The Julius Rosenwald Fund: Exploring Local Histories of African American Education

Tamara Butler

30 November 2010

The Ohio State University Running Head: JULIUS ROSENWALD FUND 2

Section I: Overview

Critical Literacy in the History Classroom

Through this unit, students and teachers can employ the tenets of critical literacy in order to enrich their knowledge of history and education within a local context. According to literacy scholar Ernest Morrell (2008), critical literacy requires students to engage with historical primary documents in order to understand how knowledge is socially- constructed and challenge the ideological hegemony maintained by textbooks, which are often dilute, summarize or omit important historical events and documents. For example, in her work within Hawaiian education, Julie Kaomea (2006) invests in unearthing indigenous Hawaiian history, culture, identity and knowledge. Through her “countergenealogy” methodology (p.333), she suggests ways in which History textbooks have (a) erased the significant contributions of women to Hawaiian history and (b) promoted problematic narratives, which coincide with the tourism industry’s narratives about

Hawaiian peoples as ‘happy natives.’ In Lies My Teacher Told Me, James Loewen (1995) reveals and challenges the fallacies that pervade American History textbooks. When students encounter the work of Kaomea (2006), Loewen (1995) and similar scholars, in conjunction with primary documents, they come to understand how “textbooks can be just as ideologically oppressive as other state-sanctioned texts” (Morrell, 2008, p.41). Therefore, in order for students to become critically literate citizens and eventually “critical social historians” (Morrell, 2008, p.41), they must be able to engage with contemporary and original historical texts.

Local History of Black Education during the 1920s-1930s

Through this unit, students become critical social historians, who uncover and explore the intricate links between racial/ethnic identity, race relations, and legislation in the politics of education. The activities are designed to help students and teachers understand the intricacies of white, black and Jewish relations in the development of African American education in the early to mid-twentieth century. In the larger construction of African American/American history, slavery,

Reconstruction, segregation and the Great Depression are central eras in American and state History textbooks, but little to no room is granted for the discussion of inter- and intra-racial relationships and their impact on education. Interactions between Black and Jewish communities have historically been wrought with an array of emotions ranging from distrust to affection (West 1993). During the 1920s, members in both communities lived in segregated neighborhoods and faced economic hardships, which were exacerbated by the Great Depression. During the 1920s, however, the communities came to work within the ebb and flow of mixed emotions in order to provide African American children with an opportunity for Running Head: JULIUS ROSENWALD FUND 3 social and financial mobility—through education. Although some viewed segregation as negative, African Americans, such as Booker T. Washington, and Jewish Americans, such as Julius Rosenwald, saw the separation as opportunities to reconstruct the educational system.

Jewish Philanthropy and Black Education

African Americans viewed education as the path toward collective social mobility, citizenship, and self- sufficiency, which pervades the history of African American education. During the 1920s and 30s, African Americans’ path to education was interrupted by economic hardships, exacerbated by the Great Depression and segregation legislature, which denied them access to resources and equitable employment, housing, and education. In an effort to educate themselves and their children, African American community members often turned to Northern philanthropic organizations and philanthropists for funds to construct/revitalize schools. As a result, white and/or Jewish males funded various Southern educational institutions for Blacks—from K-12 public schools to private schools for teacher education.

Such an endeavor, Northern funding for Southern schools, marked the beginning of an ongoing struggle for ideological control of a disenfranchised population—African Americans living in the South.

History of Julius Rosenwald

In October 1917, the Rosenwald Fund was incorporated and was under the control of its founder, Julius

Rosenwald, until 1928. From 1917 to 1927, the expenditures were over $4.7 million between school building programs, charities and institutions. Rosenwald believed that a “philanthropic foundation had to have a policy forming body made up of men and women of wide interests and knowledge [and] no direct connection with the founder’s fortune” (Embree &

Waxman 1949, p.23). The Fund concentrated on African American education, health, fellowships and race relations. By

1932, when the school building program ended, the Fund used over $28 million to help build 5,000 public schools, shops and homes for teachers in over 800 counties in 15 southern states. Running Head: JULIUS ROSENWALD FUND 4

Northern Philanthropy and Southern Education: Emergence of Rosenwald Schools

Jewish philanthropist and president of Sears Roebuck and Company Julius Rosenwald is an omnipresent name in the history of African American education in the Southern United States. Rosenwald’s financial contributions aided in the construction of numerous primary, secondary, and post-secondary schools for African Americans. Rosenwald consulted

African-American educator and founder of Tuskegee Institute, Booker T. Washington when deciding which programs and/or institutions he should make donations toward. Due to federal and state legislation that maintained segregation, the

United States’ federal government offered limited funding in post-secondary education for Black Americans. As a result,

Rosenwald also made contributions to private institutions of higher learning for African Americans, such as Dillard

University in Louisiana, Fisk University in Tennessee, and the Atlanta University Center located in Georgia (Adams 1999).

