The Real Green Re v o l u t i o n Organic and agroecological farming in the South

Nicholas Parrott & Terry Marsden Department of City and Regional Planning, Cardiff University Greenpeace Environmental Trust Canonbury Villas, London N1 2PN, United Kingdom www.greenpeace.org.uk/trust February 2002 Published by Greenpeace Environmental Trust Canonbury Villas, London N1 2PN, United Kingdom Registered Charity No. 284934

© Greenpeace Environmental Trust 2002 A catalogue record of this book is available from the British Library ISBN 1 903907 02 0

Design by Paul Hamilton at One Another Printed in the United Kingdom by Russell Press Printed on 100% post-consumer recycled paper

Front cover image © Pasha Saale Back cover image © 2001-Greenpeace/Lopez Table of contents

Fo r e w o r d 4 Food security for all the world’s people Dr Doug Parr, Greenpeace Chief Scientist

Ac k n o w l e d g e m e n t s 8

1 Methodology and approach

1.1 Context 10 1.2 Aims and objectives 10 1.3 Scope and definitions 11 1.4 Research methods 16

2 The world grows organic.

2.1 Estimating the extent of global organic production 18 2.2 External stimuli for the development of organic agriculture 21 2.3 Towards a typology of incentives and constraints to‘grow organic’ 23

3 Regional perspectives

3.1 Africa 36 3.2 Asia 45 3.3 Latin America 51

4 Key themes

4.1 Productivity and sustainability 61 4.2 Organic agriculture and diversity 66 4.3 Natural methods of enhancing soil ferti l i t y 73 4.4 Natural regimes of pest and disease control 80 4.5 Markets and premia 90 4.6 Certi f i c a t i o n 93 4.7 Institutional and political issues 98 4.8 Social and cultural issues 10 1

5 Conclusions and recommendations

5.1 Creating a coherent ‘alternative’ agricultural movement. 10 7 5.2 Promoting OAA: defining objectives 10 8 5.3 Global research and advocacy 10 8 5.4 Building local capacity. 10 9

Bi b l i o g r a p h y 11 2

Glossary of abbreviations and acronyms 12 8

Appendix 1 – Electronic res o u r ces for OAA 13 0 Appendix 2a – Research institutes and consultancies 13 7 Appendix 2b – NGOs and producer grou p s 13 8

En d n o t e s 14 4

The Real Green Revolution 1 List of case studies

Case Study 1 The Chagga Home Gardens (Mt. Kilimanjaro, Tanzania) 14

Case Study 2 Organic cotton production in India, Peru and Mali 24

Case Study 3 Cuba: towards a national organic regime? 27

Case Study 4 World Food Day Farmers’ and Fishermens' Movement (Indonesia) 30

Case Study 5 Ambootia Tea Estate (Darjeeling, India) 35

Case Study 6 Zaï: a traditional method for restoring degraded land 39

Case Study 7 Organic and ethical banana production 58

Case Study 8 New developments in rice production 63

Case Study 9 Ecological land restoration in Tig r a y 77

Case Study 10 Sekem (Egypt) 93

2 List of tables and figures

Table 1 Key aims, principles and management practices of organic farming 12

Table 2.1 Certified organic land by country (hectares) 19

Table 2.2 Certified organic land by country (% of agricultural land) 19

Table 2.3 IFOAM members by country 20

Table 2.4 Incentives and constraints to organic farming 23

Table 2.4 The sustainable agriculture and rural development prize 26

Table 3.1 Organic farming statistics for Africa 37

Table 3.2 African organic agricultural products on international markets 37

Figure 3.1 Illustration of Zaï or planting pit 39

Figure 3.2 The push-pull method for controlling maize stemborer 42

Table 3.3 Organic farming statistics for Asia 45

Table 3.4 Organic farming statistics for Latin America 52

Table 4.1 Examples of yield increases attributable to adoption of OAA 62

Table 4.2 Risk reduction strategies of traditional farmers 66

Table 4.3 Annual soil loss (tons/ha) at Ibadan, Nigeria 67

Table 4.4 Effects of A. Albida on millet yield in Senegal 69

Figure 4.1 Influence of trees on maize cropping in Tlaxacal (Mexico) 72

Table 4.5 Nutrient management strategies 75

Table 4.6 Plants with pest controlling properti e s 78

Table 4.6 Premia generated by organic producers 81

Table 4.7 A flow chart for identifying synergies in OAA research 99

Table 4.8 Textures of folk knowledge 102

The Real Green Revolution 3 Foreword still largely overlooked by policy-makers, this Food security for all the world’s people movement presents a hopeful alternative to a world that would be dominated by corporate Dr Doug Parr, Greenpeace Chief Scientist ag r ochemical giants and monocultural The crisis in Argentina in late 2001 ag r i c u l t u r e. And, as this rep o r t shows, orga n i c i l l u s t rated again a frustrating and unjust fa r ming is not simply a passing fad for reality: there is no direct relationship consumers in the rich world. Put into practice b e t ween the amount of food a country in the South, it can increase food security, produces and the number of hungry people reduce poverty and protect environ m e n t a l who live there. In 2001, Argentina harve s t e d res o u r ces for the future – unlike its enough wheat to meet the needs of both conventional alternative. China and India. Yet A r g e n t i n a ’s people we r e Organic increasing h u n g r y. Argentina's status as the wo r l d ' s second largest producer of GM crops – This rep o r t identifies some of the positive l a r g e ly for export – could do nothing to tr ends currently emerging, for example: s o l ve its very real hunger problems at home. For fifty years conventional agriculture has • Latest estimates of land managed accordi n g been getting less and less sustainable. to ecological principles vary from 15.8 to 30 Chemical pesticides, fertilizers and hy b r i d million hectares (equivalent to about 3% of seeds have destroyed wildlife and crop agricultural land in the South). d ive r s i t y, poisoned people and ruined the This figure would almost certainly be much s o i l . N ow that the organic movement is higher if de facto organic agriculture taking off in the industrialised wo r l d , practiced by traditional subsistence farme r s g ove r n m e n t s , international agencies and we r e to be included. global agribusiness corporations must stop promoting this destructive system in the • Two thirds of new members of the S o u t h . I n s t e a d , there must be coherent and In t e r national Federation of Orga n i c long-term support – in practice as well as in Agricultural Movements (IFOAM) principle – to enable the nascent ecological come from the South. farming movement in poorer countries to continue to grow into the future. • In t e r national agencies – principally the UN’s Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO ) The world is on the brink of a second ‘Gree n and the Centre for Trade and Development Revolution’, which – unlike the first – has the (U N C T AD) – have woken up to the potential to truly live up to its name. This is not potential of organic farming in raising a revolution in biotechnology; still less has it fa r mers’ incomes, creating jobs and anything to do with genetic engineering. enhancing food security. Instead, it is a global move towards ecological ag r i c u l t u r e, which promises to both feed a • Cuba has been moving towards a gr owing world population and to do so nationwide organic system, and 65% of its sustainably – without compromising the needs rice and nearly 50% of fresh vegetables are of future generations to feed themselves. now produced orga n i c a l l y . Argentina now has the largest area of land under orga n i c Working in tandem with nature and cultivation of any country in the world after encouraging biodiversity and local self-rel i a n c e , Au s t r a l i a . this new trend towards organic and ag r oecological farming is vibrant throu g h Africa, Latin America and Asia. Although

4 Greater diversity peasant farmers, who are intuitively aware Maintaining agricultural biodiversity is vital to of the dangers of monocropping. ensuring the long-term food security of all the Working with ecology wo r l d ’ s people. This rep o r t also shows that ag r oecological farms exhibit a much grea t e r This rep o r t shows how organic and ar ray of biodiversity than conventional ag r oecological approaches to agriculture chemical-dependent farms, with more tree s , ar e helping to conserve and improve farme r s ’ a wider diversity of crops and many diffe re n t most precious res o u r ce – the topsoil. In contrast natural predators which control pests and help to the problems of hardening, nutrient loss and pr event disease. In many parts of the South, the er osion experienced by conventional farme r s , diversity of crop species on organic and or ganic managers across the South are using ag r oecological holdings typically numbers in tr ees, shrubs and leguminous plants to stabilise the hundreds, in stark contrast to the and feed the soil, dung and compost to prov i d e mo n o c u l t u r e encouraged by conventional nutrients, and terracing or check dams to systems. For example: pr event erosion and conserve grou n d w a t e r . Th e r e is no ‘one-size-fits-all’ strategy, and the • Indigenous farmers in Peru cultivate best approach varies with local expertise and mo r e than three thousand diffe r ent types ecological conditions. of potato. Increasing yields

