesoamerican settlements develop- tially might have been a stepped ment in Mexico, that was conducted during that changed its shape due to the erosion), scholar visits to the Universidad Juárez Au- 30 meters of height (Complex C). This mound tónoma de Tabasco, Villahermosa, Tabasco is considered to be one of the oldest earthen (2016) and Anahuac-Mayab University, Meri- in . North of it, there is da Yucatan (2018). a Complex A consisting of two ridge mounds The Mesoamerica1 covers the area of today’s countries of Mexico, , , west- 1 Coe, Koontz, 2008: 12. German ethnologist P. Kir- ern parts of El Salvador, Nicaragua schoff was the first one to introduce this term. He recogni- zed certain similarities existing among the pre-Columbian and Salvador (Fig. 2). The human presence cultures in this geographic area with many interrelated within the area can be observed ever since cultural similarities resulting from 1000 years long inter some 22,000 years ago: numerous singular and intra-regional interaction. groups of humans, not yet connected to any- 2 R. Diehl, 2004 set the Olmecs’ first appearance in thing larger than a tribe. The first Mesoameri- Mesoamerica between 1,600 and 1,500 BC, although some can large cultural group that can be called a traces of their origin can be found in farming tribes in Ta- basco (5,100-4,600 BC). civilization are the Olmecs2 whose members 3 The site was first occupied in the mid of the second built settlements in tropical lowlands of millennium BC with a peak between 1,200-900 BC. The oc- south-central Mexico, today’s states of Ta- cupied area was built-up with temples, plazas, causeways, basco and Veracruz. and structures for the elite with the population up to 1,000. Pre-Mayan Epoch 4 Lipovac, 2010: 275 5 In the Preclassic period, this group had a dominant Predmajansko doba structure flanked by two smaller inward-facing structures, built on a platform. One of the largest Triadic groups is the The oldest known Olmec site is San Lorenzo3 one in El Mirador, Guatemala. (Veracruz state), occupied around 1,500 BC, 6 The American anthropologist and astronomer, A.F. and which is considered to be one-of-the- Aveni suggested in his article on Building J [Aveni, 2001] that the shape and orientation of the Building J might have oldest populated places in both Americas. some astronomical reasons as its pentagonal arrowhead Besides this one, there were two other Ol- shape concurs with the Auriga constellation. If its axis is mecs’ settlements: La Venta and Tres Zapo- traced backward perpendicular to the rear wall, towards a small marker found on a temple structure (Building P), the tes (Fig. 2). The site of San Lorenzo itself, axis is aligned with the rising point of the Capella (the originally an island within a river, was natu- brightest star of the Auriga constellation) between 275 BC rally elevated above the river flow level on a and 100 AD (assumed period of the Building J construction). Scientific Papers | Znanstveni prilozi Mayan Cities of Yucatan N. Lipovac, N. Gradečki 282-295 26[2018] 2[56] PROSTOR 285

forming central plaza with a certain number out a platform. The shape of a structure with- Fig. 2 Mesoamerica and the areas populated by of tombs, three smaller mosaics representing in System IV (a stepped flat-topped pyramid) Olmecs and Mayans Sl. 2. Srednja Amerika i područja naseljena jaguar masks and a small round-shaped has similarities with Teotihuacán architec- Olmecima i Majama mound - a tomb (Fig. 4). South of the mound, ture - stepped pyramid with curved sloping there is a Complex B - a larger plaza (100 by sides. Within the plaza itself, there are 4 400 m) with numerous small platforms (with structures: three are a part of the Triadic noble residents' houses or for ceremonial or group5 (Buildings G, H and I) while the fourth ritual purposes), stelae and altars. The main one, Building J is a very enigmatic one be- structures (ridge mounds, plazas...) in La cause of its shape and orientation: an irregu- Venta have a deviation of some 8 degrees in lar pentagon that is rotated for 45o compared correspondence to the north-south axis (like to the direction of all other buildings. It was most of Olmecs’ sites), the reason for which built around 275 BC, but its purpose and rea- 6 is still unclear. son for its orientation is still a mystery. Another pre-Mayan culture, Zapotecs, built Today, many scholars consider the Olmecs to their capital Monte Alban on a hill slope, be the mastermind who ”invented” the ritual near-by today’s city of Oaxaca in Oaxaca val- practice like human sacrifice and blood-let- ley (Fig. 5) some 200 km SW of San Lorenzo ting, ballgame, astronomy, writing system and populated between 500 BC and 800 AD. (lately developed into Mayan glyphs) that are The site was a result of vast earthwork labor Mayan culture well-known attributes. that transformed the hill slopes into a flat- Fig. 3 One of the stone heads, today exibited tened mountaintop (some 400 meters above Mayan Epoch in La Venta park, Villahermosa, Tabasco the valley) for the construction of stone Sl. 3. Kamena glava izložena u parku La Venta, ­structures (pyramids, temples, and palaces) Majansko doba Villahermosa, Tabasco around large ceremonial plaza of a size 200 by 300 m, overlooking the valley. The whole Opposed to the highly centralized power and complex was nearly 20 hectares large. The urban centers of Olmecs, the Mayans from site position suggests that it was meant main- Mexico had several ”kingdoms” established ly for the upper class, while the rest of the over today’s Mexico states (Yucatan, Cam­ Fig. 4 3D visualization of La Venta settlement, residents lived down in the valley. Scholars peche, Quintana Roo, partly Tabasco and Chi- Veracruz estimate that it was a home for nearly 15,000 apas) and Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador and Sl. 4. Prostorni prikaz naselja La Venta, Veracruz west Honduras. They were the largest group people in 200 BC, and almost 25,000 resi- Fig. 5 3D visualization of Monte Alban with marked dents at around 800 AD when the decline of in this part of the World at that time. They main structures population occurred. North and south of the were spread over the area of nearly 350,000 Sl. 5. Prostorni prikaz naselja Monte Alban s 2 main plaza, there are two platforms that km (Fig. 2) and organized in smaller groups označenim glavnim građevinama could be accessed along the wide stairways. The North platform has a sunken patio and four structures (Building B, D and E, and a small Temple - Temple of the two Columns. The South platform looks like a huge flat- topped mound4 with a small one of the same shape on the top. Along the plaza east edge, there are five structures atop an elongated platform, while on the plaza west edge there are three structures (Building of the Danz- antes and two structures K and M), but with- 286 PROSTOR 2[56] 26[2018] 282-295 N. Lipovac, N. Gradečki Mayan Cities of Yucatan Scientific Papers | Znanstveni prilozi

