Social Education 82(1), pp. 14–17 ©2018 National Council for the Social Studies Teaching the C3 Framework C3 T EACHERS TM Making Inquiry Critical: Examining Power and Inequity in the Classroom Ryan M. Crowley and LaGarrett J. King

What does it mean to approach inquiry from a critical perspective? It is not quite formative endeavor’ unembarrassed by as simple as it may sound. We use the term critical in a way that is distinct from the the label ‘political’ and unafraid to con- broader educational goal of encouraging critical thinking. Although critical thinking summate a relationship with emancipa- is a crucial skill, our use of “critical” refers specifically to the use of . tory consciousness.”5 Action taken from a critical perspective eschews neutrality, Critical theory is one of the predomi- ers trace its roots to a group of intel- actively siding with the oppressed and nant schools of thought in the social lectuals who founded the Institute for promoting their liberation. sciences. Like all theory, it is a frame- Social Research (known as the Frankfurt work used for explaining—and examin- School) in Germany in the 1920s.3 These Critical ing—something about the world. Critical thinkers sought to extend Marxist theory Critical theory’s emphasis on emanci- theory pays special attention to the social into the changing social, political, and pation is most visible in educational world, focusing on the hierarchical economic landscape of the twentieth practice through . This nature of social relations and examining century by talking about how culture approach to teaching and learning cen- how these unequal power relationships and ideology encourage and sustain ters an analysis of oppression and builds lead to privilege for some and oppres- social inequality. Although their work knowledge from the lived experiences sion for others.1 was diverse, a primary thrust focused of the participants.6 Drawing inspiration Researching, teaching, learning, on how modern capitalist societies from the writings of Brazilian educator thinking, and taking action within criti- acted as new, and subtler, forms of social , critical pedagogues suggest cal theory call for engaging in ongoing control. These societies manufactured that “the school curriculum should, in “social critique [that is] tied ... to raised consent by creating a level of affluence part, be shaped by problems that face consciousness of the possibility of ... lib- and consumption that obscured ongoing teachers and students in their effort to erating social change.”2 In other words, inequality. Critical theorists argued that live just and ethical lives.”7 critical theory is about identifying and this consumer culture helped to create Freire critiqued traditional education confronting social injustices with the an illusion of freedom that prevented for employing a “banking method” in goal of transforming those unjust social individuals from seeing that they were which teachers deposited information relations. Current research and activism not the autonomous actors they seemed into passive student recipients. In place undertaken from a critical perspective to be.4 of this model, he called for problem-pos- often focuses on racism, sexism, ableism, Although their specific societal cri- ing education in which students generate class bias, cultural bias, religious intoler- tiques still resonate today, the Frankfurt questions, concerns, or themes crucial to ance, heterosexism, and other forms of School’s extension of Karl Marx’s call to their lives that then become the object structural and individual discrimination. produce knowledge and to take action of shared inquiry. Although the teacher from the standpoint of the oppressed does not relinquish all authority in this Roots of Critical Theory may be its greatest impact. This move- model, it places a greater emphasis on Although current ideas about critical ment inspired subsequent scholars and dialogue with and among students and theory are quite broad, most observ- activists to engage in work as a “‘trans- on students as active creators of knowl-

Social Education 14 (Photo by Beth Goins, University of Kentucky) Beth Goins, by (Photo