From 1914 to 1932, Rosenwald personally invested $4 million into Black education and solicited other wealthy Jewish patrons to invest similarly. Since ninety-five percent of the counties in South Carolina, ninety percent in Alabama, seventy-five percent in Virginia and over eighty-six percent in Louisiana, Maryland and North Carolina contained primary and secondary schools funded by Rosenwald, by the mid 1930s, one-fourth of the Black population in the southern United

States were educated in a school established by his fund (Friedman 1995).

Unearthing Rosenwald’s History in South Carolina

The year 1919 proved to be pivotal in the history of African Americans living in South Carolina. In “Partners in

Progress”, Bob Gorman and Lois Stickell (2002) recount the efforts of Joseph B. Felton, whose endeavors brought financial assistance from the Rosenwald Fund to the Palmetto State. In 1919, Felton, a white male who served as the

“superintendent of education” in Anderson county, replaced J.H. Brannon as the “State Agent for Negro Schools,” visiting not only black schools not in South Carolina, but also black and white schools in Louisiana and Tennessee (pp.15-16). By the end of the year, he commented that “the furnishings of the school buildings for the colored children in South Carolina could not be worse…” and proposed for the construction of fifty new Rosenwald buildings. For the next 28 years, Felton served as the State Agent for Negro Schools and worked with Black and White community members to raise additional funds and to continue advocating for equitable education in Black communities. Through community efforts and funding,

500 Rosenwald schools were built in the state of South Carolina by time the Fund’s school building program ended in

1932.

Donating to Divide? Debates About the Intentions of the Rosenwald Fund Running Head: JULIUS ROSENWALD FUND 5

Though the Rosenwald Fund supplemented African Americans educational opportunities, via school buildings and fellowships, historians continue to debate whether the distribution among the areas of study reflects segregation and discriminatory values. Between 1928 and 1948, the Fund also awarded over $1.8 million in fellowships, in which 999 of the 1,537 were awarded to Black Americans in selected fields of study. For example, of the 35 awarded for mental and social sciences, only one was granted to a Black recipient; while all 56 of the grants for development of personnel in “Negro health” was awarded to Blacks. Awards for Blacks helped to improve the leadership in “Negro institutions—universities, hospitals, businesses, the press and social agencies” (Embree and Waxman 1949, p.154). However, awards to White recipients improved personnel in Southern schools and developed more effective leadership for dealing with “Southern problems.” The top three areas of interest for Black fellows were education, language/literature and agriculture, while

White fellows were more concerned with sociology, rural education and history. Historians and educators continue to debate whether or not education in southern schools funded by Northern philanthropists adequately prepared African

Americans for leadership, politics and business, or life in Northern cities.

Although education proved to be important, housing served as another key to social mobilization. Philanthropists and African Americans understood property and homeownership’s significance in attaining and sustaining social mobility.

Therefore, Rosenwald fund awarded money to the National Urban League and various agencies for housing purposes, but the Fund “did not make any substantial impress on the issue of housing, which is one of the most acute problems for all

American people and especially the Negroes” (Embree and Waxman, 1949, p.157). Of the $3 million documented as contributions to race relations, only $185,000 was allotted to housing. For example, in Chicago, Rosenwald Fund built low rent housing for Black teachers, postal workers and librarians. However, with limited access to white collar, managerial positions, and significant income, African Americans circumnavigated high costs of living by settling into slums and ghettos. In response, the established programs did not completely alleviate the problems of inequitable employment, housing and access to resources that often plagued Black life in America.