• Mo r e than five thousand varieties of sweet The widespread assumption that converting to potato are cultivated in Papua New Guinea. or ganic means a decline in yields has been pr oven to be false, a conclusion supporte d • In West Java, res e a r chers have identified by overwhelming evidence contained in this mo r e than 230 species of plant within a dual rep o r t. Case studies from many diffe re n t cr opping system, which includes countries – involving radically diffe re n t ‘a g ro f o re s t r y’ home gardens and outfields. practices, local conditions and crops – show In Mexico, the Huastec Indians manage dramatic increases in yields as well as benefits a number of plots in which up to 300 to soil quality, a reduction in pests and diseases species are cultivated. Areas around the and a general improvement in taste and house may contain between 80-125 useful nutritional content of agricultural produce. species, many with medicinal prop e r ties. For example:

This diversity is maintained through traditional seed-swap networks, which are now being • In Brazil the use of green manures and cover extended and encouraged by the organic and cr ops has increased yields of maize by ag r oecological movement. Whilst global between 20% and 250%. industrial agriculture has led to a situation wh e r e the world’s population gets 90% of its • In Tig r a y , Ethiopia, yields of crops from food calories from a mere 15 species of crop s , composted plots were between three and or ganic and agroecological farmers are five times higher than those treated only pr oviding a vital service in maintaining genetic with chemicals. diversity for the future – a service increasingly threatened by genetically- • Yield increases of 175% have been rep o rt e d modified pollution and corporate biopiracy. fr om farms in Nepal adopting The maintenance of a wide range of crop s ag r oecological management practices. pr ovides food security throughout the year, an ov e r whelmingly important consideration for • In Peru the restoration of traditional Incan

The Real Green Revolution 5 te r racing has led to increases in the order of • The overwhelming majority of Southern 150% for a range of upland crop s . or ganic produce is still sold as unproc e s s e d pr i m a r y commodities, leaving poorer The importance is not just that yields are fa r mers still exposed to the vagaries of in c r eased – important as that undoubtedly is – world markets, and meaning that the but that the increases are much more under the benefits of processing and value-adding co n t r ol of the farmers and communities that remain in the North . pr oduce them, in contrast to a high input agricultural model where the benefits go to the • Much Southern-based organic production is equipment and chemical manufacturers and for export to the industrialised world, seed merch a n t s . raising the issues of ‘food miles’ and how best to protect local food security and self- Economic drivers reliance. However, local and national Ac r oss the South, engagement with the or ganic markets are developing in many lucrative and rapidly growing organic foods po o r er countries, notably Brazil, Egypt and market in the industrialised world is still the Arg e n t i n a . main driving force behind the development of the certified organic sector. Organic certi f i c a t i o n • Ex p e r tise in certification is still can generate big premia for primary prod u c e r s , ov e r whelmingly concentrated in the especially from export markets. Although some industrialised world, and achieving go v e r nments are now recognising the export ce r tification is a major barrier to many potential of organic produce, its development fa r mers in poor countries who lack literacy so far has been driven almost exclusively by the and other skills and facilities necessary. NGO sector – often despite official hostility. What is needed Remaining challenges This rep o r t makes some clear and practical This rep o r t goes on to show that some key recommendations for how organic and challenges remain, however. These include the ag r oecological agriculture should be supporte d following issues: and promoted. Some of these are highlighted be l o w . • Hostility from conventionally minded So u t h e r n governments and established • Go v e r nments in the South should ret h i n k corporate and bureaucratic interests are still the promotion of artificial pesticides and holding back the potential of organic and fe r tilisers on poorer farmers throu g h ag r oecological agriculture. extension workers, subsidies and media campaigns, and at the very least rem o v e • Many Southern-based NGOs prom o t i n g some of the barriers to NGO activity that or ganic and agroecological approaches face cu r rently hinder the growth of the orga n i c s crippling funding shortages, and are se c t o r . At best, Southern governments should pr evented from continuing their work often begin to re-orient their priorities – for want of very small amounts of money in educational, institutional and legal – comparison to that spent in the prom o t i o n to w a r ds promoting ecological and of conventional agriculture. sustainable agriculture.

• Mechanisms for transferring indigenous • Wh e r e de facto or ganic farming is practised, knowledge from one locale to another need it is vital to help farmers develop self- fu r ther development and res o u r cing. confidence in their traditional knowledge so that they do not immediately switch to chemicals once they can affo r d them, as a

6 result of having been told for years that how the movement develops over the industrial farming is ‘more modern’ . coming years, and developing synergi e s between social and environmental objectives. • Security of land tenure is essential for fa r mers to have sufficient incentive to • In addition, an agreement within the orga n i c develop long-term organic management movement itself is needed on the inclusion of strategies, and in areas where inequality wider social and environmental criteria such of ownership is especially pronounced land as ‘food miles’ and workers’ rights. ref o r m will be necessary for ecological Looking to the future fa r ming to become widesprea d . The dominant international worldview amongst • Much greater support must be devoted to policy-makers and opinion-formers still holds those grassroots NGOs and projects that are that food security for a growing world the driving force behind the development of population can only be achieved by prom o t i n g or ganic agriculture in the South. This ever more intensive chemical-dependent req u i r es a further mobilisation within ag r i c u l t u r e. The evidence from this rep o r t is No rt h e r n-based agencies to develop their that this viewpoint is dangerously flawed. own projects and work with Southern- b a s e d Fi r s t l y , the relationship between food security pa r tners, and – crucially – greater financial and food production is complex – famines su p p o r t from the relevant funding bodies. occur because people lack the money to buy food, not solely because their own crops have • Various successful projects are beginning to failed. Secondly, chemical-dependent agriculture transfer the economic benefits of food is fundamentally unsustainable. It exchanges pr ocessing to organic farmers in the South. lo n g - t e r m ecological health (involving issues These include the making of fruit into like biodiversity and topsoil quality) for short- co n s e r ves in the Andes to the extraction of te r m productivity gains, and new developments sunflower oil from hand-powered mills in in the genetic manipulation Kenya. More res o u r ces and investment in of plants and animals are set to worsen this these frequently low-tech solutions could di s a s t r ous trajectory. Thirdl y , food security have significant paybacks for ecological is endangered by encouragement for farme r s fa r mers acros s to opt for high yielding mono-crops req u i r i n g the Third Wor l d . substantial inputs. If the crops fail farmers are in danger of losing their land to cover bad • Better links need to be fostered between debts – further contributing to rural-urban drift di ff e r ent disciplines and approaches within in the South. the ‘alternative’ agricultural movement – bringing together (for example) fores t e r s , Ul t i m a t e l y , we believe the key aim at a practical res e a r chers, livestock producers and level must be to knit together the diffe re n t ho r ticulturalists in regional, national and aspects and drivers of the organic and in t e r national networks. ag r oecological approach into a coheren t in t e r national movement which is capable of • The development of certification capacity in pr oviding an alternative to the conventional the South – by governments working in system. As ecological agriculture becomes more tandem with established NGOs – needs successful economically, and an increa s i n g to be boosted to prevent the need for costly number of farmers throughout the South decide ex t e r nal inspections. – independently or with assistance from NGOs – to jump off the chemicals treadmill, the • Joined-up thinking between the organic and chances of this real Green Revolution fair trade movements could be crucial in succeeding become greater every day.

