The upper paleolithic of Germany; a new perspective

Authors Barr, James Hubert, 1921-

Publisher The University of Arizona.

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Download date 23/09/2021 19:45:59

Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10150/318044 THE UPPER PALEOLITHIC ©F GERMANY2 A NEW PERSPECTIVE

by- James Hubert Barr

A Thesis Submitted t© the Faemlty ©f the DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY In Partial Fulfillment ©f the Requirements For the Degree ©f MASTER OF ARTS In the Graduate College THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA

19 6 8 STATEMENT BY AUTHOR

This thesis has "been smhrnltted in partial fulfill­ ment ef requirements for an advanced degree at The Univer­ sity @f Arizona and is deposited in the University Library to he made available to borrowers under rules of the Library, Brief quotations from this thesis are allowable without speeial permission, provided that accurate aoknowl- edgmemt of source is made * Requests for permission for ex­ tended quotation from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the head of the major department or the Bean ef the Graduate College when in his judgment the proposed use ef the material is in the interests of scholarship. In all other instances, however, permission must be obtained from the author.

SIGNED?

APPROVAL BY THESIS DIRECTOR This thesis has been approved on the date shown below?

JELI1EK Bate Professor of Anthropology ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am greatly Indebted to the members ©f my com­ mittee for gmidanee and assistance in the preparation of this thesisc My thanks and appreciation are given to Professor Arthur J» Jellnek, the Chairman of the committeei Professor Raymond Ho Thompson, Chairman, Department of Anthropology5 and Doctor William A 0 Longacre, Assistant Professor of Anthropology» Further, I am gratefml to Doctor Laurence Mo Gonld, Professor of Geology, for his encouraging advice concerning the geological portion of the thesis„ Last, but far from least, a special note of grati­ tude is due to my wife, Hildegard, for the typing of this manuscript and for her patience with my grudging accept­ ance of her suggestions during its preparation.

ill TABLE ©F CONTENTS

Fage LIST OF ILLUSTMTIOHS , « . . * . . , , . . » , . r

ABSTRACT 0 o © © o o « © © © © © © © © © © © 1 © ©

1 © INTRODUCTION © © © © © © © © © © © © .© © © © © © 1 2© THE UFFER FLEISTOC1NE © © © © © © © © © © © © © © 3 The Weiehsel Glaeiation © © © © © © © © ©.© © 4 . The Wlrra Glaeiation © © © © © © © © © © © © © 12 3© THE DFP1S PALEOLITHIC © © © © © © © © © © © © © © 20 The Transitional Period © © © © © © © © © © © 21 Big Game Hunters © © © © © © © © © © © © © © 25 Specialized Hunters © © © © © © © © © © © © © 35

A 0 SUMMAHI 0009 0 000 0 000060000000 6© 5© LIST ©F R1FERENGES © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © 65

It LIST OP ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure Page lo Climati© Curve for the Weiehsel Slaeiation , » » 8 2<> Maximum Advance of the lee Sheets In Germany , 0 10 3, Climatic Curve for the Wiirm Glaciation o o o o o 15 A 0 Locations of Late Upper Paleolithic Groups In Germany 00000.000000000000000 5o Upper Paleolithic Cultural Sequence in Germany »

v ABSTBAG'E

A study of the most recent radiocarbon dates f©r the Wpper Pleistocene ©f northern Europe discloses that the Mlrm and Weiehsel Glaciations were neither entirely synehroaoms nor of the same duration0 The GSttweig Inter- stadial (Wlna I/II)p long accepted as the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic»’ is now considered to be a fluctuation within the liss/Elrm Interglaclalv In view of these facts a reevalmatiom of the Upper Paleolithic of Germany became necessary; lost archaeologists tend to equate the cultural setuemce of Germany with that of France <> A ©loser exami­ nation of site reports based on paleoclimatie and environ­ mental data, together with firm dates for geological events, suggests that such am equation is unrealistic» Technologi­ cal as well as cultural changes resulted from climatic shifts brought about by glacial fluctuations. During^ a large portion of the Upper Paleolithic, Germany remained uninhabited because of severe climatic conditions. After reoccupation, hunting groups represent independent special­ ised adaptations to local environments,

vi INTRODUCTION

The advances in radioearbon dating teohnihuman cul­ tures, A thorough examination of site reports, long the basis for works on prehistory of the area, reveals the fact that early workers were heavily inlueneed in their findings by the then current classification of western European Upper Paleolithic cultures0 The sequence of climatic changes during the period of the last glaciation is examined in detail because of its great influence on the paleolithic populations occupying the area between the Rhine and the Bohemian Forest sepa­ rating Germany from Czechoslovakia and the eastern steppe region= To the south the Alps formed a barrier to movement, while northern limits were imposed by the continental ice sheet. During periods of maximum expansion of the glaciers, local glaciers further restricted movements between Germany and northern France. Discussion of the cultural sequence is confined to the present accepted range of accurate radiocarbon dating, 1 ioe0(, about B«Pe to 10,000 BoP. Instead of attempt­ ing to fit the emltmres into a fixed framework established for western Europe, they are eonsidered in their relation­ ship to a particular environment, and individually, as specialised adaptations to ecological niches within that environment» THE UPPER PLEISTOCENE

Most studies of the seq.ueaee of events associated with the last glaclatlom attempt to correlate stages of the Welehsel and Wlrm glaciations "based on the assumption that these were,; necessarily^■ synchronous0 Here recent radiocarbon dating (Vogel and Zagwijn If6?) has clearly demonstrated that this view is no longer tenable» Flm©= tuations of the large continental ice sheet that covered the northern part of Europe and the oscillations of the Alpine Glacier did not occur at the same time and were not of equal intensity* In fact & the view presented in this paper is that these oscillations of the Alpine Glaciation followed upon, and were caused by, those occurring in the larger more climatically dominant Welehsel Glaciation« This explanation of glacial events will assist in a better understanding of the shifts of fauna and movements of human populations that were dependent upon the animals for sub- distanceo The changing environment may reflect many of the technological changes that resulted in the so-called "cultural stages” of the Upper Paleolithic hunting groups*

3 4 The Weiehsel Glaeiation In m©rfchwes tern Emrepe the Eemian Interglaeial (Saale/Weiehsel) ended ahomt 7@'»'@©© years ago. The onset of eooler temperatures caused a change from a warm interglaeial climate» warmer than that of the Postglacial maximum »• to a sub-arctic tundrao Estimates of July temperatures based on paleobotanieal evidence show a drop from an average of 18° C to 8® G (Wright 19SI)» The extensive deciduous forests that had covered Europe disappeared, and with this change the warmth-loving mammals departed for more southerly regions» many never to return0 Ham, who had enjoyed a fairly easy life, was now forced to adapt his hunting methods to tundra and steppe animals that increased in response to the climat­ ic changeo While previously he"was able to utilize plant foods, such as roots, nuts and fruits, as well as meat, he was now completely dependent upon a meat diet. Hunting, rather than hunting and gathering, became all important to survival, The first stadial of the Weiehsel ended about 64,©0© years ago. At Amersf©ert, Netherlands, an inter-.• stadial soil has been dated at 63,000 B eP. ± 900 years (GrH 1397)o This date only marks the period of climatic optimum and tells us little about the durationo The Amersf©ort Interstadial was short and with a rather cool climate 0 En­ vironmentally , the only change was from an arctic tundra to 5 local snk-arefcie forests (Gross 19i^)o M© fatmal ©Manges have "been observed in Germany dmring this brief phaseo The stadia! that followed brought slightly cooler temperatures than the first one'o' This phenomenon occurred thromghomt the Weichsels each colder phase exceeded the intensity of its predecessor* The second interstadia!„ the Brorup„ began about 55*000 years ag© and lasted for about 5/000 years * A date # ^o&00 from Loopstedtp nerthem Germany, of 53?OO0 = 2,50© years (Grl = 13S5 ) in association with paleobotaniea.1 data indicates that birch/pine forests returned at least as far north as this region* Evidence also shows that man, too, was able to inhabit these northern areas* With the close of the BrSrup Interstadial a more severe ©old phase set in* This period is known as the Lower Pleniglaeiai, lasting until about 40,000 B*P* A polar de­ sert covered most of northern Germany and the low countries* July temperatures fell to an average of 3° C (Vogel and Eagwijn 1967)= During the first part of this phase man was still able to exist in north central Germany* The site of Lebenstedt was occupied by Eomsterians as late as 48,000 B *P* (GrW - 1219)* However, shortly after this the climate dete­ riorated t® such an extent that man was forced to move south along with the animals he hunted* It was to be the last 6 ©eeupati©*!. ©f merthern Germamy imtil shortly before lost- glaeial times 0 The effect of the growing mass of lee began to be felt in all parts of northern Europe for by this time the lee sheet had attained.the magnitude that enabled it to create its own @limat@ 0 Periglaeial regions were extremely ©oldo The initial effeet was a damp maritime elimate in western Europe and in regions ©lose to the northern Alps„ . ioSo» Bavaria and parts of Lower Austria» However, it must be borne in mind that the ©oast lime of Europe extended, into the Atlantic beyond the British Isles and north as far as southwestern Scandinavia„/ Beeamse of this fact, the marie time ©limate of Germany was not as moist as today» The pre­ vailing westerlies gradually lost moisture as they moved eastward over the land producing a dry continental, ©limate in east central Germany and Czechoslovakia <> During this stage of the Weiehsel the beds of "Older Loess" of Germany were deposited0 Areas of deposition must have still re­ tained their plant ©over since loess is removed by aeoliam action from barren areas and is only redeposited where grasses and shrubs anchor it against further movement 0 The continued presence of man in southern Germany also argues for a slightly milder elimate 0 Shortly before 39#©©® extensive loess deposi­ tion decreased and permitted the formation of thin soils* 7 This phase of the Weiehsel eonsIsted of two ©selHatIons separated hy a short cold periodc The Hengelo„ lasting only ahomt 2,@00 years, was the first of these short climatic ameliorations <, At Loops ted t It is dated at 4@,@@@ B-.Fo + 1.000 years (GrN = 1242), at Denekamp, Netherlands, at 38,700 BoP» ± 1,100 years (Grl - 4366) and at Hengelo, Neth­ erlands , at 38,000 BoPo j- 400 years (GrN - 2504) = Pollen diagrams reveal only the presence of a shrmb tnndra. (Betula nana, Sallx polaris) with Jmly temperatures averaging 9° 0= The ahsenee of any known archaeological remains from north­ ern Germany indicates that man was enable to reoeenpy this region even seasonally0 At the close of this oscillation the climate again grew cold* Shrmb tmmdra was replaced by grassland tundra (Bryas spo)0 Bwarf birch and willow do not reappear in the pollen steetrmm until about 32,000 B.P. during the lenekamp Interstadlalo At the type location, Benekamp, Netherlands, its early stage is placed at 32,200 BoPo > 5^0 years (GrN - 4343) and its conclusion at 28,86© BoPo + 26© years (GrN - 4528)« The Upper Plenlglacial, or Pleniglaelal A, put a sudden halt to the spread of vegetation begun during the Benekamp (Figo 1) => Severe arctic cold prevailed for almost 14.000 years from about 27,000 BoP» to 13,000 B»Po The initial stage saw the ice sheet cross the Baltic basin and begin its advance across northern Europe„ During its YEARS 1 0 EH V IRO N M ENT