Kenny Stancil teaching at Lafayette High School in Lexington, Kentucky. edge. Ultimately, critical pedagogy aims However, as we outline in the next sec- ditional views of teaching as value-free, to help students become more conscious tion, there are certain criteria that teach- critical theory helps teachers see that of their place in the world and consider ers should consider when attempting to knowledge is socially constructed and how they can take action to create a more make inquiry critical. When these stan- is beholden to how people see (or want just, egalitarian society.8 dards are met, inquiry offers students to see) the world around them. People the chance to identify social injustices, often construct their individual world- Critical Social Studies Pedagogy to build knowledge from the perspective views based on their personal experi- With citizenship education as its central of the oppressed, and to conceptualize ences, so even when teachers believe mission and with content that allows for action that disrupts the status quo. they are being objective, they often do examination of past and current injus- not account for their own biases and tices, social studies should be a natu- Making Inquiry Critical partial ways of knowing.12 ral home for critical theory and critical Constructing a critical inquiry requires Critical inquiries should be designed pedagogy.9 The adoption of the C3 a conceptualization process that may be to identify and to challenge master nar- Framework10 and the development of foreign or uncomfortable to many social ratives that legitimate systems of oppres- the Inquiry Design Model11 offer a use- studies educators. Critical inquiries rely sion and power. We define master nar- ful template for implementing a critical on teachers who question the common- ratives as overarching ideas, stories, and social studies pedagogy. Inquiry-based sensical ways the world works and how approaches within school curriculum practices position students as creators of social studies knowledge is presented. that promote the worldviews of those in knowledge and, when appropriate, allow Teachers building critical social studies power in society. Master narratives shape students to pursue questions that are inquiries should begin with the premise belief systems and act to marginalize important to their lives and that touch that there is no such thing as neutral or those in society who do not come from upon important disciplinary knowledge. objective knowledge. In contrast to tra- white, male, middle class, heterosex-

January/February 2018 15 ual, able-bodied, Christian, and other system ended would not be considered a Yet Again,” and “The Ones We’ve Lost: dominant identity group backgrounds. critical inquiry. Without an examination The Student Loan Debt Suicides” cen- Critical inquiries should highlight what of the motivations behind apartheid and ter the effects of economic inequality these master narratives ignore and pro- a discussion of the people who benefit- by examining how government action vide counter-narratives that complicate ted from it, students would not receive a (and inaction) benefits the wealthy at the and expand students’ understanding of critical perspective on the topic. expense of the poor.17 Although these the world.13 Critical inquiries should be concerned perspectives are a refreshing change with the why, the how, and the who of a from mainstream economic discourses, Crafting a Critical Inquiry with the topic. For example, in Kenny’s inquiry, all of the sources are secondary in nature. Inquiry Design Model Can we afford the super rich?, the com- Secondary sources are valuable, but we To help teachers construct a critical pelling question is concerned with the suggest that this critical inquiry would inquiry using the Inquiry Design Model who of economic inequality and consid- benefit from including accounts of indi- (IDM) template,14 we offer three impor- ers how this inequality produces negative viduals who are on the wrong end of tant guidelines: consequences. This inquiry questions the wealth divide. This addition would whether extreme economic inequal- enhance its authenticity by putting faces 1. Ask compelling and supporting ity is commensurate with democracy. and voices to the people victimized by questions that explicitly critique Capitalism is rarely questioned within economic policy. systems of oppression and power; mainstream economics curricula in the Moving toward action in a critical United States. The master narrative inquiry. Finally, critical inquiries must 2. Expose students to sources that within our economics courses implies provide students with opportunities to include the perspectives of mar- that capitalism is the best (and, perhaps, address the injustices identified in the ginalized and oppressed groups; only) economic system suitable for dem- inquiry. Within the IDM framework, ocratic nations. What is rarely exposed Taking Informed Action (TIA)18 creates 3. Develop tasks and a Taking within the official curriculum is who this opportunity by encouraging stu- Informed Action activity that push benefits and who suffers from capital- dents to extend the inquiry outside of students to