The Real Green Revolution 7 Ac k n o w l e d g e m e n t s Development, Togo), Mª Fernanda de A. C. Fonseca (Brazil). We extend our grateful thanks to the following individuals who have helped with N M Abdul Gaffar (Stassen Natural Foods, this project, primarily through responding to Sri Lanka), Yvan Gautronneau (INRA, Lyon, our survey, but in other instances through France), Maheswar Ghimire (Ecological helping us make contact with key individuals, Services Centre, Nepal), Boghos Ghougassian providing access to libraries and databases, (Middle East Centre for the Transfer of and acting as translators. Alternative Technology, Lebanon), Nicolien van der Grijp: (Vrije Universiteit, Jacqueline Haessig Alleje (Rizal Dairy Farms, Amsterdam), Papa Gueye, (Fédération des Philippines), Mustafa Akyuz (ETKO, Agropasteurs de Diender, Senegal), Carolyn Turkey), Kossi Ahonyo (Centre de Promotion Foster (University of Wales, Aberystwyth). des Initiatives de Base et de l’Environnement, Togo), Marta Astier (Interdisciplinary Group Rob Hardy (Soil Association), Dr. Zahid for Appropriate Rural Technology, Mexico). Hossain (Proshika, Bangladesh), Liz Hoskins (Gaia Foundation). Reena Bansal (Ambootia Tea Estates, India), Da vid Barkin (Universidad Autonoma Rosie Jackson (Soil Association), Pauline Me t r opolitana, Mexico), Birgitt Boor (B i o h e r b , Jones (Kitty Seed Project, Gambia), Mariam Ge rm a n y ) , Angelina M. Briones (M A S I P E G , Jorjadze (Elkana, Georgia). Ph i l i p p i n e s ) , Edith Lammerts van Bueren (Louis Bolk Institut, Netherlands), He l e n J.G. Kanyi (Green Farming Group, Kenya), Br o u t s c hert (C a rd i f f University), Kath Burton J.J. Kanjanga (Lipangwe Organic Manure (Soil Association), Eve r ard Byer (T rinidad and Demonstration Farm, Malawi) Nichole Tobago Organic Agriculture Movement). Kenton, (IIED), Mustafa Koc (Ryerson K. Cadoret (Henry Doubleday Research University, Canada) Avaz Koocheki (College Association), of Agriculture, Ferdowsi University, Iran) Jon Koshey (Spices Board of India) Tadeu Caldas, (Ecotropic, UK), Daniel Mones Cazon (FAEA, Argentina), Oscar Mao Lamin (Zhejiang Camel Transworld Mendieta Chavez (Assoc. de Organisationes Organic Food Company Limited, CHINA), de Product Ecologicos de Bolivia), Fernando Nic Lampkin (University of Wales, Cruz (Cosecha del Sol, Mexico). Aberystwyth). Marcos Lena (Brazil) Huafen Li (Agroecology Research Institute, China Alexander Daniel (Institute for Integrated Agricultural University), Judy Longbottom Rural Development, India), Sue Edwards (IIED), Emile Lutz (Planeta Verde, Brazil). (Institute for Sustainable Development, Tigray, Ethiopia), Marck van Esch (Bo Friedel Mallinckrodt (SARD Prize), Jus t o Weevil, Holland), Bo van Elzakker (Agroeco, Mantilla (Ecological and Medicinal Plant Netherlands), Lal Emmanuel (Nagenhiru Institute, Peru) , P. Ma r i a s e l v am (P e o p l e ’ s Foundation, Sri Lanka). Agricultural Farm, Tamil Nadu, India), La u r a Martinez (C a rd i f f University), Pr o f . Pet e r Caporali Fabio (Universitia degli studia della Midmore (University of Wales, Aberys t w y t h ) , Tuscia, Viterbo, Italy), Ali Faisal (Hyderabad, Luiz Carlos Mior (C a rd i f f University), India), Luciano Florit (Universidade Regional B. Mohan (Indian Bio Organic Tea de Blumenau, Brazil), Komla Foly As s o c i a t i o n ) . (Groupement des Jeunes pour l’Entraide et le

8 Elizabeth Nabanja-Makumbi (M i r embe Self (Greenpeace), Anna J.Wieczorek (Vrije Help Organisation of Uganda), Ma m s e e d y Universiteit, Amsterdam), Jean Marc von der Njai (Gambia Agricultural Extension Servi c e ) , Weid (Assessorias e Servicios a Projectos em Gunnel Ax elsson Nycander (S w e d i s h Agricultura Alternitiva, Brazil), John In t e r national Development Agency). Wilkinson (Brazil).

S u n ny Okwudire (Regfos Gre e n Virginia Zeneteno (Organic Chile Certifier), Commission, Nigeria). Anke Zimpel (University of Wales, Aberystwyth). Suzanne Padel (University of Wales, Aberystwyth), Fernando Pia (CIESA, Particular thanks are due to Bernward Geier Argentina); Carlo Ponzio (Sultan Organic and Camilla Toulmin (of IFOAM and IIED Farm, Egypt), Kranti Prakash (Ragavendra respectively) who generously accepted Niwas, India). invitations to referee this report. We are indebted to them for their insights and advice Vanaja Ramprasad (The Green Foundation, on improving the content and presentation of Bangalore, India), Sarath Ranaweera this report. Any outstanding errors remain (Biofoods, Sri Lanka) C. Sundara Rao the responsibility of the authors. (Enfield Agrobase, India), Paul Richards (Wageningen Agricultural University, The The authors welcome feedback and Netherlands), Esther Roycroft (Henry comments on this report which can be Doubleday Research Association) Guido addressed to [email protected] Ruivenkamp (Wageningen Agricultural University, The Netherlands). Abdoulaye Sarr (Recours a la Terre, Senegal), Guillermo Scarlato (CIEDUR, Uruguay), Carsten Schuettel (Rapunzel, Germany), Albert Schwarz (Shiré Highland Organic Growers Organisation, Malawi), Nadia Scialabba (FAO), Jata Shankar (Mana Seva, India),Vandana Shiva, Research Foundation for Science, Technology and Ecology, India) C. Shastry, (Phalada Agro Research Foundations, India), Richard Soita (Hope Community Development Programme, Kenya), Erika Sosa (GreenAqua, Ecuador), Roland Sturm (Hess Natur-Textilien).

Laura Thornton (DfiD).

Narayana Upadhyaya (Skal, India), Fr. Gregorius Utomo, (The World Food Day Farmers' And Fishermen's Movement Of Indonesia).

Ong Kung Wai (HUMUS Consultancy and Marketing, Malaysia), Fred Wajje (World Vision, Uganda), Stokely Webster

The Real Green Revolution 9 1 – Methodology and approach (Sen, 1986). In this sense arguments as to whether diffe r ent forms of agriculture, such 1.1 – Context as GM, intensive or organic systems can ‘feed At the dawn of the twenty-first century two the world’ are somewhat simplistic (Geier, competing agricultural models are 1998). Other significant interme d i a r y factors positioning themselves in an attempt to win influence access to, and distribution of, food loyalty, support and commitment from on the global and regional scales, and within farmers, policy makers and consumers individual communities (Woo d w a r d, 1998). (Marsden, 2001). One, a biotechnology-led This said, diffe r ent models of food extension of the Green Revolution, holds the pr oduction do play a role in shaping these promise of feeding the world through entitlements: through making use of diffe re n t improved yields, greater resistance to diseases mixes of labour and capital (and increa s i n g l y and greater efficiency through the nowadays, intellectual prop e r ty); of locally manipulation of the genetic structure of pr oduced and imported inputs and; diffe re n t plants (Pretty, 1998). Critics argue that the market orientations. risks involved in releasing GMOs into the environment are unknown and unpredictable Such differences are also reflected in the (ESRC Global Environmental Change research structures that help inform and Programme, 1999). Moreover, particularly develop these different models. Conventional in the South, the adaptation of GMO agricultural research tends to be technology implies a huge and unacceptable laboratory/experimental farm based, often transfer of intellectual property rights (and aiming at producing universally applicable, thus power) from farmers to seed companies context-breaking solutions (e.g. hybrid and laboratories (Shiva, 2001). seeds). Organic research, by contrast, tends to be more diffuse, ‘farm based’, The other model, which we explore here, of participatory and draws upon local organic and agroecological farming is based knowledge and tradition. Significantly, it is upon developing and maximising the use of also focused upon ‘public goods’, resources locally available natural resources to and techniques that are not readily maintain and build soil fertility and to deter patentable but which are, generally, freely pests and diseases. It is a decentralised, available. This may significantly contribute bottom-up approach to improving to explaining why organic research attracts agricultural capacity that relies upon, only a fraction of investment from private promotes and celebrates diversity. Critics of sources compared to conventional and this approach claim that reliance on natural biotechnological approaches. and often traditional, production systems 1.2 – Aims and objectives will prove inadequate in the task of feeding the world either now or in fifty years time – This report was commissioned to provide an when world population levels are predicted overview of the ‘state of the art’ of organic to have doubled (Pinstrup-Andersen, 2000). and agroecological farming systems in the ‘South’ (see below for an explanation of this The ghost of Malthus appears to still haunt terminology). The primary focus of the debates about food security, despite report is on identifying systems, technologies wi d e s p r ead recognition that it is not food and methods which are proving effective in pr oduction per se which determines whether increasing yields, eliminating (or significantly the world is fed or not (Grolink, 2000), but reducing) the need for chemical inputs and the political and economic struc t u r es which (as a ‘second tier’ objective), in increasing pr ovide, or deny, access to ‘food entitlements’ farmer incomes.