A I I e r o d

Park Tundra

Tundra

Steppe 40, 0 0 0

50, 0 0 0 Bush

60, 0 0 0

A m e r s f o o r t

7 0, 0 0 0 T e m p e r a t e

Fig. 1. Climatic Curve for the Weichsel Glaciation. maximum the lee mass attained a tMekness ©f )3 »©0§ meters and extended frem northern Germany and Poland into western Russia (Figo 2 ) 0 In northern and eentral Germany mean annual temperatures fell to =20 G or ©older, demonstrated by the ©yroturbation of soils0 Permafrost soils found be= meath the drift show that the ©old preoeeded the adyanoing glaeiero A polar desert covered all of Germany, The ab­ sence of any orgarni© matter suitable for radiocarbon dating illustrates, the extreme condition existing during this phase of the Weiekselo Loess, in thick beds, was deposited in central and southern Germany and eastern Europe, Frost conditions were so severe in periglaeial regions that, perma­ frost soil was continuous between the northern ice sheet and the Alpine glaciers, In fact, Lehmann (195^®-) feels that neither animals nor men could have found sufficient food in southern Germany during the height of the glaeia= tien, Mammals, including man, who were capable of w i t h ­ standing previous cold phases left for more southerly regions. About 13^06© B,P, a series of short oscillations began, signaling the end of the Weichsel, This phase is designated as the late Weichsel, The first of these os­ cillations , the Billing, started about 13,000 B,P, Shallow soils belonging to the Billing have been dated at Gaters- leben. Worth Germany, at 12,700 B,P, + 32© years {A-l©6=-89)r 10

K m 1 00 200 300

NORTH 100 200 SEA

RHINE

/ <

Fig. 2 . Maximum Advance of the Ice Sheets In Germany. 11 KenlBg Poland^: at 12,020 BoP, ± 120 years (GrH ~ 2024) ?

2elzate»” Belgltam, at 12 ,'3©© B»P» 4 10© years (Orl «= 4782) 0 Obviously, this amelioration covered a broad area* July temperatures rose to 12® © and the climate was temperate enough to permit the return of hardy birch forests in favour­ able locationso A short cold spell, sufficient to kill the birch forests, brought the Billing to a close about 12,©©© BoPo Boring the following AllerSd Oscillation birch, and even pinewere once again able to reestablish them­ selves in northern Germany« The AllerBd began, according to radiocarbon dates from Amersfoort, Netherlands, around

11,78© BoP, ± 15© years (GrI - 811)0 At Usselo, Netherlands, it is dated at 11,7©© BoP, ± 14© years (K~5^7)° Its end has been located at Geesthaeht, Germany, at 10,39© B eP^ + 8© years (Grl - 15©7) T Phis date from Gee-sthaeht, a location close to Hamburg and the reseeding, ice sheet, reveals the milder climate of north central Germany, The Weichsel during its final withdrawl had very little effect upon the climate of periglaeial regions. By this time man could reoecupy the whole of Germany including areas immediately adjacent to the ieef The AllerSd may actually mark the transition from late Glacial to the Holoeeme, At other locations, such as Sehelphoek, Netherlands, I©,#© B,P, ± 9© years (SrN - 2137) 12 establishes the traasltlea from. late Bryas t© Prehereal timeso1 This, them, signified the end of the Weiehselo

The Wtlrm Glaeiatlon The Wlrm ©r Alpine Glaeiatlon, so often equated with the Weiehsel, is mow known to have began mmeh later in time. The writer is in agreement with Hovims (1961), who failed to find the usual threefold division of Wurm I, II,! III, It mow appears that the Wlrm, per se. only consisted ©f ©me main phase with minor oscillations, Fossil soils from Austria (Stillfried A and Gbtt= weig), formerly attributed to the Imterstadial W I/II and associated with the beginning of the Upper Paleolithic, are now moved back to Biss/llrm Interglacial (Gross 1966; Vogel and gagwija 1967)0 Bates for the Stillfried A fossil soil complex at Oberfellabnmn,1 Austria, are 4-3,000 BoP, t 700 years (GrH - 2610) and 4-2,300 B,P, + 800 years (Grl - 1800), These dates are considered minimum for the beginning of the soil formation since loess deposits in immediate super­ position to this soil zone at Krems, Austria, measure 4-6,800 BoP, + 1,800 years (GrH - 3261), These soil hori­ zons represent a long period of cool continental climate with many short oscillations that hindered any development of extensive forests, The dryness permitted only a steppe environment, This was, however, ideal for the animals 13 moving somthward to escape mere severe eem<lens in the northwest ©f Asia* In these eemtiaemtal regions the summers were warmer and the winters ©elder than in the mere maritime regions farther west* Soils were formed npem the apper levels of loess deposited during the early phase of the Weiehselo’ later, the A horlzoa of the Stillfried A soil was removed hy either extensive soliflmetlon or slope wash that marked the wetter ©onditions during the earlier portion of the • succeeding ©old stage* Again, along with the onset of a more severe climate, we see am influx of animals migrating from more northerly regions* The climate in southern Germany gradually "became ©older and drier as the Weiehsel began to exert its effect on the rest of Europe* During the entire period from 5©,©0© BcPo to about 30,000 B*P. glaciers within the Alpine area were ©onfined to valleys * Fluetmatioms of the Weiehsel were reflected in these small valley glaciers and in soils developed under the most favorable ©onditions in the lower altitudes* The small, local glaciers had little or mo In­ fluence on the climate of surrounding areas* The oeeupation of cave sites (Tis©hoferhlhle and SalzefenhShle) at eleva- tloms up to 1,70© meters as late as 31,01© BoP* indicates that the climate was interstadial (Gross 1966)* later, during the height of the glaciation they were inaccessible 14 mtll Postglaeial times0 Gme ©f the series of Weiehsel ©s= ©illati©ms that is refleeted im the Pamdorf amd Stillfried B fossil soils is the Paudorf Oseillationo The Paudorf is romghly eontemporameoms with the Hengelo amd Demeksmp later-. stadials of the Weiohsel (Figo 3)° The period of ©old lyiag hetweem them was mot as great im sowtherm Germamy amd Lower Amstria as im mortherm Germany 0 Bates for the formation of the soil gome at Str$blltz amd Gottweig-Aigem, Austria, are 31,9©© BePo + 50© years (GrN - 4006) and 32,14© B.P. + 86© years (GrN - 2196)0 The Paudorf was a short period of warmtho No forest growth, however, eeeurred except im very favorable locations (Brandtmer 1#5&)° Ho evidence exists for amy essential famaal alteration. The fact that this os­ cillation is rarely registered im cave deposits also suggests a very short or weak climatic amelioration„ Im the type area of Paudorf the upper or A horizon is missing and the B portion is umcomformably overlain by loess. The onset of a new cold phase was distinguished by extensive soliflmetiom. At Bolni Vestoniee, Czechoslovakia, where the soil zone is more nearly complete, an approximate date for the end of soil formation is 28,3©© B,P,. ± 30© years (GrN - 2092), The return of ©old caused a general exodus from southern Germany, No known occupation sites are datable for the period from 27,000 B,P, to 15,000 B.P, Animals seeking to migrate had two possibilities. One route led along the YEARS JULY AV. TEMP. ENVIRONMENT 5 10 15