divided by different customs, languages7, a significant influence over the first cities and historical background, but still had much (like Monte Alban or in Guatemala). Ow- in common. That’s why the scholars observe ing to this influence, Tikal became one of the them as a single cultural group. This region most powerful cities in Central Lowlands can be divided into two different relief areas: (200-900 AD). Besides cities and large stone Highlands and Lowlands8 but following the structures (built without any machinery - us- geographic attributes, there are three dis- ing just the manual labor), the Mayas learned tinct areas: Southern, Central and Northern how to cultivate maize, beans, squash and one (Fig. 6). On the other hand, Mayans’ his- developed a complex understanding of as- tory can be observed through 3 principal pe- tronomy. They introduced one of the world’s first written languages - a language made of riods (more chronological, rather than based 9 on cultural evolution degree): the Preclassic, 5-600 glyphs , that was used up to the arrival Classic, and Postclassic, preceded by the Ar- of the Spaniards. The Mayan texts were in- chaic Period (during which the first settle- scribed on stone monuments, lintels, stelae, ments and early agriculture development and ceramics, but it was also ”painted” on a could be noted). paper produced from tree-bark. Set of these ”writings” are known as Codicies. Even in Fig. 6 Aproximate division of Mayan territory Preclassic period (1,800 BC - 250 AD) - The mathematical skills, the Mayans were one-of- Sl. 6. Približna podjela majanskog područja Mayan civilization started around 2,000 BC in a-kind civilization. Cuelo (Belize), but the first sedentary settle- Along with other Mesoamerican civilizations, ments were established around 1,800 BC in they used a numerological system with a Chiapas state (Mexico) when nomad groups base of twenty The digits were shown in a commenced with the cultivation of maize, bar-and-dot presentation10, but in the Late beans, squash. Around 1,000 BC, some grow- Preclassic period (350 BC - 250 AD) the Ma- ing villages became urban centers, and by yans added another symbol, a symbol for a 400 BC in the Southern Area a large ritual zero.11 They ”measured” time using two com- center Kaminaljuyu (Guatemala) was estab- plicated calendars.12 Unfortunately, during lished, on both sides of a longitudinal plaza the 9th century AD, the Central region suf- having several flat-topped pyramids with fered major political collapse (abandonment temples atop. Much of the art-work (stelae, of cities, ending of dynasties...) followed by altars) expressed a considerable similarity warfare, overpopulation, and drought. These with Olmecs. In the Central Area (northern developments increased the urban activity in Guatemala), between 200 BC and 150 AD, a city of El Mirador was built, having a popula- 7 All (nearly 70 of them) belong to a tion of nearly 100,000 at its peak. Around the sizeable linguistic family originating from the one spoken in the western Guatemala region, some 5,000 years ago large central square, there were many struc- and some of them are still in use today. tures, out of which a large central pyramid 8 Philips, 2007: 46 with two adjacent structures is worth men- 9 Helmke, Kettunen, 2005: 12. Each glyph represented tioning. El Mirador was connected with other a word or a syllable and could be combined with the cities in the region by numerous . others in an almost infinite number of ways. That is why each Mayan word could have been written in many diffe- Classic period (250-900 AD) - This period rent ways. Fig. 7 Caracol, , Yucatan 10 Garza, 1994: 31. Three symbols presented all digits: (Catherwood drawing) was marked by the large-scale construction, urban planning, and cities with a population a dot (value of 1), a bar (5) and a (turtle-like) shaped shell Sl. 7. Caracol, Chichen Itza, Yucatan (0). The numbers were written in horizontal lines in a vige- (Catherwoodov crtež) between 50,000 to 120,000. Teotihuacan had simal system. Numbers between 20 and 399 were shown in the second line, numbers between 400 and 7999 in the third line (from the bottom line upward), etc.; e.g., the number 2018:

400s 5´400

20s 0´20

1s 18´1

2018 11 Along with the Babylonian numerical system, this was the earliest known appearance of an explicit zero sign worldwide. At first, zero served to explain something that was absent in a particular calendar count, but later it got the numerical meaning used in calculations for more than 1000 years. 12 Calendar Round was based on two overlapping an- nual cycles: Divine calendar or tzolk’in (260 days = 20´13 days) and a Solar calendar or Haab (365 days = 18´20 Scientific Papers | Znanstveni prilozi Mayan Cities of Yucatan N. Lipovac, N. Gradečki 282-295 26[2018] 2[56] PROSTOR 287