10 The aims of the report are: engaged with OAA are twofold: those of • to identify specific (and recently disseminating existing knowledge through developed) projects/systems and, through training, participatory research and this, identify possibilities for developing experimentation, and differentiating OAA and supporting initiatives that have produce through effective yet economic hitherto been neglected or underdeveloped certification processes. at both research and project level; Recent years have witnessed a surge of • (in line with the above) to seek to identify interest in and rapid development of OAA gaps in current knowledge and support; in many parts of the South. The convergence of several sets of interests (commercial, • to provide indicators of likely future developmental, and environmental) around developments (both in research agendas the OAA agenda is in itself encouraging. and project development). After years of being marginalised OAA is becoming increasingly accepted by the In meeting the first aim we provide a broad ‘mainstream’. The most significant overview of the state of development of manifestation of this is the recognition by Organic and Agroecological approaches the UN Food and Agriculture Organisation (OAA) across the South, focusing on (FAO) of the role that OAA can play in countries where a critical mass has begun to promoting ‘sustainable agriculture’. Given develop and where innovative new this growth of interest we anticipate a approaches are being put in place. We significant expansion in both levels of identify a number of case studies where OAA production and the ‘knowledge base’ is presently proving successful in meeting a surrounding OAA in the very near future. range of diverse objectives: improving yields, This notwithstanding, there remain food security, farmers’ incomes and health significant practical and attitudinal barriers status, and reversing established patterns to its further expansion. of land degradation. We identify in our 1.3 – Scope and definitions recommendations potential avenues for assisting with the development of OAA: For the purpose of this study we have building links with existing research and stepped aside from debates over what extension networks, engaging with constitutes a ‘developing’ or ‘Third World’ established grassroots NGOs, and country and opted for a broad geographical strengthening effective advocacy of the need definition of the ‘South’: one which covers for, and benefits of, OAA amongst policy all of Africa, Asia (with the exception of makers, farmers and consumers. Japan), Latin America and the Caribbean. This approach gives us the scope to examine Identifying gaps in knowledge has proven a a wide range of organic and agroecological more challenging task. The nature of OAA, practices existing in different climatic, rooted in specific ecological, agronomic and topographic and socio-economic situations. cultural contexts, militates against identifying The systems and methods that we have single key research issues that can provide examined vary significantly from, at one universal solutions. For this reason we have extreme, those that primarily meet household not singled out specific research issues food requirements where surpluses are relating to say, soil fertility or pest bartered or sold, to market (often export) management. Our overriding impression focused production systems. These different from the literature reviews and responses to orientations imply quite different rationales our survey is that the main priorities of those amongst producers and lead us into a

The Real Green Revolution 11 discussion of the similarities and differences weeds and other pests.’ between organic farming and agroecology. (USDA, 1980 cited in Scialabba and Aubert1998) Legal definitions of organic produce are codified in a number of formal standards that Table 1 (below) expands on this definition by define the regimes that producers (or exploring some of the key aims, principles pr ocessors) need to work within in order to and management strategies employed in claim organic status. Globally there are more organic agriculture. than 100 diffe r ent organic certi f i c a t i o n Table 1: Key aims, principles and systems in place (Van Elzakker, cited in management practices of organic farming Scialabba and Aubert, 1998). Of grea t e s t Aims and principles im p o r tance are the international standards : To develop, as far as possible, closed flows of the EU Organic Directive Regulation (CEC, nutrients and organic matter within the farm and 1991), the IFOAM (International Federation th e re f o r e promote the ecological resilience of the of Organic Agricultural Movements) Basic fa r m unit. St a n d a r ds (IFOAM, 1999) and the guidelines pr oduced by the FAO/WHO Codex Maintenance and improvement of soil ferti l i t y Alimentarius Commission (1999).1 By nature • Mixed livestock and arable farming these are prescriptive, defining the applications • Use of farm compost, mulches and green manure (e.g. pesticides and fertilisers) and proc e s s e s • Recycling and composting of vegetative matter (e.g. irradiation and genetic modification) (including ‘off- f a r m’ materials) which are and are not permitted in food • Use of crop rotation, fallows and strip crop p i n g

described as ‘organic’. These standards are • Use of nitrogen-fixing plants co n c e r ned primarily with consumer prot e c t i o n • Mixed cropping to maintain soil cover and and intended to provide unambiguous maximise nutrient availability guarantees to consumers who are in general • Use of deep-rooting plants to recycle nutrients pre p a r ed to pay premium prices for orga n i c • Agrof o re s t r y pr oduce. Detailed analysis of these standards , and of the diffe r ences between them, serve s • Use of contour bunds, terracing and other mechanical methods to prevent soil loss little purpose here. Of more interest are the characteristics, principles and working Pest and disease control practices involved in organic prod u c t i o n , 2 which we explore below. • Crop rotations and intercr opping (both of diffe r ent species and geni) One widely used definition of organic • Companion planting production is that provided by the United • Use of resistant varieties

States Department of Agriculture (USDA): • Use of alleopathic / antagonistic plants

• Use of physical barriers ‘A production system which avoids or largely (e.g. tree breaks or insect traps)

excludes the use of synthetic compounded • Use of natural pesticides fertilisers, pesticides, growth regulators and • Use of biological controls, such as pred a t o r s livestock feed additives. To the maximum extent feasible, organic farming systems rely • Co n t r ol of carri e r s upon crop rotations, animal manures, • Hand picking legumes, green manures, off-farm organic Adopted from Harris et al.., (1998) wastes and aspects of biological pest control and Scialabba, (1999) to maintain soil productivity and tilth, to supply plant nutrients and to control insects,

12 Notably both the definition and the key aims, ‘organically produced’, and de facto organic principles and management practices prov i d e d production. Certified organic production above make no ref e r ence to social justice or forms the basis of what is now a economic viability, both of which are key phenomenally rapidly growing market. fe a t u r es in determining the acceptability of This may however represent just the tip of OAA to consumers and producers alike. the iceberg in terms of land that is managed The importance of these issues is addres s e d according to organic precepts but is not later in the paper – for the moment we (like certified as such. Such de facto organic the authors above) confine ourselves to farming appears to be particularly prevalent discussing the agronomic aspects of OAA. in resource-poor and/or agriculturally marginal regions where local populations The characteristics and management principles have a limited engagement with the cash discussed above are not solely restricted to economy. In such situations, farmers have or ganic farming. ‘Conventional’ farmers may little alternative but to rely upon locally well employ some of these techniques. For available natural resources to maintain soil example, livestock and/or green manures are fertility and to combat pests and diseases. used in many ‘conventional’ farming systems In some instances sophisticated systems of as a means of building or maintaining soil crop rotation, soil management and pest and fe rt i l i t y . However, they are increasingly being disease control have evolved solely on the replaced by artificial inputs, as the logic of basis of traditional knowledge. The first case specialisation in a globalised market place study in this report, of the Chagga Home favours the development of monocultural Gardens in Tanzania (see over) provides an fa r ming systems at the expense of mixed ones. example of an intensive, sustainable, multi- functional organic system. Such systems are Innovations in organic farming methods associated with remote areas, often involving (often driven by the need to meet standards) culturally homogenous populations. have a relevance that potentially extends Although primarily subsistence-oriented, beyond the organic sector (FAO, 1998 p.9). these systems often also produce a range of In Israel, for example, greenhouse cash crops. management techniques pioneered by organic farmers have now become widely adopted by As in many instances there is no offi c i a l conventional farmers (Raviv, 2000).3 recognition of the organic status of this land, Similarly, principles of community ecology th e r e are very few reliable estimates of the developed to control pests in European extent to which de facto or ganic farming is orchards have also benefited ‘conventional’ practised in the South. Estimates of the extent growers (Brown 1999a and b). While of de facto or ganic farming vary widely. Our conventional producers may adopt some im p r ession is that the amount of land in the organic techniques, organic farming remains So u t h fa r med on this basis exceeds, prob a b l y differentiated from conventional approaches by a significant factor, land that is forma l l y by virtue of its exclusive reliance on natural ce r tified as being orga n i c . 4 Kotschi (2000), methods of building soil fertility and claims that ‘80% of reg i s t e r ed organic land combating pest and diseases. in the Third World has not undergone any change in management practice’, su g g e s t i n g Agricultural systems that rely exclusively on that there is a large pool of orga n i c a l l y natural methods of building soil fertility and managed land which is not recognised as such, combating pests and diseases fall into two that could readily be certified if market categories: certified organic production, conditions permi t t e d . which has been inspected and is verified as