10, 0 0 0 2 5 A I I e r o d Tundra

2 0 , 0 0 0 MAIN W U R M

30, 0 0 0

GO, 0 0 0

7 0, 0 0 0

Fig. 3 . Climatic Curve for the Wtirm Glaciation. 16 Danube to its headwaters and from there along valleys to the upper Rhoneo This route was only open during the earlier stage of the ©old period and soon heoame hloeked to any fur­ ther movemento The riehness of sites along this route pro­ vides evidenee for its extensive use0 The other alternative for migration lay from southern Germany along the Danube eastward to Hungary where scattered forests remained during the entire glaciation« This route was never effectively sealed off,' but conditions in Germany prevented any return until the late Glacial period* This ©old phase represents the true and only real period that may be termed WUrmian Glacial* Only during this time did the valley glaciers spread out from the valleys into the Alpine foreland to the north and northeast* Here, pied­ mont glaciers developed from the coalition of two or more valley glaciers to form lobes extending over the plains * Along the eastern Alps conditions were both warmer and drier, and the spread of ice was restricted to the immediate foot­ hills* This expansion of the Wlrm was not due to shifts in the rainfall pattern or a general increase in precipitation as widely accepted hypotheses would have it* Studies of f l m fields and eirtue basins of existing glaciers within the Alps have revealed that snow depths were mo higher than today (Woldstedt 1961; Galloway 1965)» Instead, the glaciers grew at lower ends because of a decrease In ablation0 Evidence for frost action beneath the drift of end moraines proves that they moved over already frozen ground (Brunnaeker 1956)° This permafrost was caused as much by the Weiehsel as by local conditions ° At points of farthest advance the two end moraines jrere fewer than 3©© km apart* Another firmly established beliefy that of a major shift in wind patternsy has also succumbed to more careful researeho The sun's reflection (albedo) off the large masses of ice supposedly caused high pressure areas to de­ velop* in turn creating high winds off the glaciers ° Stud­ ies conducted of the position and bedding of loess deposits in central Europe and sand dune formations close to the end moraines of the Weiehsel reveal no change in wind patterns during the late Pleistocene (Wright 19&1)° Just as today, prevailing winds in Belgium and western Germany were from the southwest ° In eastern Germany they came from the west and in Poland from the northwest* Farther east, in Hungary, they blew from straight north* Apparently, the high pres­ sure center located over central Europe was even more stable during the glaciation than at present* The correct wind patterns are valuable in attempting to explain migration of mammals since each species reacts differently in response to wind action* Reindeer, for example,- invariably move into the wind while others, such as the horse, will move with 18 the. wimdo Under the elder theories of winds moving off the glaciers it was diffiemlt to explain smeh migrations in terms of the animals8 natural instincts0 Hunters following a particular species would have moved along similar routes„ Secondary effects of the severe cold were the forma­ tion. of local glaciers in other areas of Germany» In the western portion these developed in the Vosge Mountains sepa­ rating Germany and Belgium and along the Mosel Biyer» In the region of a more maritime climate ice depths reached a maximum of 300 meters» The Mosel glacier filled ahout 50 km of the lower valley* Toward the north the Vosge glaciers thinned as the mountains grew lower * In the Black Forest area of southwestern Germany valley glaciers filled the most southerly portions„ The central part of the Black Forest contained extensive firn fields„ These glaciers effectively Blockaded any movement into, or out of northeastern France« Animals, such as the cave hear (Ursus spelaeus)„ Became extinct around this time* either through inability or un­ willingness to migrate until too late* The highest mountains of central Germany„ the BiesengeBirge, only developed small valley glaciers Because of the aridity* The eastern Bound­ ary formed By the Bohemian Forest contained valley glaciers for the same reason* These small valley glaciers would not have prevented migration through the area* The corridor to .... 19 Hwgary remained open to movement if such had been deslr- able0 Host likely it is along this route that forests spread after the peak of the ©old was over0 The stage of the glaciation known as late Wurm oon~ sists of large scale temperature fluctuations and oscilla­ tions of the end moraines* This amelioration began about 16,GOO BoP* and, although no firm dates are available for glacial events, the reoccupation of southern Germanyby 15,000 BoP* would hot have been possible without some degree of climatic change* The cessation of climatic influence by the Meiehsel, or a general warming trend, may have caused this fluctuation* Once begun, the warming trend was rapid, since the retreating glaciers had little effect on surround­ ing areas. First, a birch forest tundra returned followed by less hardy trees* The boundary between Older and Younger Dryas was established at Sehussenquelle„ Baden-Hlrttemberg, at 10,750 BoP* based on the average of several dates. With the retreat of the glaciers it was again possible for ani­ mals to reenter Germany, The spread of animals to the re­ cently opened environment was accompanied by groups of hunt­ ers who proceeded to reoeeupy all of Germany. THE UPPER PALEOLITHIC

Ham did a®% ehasage Mis way ©f life f©r piarely eml- t w a l ©r esthetic reasons, he did so in order to _smrrive„ The assignment ©f particular, arbitrarily chosen, segments into "stages,f of "emltnres" ©bsemres the fact that hmaan culture eonstitmes a continuum and is constantly in process of change =, The rate may vary due to the rate ©f change in factors outside ©f, as well as within the culture, The decimation of a species upon which a group has long been de­ pendent will result in rapid shifts in technology. Popula­ tions bearing differing traditions may. exchange ideas when in contact. These events must have occurred many times dur­ ing man’s past. Alterations in environment brought about by glacial fluctuation caused the herbivores to migrate over great dis­ tances seeking conditions for which they were especially adapted. In all eases they were accompanied by carnivores, including man, who were in turn dependent upon these animals for subsistence. Let us then examine these groups of hunting peoples in Germany as they adjusted to new environments in an attempt to maintain their way of life. 21 The Transitional Period Imfcerglaelal flera and fauna disappeared fr©m Ger­ many during the eool elimati© phase of the Early Weichsel from about 55,©00 until #0,000 years ago. Northern Germany beeame a brush tundra while more southerly regions retained a parkland steppe environmento In Baden-Wlrttemberg and southern Bavaria patches of forest remained in sheltered locations because of the greater humidity= Conditions in eastern Europe and western Asia were ©older and more continental, causing a general exodus of less elimati©ally-tolerant species. The bison (Bison pris- ©us) and the aurochs (Bos primigenlus)» both natives of Asia, now appear in Germany. The steppe-adapted animals, the wooly mammoth (Elephas primigenius), wooly rhino (Rhino­ ceros tlchorhinus), horse (Etmus germanicus), and the saiga antelope (Saiga tartarlea) replace earlier forest forms« The reindeer (Rangifer sp.) was seasonally present in south­ ern Germany (Woldstedt 1958). Community hunting had begun with the Mousterians or earlier, but the stronger dependence upon animal diet after the disappearance of the flora required additional hunting techniques. We may observe the successful results in the appearance of new weapon forms and in the population expan­ sion apparent all over Europe. Many sites in southern Ger­ many and eastern Europe are occupied for the first time. 22 Tkls marks the beginning ©f a transition from the Lower Paleolithie e©mp#sed ©f a h©m©gem©ms hmnting and gathering emltmre into the Wpper Paleolithie with its many distlmet legalised hunting groupso It began about 40,060 BoP, and lasted until about 35»000 years ag©o Final stages represent a combination of many old tool forms and new inventions and techniques transmitted through cultural contact c lew dates confirm what archaeologists have long suspected, that a time existed when bearers of the Hornsterian culture lived side- by-side with members of Upper Paleolithic groups, Many lousterian elements are among early Upper Paleolithic tool assemblages„ while Late Housterian sites often contain tools belonging to 11 typical" Upper Paleolithic, Sites of this period are found in southern Germany, 411 are closely allied with similar developments in eastern Europe and reflect few similarities with those of western Europe, This eastern orientation was largely a result of v geography =>: The Danube formed both am easy route or commu­ nication with eastern Europe and at times an effective bar­ rier during the late Upper Pleistocene0 Westward movement of human and animal populations was confined to the left (north) bank and adjoining regions0 Groups entering Europe from the steppes of western 4sia were first channeled be­ tween the Carpathian and the Sudeten mountains into the plains ©f Hungaryo From here it was relatively easy t© move northwest along the river into Lower Austria and Germany„ In this area the earliest attempt to develop new to®l forms is found in the Szeletiaa ©mltmre» named for the ©ave of Szeleta, in the Blkk M©mtaims ©f Hungary» Early Szeletlam, or ,$Prot©s©lutrean’1 as it is called in Germany» is identified hy the presence of crudely shaped leaf points» The form is derived from the late. M©usterian flat hand axes made on flakes„ The remainder of the tool assemblage is composed of pure Mousteriam elementsi side scrapers and points o Bone tools are lackingo Gave sites "belonging to this group, the Szeletian, are scattered from southern Po­ land through Czechoslovakia and southeastern Germany into Hungaryo Published dates are only available for two sites $ Hietoperzewa, near Cracow (Poland)„ 38,©00 B»Pe (GrN - 2181) and Hadesina, Czechoslovakia, 38*#@@ B>P. (BrH - 2^38)» Paleoclimatie evidence places these occupations in a cli­ matic optimum of a rather cool imterstadial. The dates are in close agreement with the Hengel© oscillationc In Germany we find Early Szeletiam at several loca­ tions o In the Weinberg eaves at Hauern two strata produced tools belonging to this group0 The lower level, termed "Presolutrean I" by 2otz (1951)» shows the beginning of a climatic amelioration, This must have been either prior to or simultaneous with occupations in Czechoslovakia and Polando The stone tool assemblage contained, in addition to typical Homsterian artifacts, a number of crude leaf points» Faunal remains included horse, reindeer, mammoth, woply rhi­ no, and bison, indicating unspeeialized hunting. Immediate­ ly above this level was a second stratum with fewer Homste­ rian elements and a higher percentage of leaf points of better workmanship, Animal remains show a larger number of cold-adapted species, This level J2otz labeled “Presolut- rean II," It occurred during the early stages of a climatic deterioration and marks the final Szeletiam habitation in the caves, The new series of dates for the Homsterian site of Erd on the Hungarian Danube discloses that its entire occu­ pation (from 39,@00 B«P, to 35»000 !,P») was coeval with the Szeletian of other parts of Hungary, Does the Szeletian re­ present but a seasonal manifestation of the Homsterian? There is a strong possibility that the Homsterian level at Vogelherd was synchronous with the Presolutrean of Hauern, Both took place during an oscillation and both are separated from the following levels by a sterile layer de­ noting colder climate, Am attempt should be made to secure datable material from these levels at the two sites to re­ solve the question of contemporaneity, The Szeletian tool assemblage contains many cutting implements suggesting a greater dependency on animals, The 25 leaf pelnts have been described in literature in terms ©f their use as points for missile weapons= Howeverg to date none have been found in situ with animal remains0 Hnlike the later Selmtrean points, the Szeletian leaf ”pointsM are asymmetrical in outline with one side having a steeper re­ touch (backing)o The writer believes that these "points" actually represent knives used to skim and dismember game0 A haft or hand grip made from a slotted bone similar to those used during the Perigordiam, or on the more recent Eskimo ulu knives, would have made this tool into a combi­ nation kmife-scraper. The cold phase signifying the end of occupation at lauern apparently prevented the return of the Szeletian since no sites excavated in Germany yield assemblages be­ longing to the Wpper Szeletian, A sterile deposit sepa­ rates the Presolutrean level from that of the Aurignaeiam, the earliest Upper Paleolithic culture found in Germany,