Rosenwald Fund “Seeding” Community Projects

Upon reading of Booker T. Washington’s autobiography Up From Slavery, in which Washington recounts his experience as a child born into American slavery and efforts to pursuit education as a form of “self-help,” Julius Rosenwald gained interest in Black education. He, like Washington, believed in communal self-help and collective uplift. As a result, the Rosenwald plan required in order for a community to receive financial assistance for constructing a school building, the Running Head: JULIUS ROSENWALD FUND 6 community must raise funds, which would be matched by the Fund and the school board. According to Edwin Embree and

Julia Waxman (1949), over $4 million worth of contributions came from the African American communities, which was more than the amount provided by whites and the Rosenwald Fund. Not only were schools being constructed during this time, but Blacks living in Greenville, Richland, and Charleston counties also witnessed the construction of over 30 public libraries for their use—all projects received funding from Rosenwald. In their work, Dan Lee (1991) and Tamara Powell

(2004) discuss the proliferation of “Faith Cabin Libraries” throughout Charleston and Richland counties, which were managed and operated by African Americans. The libraries also functioned as “community centers where Black children, teens, and adults could satisfy intellectual needs and participate in social activities” (Powell 2004, p. 114). The books for the library were often donated by whites throughout the United States, especially from those living in the state of Ohio.

Therefore, from the 1920s through the late 1940s, the Rosenwald Fund offered African American South Carolinians an array of intellectual and communal outlets.

Resolutions: Why South Carolina? Why local history?

As a South Carolinian, I am consistently invested in uncovering and piecing together fragments of local history.

By exploring local history, one comes to understand the groundwork everyday African Americans laid in their pursuit of equitable education. Though numerous Rosenwald schools were erected in the South throughout the 1920s, a small number exist in the twenty-first century. Unfortunately, history textbooks and classrooms have often silenced African

Americans’ efforts to attain education after slavery and before the Civil Rights’ era. Through this unit, students will come to understand that educational inequities between White and Black communities is not new in neither state and American history. Also, the Great Depression, which is often discussed as a problem that only impacted the industrial North, will be reexamined for how it impacted education and exacerbated problems experienced by Black Southerners.

References Adams, M. (1999). Strangers and neighbors: Relations between Blacks and Jews in the United States. Boston: University of Massachusetts Press. Embree, E. & Waxman, J. (1949). Investment in people: The story of the Julius Rosenwald Fund. New York: Harper and Brothers Publishers. Friedman, M. (1995). What Went Wrong: The creation and collapse of Black-Jewish relations. New York: Free Press. Gorman, B. & Stickell, L. (Fall 2002). “Partners in Progress: Joseph B. Felton, the African American Community, and the Rosenwald School Program.” Carologue, 18, 14-20. Loewen, J. (1995). Lies my teacher told me: Everything your American history teacher got wrong. New York: Simon & Schuster. Kaomea, J. (2006). Na wahine mana: a postcolonial reading of classroom discourse on the imperial rescue of oppressed Hawaiian women. Pedagogy, culture & society, 14(3), 329-348. West, C. (1994). Race Matters. Boston: Vintage Books. Running Head: JULIUS ROSENWALD FUND 7

Section II: Activities

I. Constructing Black Heritage Sites’ Maps In this activity, students will review Black Heritage Sites’ Maps (see sample maps and resources provided in Appendix A) in order to discuss which sites are included on the map for their state. Using historical documents from the local school board, the historical society, and/or the National Trust (or Preservation) website, students would be encouraged to create Black Heritage Sites’ Map of South Carolina (or their state). Major items that should be featured on the “revised” Heritage Maps: Rosenwald Schools, Faith Cabin or public libraries for African Americans, or primary/secondary schools founded/constructed for/by local African Americans. The activity includes two major writing assignments: (a) brochure/commercial advertising their new Black Heritage Tour; and (b) an 8-10 page paper, which includes research information and their reflections on the experience of conducting research and creating the map.

Learning Expedition: If a Rosenwald school exists in your area, propose a class trip to the site where students can visit. Encourage students to take pictures and notes at the site, which could later be used in a larger display about Rosenwald schools.