The Real Green Revolution 13 De facto organic farming is an approach that for staples (e.g. millet, beans and sorgh u m ) is embraced and celebrated by agroecology. and fodder. It is their home gardens that are of This approach shares much common ground pr i m a r y interest as they embody many key with the ‘standards-driven’ organic model. elements of organic and agroe c o l o g i c a l Both promote a ‘closed system’ approach, management strategy. The features of the use multiple and diverse cropping and rely Chagga Home Gardens include: on biological sources for building soil fertility and controlling pests and diseases. • Capture of snowmelt water for irrigation Agroecology, however, is more specifically through an elaborate system of rooted in the experience of the South channelling (particularly Latin America), and places greater emphasis in ‘acknowledging the • A diversity of cropping for cash and socio-cultural and ecological co-evolution consumption purposes, including bananas and inseparability of social and natural (15 varieties), coffee, yams, beans, systems’ (Norgard, 1987). Thus, agroecology medicinal plants, bees and livestock (see contains a more explicit social component below) than the organic approach, whose focus is more upon verifiable technical standards. • Maintaining cattle, pigs and poultry that Further, agroecological research is more provide both protein and manure. strongly orientated towards the social (Mammals are stall-fed with fodder from sciences, embodying a ‘human ecology’ the trees and grasses from the plain and approach (Glaeser, 1995). Agroecological the manure recycled, providing an research is more culturally specific and more ongoing source of fertility) explicitly adopts a ‘farmer first’ philosophy. Agroecological systems do not however • A design to maximise diversity – elaborate provide internationally recognised standards patterns of vertical zoning exist – and therefore do not provide the same providing niches within the gardens for opportunities for attracting market premia as different species and a range of sunny / certified organic systems. While some tension cooler conditions exists between the ‘standards driven’ approach of organic production, and the • The use of a wide range of woody species more culturally relativist approach of (Fernandes identifies and lists the agroecology, practitioners and advocates of functions of thirty nine), many of which the two approaches share a broadly common are multifunctional, providing fruit, philosophy and agenda, and in many fodder, fuel and medicines as well as instances work closely together. nutrients and crop protection

Case study 1: the Chagga Home Gardens • Cropping patterns designed to maximise (Mt. Kilimanjaro, Tanzania). continuity of yield

The Chagga Home Gardens provide an • Bees, used to provide honey and for excellent model of integrated and sustainable pollination. land management systems that use a minimum of external inputs. The Chagga people farm The area is one of the most densely the southern and eastern slopes of Kilimanjaro populated in rural Africa with about 500 (900-1900m above sea level). Most also have people per square kilometre. Average plot lowland plots on the drier plains, within 20km sizes are small, just over 1 hectare, and of their home gardens. These are mostly used support households with, on average, 9

14 family members. The system has been sustainable agriculture is an extremely weak maintained in a stable form for more than form of agroecology, which ‘fails to address 100 years. Although individual crops may either the rapid degradation of the natural sometimes fail, multiple failures are resource base, or resolve the debt trap and unknown. Growing a range of cash crops profit squeeze in which many farmers find (bananas, coffee and, in extremis, timber) themselves trapped’. also provides some protection against market price fluctuations. While there are some Sustainable agriculture may be likened to concerns that the system is approaching its a broad church, which attracts a diverse productivity limits within the present congregation with a range of different ‘core management regime, strategies for further beliefs’. They include those whose primary enhancing management techniques may yet concerns are with ecology and ‘farmer first’ be developed. Some believe that the approaches, but also ‘high –tech advocates principles of this management system could who propagate a second green revolution be successfully transferred to similar upland with gene technology and a new generation areas in other parts of Africa: particularly of agrochemicals’ (Kotschi, 2000 p.653). Rwanda, Ethiopia and Kenya, although local The attempt to include all these interests cultural and ecological differences would under a single defining banner leads to need to be taken into account. sustainable agriculture ‘lacking a clear profile’ (ibid.) and lacking clear indicators (S o u r ces: Fernandes (undated), Harrison (1987), or definitions of how it differs from Küchli (1996)) ‘unsustainable agriculture’. A third approach, incorporating elements of both the organic and agroecological models, These disagreements aside, orga n i c , is that of ‘sustainable agriculture’. This has ag r oecological and sustainable approa c h e s been a focus of activity and research within to agriculture share common methodological the ‘development’ field for at least a decade. and theoretical ground in their use of It is focused around three core principles: pa r ticipative approaches to agricultural those of ‘ecological soundness, social (and rural) res e a r ch and development. responsibility and economical viability’ This participative approach to res e a r ch and (Thrupp, 1996). Many projects and development has, in the last two decades, programmes under the rubric of sustainable gr own into a significant discipline in its agriculture explicitly aim to eliminate or own right, generating a substantial body reduce the use of artificial inputs, use local of literature. (For examples of work in this resources to build soil fertility and increase ar ea see: Haverkort et al.. 1991; Alders et diversity within farming systems (for al . . 1993, Conway 1985; van Vel d e h u i z e n , examples of such projects see Thrupp 1996; 1997; Gündel 1998; Pretty et al.., 1999 and Whiteside 1998; Pretty and Hine 2000b). Bainbridge et al.. 2000). With a focus on the However, both the organic and im p o r tance of traditional knowledge and on agroecological movements experience some innovation, experimentation and diffusion of unease about the looseness of definitions agricultural techniques, this body of literature embraced by sustainable agriculture. As with contains much of relevance to understanding many other applications of the term how OAA can be better promoted, and we ‘sustainability’, tensions can often arise over draw upon it where it specifically relates to operational definitions of ‘ecological or ganic / agroecological systems. soundness’, ‘social responsibility’ and economic viability (Butler-Flora 1998). In this report we focus both on ‘whole farm’ Rosset and Altieri (1997, p.283) argue that systems, and on individual techniques. Whilst