Big Game Hunters The cold phase following the Hengelo Interstadial brought many changes to Germany, A tundra replaced the steppe environment over most of eastern Europe, while in central Europe a grassland steppe developed in place of the parkland environment. This shift caused many animals to migrate westward out of Asia in search of more favorable pastureso Horses ©f the germamieus smhspeeies, the malm food animal of the Momsterlam ©f Germany„ were smp- plamted "by a smbspeeles mew In Europe s the Eo mrzewalskl. The latter is distimgiaished "by its shorter limbs „ a possible sign of adaptation to ©older elimate» Several smaller spe-v ©ies ©f goat and sheep, and the closely related chamois, Gapra rmpricapra. today confined t© the alpihe regions and considered typical alpine fauna, appear in Europe for the first time (Lehmann 195^a-) ° Their present alpine ©haraeter is dme to their withdrawl into the ©ooler mountainous areas during the glacial retreat. They are basically animals of the grasslands and steppes» Heindeer now began to increase in numbers as the tundra expanded0 It is during this same ©old phase ©f the Weiohsel that the first traees of Upper Paieolithi© industries are identified in eastern and central Europe (37s©©© B 0Pe to 33 s©©© BoPo)o This coincidence with a. stadial of the gla-. elation has led t© many hypotheses concerning the ©rigin of Upper Paleolithic cultures« Two possibilities are cornsid- ©red as explanations Either a group bearing a new tech­ nology (blade tools) entered, replacing lousteriam groups, ©r the new tool forms developed independently out of Middle Paleolithic cultures o Another explanation may lie in a ©©mbination of the two hypotheses» The earliest definite traces ©f Homo sapiens sapiens in Europe are found in 27 asseelatien with the mew fama 6 It Is ©mly legieal that mam fallowed M s migrating food supply<, With the advamelmg lee sheet In northern Europe, the area available to human and animal populations was becoming smaller= It is highly irre­ gular for two groups dependent upon the same ecological niehe in sueh a restricted area to avoid contactp if only seasonallyc Perhaps it was the exchange of ideas that pro­ vided impetus toward a final development into the Upper Paleolithico late Housterian industries contain crude blade tools* The Levallois technique of flake manufacture includes a dev­ elopmental stage in the manufacture of true blades * The greater concentration on animal resources could have encour­ aged attempts to make more efficient cutting and piercing implements * Evidence for contact is found in the mixture of tool types within levels at several sites0 Sites attrib­ uted to early Upper Paleolithic in Germany (Vegelherd, Biek 1933; Gbpfelsteinhihle, Peters 1936) contain Housterian points and side scrapers in addition to blade tools* In regions farther east, Housterian and Upper Szeleti&n assem­ blages (Szeleta) include tools with Aurigmaeian retouch, earinate end scrapers, and true blades (Valoeh 1958-59)° The greater portion of the tools belonging to the earliest Aurigmaeiam and late Housterian industries in Germany and central Europe are identical1 even tools considered diagnostic, leaf-shaped points and earinate end,scrapers, appear within the same site and level (Neustupny and Heu= stnpny 1961 )» In western Emrope the Anrignacian is clearly defin­ able based ©n the presence of characteristic stone and bone tools o In Germany and central Europe this distinction is not as clearo Contrary to statements in the literature about the richness of Aurignacian occupations in southern Germany, sites definitely assignable to this group are ex­ tremely rare and all show only short visits by small groups <> This belief in am extensive occupation results from the work of early excavators who felt that stratigraphy of sites in Germany must parallel that of the classical sites in France<> Consequently, all "stages" of Upper Paleolithic cultures are found in reports written during the first decades of this centuryo A typical case is Sirgenstein cave, excavated by Bo Bo Schmidt in 1906 and referred to in literature as an example of cultural sequence in Germany, Using very little evidence, Schmidt Identified three cultural horizons in a deposit only 1=5 meters in depth0 The lower portion (0,2 - 0,3 m,) contained a "primitive" and a Late MonsterIan, A middle stratum (0,65 = 0,80 m,) produced an "Early, High, and late" Aurignacian, and two Solutrean occupations, The final, upper layer held two stages of Magdalenian, 29 Recentlys, Schmidt8 s evidence has been reexamined and divided