II. Critical Local Ethnographers Work with students to search an array of local and national database for African American students or teachers who are living in the local area and either attended/taught at (a) a Rosenwald school or (b) a primary or secondary school before 1950. Encourage students to work in teams of 3-4 to conduct interview with these former students or teachers about their educational experiences attending one of the schools. Students could also interview teachers about their training and their teaching experiences. Students would be trained to conduct interviews, and encouraged to digitally video or audiotape the conversations, take field notes, and write-up the interview as a magazine article. The final projects could be part of a larger ongoing project documenting the lives of local community members. The students could: (a) create a class iMovie of their interviews, or (b) create group iMovies. Teachers could organize an evening for students to present their information to the local community, inviting students from the local colleges/universities as well as parents and participating community members. III. Debating Northern Philanthropy: Sincere Assistance or Empty Promise? Students would be divided into 4 teams (depending on the size of the class): 2 opposing and 2 supporting, and hold debates about Northern Philanthropy and Black education. Possible prompts include: . Julius Rosenwald and the Rosenwald fund gave money to African Americans as “seed money” to help Blacks start schools; not as charity. . Northern philanthropists helped African Americans gain control of their own education. . African Americans did not need help from northern philanthropists in order to build their schools. . African Americans desperately needed help from Northern philanthropic organizations. . Northern philanthropy promoted racism and ideological hegemony through southern education. . …or selected quotes from Eric Anderson & Albert Moss’ (1999) Dangerous Donations or James Anderson’ (1988) The Education of Blacks in the South. Prior to the debate, students would work with team members to develop research. Each debate team would be responsible for creating a large poster summarizing their position, similar to posters found at research summits or conferences. The poster would include: an overview of the topic, their argument/position, and textual evidence that supports their claims (citations from scholarly sources). The posters would be submitted prior to the debate and displayed in the classroom after the debates’ closing arguments. IV. Critical Social Historians In this activity, students would read selected chapters from James Loewen’s Lies My Teacher Told Me as well as articles by Julie Kaomea (2000, 2006). Students would then review their American and state History textbooks for discussion about African American education from the 1920s to the 1950s. Encourage students to make notes about omissions and inclusions. Working with mostly primary documents, which can be found in the Journal of Negro Education and the Journal of Negro History, each student would then write a chapter about African American education in Southern United States from the 1920s to the 1950s. The chapters would be edited, revised, and compiled by students into a “History of African American Education” textbook that would be kept in the classroom or school library. V. Step to the Mic: Pre-Brown Performances Students review state and federal legislature that impacted education prior to 1954 ruling of Brown vs. Board of Education [This activity can be paired with activity 4, “critical social historians.”] Students would write performative pieces about the legislature’s Running Head: JULIUS ROSENWALD FUND 8

local impact. Performative pieces must be an original (created by student): interpretive dance, dramatic play, original musical piece, Spoken word poem/rap, video, or artwork. The pieces would be viewed in a “Spoken word café” format, in which students arranged the room to have a mellow ambiance (students or teachers can provide decorations) and students selected the order to perform. Prior to performing, students must submit the performative piece, with a 5-8 page paper that explains the legislation, includes a bibliography and an explanation as to why they selected the ‘performative’ genre. VI. Race to (Re)construct: Contemporary Architects Using the floor plans offered in “Partners in Progress”, students would construct a model Rosenwald school building, which would be built to scale. The schools could be part of an ongoing display about local African American history and education, featuring pictures of actual Rosenwald schools as well as schools built for White students. Students could work with a partner or individually to construct their model schoolhouses. Writing element: Students could write a letter to Mr. Julius Rosenwald advocating for school building funds. With the letter, students would provide a blueprint and proposed budget for their school; the budget would also include operational funds (books, teachers’ salaries, etc.). Students would then present their model and proposed budgets to the class.* The class would vote, by silent ballot, to determine who would receive funding from Rosenwald. Lead the class in a larger discussion about the Rosenwald Fund’s requirements for funding (‘double taxation’ of African Americans, income of African Americans compared to Whites, communities required to raise 5/6 of funds). *You can either establish an amount for all students (no more than $3,000) or have students randomly select an amount (have students pull numbers: 1 = $1000, 2 = $2000 and 3 = $3000). VII. Uncovering Race through Black-Jewish relations Begin the activity with a discussion of the following quote from Cornel West’s (1993) Race Matters: “Presently, this inspiring period of Black-Jewish cooperation is often downplayed by Blacks and romanticized by Jews. It is downplayed by Blacks because they focus on the astonishingly rapid entree of most Jews into the middle and upper middle classes during this brief period—an entree that has spawned both an intense conflict with the more slowly growing Black middle class and a social resentment from a quickly growing Black impoverished class. Jews, on the other hand, tend to romanticize this period because their present status as upper middle dogs and some top dogs in American society unsettles their historic self-image as progressives with a compassion for the underdog” (73). The activity would include readings that uncover the ‘social construction of race’, such as: Georg Lipsitz’s (1998) The Possessive Investment in Whiteness, Michael Omi and Howard Winant’s (1986) “On the Theoretical Concept of Race” and David Roediger’s (1991) The Wages of Whiteness. [These readings can also be applied to the debate in activity three, as students grapple with the role of race and racial identity in educational reform.] In this activity, students could: (a) create large posters depicting Black-Jewish interactions, (b) create iMovie documentaries on the relationship between Black and Jewish peoples prior to 1950s, (c) write 8- 10 page research papers about the construction of race and racial identity in the United States, or (d) students create a performative piece in which they recount the relationship between Black and Jewish people during the 1920s and 1930s. Organize the day of presentations to that of a conference, in which students would have to provide an abstract describing their presentation, which would be featured in the “conference program.” Schedule the presentations in a way that 2 groups or students will be presenting simultaneously. Students attending the presentations will be responsible for completing a feedback form for each session they attend. Since Julius Rosenwald was highly influenced by Booker T. Washington’s Up From Slavery, students should read Washington’s autobiography and additional writings in which he discusses education. Students should also be encouraged to read the works of those who did not agree with Booker T. Washington’s educational ideologies (i.e. William Monroe Trotter and W.E.B. DuBois) Running Head: JULIUS ROSENWALD FUND 9