The Real Green Revolution 15 the first group represents exclusively organic of ‘grey literature’ in providing current and or agroecological approaches, the latter informed commentary on developments in group may form component parts of organic, the field. Many key texts were only identified agroecological or sustainable farming as a result of the survey that we conducted. systems, be transferable across all three Many were e-mailed to us as ‘works in agricultural approaches and, in many cases, progress’ or internal reports prepared as also be applicable to conventional and more funding bids or project evaluations and not intensive systems. originally intended for publication. We acknowledge the invaluable contribution of 1.4 – Research methods the many individuals and agencies who took The information presented in this report has the trouble to assist our project in this way. been generated by a desk-based literature Thus, in drawing together this literature review, supplemented by a semi-structured review we have tapped into, and sought to survey of organic organisations, NGOs and synthesise, a highly fragmented but rapidly academics and a selected number of face-to- growing knowledge base. face and telephone interviews. Details are provided below of the work undertaken in Survey each of these three areas. In addition to the literature search a survey was undertaken of organic organisations, Literature reviews development and environmental agencies The literature relating to organic and with an involvement in OAA, and informed agroecological farming is spread across academics. The initial sample frame for the a number of sources. At the outset three core survey was compiled from the IFOAM sources of literature were identified: the membership directory (IFOAM, 2000), from organic movement’s own publications which we selected all IFOAM members in (particularly those from IFOAM), those of the South, together with those in the development and environment agencies, industrialised world claiming to have active and broader academic literature. In addition involvement in the South. Relevant a number of electronic information resources development and environmental were visited, including remote access organisations and academics with a known catalogues, the Web of Science and the Index interest in the field were identified and added of Theses.5 Keyword searches were to the list. Requests for information were undertaken on ‘organic farming’ and also sent out on the networks of the ‘agroecology’. Between them these sources International Sociological Association RC40 provided threads into a varied and eclectic group and the food network of the range of fields of literature. International Human Development Project. Throughout the project, a ‘snowball’ effect The role and potential of OAA in the South was generated as feedback from these initial is attracting interest from a range of contacts continued to generate further disciplinary backgrounds including: suggestions of individuals and organisations agricultural, plant and soil science, rural and to contact and which continued to elicit third world development, rural sociology, responses throughout, and beyond, the geography and marketing. Moreover, the contracted period of research. literature is spread across a range of types of sources: academic journals, trade Given the time constraints of this project, publications, conference proceedings and and the broad range of interests of the agency reports. As the study progressed we organisations and individuals whom we became increasingly aware of the importance wished to contact, the survey itself was

16 carried out on an informal, semi-structured •Voluntary Services Overseas, London basis. In preference to a questionnaire format, which may well have limited the • International Institute for Environment types and range of responses elicited, a letter and Development (Camilla Toulmin, Judy was written (and translated into French, Longbottom and Nichole Kenton) Spanish and Portuguese) outlining the project and requesting details of projects, good • The Gaia Foundation, London (Liz practice, policy and research issues. More Hoskins and Sue Edwards, Institute for than 400 copies were sent out throughout Sustainable Development, Tigray) December 2000 and January 2001 (the vast majority by email) and more than 150 • International Human Development responses received by the end of February. Centre, Amsterdam

Interviews and visits • University of Cordoba (Prof. Eduardo In addition to the literature review and Guzman) survey, a limited number of visits were made to institutions identified as having specialist • The Soil Association, Bristol (Rob Hardy) knowledge or expertise relevant to this study. These are listed below. In most cases these In addition to these, a visit was made to visits had the dual purpose of using library Biofach (the World Organic Trade Fair) held resources and meeting with informed at Nürnberg, Germany in February 2001. individuals working at those institutes – This proved particularly fruitful, enabling in all cases these interviews were of an contact to be made with many producers informal nature. from the South and with representatives from several leading international organic • The Welsh Organics Centre, Aberystwyth organisations.6 These meetings and (Nic Lampkin, Suzanne Padel, Peter conversations significantly helped shape the Midmore and Anke Zimpel) final structure and emphasis of the report.

The Real Green Revolution 17 2. The world grows organic of the extent of organic production on a global basis. Drawing upon the ITC report 2.1 – Estimating the extent of global organic (1999) and other data sources, they identify production around 15.8 million hectares of land around Only in recent years has published data the world that are managed organically. regarding the extent of organic agriculture Argentina is clearly the largest certified in the South become available. The organic producer in the South with 3 million International Trade Centre (ITC) recently ha. (1.77% of its total agricultural land) published a directory on products and under organic production. This accounts for market development in the organic sector almost 19 % of total global organically (1999) with the aim of fostering trade managed land. Other Latin American opportunities, especially for developing countries account for around 1.3% of the countries. This provides a country-by- global total of organically managed land. country analysis of organic production and Africa and Asia account for only fractions demand, together with details of available of a percent (0.14% and 0.33% respectively) produce and the principal trading and (Willer and Yussefi, 2001, p.28).9 development organisations. It also provides some details (though sketchy in places), Whilst these figures provide a useful about the profiles of ‘non-certified’ activity. ov e rv i e w , there are evident omissions in the data. For example, there is no data for many More recently the German organic countries known to be exporting orga n i c organisation, Stiftung Ökologie & Landbau pr oduce to the industrialised world. Wal a g a (SÖL) published a statistical digest of global (2000) identifies a number of African organic production (Willer and Yussefi, countries which are known to be exporti n g 2000, 2001). These figures provide the basis or ganic produce but which do not appear in for a more comparative analysis of the extent these tables. These countries include: Algeria, of organic production in different parts of Benin, Burkina Faso, Comoro Islands, Ivory the world (see tables 2.1. and 2.2, below for Coast, Madagascar, Morocco, Mozambique, summaries). A further useful data source is Senegal and South Africa (see table 3.2). Such the annual IFOAM members Directory di s c r epancies occur due to a number of (IFOAM, 2000), which lists members by factors. In part there is the problem of a time country, thereby permitting proxy estimates lag in data collection. Even in the EU, which of activity rates.7 has a strong data gathering capacity, it is di f ficult to collate information that is less The FAO has also prepared a number of than two years out of date (Foster, pers. studies of organic systems on a global scale comm.). The rapid expansion of certi f i e d (FAO, 1998, 1999, 2000a; Scialabba 1999, or ganic production in the South and the 2000; Scialabba and Aubert, 1998).8 They mo r e limited capacity for data collection have recently commissioned a number of mean that the figures provided in Tables 2.1 specialist reports and are in the process of and 2.2 are almost certainly underes t i m a t e s . constructing a database of organic literature Other factors may play a key role: the cost (FAO, 2001). Thus the literature providing and other constraining factors of certi f i c a t i o n global perspectives on OAA, while not (discussed in section 4. 6), means that such extensive, is rapidly growing and is likely data is only likely to be collected for land to be more substantial in forthcoming years. wh e r e much, or all, of the crop is destined for ex p o r t markets. The only likely exceptions to The SÖL reports (Willer and Yussefi, 2000 this are those few countries that have & 2001) provide valuable early estimates established their own (IFOAM accred i t e d )

18 Table 2.1 – Certified organic land by country (hectares)

Latin America Af r i c a As i a

>1 Million ha. Ar gentina (3M)

100,000 – 1 M ha. Br a z i l

25-100,000 ha. Me x i c o

5-25,000 ha. Pa r a g u a y , Peru, Tunisia, Uganda Tur k e y , China, Japan Costa Rica, Bolivia, Gu a t e m a l a

1-5,000 ha. El Salvador, Chile, Tanzania, Egypt, Papua New Guinea10 , Nicaragua, Urug u a y Zi m b a b w e Israel, India, Tai w a n

<1,000 ha. Suriname, Colombia Ca m e r oon, Mauritius, Republic of Korea , Ma l a w i Sri Lanka, Honk Kong, Lebanon, Philippines

Known existence of Ec u a d o r , Honduras Burkina Faso, Ghana, Pa k i s t a n or ganic production but Za m b i a fi g u r es not available

Adapted from Willer and Yussefi, (2000 & 2001)

Table 2.2 – Certified organic land by country (% of agricultural land)

Organic land as % of domestic agricultural total Latin America Af r i c a As i a

> 1% Ar gentina (1.77%)

0.5 – 0.99% Papua New Guinea

0. 1 5 - 0 . 5 % Costa Rica, El Salvador, Ma u r i t i u s Ja p a n Surinam, Guatemala

0. 0 2 5 - 0 . 1 4 % Pa r a g u a y , Mexico, Tunisia, Egypt, Uganda Tur k e y , Republic of Brazil, Peru Ko r ea, Lebanon

<0 . 0 2 5 % Bolivia, Nicaragua, Tanzania, Cameroo n , Sri Lanka, China, India Chile, Urug u a y , Zimbabwe, Malawi Co l o m b i a