into simply Lower and Wpper Paleolithic (Mtlller-Karpe 1966) 0 Present standards of definition for Amrignacian per­ mits no site in Germany to be assigned to that culture0 Sites contain one or more of the ©haraeteristie tools* but never in the prescribed ratio (Prufer 1958"59)» Stone tools typical for the Aurignaeian of central Europe * but not found among western assemblages * are pointed blades (roughly shaped Gravettian knives), borers or piercers on blades 9 and crude burins * Bone projectile points with split or enlarged bases are similar to those of Amrignaeian I of France <, Stone tools display crude retouchs in fact'* it is only by stretching one8s imagination that the tool forms may be equated with those of the classical French sites* For this reason, only the presence of bone points will be considered in this paper to indicate Amrignaeian* "Aurlgnaeiam" as used, will mean only Amrignaeian I of the western nomenclature * Since no archaeological sites from this period in Germany are dated by radiocarbon methods, it becomes neces­ sary to equate stratigraphy with geological series for which we do possess well-dated levels* Fine stratigraphie deline­ ation and pollen analyses are available from many sites* From this information it has been possible to reconstruct elimatelogieal and environmental conditions during each pe­ riod of occupation* These in turn may be related to known i • 30 ge®l®gieal sefmenees f©3? the area mader study0 It is haz- ardous t© base elimatie assumptions solely ©m the presence or absence of a particular species 0 Faunal remains only furnish clues to the extent that man utilized available re­ sources, Seasonal variation» preservation, and cultural choice often determine the portion of the total fauna found among the remains, In the matter of Aurignaeian sites we are particularly handicapped because early workers excavated only eaves in the hope of establishing cultural succession. The use of these same eaves by carnivores during man's absence obscures the total faunal picture, In addition, prolonged occupation resulted in such an accumulation of refuse that for the sake of space alone it sometimes became necessary to clean out rubbish of former occupants. This resulted in re­ versed stratigraphy. The mammoth tusk from the neolithic stratum of Fetersfels (Peters and Toepfer 1932) is a ease in point, Peters (1936) cites the Middle Age practice of using eaves as sheep pens. The periodic cleaning out of accumu­ lated droppings for manure in fields disturbed stratigraphy for any future excavation,, This practice may also be the source of many of the stray finds recovered from fields. In Germany settlement by Amrigmaeian was restricted to the Wpper Danube between its headwaters in the Black For­ est and the Bavarian Forest in the east, Several areas 31 within this region show the presence of localized, groups 0 Similarities between adjacent sites indicate a ©lose rela­ tionship, while ©ommuaication along the river to the east is demonstrated by corresponding tool types. One such cluster of sites is located around Elm in the Lonetal (Yogelherd) and at Schelklimgen (Boeksteinsehmiede), Another concentra­ tion existed in the vicinity of HSrdllngen (Gross© and Kleine Ofneth^hle)o All lie within the SchiSbiseh-FrEnkisehe Jura, a region well supplied with eaves and rock shelters, The valleys formed ideal locations for man and animals he hunted. Above, on the plateau, a steppe environment offered favorable grazing for the large herbivores, Patches of for­ est grew,in sheltered spots within the valleys until the final advance of the ice changed the entire region into an arctic deserto In the southern portions of Badem-Wirttembesg and Bavaria more humid conditions prevailed, while around Regensburg geological sections and cave strata reveal a much drier climate with colder summers and long winters 0 Perhaps the best studied area of Germany is the Lone­ tal1?: To paleolithic man of all ages the Lonetal was a favor­ ite route on their wanderings between east and west? It sup­ plied all necessities of life? game, shelter, water, and raw materials for tools. Hunters established residence in neigh-, boring caves, forming what must have been small communities, All sites were selected with reference to accessibility. 32 view over smrrowading countryside0 and proximity to smaller side valleysS Saves and shelters not meeting these require^ ments were left to the hyena9 cave bear* and other carnivo­ res (Wetzel lf5^)o Because there were no springs or streams on the upper plateau*! animals were forced to descend into the valleys for water» The narrow side valleys provided the only access for larger herbivores * and at the same time would have offered good spots for traps * The general scar­ city of points from tool assemblages may indicate little hunting of individual animals„ Amrigmacian occupation of this area began during the later stages of the Paudorf oscillation with its lowering temperatureso At Vogelherd we find mammoth* rhino * horse* bison* chamois * and reindeer among the remains of animals regularly hunted for food? This large variety reflects an intimate knowledge of individual animal habits that resulted from adjustment of hunting techniques * During the short summers the mammoths were grazers * living out on the steppe* As winter approached they moved slowly to forested regions* reverting to their original adaptation as browsers (Polutoff 1955)« Within southern Germany the mammoth spent the summer on the plateaus *> descending into the valleys for drinking and soaking in pools (Lehmann 195^)° In present-day Africa it is a common habit for elder elephants to lead the herd until shortly before water is reached* whereupon they halt and permit the younger animals t© precede» The. high per­ centage ©f young mammoths suggests that the hunters took advantage of a similar habit of Pleistocene elephants (Mller-Karpe 1966) f A lack of any heavy cutting tools at sites within the Lonetal hints that carcasses may have "been cut up at the kill site and only portions brought back to the eaveV At Vogelherd mammoths (33 animals) total 25 per­ cent of the food remains f a high ratio for German sites (Lehmann l $ 0 b )V By contrast, at Bocksteinsehmiede, three kilometers away, only six young mammoths were found» Both sites held the same ratio of other species 0 The percentage of horse fell off from that of the Momsteriano' A smaller number of other species suggests some hunting of individual animals 0 Among the stone tools recovered from the Aurignacian level at YogOlherd are many end-scrapers on blades 0 The classification of scrapers, like burins in later cultures, is one that furnishes taxonomists a wide field for their imagination, Semenov (1964) has discovered that in Russia these scrapers were actually knives with rounded points. The so-called Mscraper” shows no> sign of usage under micro­ scopic examination, while the blade has scratches resulting from cutting action. This tool, so common with the onset of a colder climate is an indication of greater concern with the dressing of animal hides. The fact that they are not 34 present at some sites in Germany may mean that it was a summer eamp0 During the summer tundra animals are plagued by midges that lay eggs in their furo later, upon hatching, the larvae eat holes in the skin causing large sores» It is not until autumn, with its freezing temperatures, that hides are worth recoveryo Among the Lapps it was the custom to dry the hides after removal, leaving the curing until the following spring (Vorren and Hanker 1943)Z This practice may have heen used fey the Aurignaeian hunters at this early periodo Two levels feelonging to Aurignaeian are found at Yogelherdo The lower stratum, as noted "before, "bears resem­ blances to Hornsteriano It was deposited during a period of cold. The most likely time for this occupation would fee from afeout 29,000 BoPo until 27,000 B*P. just prior to the Paudorfo The second level was laid down at a time of warmer weather that soon "began to get colder0 This is in close agreement with the later stages of the Paudorf itself. With the last and coldest phase of the glaciation approaching, the climate "became too cold for any vegetation, The land­ scape was transformed into a polar desert. This shift must have "been rapid since no signs of change or adaptation is evident in the way of life of the Aurignaeian, When the animals no longer found sustenance, they departed. At the 35 same time man too was f©reed to leave 0 Any ehamge in tech” melegy were made in other parts of Emropeo In eastern Eu­ rope radiocarbon dates for the period around 27,000 BoP. to 26,000 BoPo signify the beginning of Eastern Gravettian (Krems-Waehtbergg Austria, 27,400 BoPo, Grl - 3011; Doini Vestoniee, Gzeehoslovakiai, 25,820 B»P,* GrH - 1286) 0 The Amrignaeian elements moving eastward merged with groups already present» With the departure of Amrignaeian from Germany the area was to remain uninhabited until its re= ©eeupation in Late Glacial timeso