the northern Yucatan Peninsula - cities like Mayan Settlement Patterns Uxmal and Chichen Itza began to grow. Oblici majanskih naselja Postclassic period (900-1539 AD) - Changes from the preceding Classic Period marked Mayan society was sharply divided into sev- this Period. The cities across the highlands eral social groups: nobles, commoners, serfs, and the Pacific coast were relocated or aban- and slaves. The first one was for rulers, doned after a continuous inhabitation of al- most 2,000 years13, apparently due to the ­administration officials, military command- warfare. New city locations were on hilltops, ers, high priests, traders, and they lived in ”ur- with a kind of ”ditch-and-wall” defense sys- ban” centers. The second group embraced tem and/or near-by permanent drinking wa- farmers, workers, and servants who lived ter resources - the urban activity shifted to outside the center borders, close to their the northern lowlands and highlands. Cities land. The serfs were people who farmed the like Chichen Itza and others in Puuc region, land that belonged to the ruler or local town after a sudden growth, faced a dramatic de- leaders. The last group covered the people cline in the 11th century and thus gave a who were, either punished for crimes or were chance for the city of Mayapan to rise in the the prisoners of war. Anyway, the population 12th century (abandoned in 1448). Other new ”distribution” was highly ordered, and the towns were established by the Caribbean number of each social group would cause the coast initiating new road and trade networks. settlement grouping and pattern. Political, social, and environmental turbulenc- es were the primary cause of the urban col- Following Willey’s and Smith’s15 research on Fig. 8 Position of the observed Mayan Cities the New World settlement pattern, the spa- on Yucatan Peninsula lapse of the Southern region. The city aban- Sl. 8. Položaj spomenutih majanskih gradova donments occurred along with a period of tial configuration of Mayan settlements na poluotoku Yucatan long wars, diseases, and natural disasters that should be observed through the occurrence hit the Yucatán Peninsula. After the arrival of Fig. 9 Palace of the Masks, Kabah of spatial clustering of houses and space in- Sl. 9. Palača maski, Kabah Spaniards the coastal and inland cities were between in relation to centers that had the abandoned and conceded to the power of na- most important structures and buildings ture the sites became ruins and covered by - (pyramids with temples, palaces...). Accord- dirt and vegetation (Fig. 7). This process of natural decline continued for another three ingly, the Mayan settlements can be observed centuries until they were re-discovered.14 within three major groups: A - houses built close to the center days and 1´5 days) that would meet on the same day every B - houses widely dispersed around the center 52 years. The Long Count calendar was introduced in 236 BC starting on August 11, 3114 BC. Days within the Long C - few houses grouped around a building or Count calendar were grouped into five time-cycles named: a structure in small clusters, spread within a (144,000), k’atun (7,200), tun (360), uinal (20) and certain distance from the center. kin (1). One Grand Cycle was equal to 13 , or about 5,139 years. But the American archeologist, W. Bullard16, 13 Sharer, Trexler, 2006: 618 suggested more contemporary and functional 14 In 1839, F. Catherwood and J. L. Stephens started a differentiation of the Mayan settlements set- trip to the inland of Yucatan peninsula, where they found numerous structures abandoned for centuries. Stevens ting them into two major groups: archeologi- kept a diary, superbly illustrated by Catherwood’s dra- cal remains (house ruins, minor ceremonial wings in-situ. The results were published in 1841 (Inci- centers, and particular purpose features) and dents of Travel in , Chiapas and Yucatan) and 1843 (Incidents of Travel in Yucatan). ruin groupings and settlement organization 15 Willey, 1956: 112; Smith, 2011: 53 (clusters, zones, and districts). The first subdi- 16 Bullard, 1960: 358 vision, in a larger scale, may be compared to 17 Today, Kabah site is divided by a regional road (de- Willey’s group C. Which-ever division we con- stroying the long connecting it with Uxmal). The ea- sider as the most appropriate there is some- stern part (the ruling family residential area) has been re- thing in common for each of them: types of searched more. The most important building there is the Codz Poop (Palace of the Masks), built atop the large structures and buildings within and that dis- Fig. 10 Palace, Labna platform with a facade ornamented in Puuc style, having tinguish a settlement from one to another. Sl. 10. Palača, Labna more than 250 God masks. The much larger central and western group are still forested. There are thousands of Maya settlements Fig. 11 Great Palace, Sayil 18 Labna site was a very compact one, an excellent spread across five previously mentioned to- Sl. 11. Velika Palača, Sayil example of towns in the Hilly Region of Yucatan. The nota- day’s countries. The six sites, with particu- ble building, a two-story Palace (more than 60 rooms, 120 m long), is the longest Puuc style building. The building is larly outstanding architecture or plan-layout cut into a small hill, with the south facade facing the vast chosen to be presented in this paper are in plaza and 3 meters wide and 200 meters long sacbe that Mexican states of Yucatan and Quintana Roo runs towards a gateway arch and the pyramid-like structu- re with a roof-comb temple Mirador. (Fig. 8), and visited and experienced by the 19 Town of Sayil is spread along a north-south sacbe, author in 2018. In alphabetical order, they having a three-story terraced building (Great Palace) on are as follows: Tulum in Quintana Roo, and the north with a wide stairway. It has an 85-meter-long Chichen Itza, Dzibilchaltun, Ek Balam, Maya­ facade. South from the Palace, there are some remnants 17 18 19 of structures: Pyramid Temple (El Mirador) and South Pa- pan, Uxmal with Kabah , Labna , and Sayil lace with a Ballcourt. in Yucatan (Figs. 9-11). 288 PROSTOR 2[56] 26[2018] 282-295 N. Lipovac, N. Gradečki Mayan Cities of Yucatan Scientific Papers | Znanstveni prilozi