Section III: Bibliography Black-Jewish Relations in the United States Adams, M. (1999). Strangers and neighbors: Relations between Blacks and Jews in the United States. Boston: University of Massachusetts Press. Brodkin, K (1998). How Jews became White folks and what that says about race in America. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. Diner, H (1984). In the almost promised land: American Jews and Blacks, 1915-1935. Westport: Greenwood Press. Friedman, M. (1995). What Went Wrong: The creation and collapse of Black-Jewish relations. New York: Free Press. Lipsitz, G. (1998). The possessive investment in whiteness. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Omi, M. & Winant, H. (1986). Racial formation in the United States. New York: Routledge. Roediger, D. (1991). The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the making of the American working class. London: Verso. Silberman, C. E. (1985). A certain people: American Jews and their lives today. New York: Summit Books. St. Clair Drake, J. G. (1984). African Diaspora and Jewish Diaspora: Convergence and Divergence. In J.R. Washington, Jr. (ed.) Jews in Black perspectives: A Dialogue. Cranbury: Associated University Press. Synott, M.G. (1986). “Anti-Semitism and American Universities: Did Quotas Follow the Jews?” In David Gerber (ed.) Anti-Semitism in American history. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. West, C. (1994). Race Matters. Boston: Vintage Books. Willis, E. (1994). Myth of the Powerful Jew. In Paul Berman (ed.) Blacks and Jews: Alliances and arguments. New York: Delacorte Press. Julius Rosenwald Fund Ascoli, P. M. (2006). Julius Rosenwald: The man who built sears, roebuck and advanced the cause of black education in the American south. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Beilke, J. R. (1997). The changing emphasis of the Rosenwald fellowship program, 1928-1948. The Journal of Negro Education, 66(1), pp. 3-15. Embree, E. & Waxman, J. (1949). Investment in people: The story of the Julius Rosenwald Fund. New York: Harper and Brother Publishers. III, J. J. D., Heckman, J. J., & Todd, P. E. (2002). The schooling of southern blacks: The roles of legal activism and private philanthropy, 1910-1960. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 117(1), pp. 225-268. Johnson, C. S., Conference on the Economic Status of the Negro & Julius Rosenwald Fund. (1933). The economic status of Negroes; summary and analysis of the materials presented at the conference on the economic status of the Negro, held in Washington, D.C., May 11-13, 1933, under the sponsorship of the Julius Rosenwald fund. Report prepared for the committee on findings by Charles S. Johnson. Nashville: Fisk University Press. Julius Rosenwald Fund. (1928). Community school plans. Nashville: Baird-Ward. Leavell, U. W. (1933). Trends of philanthropy in Negro education: A survey. The Journal of Negro Education, 2(1), pp. 38- 52. McCormick, J. S. (1934). The Julius Rosenwald fund. The Journal of Negro Education, 3(4), pp. 605-626. Moton, R. (1932). Julius Rosenwald, friend of humanity. Tuskegee Messenger, 8(1), p.16. Perkins, A. (2003). Welcome consequences and fulfilled promise: Julius Rosenwald fellows and “Brown v. Board of Education.” The Journal of Negro Education, 72(3), pp. 344-356. Schrieke, B. J. O., & Julius Rosenwald Fund. (1936). Alien Americans: a study of race relations. New York: The Viking Press. Running Head: JULIUS ROSENWALD FUND 10