An arctic desertp totally unfit for animal or human habitations covered all of Germany from about 26,000 B»P» to 16,000 BoPo The absence of any organic material suit” able for radiocarbon dating testifies to the extreme cli­ matic conditions0 Sites occupied earlier all contain a sterile stratum of deep loess or a thin frost rubble layer marking this phase. Somewhere around 20,00® B,P, the leiehsel ended its advance (Brandenburg Stage) and began a series of short os­ cillations (Frankfurt, Pomeranian) signifying the beginning of a general climatic amelioration. After the stagnation and onset of withdrawl only local climatic effects are no­ ticeable i The shift from an arctic desert, first to a 36 grassland tmndra„ then t© a bush tundra„ allowed certain animals t© spread into the newly accessible environment„ Although this began rather slowly„ as the vegetation ex­ panded northwardo the animal population rapidly followed 0 By about l6»©0© B»P« the mammoth and wooly rhino„ upon whom the hunters had depended„ were practically extinct in western Europe = A corresponding increase in reindeer and horse partially compensated for the decline of larger spe­ cies, but new hunting weapons and techniques had to be de­ veloped o The economic base was broadened to include smaller species as well as atmatie resources, marking the first time since lomsterian that bird and fish are found. The reindeer whose natural habitat was limited by the 0° Q isotherm furnished the bulk of protein. For this reason9 strata containing reindeer and cultural remains are always Me©ld,H However, we must never lose sight of the fact that artifacts and remains found within a site reflect cultural as well as climatic environment, In the area of northeastern France and southwestern Germany large numbers of reindeer migrated seasonally from lower altitudes in the winter to either alpine or tundra regions close to the ice during the short summers, Only during the spring and summer are the reindeer actually found in herds, Winters are spent in small groups out on the ©pen tundra (Tischler 1955)° Possibly beearns© ©f She shortage of trees or wood in any adettaate amonnt, bone, first widely utilized in Aurignaeiam assemblages, now beeame a more important raw materialo We find bone g iT©ry0 or antler being used in the manufacture of projectile points» dart foreshafts, spear throwers„ and harpoons0 In regard to technology9 these new hunters » the Hagdalenians *» show a descent from Aurignaeian with some Gravettian elements in stonework0 Bone implements, the beveled-end sagai points and bone foreshafts (wands) are very similar to those of L&ugerie-Haute, Aurignaeian V (Bordes 1958)° Im stone tools we find a tendency toward finer retouch and reduction in size o' lore combination, tools and stone implements designed for hafting point to refine- meats in working teehmifmeso Previously, many Aurignaeian tools, such as scrapers and knives, may have been designed to be held in the bare hands, as indicated by special re­ touching for the thumb and forefinger on knives and the so-called "strangulated blade<> ” Many of the tools termed "burins" are actually knives» Semenov (1964) has shown that a burin blow is the most efficient method of blunting a blade intended for hand holding, A great number of burins were made and used to shape bone or ivory» but in these eases wear was shown by microscopic examination to be on the Marin end of the pieeeo Baring the Hagdalenian time, pat­ terns of tool use ehanged and many were hafted in hone or antler handles» For the same reason stone tools eornld now he made smaller and still retain, or imorease, their effi- eieney0 Here again, as in the ease of the Amrignaelan, many differences exist between the tools fonnd in assemblages of Germany and those of the classical western sites0 I am in­ clined to agree with Harr (1957) who states that the lagda= lenian is restricted to France and Spain, Stone tools found in the late Glacial industries of Germany tend to be smaller and contain more combination tools and knives than those of Hagdalenian sites in France, Qomblnation tools include scrapers, double borers, borers and burins, and double- scrapers , The smaller forms include micro-borers, small blades, and small blade-scrapers» Bone tools are similar to those of western form with the exception of the earliest harpoon found at Kesslerloch (Bandi 19b?), So far, the earliest dated Hagdalenian site in Ger­ many is that of Sehmssemduelle, Baden-Wlrttemberg, An aver­ age, obtained from two dates on the same sample (GE© - #48, H - 860/97©) places the first occupation at 15s35© BoP, Pollen analysis indicates a treeless tundra (Oldest Dryas la). This must have been shortly after the glacial retreat "began (Lang 1962) Q Benes ©f swans and dmeks among food re= malms suggest a summer ©amp6 The animals hunted were rein­ deer and horseo 'Despite the presenoe of only one single-roar harpoon the ©©©mpatiom was assigned, to Hagdalenian "VI "by Band! (19^7) and to Hagdalenian Via "by Harr (sited by Gross 1955) o' Bone and antler sagai points were also included among the weapons» It is not beyond possibility that the various forms of projectile points were functional8 intended for use with particular species 0 Evidence from other sites (Hamburg-Blssen„ Stellmoor1 Bust 1936) suggests that har­ poons were used against reindeer» and it is very likely that the bone dart points served in connection with the horse and other animalso It is during this spread of Hagdalenian elements into Germany that we may begin to see the development of local culture groups „••• Many of these have been created in literature solely on' typological basis of stone toolso But it must be remembered that tools also serve a functional purpose and where similar environmental conditions prevail, granting cultural exchange„ similar tools will exist„ The annual migratory cycle of the hunters in their food quest brought groups into contact0 As a basis for the establish­ ment of cultural distinction, I see two general adaptations developing among these hunters = One was a “hunting preserve" type ©©verimg a relatively small area* In this adaptation all resources within a particular region were utilized to the 'best of the technical abilityo Movement was only made ever short distances within a restricted area to take maxi­ mum advatage of each species "in season*" Sites located in the southwest corner of Germany and northwestern Switzerland in the region around Lake Constance and the headwaters of the Rhine and Danube provide us with the best examples * All sites contain essentially the same stone and bone tools and similar faunal remains! Harr (1963) states that the economy was based on maximum utilization of each species during the optimum season* Two factors point to this explanations (1) tool assemblages include all types of Magdalemian mis­ sile weapons? (2 ) faunal remains show no dependency upon any single species * Reindeer, arctic hare, horse, arctic grouse, and ptarmigan are present at all sites* Annakapellenhihle (Peters 1936), Kesslerloch (Bandi 19&7), Petersfels (Peters and Toepfer 1932), and Schussentuelle (Lang 1962) belong all to this group* Petersfels, although dated at 10,15© B*P* (H 130-114) contained an industry placing it in Magdalenian 7 and 71* Single and double-row harpoons were found togeth­ er with single and double-beveled sagai points» The date was obtained from reindeer antler, a material known to give low results (Rust 1962) =, On the basis of reindeer antler kl remains this site is "believed t© represent a winter eamp that was ©eetapied until May„ Among the animals msed for food aretle hare make up 51 pereent of the total0 However#- reindeer (640 individuals) comprise 36 percent9 a much greater amount of meat in comparisono This high percentage of reindeer argues for an earlier date than the G 14 sample0 Horse (100 individuals) also contributed to the food supply* In addition to these species avian fauna are also present in the form of arctic grouse and ptarmigan, Peters thought that Petersfels was a community butchering station where game from communal hunts was brought to be shared by a larger community» The extremely high number of animals does not agree with the count of bone tools and antlers. If a larger group living in the general vicinity had shared the proceeds it would help to explain this deserepameyo Possible cultural connections between Petersfels and sites farther east in Moravia have been much discussed in literaturec, The similarity of art style and tool forms at Petersfels and Pekarna cave in Czechoslovakia is pointed to as signs of cultural affinity, 4. study of raw material used in the manufacture of stone tools at Petersfels discloses the following sources s the Hiss moraines of Hegau valley» Shine fluvial deposits, the area north of Lake Constance0 the area between Thayngem and Schaffhamsem, and the eastern k z flank ©f the Black Forest (Wiegers 1950)o In other words0 the area from which raw material was obtained extended 5® km northwest and 15® km somth and east* This would make it less likely that these people had direct contact with groups as far away as Czechoslovakia* Another explanation toast he sought for the apparent similarities * This localized devel­ opment seems to have continued almost without change until the AllerSd ©s©illation and the end of the glacial period* Sites within this region contain Mesolithic levels above the Magdalenlam; These Mesolithic forest-adapted groups are Postglacial in time* The second specialized adaptation evident in Germany was a more migratory way of life* Greater dependence was on the reindeer and horse* The reindeer's annual migration to northern tundra regions seems to have been the governing factor* This adaptation manifested itself in two directions? along the Shine and Danube rivers *l In Germany the group along the Shine is known as the nLoess Magdalenian *n Upon closer examination9 one finds that none of the occupations occurred in the loess * In all eases they are on a weathered surface subsequently covered with loess deposits (Harr 1953)» Becent dating has shown some to be either late Glacial or even Postglacial in time* The site of Munzingen is dated at 1®pB©© BoP* (H 129 - ieh) and I©,10© B»P* (W - 266)* In the mpper Rhine valley prior to channelization of the river early this eemtmryg loess deposition occurred every summero When ©Id ©hamiels dried out, wind aetion redeposited loess in considerable quantitieso Therefore, unless a site is covered with primary loess it could be of any age = Farther north in the Wetherlands the "loess Magda- Ionian" became the Tjomger culture ,■ while the English ver­ sion is known as the GreswellIan; There are some indica­ tions that this group also had extensions to the east in northern Germany0 So far all sites excavated have been ©pen summer sites, The notable absence of bone projectile points suggests other methods were used to catch animals 0 At Amdernach (11,300 BoP, ± 220 years, H 85 -= 91) the cul­ tural layer was in a clayey loam stratum above a deposit of loess; It was covered by 4 meters of pumice shortly after abandonment, The environment at the time of occupation consisted of a treeless tundra, These data place the cul­ tural level in the early stages of the AllerBd Oscillation (Gross 196@)o The pumice cover must have resulted from the eruptions in the Eifel.mountains dated at 11,025 BoP, ± 126 years (Gr© - <* Slightly farther south at Mainz-Linsen- berg, an open site located on a terrace of the lain river shows similar culture features, but is covered with primary loess rather than pumice» Weeb (If2k) has furnished us with a detailed description of these reindeer hunters8 eamp0 A row of low stones, smrromded the two hearths o These were apparently used to secure tent walls» All stones were brought in since no stones are found in the loess 0 In front of each of the two hearths were small pits filled with fist­ sized » fire-scarred limestone fragments and covered with burnt bones and charcoalo Were these cooking pits? A flat­ tened, raised earthen area was assumed by the excavator to represent a hide processing area. Scattered about the cul­ tural horizon were anvils used in the manufacture of stone tools o Although wooden and ivory beads and food remains were recovered, no bone tools were found. Fauna included mostly reindeer and horse? all young animals. The nearby 2ahlbaeh valley would have provided an ideal location for pit traps or game drives and may explain the absence of bone tools, Sites selected by these hunters were always close to game trails leading to watering places or defiles through which animal movements could be controlled. We know that northward expansion along the Bhine was rapid because sites belonging to the Tjonger culture are only slightly later in time (Waskemmeer 10,800 B,P, ± 230 years, Gr© - 6©7$ Horm-Haelen 10,95© B,P, * 3©0 years, Gro - 498), This phase began just subsequent to the cold period between the Billing and Allerid oscillations, The use of fire t© drive game has heem attributed to this gr©m$> (larr 1963) o The assmpti©n was based on widespread evidence f ©r forest fires tkr©agh@mt the area ©f middle Rhine, Beigiwm,\ amd parts ©f the Netherlands« It is new known that these , fires were eamsed by the wleanie eruptions in the Eifel mountains during the same period and probably had no human cause (Vogel amd 2agwi jn 1967) 0 The migratory hunters wh© spread eastward along the Danube followed the northern (left) bank until advancing forests forced them to turn northward 0 This group eameS' into ©©ntaet with similar hunters moving westward along the Dan­ ube (Fig* 4)o When one considers that the distance between southwestern Germany and the area around legensburg9 where contact may have taken placea is less than about 25© miles - in a straight lime9 the possibility is great that seasonal migrations could have extended this far = Present-day Lapps sometimes c©ver much greater distances in their annual move­ ments (Hanker 1964)0 In their eastward expansion the hun­ ters reoccupied sites along the Danube that had remained empty since the departure ©f the Aurignaciano All occupa­ tional strata show short stays 0 Bapidly encroaching forests soon forced the reindeer northward along tributaries9 Here 9 more continental conditions slowed forest spread for a short timeo This expansion eastward along the Danube is difficult 46