Fig. 12 Comparison of three pyramides: Structure Types within a Mayan City could have served as the orientation within Uxmal, Chichen Itza, and Coba space. In most cases, the pyramids were de- Sl. 12. Usporedni prikaz triju piramida: Vrste građevina unutar Uxmal, Chichen Itza i Coba signed, built and positioned to serve specific majanskog grada astronomical issues - the point of the sunrise at the time of solstices and equinoxes. The The Mayan architecture was far more diverse most intriguing ones are the Pyramid of the in its appearance and size than the architec- Magician in Uxmal (with an elliptical floor ture of Olmecs. The construction and shape plan), the Pyramid of Kukulcan (El Castilo are mostly in a tight connection with astro- named by Spaniards) in Chichen Itza, and the nomical events. The most remarkable struc- Pyramid of Nohoc Mul in Coba, Quintana Roo tures in Mayan architecture (Fig. 1) are pyra- (Fig. 12). Some of the pyramids housed the mids (with a temple on the top), palaces, tomb of a ruler (like the sarcophagus of Pakal ballcourts, observatories, sacbes, city-walls, E-groups20, triadic groups, platforms. Most of found inside the Temple of Inscription, atop a these structures were of a near-to-rectangu- pyramid in Palenque, Chiapas state). lar shape (the Pyramid of a Magician in Ux- Palaces were large buildings, with highly or- mal, Observatories in Chichen Itza and Maya- namented facades (painted or with relief) pan are the exception). The pyramids are step pyramids (like ziggu- 20 Specific structure complex that is not frequent in Yu- catan state (Dzibilchaltun and Kabah are the only ones rats in Mesopotamia) and their construction found by the author), but in Guatemala and Belize. The commenced in the late Pre-Classic. Two types structure consists of a north-south oriented elongated of pyramids were built: the ones used for reli- platform next to the plaza, with three smaller temple gious and sacrificial rituals, while the others mounds, or two with a terraced pyramid in between. Some scholars think they were used for astronomical features did not have any function except to be no- (the sunrise and sunsets at certain days, and the delinea- ticed as a strictly sacred (very steep) struc- tion with other astronomical appearances). The platforms ture. The size ranged from just a few meters were made of limestone and elevated 3-4 meters, and of height, up to the one like in Cholula (Fig. 13) used for public and religious ceremonies. Smaller structu- 21 res like altars, stelae, or important society members that was more than 65 meters of height. The tombs were found, too. pyramids for the sacrifice had stairways (two 21 A Cholula pyramid (Puebla) is the largest one world­ or four) providing the access for the priest to wide: 450´450 m of floor plan and 65 m high. The pyramid had a temple of Quetzalcoatl (feathered snake) on the top Fig. 13 Cholula Pyramid, Puebla, Puebla the top temple (closer to the God). The pyra- and was built in four stages during 12 centuries (3rd BC - Sl. 13. Piramida Cholula, Puebla, Puebla mids were taller than the jungle trees and 9th AD). The pyramidal construction is well preserved, in spite of the Spanish brutal looting of Mayans’ sites. As the whole site was deserted by the end of the 10th century AD, the pyramid was covered by dirt and vegetation and con- cealed under the mound that appeared to be a natural hill at the time (1594) the Spaniards built a church on the top to symbolize the imposition of in this part of Mexico. The pyramid structure was discovered in 1881, by A. Bandelier, the American archeologist. 22 The doorways and freestanding Arches were oriented to catch the sunrise or sunset on a specific date. The stair­ way wall of the pyramid in Chichen Itza was used as a ”screen” for projecting the shadow from the pyramid steps edge, which (along with the stone serpent head at the bottom of the stairway) produced an image of a ser- pent descending from the pyramid. The Temple of Seven Dolls in Dzibilchaltun with its central ”door” served for the first glimpse of the rising sun on March 21st to spread along the sacbe. 23 The concept of a house was very different than today. The huts were one-room buildings and were spread widely around the center, away from the public buildings and structures. Several huts with various functions (sleeping, storage, eating...) grouped ”created” a house. Scientific Papers | Znanstveni prilozi Mayan Cities of Yucatan N. Lipovac, N. Gradečki 282-295 26[2018] 2[56] PROSTOR 289

and used to house the elite population. They (Coba) and later by vertical sides like the one Fig. 14 Comparison of the observatories: had many chambers within up-to-three floors in Chichen Itza (Fig. 16). Chichen Itza and Mayapan above the ground, and had one or more Sl. 14. Usporedni prikaz zvjezdarnica: One of a structure that was of the great im- Chichen Itza i Mayapan courtyards. These buildings were used as a portance for Mayas is a sacbe (causeway), an burial place for palace residents. In front of elevated paved road bordered on both sides, the palaces, there are platforms - large with a function of enabling the Mayans to squares for public gatherings. Some of the travel within and out of the cities. palaces, worth mentioning, are the ones in Uxmal (Governor’s palace) and Sayil (a three- The final structure, worth mentioning is a city floor high building, nearly 85 meters long) wall that cannot be found at every site in that create a unique appearance at the site ­Yucatan. The most significant ones are at (Fig. 15). ­Tulum (Quintana Roo), Ek Balam, and Maya- pan (Yucatan). The circular temples dedicated to the God Ku- kulcan (like the one in Chichen Itza and Maya- Other characteristic Mayan settlement build- pan) are often considered to be the observa- ings were residential houses - huts23, built of tories (Fig. 14), but there is no exact proof for wooden poles and thatch, plastered with that. As mentioned previously, many of the mud, set atop a low-height mound-base and Mayan buildings and structures were built to covered with hay that protected from sun record some astronomical features.22 For this and rain. reason, the label ”observatory” can be ap- plied to any Mayan structure regardless of Case Studies their primal function. Primjeri gradova A ballcourt is an unavoidable part of the Ma- yan settlement. The ritual ball game was in- Hereafter, a short description of the chosen Fig. 15 Governor Palace, Uxmal herited from the Olmecs and played with a sites in Yucatan and Quintana Roo is given, Sl. 15. Guvernerova palača, Uxmal solid rubber ball (30 cm in diameter), on a preceded by some general data for each of Fig. 16 Ballcourt, Chichen Itza play-field bordered firstly by sloping sides them. Sl. 16. Igralište, Chichen Itza 290 PROSTOR 2[56] 26[2018] 282-295 N. Lipovac, N. Gradečki Mayan Cities of Yucatan Scientific Papers | Znanstveni prilozi