take tangible steps ism. Doing so is important to consider the classroom. Of course, we understand toward alleviating the injustice because a capitalist economy depends that societal change is not going to occur explored in the inquiry. upon winners and losers to make it func- through one inquiry. What TIA does, tion. This IDM questions the viability of however, is aid in the development of a To provide an example of these three an unfettered free market and, in doing and create a dispo- components in action, we examine an so, questions the value system of the sition toward working for change. These IDM published on the Kentucky hub United States. are important steps in helping students of the C3 Teachers site (www.c3teachers. Including the voices of the oppressed. imagine critical civic engagement within org/kentucky-c3-hub/) focused on eco- The second criterion of a critical a democratic society. nomic inequality: Can we afford the inquiry presumes that the viewpoints Within Can we afford the super rich?, super rich? 15 The inquiry was designed of oppressed groups should be central. the TIA portion asks the students to by Kenny Stancil, a geography teacher Within the IDM framework, a critical invite members of the community, within at Lafayette High School in Lexington, inquiry should explore these voices and outside the school, to attend a town- Kentucky. We highlight and explain its through appropriate source selections. hall event to discuss the consequences of critical dimensions as well as offer a few Economics education generally assumes economic inequality. This civic action suggestions that could better align the that the free market has the ability to asks students to do something that can inquiry with the goals of critical theory. help everyone achieve their own piece influence their community and invites Asking critical questions. First, drawing of the American dream. Discussion of collaboration. The action is also some- from the previous list, critical inquiries class stratification or the difficulties thing that could reasonably be accom- must ask questions that critique systems of upward class mobility rarely occurs, plished as a project outside of classroom of oppression. One way to do this is to which largely silences poor and working time. For this activity to be effective, stay away from inquiries that ask limiting, class experiences.16 By contrast, the IDM however, it would be important to pay exploratory “what” questions. Critical Can we afford the super rich? analyzes attention to the participant list. In order inquiries do more than merely explore class dynamics directly and its sources to promote social change, the students a certain social studies event or phe- highlight the plight of the unfortunate and teacher should invite change mak- nomenon. For example, an inquiry that or the working class individual. ers and people from various walks of focuses on a topic like apartheid in South Sources such as “Only Little People life. Participants should not only be the Africa, but only examines the reasons the Pay Taxes,” “Congress Ignores the Poor traditional “experts,” but also parents,

Social Education 16 community organizers, union represen- York: Peter Lang, 2008). Historical Knowledge, and School History 7. Kincheloe, McLaren, and Steinberg, “Critical Education,” Review of Research in Education 32, tatives, local store owners, and others Pedagogy,” 165. no. 1 (2008): 109–146. who could help represent the views of 8. Paulo Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed (New York: 14. Kathy Swan, John Lee, and S.G. Grant, The Inquiry Design Model: Building Inquiries in Social Studies the focal groups, the poor and working Continuum, 2000). 9. Gloria Ladson-Billings, ed., Critical Race Theory (Washington, D.C.: National Council for the Social classes. The key for TIA within a critical Perspectives on Social Studies: The Profession, Studies and C3 Teachers, 2017). inquiry is to help students understand Policies, and Curriculum (Greenwich, Conn.: 15. The full inquiry available for download here: www. Information Age Publishing, 2003); Abraham P. c3teachers.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/ where power resides in the topic of study DeLeon and E. Wayne Ross, eds., Critical Theories, EconomicInequalityIDM_KYHub.pdf. and to devise actions that challenge those Radical , and Social Education: New 16. See LaGarrett J. King and Shakealia Y. Finley, “Race Perspectives for Social Studies Education is a Highway: Towards a Critical Race Economics power mechanisms. (Rotterdam: Sense Publishers, 2010). Approach in Social Studies Classrooms,” in Doing 10. Read about and download the C3 Framework here: Race in Social Studies: Critical Perspectives, ed. P. Concluding Thoughts www.socialstudies.org/c3. Chandler (Greenwich, Conn.: Information Age Publishing. 