Adapted from Willer and Yussefi, (2000 & 2001) ce r tifying bodies, where certification costs are (see Table 2.3, over). These provide a useful likely to be more in line with the premia that proxy method for estimating levels of OAA, pr oducers can expect to obtain on local which cover both certified and informal, ma r k e t s . 11 Or ganic production systems which ‘de facto’ approaches. Although in some work on a ‘trust’ basis, agroecological and cases IFOAM membership figures for traditional ‘de facto’ or ganic systems will not individual countries correspond with the be included in these figures. Between them amount of certified organic land, there are these are likely to significantly outweigh many instances where they do not. For fo r mally certified holdings.12 example, IFOAM has members in many countries that are not identified as having An alternative approach to gauging levels of any certified organically managed land. OAA is through analysis of IFOAM Some of these countries (notably Kenya, (International Federation of Organic Senegal, Venezuela, the Philippines and South Agricultural Movements) membership figures Africa) have a relatively high number of

The Real Green Revolution 19 Table 2.3 – IFOAM Members by Country

No. of IFOAM members Latin America Af r i c a As i a

39 In d i a

18 Ar gentina

16 Ke n y a Ch i n a

10 Se n e g a l

9 Venezuela Ph i l i p p i n e s

8 Chile, Mexico

7 Br a z i l Burkina Faso, Egypt Tur k e y

5 Bo l i v i a South Africa Sri Lanka

4 Ec u a d o r , Peru Malaysia, Pakistan

3 Costa Rica, Guatemala, Benin, Cameroon, Indonesia, Nepal, Nicaragua, Paraguay Congo, Ghana, Malawi, Th a i l a n d Togo, Uganda, Zi m b a b w e

2 Columbia, Urug u a y Bangladesh, Israel, Vietnam

1 Cuba, Trinidad and Algeria, Ethiopia, Iran, Iraq, Korea, Tob a g o Iv o r y Coast, Lebanon, Palestine, Ma d a g a s c a r , Mali, Tai w a n Nigeria, Somalia, Tan z a n i a

Adapted from IFOAM (2000)

IFOAM members, yet there is no data organic farming is practised, although the available for organically managed land balance of views suggests that the amount within these countries. Many of the of de facto organically managed land almost organisations affiliated to IFOAM are quite certainly outstrips ‘certified’ organic land, evidently community and/or peasant farming probably by a considerable amount. Informal organisations who would be unlikely to have use of OAA appears to be concentrated in to have much engagement with export specific countries and particularly in certain markets. Thus the IFOAM Directory types of area (discussed in section 2.3 arguably provides a more realistic assessment below). It is often a ‘hidden’ form of of levels of the existence of non-export agriculture, rarely the subject of interest from oriented OAA within individual countries. government extension agencies and only Differences between data contained in tables sometimes the focus of development and aid 2.1 and 2, and table 2.3 offer clues as to projects. It is likely to be oriented primarily countries where de facto organic agriculture towards local and regional markets, which may be practised on a significant scale.13 further obscures information gathering as to the extent to which it is practised. In view Such deductive reasoning is useful since there of these factors, the development of any are few other ways of identifying the extent definitive global estimates of the extent of de and existence of de facto organic farming. facto and uncertified OAA is an unlikely Our literature review and survey both prospect in the foreseeable future. strongly suggest that OAA is practised more extensively than official certification figures One recent report partially fills this gap by suggest. Opinions vary significantly (see providing estimates of the amount of land chapter 3) as to the extent to which de facto managed according to precepts of

20 ‘sustainable agriculture’. Pretty and Hine gr owing demand for organic produce in the (2001a) undertook a major survey that industrialised world is opening up new identified 208 sustainable agriculture projects market opportunities for producers in the and initiatives, involving almost 9 million South (FAO, 1999; ITC, 1999). In res p o n s e , farmers, managing almost 30 million a new breed of ‘ecological entrep re n e u r ’ is hectares of land on a ‘sustainable basis’. em e r ging, seeking out producers able to The authors estimate that this is equivalent pr ovide consistent supplies of orga n i c to c. 3% of arable and permanent cropland pr oduce to specified quality standards. in Asia, Africa and Asia. Some reservations, This process involves identifying or, in many however, should be expressed over the instances, setting up producer groups who comprehensiveness and interpretation of ar e willing and able to meet this demand. these figures. The great majority (70%) In so doing these entrep r eneurs often become of land that they identified as sustainably involved in areas traditionally associated with managed is under new ‘zero-till’ and crop agricultural extension or developmental cover management regimes which are not work, providing training, res e a r ch and necessarily either organic or agroecological. sometimes credit facilities. Moreover, as the authors point out, in most instances the ‘conversion’ to such methods Many of the entrepreneurs involved in has occurred in the 1990s. Thus the promoting the growth of ‘certified’ organic emphasis of this data is very much on produce across the South are based in the ‘projects and initiatives’, with the inevitable industrialised world. Swiss, German, British implication that sustainable, agroecological and Dutch companies and individuals are and organic systems that have been particularly active in seeking sources of developed by farmers, independently of organic produce. Some Southern-based development agencies, extension services or entrepreneurs and community groups are NGOs are likely to remain unrecorded. also recognising this potential. However, state support for promoting organic In conclusion, large and probably production remains limited to a few unanswerable questions remain over the countries (notably a few countries in South extent to which OAA is practised in the America, Turkey, Tunisia, Egypt and China). South, particularly on an informal basis. In the remainder of this section we turn Few Southern countries have put in place our attention to identifying the main factors measures to safeguard and support their which are driving the growth of OAA, organic farming systems (i.e. legislation and examining the role of external stimuli and extension services). Fewer still have the incentives for, and constraints upon, developed the capacity to undertake farmers in the South adopting OAA. certification activities, and most work of this nature is undertaken by Northern-based 2.2 – External stimuli for the development consultancies (see section 4.6 for a more of organic agriculture detailed analysis of the issues that this gives In recent years there has been a rapid grow t h rise to).15 Increasingly, trade promotion in the interest shown by the South in the organisations, such as the International potential of OAA. Two thirds of the rec e n t Trade Centre (Geneva) and the Centre for gr owth in IFOAM membership is due to new the Development of Industry (Brussels) are rec r uits from the South (La Prairie,14 cited in becoming involved in promoting and Scialabba & Aubert, 1998). Several vectors of developing organic linkages between the this growth can be identified, market force s ‘First’ and the ‘Third’ worlds. being among the most important. Rapidly

The Real Green Revolution 21 National and international development agriculture programme , recognising that:16 agencies are a second force that is encouraging the adoption of organic ‘it plays an important role in developing production in the South. Here the primary innovative production technologies, concerns are with enhancing food security, providing new market opportunities for increasing farmers’ incomes and halting (or farmers and processors, and generally reversing) environmental degradation. Such focusing attention on environmental and projects often, but by no means always, social concerns. COAG (the FAO’s focus on maximizing use of local resources Committee on Agriculture) will consider the and knowledge in order to achieve these need for an FAO-wide, cross-sectoral aims. Some projects promoted under this programme on organic agriculture that agenda will be wholly organic, but the would provide information and discussion majority of such projects are neither forums on production and trade, supply explicitly, nor wholly, organic, although they advice and technical assistance, develop may incorporate significant elements of standards and use pilot projects to improve organic practice within them. organic farming techniques.’ (Eric Kueneman,17 1999) The role of organic farming as a ‘development strategy’ has been gaining increasing cred i b i l i t y Since adopting organic agriculture within its in recent years. In 1996 a UNCTAD rep o r t remit, the FAO has developed a medium highlighted the role that organic agriculture term plan intended to raise the profile and can play in trade, environmental improv e m e n t support the development of organic farming and social development in the third world. systems through developing dissemination Although the rep o r t expressed some misgivings and networking vehicles, commissioning about economic viability and technical studies, and providing effective decision fe a s i b i l i t y , it concluded that: support tools (FAO, 2001).18 However, the FAO’s support for organic farming maintains ‘Organic production has an undeniable edge an element of caution. For example, in over conventional farming in terms of its several publications they argue for partial beneficial impact on the environment and conversion to offset potential loss of yields. human health. Moreover, it can also contribute to higher incomes, better food Other government-financed development security and creation of employment.’ agencies are also taking a keen interest in (UNCTAD, 1996) organic systems as a tool for development. In the UK, DfID recently commissioned the The report also commented upon the Henry Doubleday Research Association ‘flawed’ basis upon which comparisons (HDRA) to undertake reports into farmer are made between conventional and organic demand and potential for development of agriculture, stating that: organic farming in sub-Saharan Africa (Harris et al.. 1998) and on management ‘if an internalisation of environmental and of manure in the Kenyan Highlands (Lekasi social costs and benefits were to take place, et al.., 1998). A forthcoming DfID handbook organic farming would appear economically for advisors will contain information on justifiable’ (ibid.). evaluating organic projects. A further publication on the role of ‘socially Since then the role of organic agriculture has responsible’ business as a development tool been recognised by FAO, who in 1999 will include a chapter on organic production included it within their sustainable (Agroeco, 2001, van Elzakker, pers. comm.)