Fig. 17 Temple of Descending God and El Castilo, came a ruling (political, economic and reli- Tulum, Quintana Roo name: TULUM gious) center for the northern Yucatan. The Sl. 17. Hram silazećeg boga i utvrda El Castilo, settlement type: A Tulum, Quintana Roo most dominant structures were built between time of abidance: 1280-1590 AD 625-800 AD, but between 800-900 the settle- Fig. 18 Temple of Warriors, Chichen Itza area coverage: 2,5 hectares within ment was abandoned and used for religious Sl. 18. Hram ratnika, Chichen Itza the wall + 12 hectares rites, only. The next revival occurred in the outside the wall mid of 10th century when the Itza people re- th population: 1000 turned to the site. By the end of 10 century, the king and his army came to Chichen The town of Tulum (in the Mayan language it Itza. That was the beginning of the Toltec in- means ”wall”) was built on a 13 meters tall fluence over the site (construction of vast col- cliff near-by the Caribbean Sea. It is one of onnades and other structures with carvings the last cities built before the Spaniards’ ar- of serpents and deities). The shape of the city rival and was an important port through was irregular, hard to define. The beginning which the Mayans made most of their sea of a decline is dated by a transition between trade. The town had a rectangular shape that the 12th and 13th century when no major struc- was conditioned by the walls (3-5 meters tall 24 tures were built. The most important struc- and up to 8 meters thick) along three sides , ture of Chichen Itza is the nine-step Pyramid while by its fourth side was next to the cliff. of Kukulkan built between 11th and 13th cen- The main gate was within the west wall, while tury for the Feathered Serpent God, named the other two walls had several secondary by the Spaniards El Castillo because of its gates. On both corners towards the main- size and appearance. The pyramid was up- land, there were two watch-towers. The city had its peak between the 13th and 15th century graded in several phases, reaching the height and was still inhabitated for some 70 years of 30 m and the floor size of 55´55 m. It has after the Spaniards commenced their con- stairways on 4 sides with 91 steps, each. quer of the land. The most vivid structures in When the step in front of the temple built Tulum are El Castilo, the Temple of Descend- atop is added, a number of 365 is reached - ing God (Fig. 17) and the Temple of the Fres- the number of days in a year. The orientation coes. The last-mentioned structure might and design have astronomical issues (sol- have served as the observatory, too. Other, stice and equinox). Next structure worth worth noting, structures are House of the Col- mentioning is a circular building - observa- umns and House of the . tory El Caracol (snail in Spanish because of the spiral stairway inside of it) some 14 m of name: CHICHEN ITZA height, built over a platform. It was rebuilt settlement type: C several times to calibrate its astronomical time of abidance: 450-1480 AD observation of the Pleiades, the Sun, Venus movements). The site contains many other area coverage: 1000 hectares structures like Ballcourts, Temple of the War- population: 50,000 riors (Fig. 18), Court of the Thousand Col- The area of Chichen Itza (”Mouth of the Itza umns, Temple of the Big Tables, Temple of Well” in the Mayan language) has been oc- the Wall Panels, Nunnery, Osario and numer- cupied ever since the first millennium BC, but ous platforms of different sizes. The site is as the Mayan settlement it was mentioned in crisscrossed by more than 30 sacbes, out of the 8th century when the first structures were which the one connecting the site with the built between two (natural sinkholes with drinking water). Around 600 AD it be- 24 Larrocha, 2010: 81 Scientific Papers | Znanstveni prilozi Mayan Cities of Yucatan N. Lipovac, N. Gradečki 282-295 26[2018] 2[56] PROSTOR 291

Sacred is the best preserved. Today, late 1980s, but the first comprehensive re- Fig. 19 Temple of Dolls, Dzibilchaltun Chichen Itza, along with Uxmal, is on the search was performed in the 1990s. Ever Sl. 19. Hram lutaka, Dzibilchaltun UNESCO WHL. since, 45 structures have been discovered Fig. 20 South Plaza Complex with Oval Palace, and mapped. The smaller area (some 100 Ek Balam name: DZIBILCHALTUN hectares) is surrounded by a double defense Sl. 20. Sklop južnog trga s ovalnom palačom, settlement type: B wall (3 m wide and 1.5 m high), with entranc- Ek Balam time of abidance: 500 BC - 1,500 AD es through which a Central Plaza can be area coverage: 150-1900 hectares reached by a sacbe (set in cardinal direction). population: 25,000-40,000 Inside the walls, on the north side, there is the major building - Acropolis that has a tem- Dzibilchaltun (”writing on flat stones” in the ple (called El Trono - the Trone) in which the Mayan language) was one of the largest Ma- ruler (Ukit Kan Lek Tok) was buried. The size yan cities, close to the northeast shore of of the Acropolis is 162 by 68 meters in floor ­Yucatan, still populated at the time of the plan and 32 m in height. Its south facade is a Spanish arrival. During the excavations, the highly decorated - not in a carved stone but archeologists have discovered over 8,000 in stucco and limestone mortar that could be structures, out of which the most outstand- ing one is the Temple of the Dolls (Fig. 19). It easily modeled, and then painted. Along the was built on a terraced platform, with three east and west side of the Central Plaza, there small buildings west of it, and a blank Stela are large platforms II and III (more than 120 m 12 which might have been used for astronom- long, and 20 m high), and a small ballcourt on ical viewing along with the openings of the a south edge. By the south edge of the South Temple of the Dolls (autumn and spring equi- Plaza, there is a structure - the Oval Palace nox sunrise). The temple was connected with (Fig. 20), which orientation seems to be con- Central Plaza (105´135 m) with a 650 m long nected with some astronomical features. On sacbe 1. On the north side of the plaza, there the west edge of a plaza there, a structure is a 10 m high four-tiered small pyramid XVII or The Twins having two mirroring tem- (structure 36) with a central stairway, while ples on each side, while on the east side along the south edge a plaza there is nearly there is a structure X. Structure XVIII is a small 130 m long building (structure 44) with nu- entrance Arch that was probably used for cer- merous chambers and doors facing the plaza emonial purposes. Outside the walls, in the and a continuous stairway, 5 m high. Within forest, there are many smaller structures/ru- the plaza there are ruins of a chapel built by the Spaniards. There are some more build- ins waiting to be cleared. ings and ruins near-by that have not been re- constructed yet. The area south of sacbe 1 is name: MAYAPAN filled up with numerous irregular residential settlement type: A stone houses. time of abidance: 1,000-1450 AD area coverage: 420 hectares name: EK BALAM population: 10-12,000 + 5,000 settlement type: B time of abidance: 100 BC - 900 AD Mayapan city was a part of a triple alliance area coverage: 100-1,200 hectares with cities of Chichen Itza and Uxmal, but it population: unknown managed to exist in later days than the other two cities. Mayapan architecture is a mixture The town of Ek Balam (”black jaguar” in the of Mayan and Toltec architectural elements. Mayan language) was ”discovered” in the The main square is bordered by governmen- 292 PROSTOR 2[56] 26[2018] 282-295 N. Lipovac, N. Gradečki Mayan Cities of Yucatan Scientific Papers | Znanstveni prilozi