O g>

K m 200 300

Pig. 4. Locations of Late Upper Paleolithic Groups in Germany. 44% Magdalenian (Hunting Preserve); Magdalenian (Migratory); = Late Gravettlan and Derivatives; IIIIIH Wehlen. to separate fr©m the westward mevememt ©f the late Grav« ettiBEio The re ©©very ©f ©nly stone tools from a site womld not guarantee definition ©f either Gravettian or Magdaleniam sinee they are almost similar § the only difference "being that Gravettian ©ontains more small implementse If bone tools are inolnded in the assemblage sufficient difference exists to assign the site to one or the othero The late Gravettian bone tools inelmde spoon-like objects and others resembling spatulas or digging implements» 1 © bone points are fornmd in sites belonging to the Eastern Gravettian of this late period» The harpoons of very late sites are an exception and may represent only the introduction of an idea rather than a direct copy® Many sites in eastern Germany are attributed to Magdaleniam without sufficient evidence„ In literature one finds one author referring to "Magdale- miam” tools of a site, while another author terms the same tools *’gravettoidoH In the area around TJlm several eaves disclose shallow cultural horizons that may be safely as­ signed to the Magdaleniam o j&mong the tools are single and double-row harpoons, Sites unquestionably Magdaleniam are Brillenhohle, Heubaeh, and KastIhUnghbhle0 Brillenhihle, excavated by G 0 Hiek in 195^-53» pro­ duced a Magdaleniam level from a ©old period. The deposit was 80 cm in thickness, composed of frost eboulis and loess, 48 Only the fcasal portion contained "bones of mammoth, horse, and reindeer together with single and double-row harpoons of western fonso These harpoons argue for a winter eamp when reindeer wemld have "been hunted individually 0 A winter habitation is also evident by the finding of what Biek be­ lieves to be an arrangement for ©losing the mouth of the ©ave with stones and hides0 The stone-lined hearth lay well inside the ©ave rather than ©lose to the front as at awmmer siteso At lembaeh (Zotz If51) farther east we have no stra­ tigraphy, but harpoons together with bones of reindeer fur­ nish evidence for Hagdaleniam, Items of interest with a possible relationship t© western groups are drilled mussel shells and a single lignite carving similar to those found at PetersfelSo These objeets ©ould very well have been re­ ceived through seasonal contact» Other than these few arti­ facts no evidence exists for actual connection between the two sites 0 Still farther east and north in the Altmlhl valley is the cave of KastIhSnghihle (Mlller-Earpe lf6S) which held antler harpoons, bone needles, and ivory points, Here, too, we are dealing with a winter site, Fauna include arctic fox, arctic hare, elk, reindeer, mammoth, and horse, Bennerfels in the Frank!sehem Schweiz is a possible summer camp* Although no bone or ivory projectile points were f©mmd0 horse hones were plentiful0 Horses were proh= ahly driven over the eliff. into the valley without the use of any missile weapons (Gnmpert 1931)= Renmerfels is a reek shelter loeated elose to the Ailshaeh valley floor0 River valleys provide a north-south route eenaeoting it with the Altmlhlo This area has not yet been fully explored arehaeo- logically9 Renmerfels being the only site exeavated. This same route may have been used by Magdaleniams moving north­ ward to the plains along the Elbe, In eastern Europe subsistanee continued to be based on the wooly mammoth and rhino for a longer time than in . western Europe (MUller-Ksrpe 1966)0 Specialised hunting took advantage of the mammoth’s seasonal migration between forest and tundra. The Eastern Gravettians positioned their sites along animal migration routes, Dolmi Vestoniee (Klima 1966) in Czechoslovakia covered ever 1,000 acres and was inhabited from 28,300 B,P., (GrB — 2092) to 25,820 BoP, (GrN - 1286), The Gravettians supposedly made successive incur-. sions into western Europe, each "wave" introducing new tools to cultures already present (Garrod 1938), During the gla­ cial maximum, the time when these movements allegedly hap­ pened, communication across Germany was impossible. The meeting between the Aurignacian and Gravettiam, if at all. must have taken place prior to the closing of the route0 From archaeological evidence It seems that the Gravettlam either entered Europe with a shift In fauna or developed locally out of Aurlgnaelan In eastern Europe <, Gravettlan economy and technology were designed to deal with the fauna of the steppe and possessed, from the earliest stages, techniques for the construction of adequate shelter against the elements, The Gravettlam tool kit In­ cluded Gravette points, Gravette knives (atypical shouldered points), "backed "bladlets, mierohlades, truncated "blades, and burin-scraperso Ho projectile points are found among the tools implying the absence of individual hunting. Instead, hunting was highly organized by community effort as shown by the piles of sorted mammoth bones at Bolni Vestomlce and Pavlov (Kllma 1966), Stone tools were used for dismembering the carcasses and working the bone and ivory into implements, As long as mammoths were available in sufficient numbers to support these rather large communities, a uniform culture existed throughout Moravia and Lower Austria9 Later, with the departure or disappearance of the mammoth, this uniform culture began to splinter and new adaptations are seen in the way of life* For these early and late phases the terms "©lassie Gravettlan" and "Late Gravettlan" have, been suggested (Heustupny and Heustupmy 1961) * The "Classic" 51 Is always f©mad eevered with deep loess while the "Late" sites are om top of the loess or in eaves * The Classic Gravettian is not known from Germany» It was not until the mammoth declined that we find the late Gravettian in eastern Germany o Small "bands of hmters from Moravia and Lower Austria entered along the well-travelled route of the Danube valleyo These groups„ like the Magda- lemian hunters„ were forced northward by encroaching forests along the northern tributaries of the Danube and. the south­ ern tributaries of the Elbe (Saale/Elster)o At first, these hunters concentrated on the horse rather than the reindeer? perhaps because the horse was an animal of the steppe and mere familiar to them (Klima 1966)„ Farther west and north a greater dependence on reindeer is notedc A number of sites belonging to both the late Grav­ ettian and the Magdalemiam are located in the Altmlhl valley near Regensburgo A differentiation between the two cultures is difficulto Since we do not have radiocarbon dates from any of these sites, the order of precedence cannot be deter­ mined by absolute dating. The few sites.with strata be­ longing to both cultures that have been excavated show the Gravettian beneath lagdaienian. At ©pen, or single-occupa­ tion sites with bone tools, it is possible to Identify the industry as either Late Gravettian or lagdaleniam, ©me such site is the Atari Se$amidt9 leeated near Ueu-Essing on the Altmfthl close to its junction with the Danube o Among the tools recovered were a home spatulaB or digging stick„ and a spoon^like implement similar to those of Lower Austria and Pavlov9 Czechoslovakiao In spite of the fact that no Magda- lenian hone tools were found, the excavator, Prufer (1961), calls this site Early Magdalemiam or late Amrignaeian<, The stone tools resembled Late Gravettian as much as Magdalemiamo Faumal remains were fews reindeer (most juvenile)v horse (one), mammoth (one)9 a few birds„ arctic fox (one)9 hare (three)9 and goat (Capra ibex)a The small number of animals hint at only a short stay* This site is of particular inters est because within the same immediate area lagdalenian lev­ els exist in the Klausen cave complex (Obermaier IflA)* Moving farther north along the north-south river valleys noted earlier, we find a series of sites in Thurin­ gen supposedly forming a separate cultural entity with re­ lationship to the Magdalemiam of southwestern Germany* Both eaves and open sites have been assigned to the DSbritz- ©Ikmitz group (Harr 1957)° This association is based solely on proximity to each other and a general similarity in stone tools * Here the likeness ends * nothing is known of their relative position in time* Kmlegrette cave (B8brltz)> ex­ cavated by Richter (1938-36), appears to be clearly a lagdalenian site* Blehter reeevered single and double- "beveled "bene sagai points, antler shaft stralghteners„ and a late double”row harpoon of western form* Art engravings deplot amsk ox and reindeer= In ©ontrast, the open site of ©limits, last excavated by Behm-Blaaeke in 196©, exhibits affiliation with late Gravettian without any similarities to lagdaleniano Here we find an interesting arrangement, A hearth was located in the ©enter of am oval spaee (Hr m* by 2*5 m»'), outlined by a row of post holes, A second row of post hole's (6 m* dla,) surrounded the inner row, apparently forming the walls of a ©one«= shaped hut* Posts had been supported by stones and bones placed around them in the holes, Hearby, two hearths were found in the ©enter of a ©arb©m=stalmed sell zone (1,5 m, by 2,5 m,) with three post holes and a large stone slab close to one of the hearths, This could have been a summer ©amp with facilities for cur­ ing meat like those of the present-day Lapps, Female figur­ ines imply ties with eastern Europe, Horse and reindeer were the primary feed animals. At Zebra, excavated by Toepfer in 1962, a similar site was discovered. This ©amp had been erected prior to any deposition or formation of soil. Here, about 6 © small pits dug into sandstone provided holes for tent supports, In the central part of the whole living area thus enclosed 5^ was a 1d©x fexmed ©f stene slabs ©©mtalnlng h@rse and rein­ deer boness stone tools, and a stone lanpo The occupants ©f this site obviously intended to return at some future time to reoceupy the camp. Tundras, li&e deserts, have oases„ However, the "oases" of the permafrost are the small areas of dry ground on the south side of slopes where the snow first melts and surface water drains away (Tisehler 1955)° The late Grav- ettians always sought out these oases for camping placesv Sites were invariably close to the summit of a gently rising slope or old river terrace. Here, fairly dry ground per­ mitted the erection of tents and allowed visibility over surroundings. The low, water-filled marshy areas brought forth a lush vegetation during the short, hot summers attracting large herds of gregarious herbivores, Migratory waterfowl gathered at the marshes to feast upon the myriads of insects, Smaller carnivores subsisted on the eggs and young of these birds, larger carnivores remained close to the herds of animals. Despite all this faunal variety, hunt­ ing became more and more dependent on the reindeer as north­ ward movement eventually reached the lowlands of the present North Sea coast. This northward expansion must have begum as soon as the environment permitted human habitation. Dates from 55 [email protected] 15 =>75© BoP. (¥ - 1?2„ Gross 1958) and Poggenwisoh 15,15© BoP. (W - 93, Movlus I960) are as early, if net ear­ lier, than the Magdalemian sites of southwestern Germany. Pollen analyses show the northern part of Germany as a treeless tundra during the early stages of the BBlling ©seillation. Masses of dead lee left "behind by the retreat­ ing ice sheet formed small fresh water ponds. This area was only ©oeupied seasonally during the short summers from June until September by man. The reindeer, protected by a 7 em layer of fat,' could withstand the ©old winters better than his hunters who were forced to seek warmer winter camps. The investigation of the Hamburgiam culture by Rust from 1933 to the present has given us valuable knowledge. There seems to be little doubt that the Hamburgians came from southeastern Europe. We get clues as to possible origin by examining the late Gravettian of Moravia. Lyngby axes are found at Pekarna cave, Bolml Vestonice, Pavlov, lillendorf II and again at Meiemdorf. At Kulma cave near Sloup, Moravia, a chunk of Baltic amber from a "Magdalemian" level is similar to the one from Meiemdorf. The Hamburgiam harpoons are unlike any Magdalemian harpoons, but are very close in form to the one recovered at Pekarna. Intermediate stages of tool development are present at sites in central Germany. At Groitseh and Zosnitz, near Leipzig, (Hamitzsch 1955 a-mi. 1957) we find erude "^inken". the eharaeterlstle Implement msed hy the HamMrglans in their "groove and splinter teehniq.me” of antler workingc Preservation in the lakes and mmd of this ©nee. permafrost region aronnd Hambmrg has retained hone and even wooden tools as in no other part of Europe* As Bust has stated„ "The tools appear to have "been discarded yesterday" (translation. Bust 1962)» Additionally, implements in all stages of manufacture provide us with a better understanding of working techniques. Pood remains thrown into the lakes allow postulation of hunting practices, Bone and antler no longer were the most important raw materials, Wood,.common farther south, was carried in, along with poles for tents, to be used in the manufacture of tools. Bone was utilized only in the form of scrapers made from ribs and scapulae,. and for drinking tubes from bird tibia, Antler, long the main raw material, now was employed only in the manufacture of arrow points, harpoon heads, awls, and as handles for compound tools with flint inserts, Scandinavian flint» deposited by the ice sheet, provided all the raw material required for stone tools, Flint served for making knives, scrapers,- the special burin (Zinken), and the shouldered point. These points were multipurpose tools, being used both as tips for arrows and as inserts in hafted cutting < 57 implements <, The draw= knife (Riemens ehneider) was a enrved pieee of antler provided with a tapered slot to reoeive the stem of a shouldered pointo One was found with point in situs* Several broken shouldered points imbedded in rein­ deer scapulae and vertebrae show use as arrow points0 Many additional scapulae exhibit punctures caused by the same , type of pointso By this time*' bows and arrows were the pri­ mary hunting weapon = Because of this improvement in, weap­ ons ■»' communal drives 9 the main method of securing game since the Middle Paleolithic, were replaced by individual hunting» It is for this reason that we now find the beginning of smaller social units0 Reindeer comprise almost 100 percent of the animal remains recovered from these summer campso The species Ro arcticus differed from those hunted by lagdalenia-ns in other parts of Europe o TMay this variety is restricted to northern Siberia and North America and may represent the most primitive f e r m v We do not know where the Hamburgians spent the winters, but the writer does not agree with Rust who states that winter camps were located somewhere on the plains cov­ ered by the present North Sea (Rust 1962)0 Several factors prevent the acceptance of this theory0 Two major rivers, the Elbe and Weser,1 hindered easy movement in a western direction« The land eerered by the Worth Sea eemld not ever have offered a suitable winter habitation; Low lying, and exposed t© severe winter stems off the Atlantic, neither man m©r animal ©©mid have fommd shelter» Bather, to the somth and east is the place to search for winter sites« It is possible that daring winters the reindeer was not the mainstay of the diet*' Despite the fact that only one horse bone was fommd at each of the summer ©amps, all art work portrayed this animal rather than the reindeer* This pre­ occupation with horses had some meaning in their economy. Sites in ©entral Germany contain a high proportion of horse bones over reindeer remains* To base concepts of an entire culture on remains from only one seasonal manifestation:is hazardous '* The Hamburgians ©ontinued to return seasonally until the onset of the ©Ider Dryas about 12,5©© As far as is now known, this region remained unoccupied until the be­ ginning of the AllerBd Oscillation about 11,5©© BoP. With the warmer climate a parkland tundra spread ever northern Germany, and a. mixed ferest-steppe fauna replaced the rein­ deer* Tools belonging to what S©hwabed1ssen (If5^) called the "Fedarmesser Group^ have been found at Borne©k and Hamburg-Bissen, also by Wehlem in the Llneburger Heide and 59 at zramerems other plaoes» To© little is known to assign these artifaets to any specifie ©mltmre = The shift t© a tmdra environment during the Younger Bryas about 10,50® B=F» permitted the reindeer to reoeeupy the region around Hamburgo The reindeer hunters returned in form ©f the Ahremsbmrgiams 0 Their location during the AllerM- is n©t known<> It has been suggested that they moved farther north into Denmark ©r Scandinavia in pursuit ©f the reindeero In the interim few changes in implements took place, but techniques of tool making had become simpler» Instead of the "groove and splinter" method of working ant­ lers, the workman now simply smashed the antler and utilized the splinterso At Stellmoor we find the first absolute proof for the use of bow and arrow, hinted at earliero Over 5© arrows and fragments of two bows were recovered during excavation (lust 1936)0 Reindeer hunted by the Ahrensburg- lams belonged t© the variety R* taramdus. found today in northern Lapland, In the Ahrensburg culture the tendency toward a Mesolithic pattern ©f broad-based seasonal economy is observableo Fish and waterfowl begin to play a larger part in the diet* With the disappearance ©f glacial fauna the Upper Paleolithic of Germany comes to an end. This change, too, only marks an artificial division in the continuum of man's prehistory. SUMMARY