2015): 195–228. In this article, we hoped to make it 11. The Inquiry Design Model (IDM) is a framework for creating inquiries that include the main elements 17. See Featured Sources at www.c3teachers.org/ clear that one must be purposeful of the Inquiry Arc of the C3 Framework. An IDM wp-content/uploads/2015/10/EconomicInequalityID when designing a critical inquiry. It consists of three components: questions, tasks, and M_KYHub.pdf. sources. To learn more about IDM, see S.G. Grant, 18. To learn more about Taking Informed Action as a is not quite as simple as examining a Kathy Swan, and John Lee, Inquiry-Based Practice component of the IDM framework, read Meira topic (e.g., Jim Crow, Indian Removal, in Social Studies Education: Understanding the Levinson and Peter Levine, “Taking Informed Inquiry Design Model (New York, N.Y.: Routledge Action to Engage Students in Civic Life,” Social same-sex marriage, the gender wage gap, and C3 Teachers, 2017). Education 77, no. 6 (2013): 339–341. Islamophobia) that could connect to 12. For more information on critical social studies, see: social justice issues. To truly stay within Avner Segall, “Revitalizing Critical Discourses in Social Education: Opportunities for a More Ryan Crowley is Assistant Professor of Social the bounds of critical theory, there must Complexified (Un) Knowing,” Theory & Research Studies Education at the University of Kentucky. be a focus on identifying unequal power in Social Education 41, no. 4 (2013): 476–493. He can be reached at [email protected]. 13. For more information on master narratives, see relationships in society coupled with the Derrick P. Aldridge, “The Limits of Master LaGarrett J. King is Assistant Professor goal of transforming those unjust social Narratives in History Textbooks: An Analysis of of Social Studies Education at the University of relations. To remain true to critical peda- Representations of Martin Luther King, Jr.” Missouri-Columbia. He can be reached at Kinglj@ Teachers College Record 108, no. 4 (2006): 662; missouri.edu and on Twitter @DrLaGarrettKing. gogy, teachers should work to identify Bruce VanSledright, “Narratives of Nation-State, questions that are important to students’ lives and that encourage them to reflect on the ways that they are either privi- leged or oppressed by social dynamics. Teaching the College, And, finally, to enact these concepts in Career, and Civic Life the context of the IDM, the inquiry must (C3) Framework ask critical questions, analyze sources Exploring Inquiry-Based Instruction from the viewpoint of the oppressed, and in Social Studies encourage action that can make a tangible contribution toward justice. NCSS Bulletin 114, 156 pp. Edited by Kathy Swan and John Lee, with Notes 1. When we use the term “oppression,” we are referring Rebecca Mueller and Stephen Day to unjust treatment of subordinate social groups (e.g., women, racial/ethnic minorities, LGBTQ indi- viduals) by dominant social groups (e.g., men, white This book is an indispensable guide for teachers implementing the C3 Framework. people, heterosexuals) and not individual instan- The book consists of model lessons contributed by 15 of the best social studies tiations of suffering. In other words, prejudice + curricular organizations. Each lesson encompasses the whole of the C3 Inquiry Arc power = oppression. from questioning to action, engages students in a meaningful content experience 2. Yvonne S. Lincoln, Susan Lynham, and Egon G. Guba, “Paradigmatic Controversies, Contradictions, that fits a typical curriculum, and needs between 2 and 5 days of instruction. and Emerging Confluences, Revisited,” in Students collaborate, practice disciplinary literacy skills, and present their findings Handbook of Qualitative Research, N.K. Denzin creatively. There are lessons for all grade bands from K-2 to 9-12. and Y.S. Lincoln, eds. (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications, 2011): 119. This book is an essential resource for teachers seeking to put the C3 Framework 3. M. Crotty, The Foundations of Social Research into action. (London: Sage, 2003). 4. D. Strinati, An Introduction to Theories of Popular item 140114 Culture (New York: Routledge, 2004). 5. Joe L. Kincheloe, Peter McLaren, and Shirley R. NCSS Members Price: $19.95 Steinberg, “Critical Pedagogy and Qualitative List Price: $29.95 Research: Moving to the Bricolage,” in Handbook of Qualitative Research, 164. 6. Joe L. Kincheloe, Critical Pedagogy Primer (New

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