Fig. 21 Central structures of Mayapan tal, religious and ruling class buildings. The structure is a 35 m tall stepped pyramid (Pyr- Sl. 21. Središnje građevine Mayapana whole area within the city walls (with 12 en- amid of a Magician) built over an oval-shaped Fig. 22 Nuns’ Quadrangle and the Pyramid trances, out of which 7 had vaulted gates) is floor-plan (instead of more accepted rectilin- of a Magician, Uxmal bursting with structures and buildings (Fig. ear one) between 600 and 950 AD. The final Sl. 22. Samostanski sklop i Piramida čarobnjaka, 21): temples, altars, platforms (there are version of a pyramid is a result of the con- Uxmal more than 4000 structures). The inner-walls struction of five pyramids, each larger and area is dominated by a 9-tiered pyramid, built over the one beneath. On the rear (east) which reminds very much on the pyramid in side there is a wide stone staircase leading to Chichen Itza (not only by the same name). the summit where a temple was built. The op- Many buildings within the city-walls have col- posite side is fully decorated (Chaac God lapsed vaulted roofs (what is not the case in masks, latticework panels, and stone mosa- Chichen Itza and Uxmal). Besides, there are ics), with some additional structures (tem- three circular buildings that might be used ples) by the bottom of the pyramid. In the vi- as observatories (compared to just one in cinity, there is a House of the birds (named Chichen Itza and none in Uxmal), and only after the birds decoration found at the friez- structure that is missing, compared to Chichen es) and a group of four elongated buildings Itza and Uxmal, is a ballcourt. The Mayas around 80 by 65 m patio - the Nun’s Quad- abandoned the Mayapan around 1448, after rangle (Fig. 22). The name was given by Span- a period of political, social and environmen- tal turbulence. iards, probably because of 74 rooms that are within this complex (reminding of the nuns’ name: UXMAL chambers). Both building facades are elabo- rately carved and decorated. settlement type: C time of abidance: 500-1,200 AD There are some more buildings southward area coverage: 60-140 hectares like the Governor’s Palace, Ballcourt, House population: 25,000 of the Turtles, Dovecote group, Pyramid of the Old Woman and the Great Pyramid (near- Uxmal (”thrice built” in the Mayan language) ly 80 m of a base size). Among the structures is one of the most attractive archeological west of the Nun’s Quadrangle and the Go­ sites connected with Mayan culture. Main vernor’s Palace stands, so-called a Ceme- structures cover the area of approximately 60 tery group (the elongated temple standing on hectares where some 25 structures and a low base platform and a ruined pyramid buildings are worthwhile seeing. The main west of it). The Governor’s Palace is one of the best ex- Table 1 Characteristic structures of Mayan Cities from Case Studies amples of the Puuc style25: three-parts build- Tabl. I. Karakteristične građevine obrađenih majanskih gradova ing stands atop a 9 m high terrace, with stair- Characteristic structures ways along the whole facade. It has a 90 m City Settlement type pyramid palace observatory ballcourt sacbe city-wall long mosaic having more 100 Chaac God Tulum A - + + - - + masks. In front of the Palace, there is a Plaza Chichen Itza C + - + + + - with a two-headed jaguar throne. The city of Uxmal was closely connected with three Dzibilchaltun B - ? - - + - smaller towns: Kabah, Labna, and Sayil. Ek Balam B - + - + + + Mayapan A + + + - - + Uxmal C + + - + + + 25 Proskuoriakoff, 1963: 76 Scientific Papers | Znanstveni prilozi Mayan Cities of Yucatan N. Lipovac, N. Gradečki 282-295 26[2018] 2[56] PROSTOR 293

Conclusion buildings and structures) but also through Fig. 23 Comparative presentation of the size the intangible heritage (mathematics, writ- and the layout of the observed cities Zaključak Sl. 23. Usporedni prikaz veličine i tlocrta ing-system, time-recording) that prove they promatranih gradova The history of making cities in pre-Hispanic were a civilization rather than just groups of World is a very long one - over 3,000 years. aboriginals. Through three significant peri- After the Olmecs and Zapotecs, the Mayan ods (Pre-classic, Classic, and Post-classic), civilization expressed their knowledge, not starting with huts and small camps they cre- only through their tangible heritage (colossal ated great towns and cities. Their settlements 294 PROSTOR 2[56] 26[2018] 282-295 N. Lipovac, N. Gradečki Mayan Cities of Yucatan Scientific Papers | Znanstveni prilozi Bibliography Sources Literatura Izvori