Recent series of radiocarbon dates permit ms to arrive at a better understanding of cultural events in Ger­ many and adjacent regions during the late Upper Pleistocene* One of the facts that emerged as a result of new dates for series from fossil soil sequences is that the GBttweig (W I/I!) no longer may be used as a marker for the beginning of Upper Paleolithic* The Gottweig is now assigned to the \ Riss/llrm Interglacial«, In addition, we now have confirma­ tion that the WSrm was not concurrent with the Weiehsel but began much later and had little and only local effect on the climate * The earliest Upper Paleolithic cultures are placed at about 34,©0© BoP* while Middle Paleolithic dates show a period of overlap* When viewed against the background of glacial events„ the fact becomes clear that cultural changes followed man's attempts to remain viable in the face of drastic shifts in the ecological niche to which he had adapted* The classification into "local" stages based on tool types has obscured the fact that we are dealing with a con­ tinuum g each "stage" clearly related to earlier developments* Tools in all eases serve primarily a functional purpose in relatlem -fe© the partiemlar emvlreamemt "being expleited, Given ©tmal levels ©f teehnelegieal ©©stpetenee „ like teels. may emerge in widely separated ©mltmres ©peratimg in similar emvirenmemto In Germany the Upper Paleolithic began only after a transitional period with elements of Middle Paleolithic and later industries found together* AmrignaoianV represented by the hunters of large herbivores, is the earliest true Upper Paleolithic culture in Germany* Contrary to previous reports/ only short tran­ sitory ©eompations during a period of increasing ©old are evident * The cave strata belonging to Aurlgnaeian were de­ posited during the later stages of the relatively short Pamdorf ©s©illation* Following the departure of Aurignaeiab, Germany became am aretie desert until recession of the gla­ ciers permitted renewed entry* M© evidence for the cultures found elsewhere in Europe during the interim exists at any site in Germany * Earlier workers were prone to ’’read into” the cultural horizons a sequence corresponding to the clas­ sical sites of France * In the regions newly opened to habitation many eco­ logical niches became available to human and animal popula­ tions/ This marks the beginning toward specialization in the pursuit of particular species0 All movements into Germany followed the large river valleys„ the Bamnbe, Bhine, and Elbeo Sites along these routes were reoeeupied by saeeessive groups eonomrrent with the spread of elimatie zones during and following each oseillation of the large ie;e sheets (Pigo 5 )° With the onset ©f the Billing ©s@illati©n bearers of Magdalenian, specialized hunters„ formed two distinct adap­ tations in Germany: (l) a broad-based "hunting preserve" type of economy and (2 ) a more migratory form following the horse and reindeer<> The latter faoies spread both north and east resulting in contact with other cultures,. The Late Gravettian of Gzeehoslovakia abandoned a sedentary life and turned$ with the decline of the mammoth„ to specialization on horse and reimdeerv Gravettian spread west and north, eventually meeting and mixing with Magdalenian; Evidence for cultural exchange is found at sites in eastern and northern Germany» Radiocarbon dates for sites belonging to the Hamburg culture disclose the fact that they were contemporaneous with the earliest Magdalenian of southwestern Germany„ Since no sites attributed to the same time frame exist in the area between the two, we must assume independent devel­ opment,, Tool similarities used to associate them with a Magdalenian origin probably result from convergence, not contact; la the AhreBshmrgiaa, smoeessers t© the HamMrgiam, the shift fr©m highly specialized htanting t© a "broad-"base Mesolithic ©mltare may be observed» Several fmestions ©oaeerning the Upper Paleolithic of Germamy remaia aaanswered beeamse smffieient iaformatiom is la©king0: Not until radiocarbon dates are available from Monsteriaa ©eempations, earn we be smre of their contempo­ raneity with the Presolmtreano The temporal relationship of Amrignaelan in Germany t© other parts ©f Europe is also dependent mpon more accurate dating» In both cases, the Mousterian and Amrignacian„ suitable samples are available for testing, only requiring smbmission. The areas of the FrSnkisehen Schweiz and lower Altmlhl valley need closer examination? it is here that definite evidence of cultural exchange between east and west may be found. The manner and degree of mixture could be determined by problem- oriented excavation. 64

YEARS UPPER PALEOLITHIC CULTURES

MESOLITHIC CULTURES 10,00 0

20, 0 0 0

NO OCCUPATION

30, 00 0

MIDDLE PALEOLITHIC CULTURES Fig. 5 . Upper Paleolithic Cultural Sequence In Germany. LIST OF REFERENCES

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