Weatherford, C. B., & Christie, R. (2006). Dear Mr. Rosenwald. New York: Scholastic Press. Southern Education: African American Education in the Southern United States Anderson, E. & Moss, A. A. (1999). Dangerous donations: Northern philanthropy and southern Black education, 1902-1930. Columbia, Mo.: University of Missouri Press. Anderson, J. (1988). The education of Blacks in the south. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. Bethune, M. M., McCluskey, A. T., & Smith, E. M. (1999). Mary McLeod Bethune: Building a better world, Essays and selected documents. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Carr, W.G (1931). Public Education in the South. School and Society, 23, pp. 488-495. Fairclough, A. (2000). “Being in the field of education and also being a Negro...seems...tragic”: Black teachers in the Jim Crow south. The Journal of American History, 87(1), pp. 65-91. Fultz, M. (1995). Teacher training and African American education in the south, 1900-1940. The Journal of Negro Education, 64(2), pp. 196-210. Jones, L. W. (1950). The agent as a factor in the education of Negroes in the south. The Journal of Negro Education, 19(1), pp. 28-37. Klugh, E. L. (2005). Reclaiming segregation-era, African American schoolhouses: Building on symbols of past cooperation. The Journal of Negro Education, 74(3), pp. 246-259. Knox, E. O. (1940). A historical sketch of secondary education for Negroes. The Journal of Negro Education, 9(3, The Negro Adolescent and his Education), pp. 440-453. Smith, S. L. (1940). Library facilities in Negro secondary schools. The Journal of Negro Education, 9(3, The Negro Adolescent and his Education), pp. 504-512. Trent, W. J.,Jr. (1955). Cooperative fund raising for higher education. The Journal of Negro Education, 24(1), pp. 6-15. Washington, A. H. (1937). Rural education. The Journal of Negro Education, 6(1), pp. 115-125. Werum, R. (1997). Sectionalism and racial politics: Federal vocational policies and programs in the predesegregation south. Social Science History, 21(3), pp. 399-453. Weyeneth, R. R. (2005). The architecture of racial segregation: The challenges of preserving the problematical past. The Public Historian, 27(4), pp. 11-44. History of African American Education in South Carolina (Charleston County) Behre, R. (2009, December 07). Rosenwald Schools: Historic schools built by Sears magnate can be tough to find, but worth saving. Post & Courier. Retrieved from http://archives.postandcourier.com/archive/arch09/1209/arc12079022417.shtml Colored Teachers in Charleston Schools. (1921). The Crisis, 22(2), pp.58-60. Gleason, E.A. (1941). The southern Negro and the public library service to Negroes in the South. Gorman, B. & Stickell, L. (Fall 2002). “Partners in Progress: Joseph B. Felton, the African American Community, and the Rosenwald School Program.” Carologue, 18, 14-20 Lee, D.R. (1991). Faith cabin libraries: A study of an alternative library service in the segregated south, 1932-1960. Libraries & Culture, 26(1), pp.169-182. Powell, T. (2004). Communities in Collaboration: a struggle to increase literacy in South Carolina. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Francis Marion University, South Carolina. Strohecker, H.O. (1929). Present day public education in the county and city of Charleston. Charleston, SC: Charleston County Board of Education. Running Head: JULIUS ROSENWALD FUND 11

Wilson, L. R., & Wight, E. A. (1935). County library service in the south: A study of the Rosenwald county library demonstration. Chicago, Ill: The University of Chicago Press. Wilson, L., Bach, P. & Stringfellow, E. (2004). The Schoolhouse Story of Walnut Hill. South Carolina Magazine, 62.