were never laid out on a grid, but rather in an 1. Aveni, F.A. (2001), Building J at Monte Alban, in: Illustration Sources Skywatchers: A Revised and Updated Version of unplanned way, although most of the build- Izvori ilustracija ings or structures were built (oriented) fol- Skywatchers of Ancient Mexico, University of lowing some astronomical issues (solstice, Texas Press, 262-272, Austin, TX Fig. 1, 3, equinox, or towards some visible stars or 2. Bourbon, F. (1999), The Lost Cities of the Ma- 9-22 Photo: Lipovac, N. constellations). That's why it is complicated yas - The Life, Art, and Discoveries of Frederic Fig. 2, 6, to define the city size and its pattern.26 Ex- Catherwood, Artes de Mexico, Colonia Roma, 8, 23 Sketch: authors Federal District amples of the Mayan city layout (Fig. 23) with Fig. 4 https://peopleofonefire.com/something- 3. Bullard, R.W. (1960), Maya settlement pattern -else-is-really-bothering-me-about-the- the mark-down of the characteristic struc- -track-rock-petroglyphs.html/comment- tures (Table I) presented in this paper prove in Northeastern Peten, Guatemala, in: American Antiquity, 25: 355-372 -page-1 (12.11.2018.) that. The central settlement core was a home Fig. 5 Descriptive photo: authors for ritual, administrative and other elite resi- 4. Coe, D.M.; Koontz, R. (2008), Mexico: From the th Fig. 7 Bourbon, 1999: 184 dential buildings or structures (pyramids, Olmecs to the Aztecs [6 Edition], Thames and Hudson, New York temples, palaces, observatories, ballcourts, markets, elevated platforms), but not that ev- 5. Diehl, R. (2004), The Olmecs: America’s First Civilization, Ancient peoples and places series, ery city had it. The buildings were gathered Thames & Hudson, London around plazas used for ceremonial and pub- lic gatherings. Some of the cities had city- 6. Garza, M. (1994), The Mayas: 3000 years of Ci- vilization, Casa Editrice Bonechi, Mexico City, walls. The residential area needs were full- Federal District filled by constructing houses - ”huts” inside the rainforest or over the clear-cut rainforest 7. Helmke, C.; Kettunen, H. (2005), Introduc- tion to Maya Hieroglyphs, 10th European Maya land. Residential areas for the nobles occu- Conference, Workshop Handbook, Leiden Uni- pied the best land around the city center, versity while commoners had their residences 8. Larrocha, S.; Dante Archivo (2010), The Ma- grouped in the second ”belt” from the city yan World - Rebuilt [Ed. Dante S.A. de C.V.], core (sometimes around several larger struc- Merida, Mexico tures). The living places for serfs were within 9. Lipovac, N. (2010), The Rise and Decline of a scattered second belt - dispersed further North American Prehistoric Settlements - A Se- away from the ceremonial center. This creat- arch for the Meaning of Habitat Patterns and ed three significant types of Mayan settle- Structures in the South East, ”Prostor”, Univer- ments (A, B, and C), making it difficult to esti- sity of Zagreb, Faculty of Architecture, 18 (2 mate the city population, but some of the /40/): 268-287, Zagreb cities had reached numbers that were much 10. Lipovac, N. (2018), History of Making Mayan larger than the ones of the European cities at Cities - from Birth to Decline, lectures at Ana­ the same time. huac Mayab University, Merida, Yucatan 11. Philips, C. (2007), The Aztec and Maya World, [Written in English by the authors] Lorenz Books, Anness Publishing, London 12. Proskuoriakoff, T. (1963), An Album of , Norman, University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, OK 13. Sharer, J.R.; Traxler, P.L. (2006), The Ancient Maya [6th ed.], Stanford University Press, Stan- ford, CA 14. Smith, M.E. (2011), Classic Maya Settlement Clusters as Urban Neighborhoods: A Compa­ rative Perspective on Low-Density Urbanism, ”Journal de la Societe des Americanistes”, 97 (1): 51-73 15. Willey R.G. (1956), Problems Concerning Prehi- storic Settlement Patterns in the Maya Low­ lands, in: Willey, Gordon R. [ed.]: Prehistoric settlement patterns in the New World, Viking Fund Publications in Anthropology 23: 107-114, 26 Observation was performed on fieldtrips in Novem- New York ber 2016 and October 2018, during scholar visits to Univer- sidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco - UJAT, Villahermosa, 16. https://peopleofonefire.com/something-else- Tabasco, and Anahuac-Mayab University - AMU, Merida, is-really-bothering-me-about-the-track-rock-pe­ Yucatan, Mexico. troglyphs.html/comment-page-1 [12.11.2018.] Scientific Papers | Znanstveni prilozi Mayan Cities of Yucatan N. Lipovac, N. Gradečki 282-295 26[2018] 2[56] PROSTOR 295 Sažetak Summary

Majanski gradovi Yucatana Oblici naselja i vrste građevina

U ovome radu predstavljeni su početni rezultati pomoći kotača. Posebno je razvijeno poznavanje neizbježan dio majanskoga grada i služio je za istraživanja prapovijesnih naselja Srednje Ameri- astronomije i jedinstveno slikovno pismo kojim su obrednu igru loptom na površini bočno obrublje- ke, odnosno Meksika, ovaj put s naglaskom na po- pisali po kamenu, keramici ili posebnom papiru. noj, u početku kosim, a zatim okomitim zidovima. dručje poluotoka Yucatan. Istraživanje je provede- Maje su koristili vigezimalni brojni sustav (s bro- Sacbe predstavlja popločenu, izdignutu i obrublje- no tijekom znanstvenih gostovanja na Universidad jem 20 kao osnovicom), uz korištenje samo dva nu cestu koja je povezivala građevine unutar gra- Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco, Villahermosa, Ta- brojčana znaka - točka (1) i crtica (5), a poslije je dova i gradove s vjerskim središtima ili međusob- basco (2016.) i Anahuac-Mayab University, Merida, uveden znak za ništa - nula. Vrijeme su mjerili s no. Spomenute građevine promatrane su i u pro- Yucatan (2018.). Područje Srednje Amerike (Meso- pomoću dva godišnja kalendara i jednoga za dugo stornom i oblikovnom poimanju na primjeru 6 america) bilo je naseljeno još prije 22.000 godina, brojenje. Na prijelazu u postklasično razdoblje bilo gradova Yucatana koje je autor osobno obišao i a prvom pravom civilizacijom smatraju se Olmeki je mnogo ratova koji su uzrokovali napuštanja sta- istražio. koji su bili preteče Maja. Tri su najvažnija olmečka rih naselja, dok se nova naselja grade na brdi- Grad Tulum izgrađen je na litici iznad Karipskoga naselja: San Lorenzo, La Venta i Tres Zapotes. San ma ili u nizinama sjevernog područja uz izgradnju mora, pravokutnog je oblika zahvaljujući debelim Lorenzo (1500.-900. pr.n.e.) sastojao se od neko­ obrambenih zidova i jaraka. gradskim zidinama na trima stranama prema kop­ liko manjih zaselaka na brdima pod upravom isto­ Majansko društvo bilo je zasnovano na strogim nu i smatra se jednim od posljednjih gradova izgra- imenoga urbanog centra. La Venta (1200.-400. klasnim podjelama na plemstvo, pučane, sluge i đenih prije dolaska Španjolaca. Chichen Itza, naj- pr.n.e.) bila je civilno i vjersko središte te se smatra robove, koje se očituju i u razmještaju građevina poznatiji majanski grad na Yucatanu, sagrađen je prvim ‘planiranim’ gradom prije dolaska Španjola- unutar gradova. Prema istraživanju R.G. Willeyja između dvaju prirodnih jezera s pitkom vodom ca. Druga važna kultura prije Maja bili su Zapoteki. mogu se odčitati tri glavna oblika naselja (A, B i C). (cenota) i neodređenog je oblika, unutar kojeg se Njihov glavni grad Monte Alban (500. pr.n.e. - 800. Oblik A predstavlja naselje sa stambenim zgrada- nalaze gotovo sve spomenute građevine. Više je n.e.) sagrađen je na umjetnoj visoravni i namije- ma grupiranim oko jednoga središta, kod oblika B puta bio napušten i ponovno naseljen. Dzibilchal- njen za stanovanje ‘više klase’, dok su ostali sta- one su široko raspršene oko središta, dok su kod tun, grad na sjeveru Yucatana, bio je naseljen čak i novnici živjeli u dolini. Za razliku od jakih središnjih oblika C stambene zgrade izvan urbanoga središta u doba dolaska Španjolaca. U širem području imao naselja Olmeka, Maje su organizirane u više ‘kra- raspršene i okupljene oko manjih javnih građevina. je više od 8000 građevina. Ek Balam je ‘otkriven’ ljevstava’ raširenih na području današnjega is­ Pojedinačne građevine (piramide, palače, sportska tek krajem 20. stoljeća. Središte s akropolom, točnog Meksika, Belizea, Gvatemale, Salvadora i igrališta, zvjezdarnice, E-grupe, trojke uzdignuti obrubljeno dvostrukim zidinama, dobro je istraže- zapadnog Hondurasa, na površini većoj od 350.000 ­trgovi, ceste i obrambeni zidovi) čine okosnicu no i obnovljeno, dok se prostor i građevine izvan km2 podijeljenoj na tri zemljopisne cjeline: sje­ majanskoga grada. Njihova izgradnja i oblikovanje zidina još uvijek istražuju. Mayapan je bio dio troj- verno, središnje i južno područje. Maje su na tom vrlo su često povezani s određenim astronomskim noga saveza gradova (zajedno s Uxmalom i Chichen prostoru živjele više od 3000 godina. Ovo raz­ pojavama. Piramide, stepenaste građevine, kori- Itzom) i najduže je ‘preživio’. Za razliku od ovih doblje službeno se promatra kao pretklasično štene su za vjerske obrede (s hramom i prostorom dvaju gradova, građevine unutar gradskih zidova (1800. pr.n.e. - 250. n.e.), klasično (250.-900.), za žrtvovanje na vrhu) ili samo kao prostorna obi- Mayapana (njih oko 4000) gusto su izgrađene oko postklasično (900.-1539.). Pretklasično razdoblje lježja. Visina im se kretala od svega nekoliko meta- središta. Uxmal je jedno od najprivlačnijih arheo- počinje u trenutku kada nomadska plemena zapo- ra pa sve do više od 60 m (piramida u Choluli). Pira- loških nalazišta majanske kulture. Čarobnjakova činju s uzgojem različitih kultura i grade prva stalna mide koje su se koristile prilikom žrtvovanja imale piramida (ovalnoga tlorisnog oblika i glatkih stra- naselja. S vremenom neka od tih naselja postaju su 2-4 stubišta duž bočnih strana sve do hrama na na), kao i samostanski sklop, samo su neke od po- urbana i vjerska središta kojih graditeljstvo ima vrhu. Palače su velike i bogato ukrašene zgrade sebnosti ovoga grada. mnogo zajedničkog s Olmekima. Primjer je El Mi­ namijenjene plemstvu s velikim brojem prostorija, Na kraju ove etape istraživanja nastanka majan- rador (200. pr.n.e. i 150. n.e.), grad u Gvatemali, visine do tri kata i s jednim ili nekoliko dvorišta. skoga grada može se zaključiti da pojedini grad koji je brojio gotovo 100.000 stanovnika i bio vrlo Ispred njih nalazili su se uzdignuti trgovi za javna nije imao neku određenu tlorisnu matricu - njegov dobro prometno povezan s ostalim gradovima. okupljanja. Kružne građevine (posvećene božan- oblik i rubove vrlo je teško odrediti. Ali zato su Klasično razdoblje predstavlja vrhunac majanske stvu Kukulcan) smatraju se i zvjezdarnicama. Ali, smjer, oblik i položaj pojedinih građevina pomno civilizacije, a obilježava ga gradnja velikih građevi- kako je većina velikih majanskih građevina građe- isplanirani u odnosu na astronomske pojave. Spo- na i gradova koji su brojili između 50.000 i 120.000 na prema određenim astronomskim pojavama, taj menute građevine nisu se pojavljivale u svakome stanovnika. Sve građevine građene su ručno, bez naziv mogu imati i mnoge od njih. Igralište je bio od majanskih gradova.

Biographies Biografije

Prof. Nenad Lipovac, Ph.D., commenced scholar Prof. dr.sc. Nenad Lipovac započeo je istraživanje research on History of Making Americas Prehistoric nastanka prapovijesnoga grada Novoga Svijeta Settlements, during the Fulbright grant (2002) at ­tijekom korištenja Fulbrightove postdoktorske sti- CED UC at Berkeley. The derived results, always pendije na CED UC Berkeley 2002. Dobivene je re- connected with his personal experience of the sites, zultate, na temelju istraživanja i osobnih iskustava have been published and presented worldwide. stečenih in situ, objavio i predstavio diljem svijeta. Nikolina Gradečki graduated at the Faculty of Nikolina Gradečki diplomirala je na Arhitekton- ­Architecture in Zagreb (2014) and has been Prof. skom fakultetu u Zagrebu (2014.) i od tada je su- Lipovac’s collaborator in his scholar and profes- radnica prof. Lipovca u njegovu znanstvenom i sional work ever since. stručnom radu.