22 The German, Swiss, Swedish, Belgian and and Cotton project, which specifically Dutch government development agencies addresses the potential of organic cotton are all sponsoring research and/or projects, farming practices – reflecting concern about which have led (or are intended to lead) the impacts of cotton on water cycles (WWF, to the establishment of commercially viable 1999; Bärlocher, 2000). export-oriented organic development programmes.19 In some respects therefore, we are witnessing a blurring between what might be regarded A third driving force behind the growth of as developmental/environmental and OAA is the ‘nature conservation’ agenda. commercial approaches to promoting OAA. Though less significant than the previous Many of the development and environment two, it is still worthy of mention. Our agencies are adopting a market-oriented literature survey highlighted a number of approach in an attempt to secure better examples where nature conservation market prices for organic produce. At the organisations are working closely with local same time many ecological entrepreneurs are farmers who live in or close to areas of taking on some responsibilities of extension significant nature conservation interest (see workers, and are providing training, advice for example, Stein 1996; Flores-Escudero; and sometimes credit facilities to their Panuncio; Pryor; Vreeland, all 2000). Here producer groups. the aim is to maintain the integrity of 2.3 – Towards a understanding of incentives landscapes, habitats and biodiversity, and at and constraints to ‘grow organic’ the same time ensure that local communities are able to maintain or improve their All these external influences must be livelihoods. The recent Vignola Declaration co n s i d e r ed in the light of how OAA coincides and Action Plan (in Stolton et al., 2000a; or conflicts with farmers’ perceptions of the 2000b) marked the beginning of what may risks and benefits involved in diffe r ent farmi n g prove to be a powerful coalition of interests strategies. In a summary of the potential of between the international organic and nature or ganic farming in Africa, Walaga (2000) conservation movements (Stolton & Dudley, identifies a range of incentives and constraints 2000). On a commodity (rather than site- on farmers’ adopting organic practices. specific basis) the World Wide Fund for We use this typology as a basis for discussion Nature (WWF) has established a Fresh Water of the topic in a more global context.

Table 2.4 – Incentives and constraints to organic farming

In c e n t i v e s Co n s t r a i n t s 20

Disillusion with ‘Green Revolution’ technologies and Gr owing rural populations place traditional forms of an awareness of the dangers of intensive agriculture, ag r i c u l t u r e under strain and encourage moves including res o u r ce degradation. to w a r ds intensification.

The (increasing) cost of Green Revolution The high cost of certification (especially in reg a r d to technologies makes them inaccessible to the large local wages / incomes) undertaken by outside majority of farmers. org a n i s a t i o n s . 21

Or ganic farming draws upon (and valorises) Low literacy levels in rural areas make rec o rd - indigenous knowledge. keeping a prob l e m .

The influence of the environmental and development Lack of trade liberalisation in some countries movements has led to organic systems being pr events development of export markets. in t r oduced to combat erosion and deserti f i c a t i o n .

Gr owing awareness that international orga n i c markets offer premia and the opportunity for farmers to increase incomes.

Fr om Walaga (2000)

The Real Green Revolution 23 2.3.1 – Incentives for adopting OAA respiratory illness amongst the workforce, Disillusion with ‘Green Revolution’ improvement in the quality of drinking water technologies and the improved stability of steep hillsides This is most likely to affect farmers with as three key benefits flowing from their direct experience of participation in conversion to biodynamic practices. Second conventional chemical-dependent farming generation environmental problems such as systems that have given rise to what these have often coincided with declines in Paarlberg (1994) terms ‘second generation (or stagnation of) yields obtained from rural environmental problems’. These intensive farming practices and/or declining include: world market prices. Individually, or in combination, these forces are influencing • diminishing returns from repeated many farmers engaged in commodity- pesticide and fertiliser applications orientated production to jump off the treadmill of conventional agricultural • deterioration of soil and water quality production and convert to more sustainable methods. • health-related problems Case study 2 – Organic cotton production in • declining groundwater levels India, Peru and Mali

• loss of biodiversity Cotton is one of the most demanding of crops in terms of pesticide and insecticide • increased risk of crop disease. applications. The effect of these on watercourses, human health and ecosystem Pa r t of the problem lies in the toxic nature diversity has increasingly become a cause of of many forms of pesticides and ferti l i s e r s , concern (Myers and Stolton, 1999). In many but is compounded by inadequate methods of areas cotton pests are becoming increasingly technology transfer. For example, one rep o r t resistant to spraying, and despite increased fr om Algeria suggests that only a small frequency of pesticide applications, farmers minority of hill farmers read and follow face declining yields. One response is a shift in s t r uctions that accompany purch a s e d to organic cultivation, as shown in these ag r ochemicals (Moali-Grine, 2000). three case studies.

The problems outlined above have proved The Maikaal Bio-Cotton Project, Madhya particularly acute in relation to cotton, which Pradesh, India accounts for 2.4% of global arable land but In 1992 an alliance between local farmers, 24% of the insecticide market (Bärlocher, their local spinning mill, sales agents and an 2000). Despite the intensity of agrochemical organic consultancy set about creating an use in conventional cotton projects, organic organic cotton project. Farmers were approaches to cotton growing have been experiencing severe pest problems, despite developed in many parts of the world, repeated pesticide applications: whitefly had creating environmental and economic developed pesticide resistance and many benefits (see case study 2, over). Another of farmers were abandoning cotton production our case studies, of a tea estate in India, also altogether, due to declining returns and highlights the health and environmental toxicity problems. Government researchers benefits of switching to organic production. and extensionists were sceptical of the Managers at the Ambootia Tea Estate (see initiative and suggested changing crops case study 5) identify reductions in rather than method of production. There

24 were no other certified organic projects in Sugar cane yields are 30% higher. Sugar India at the time, and a feeling that the mills also pay a premia for the organic project was attempting the impossible. cane as it has a higher sugar content. Other products, particularly wheat, attract In the first year an experimental plot was local market premia because of its established at the mill’s own small farm, superior taste. to act as a reference point for farmers. The following year two hundred farmers • Soils have become softer and more crum b l y joined the trial, applying a range of solutions and do not crack as much in the dry season. that had been developed through a series of Fa r mers attribute this to composting, which meetings between consultants and farmers. leaves residual fertility in the ground for Seven years later more than one thousand next year’s crop. Composting also red u c e s farmers, cultivating more than 15,000 acres, the need for weeding, as it red u c e s have joined the scheme. Organic cotton is availability of weed seeds. the main crop, accounting for around half of this. It is grown in rotation with a wide • Irrigation requirements have been reduced range of food crops. due to the increased moisture-retaining capacity of the soil. An extensive infrastructure has been created to support the project. There is a team of • Pest incidence has been reduced to a bio-agricultural extension officers located in minimum. Pest control management is eight extension centres, which serve between now one of the least important discussion eight and fifteen villages each. Regular topics at meetings. Natural predators are monitoring is undertaken and practical and now very common on organic land and theoretical training is offered to farmers. A farmers have learned how to monitor and range of biodynamic and organic techniques encourage their development. Some have have been developed. These include the use developed these techniques so successfully of trap and host crops (the latter to provide that they no longer need to purchase habitats for predators), compost making and biodynamic preparations. By contrast, use of biodynamic preparations. The latter conventional farmers are facing increasing are prepared locally (generating more jobs), pest incidence. and credit for farmers and distribution is arranged. Farmers have a guaranteed market • Most of the farmers have been using and receive a 25% premia. biodynamic preparations on their land for seven years and are happy with the Participant evaluation seven years after the results. project was initiated showed a remarkably diverse set of achievements: • Labour requirements are substantially reduced and production costs for organic •Average cotton yields on participating cotton are 30-40% of those for farms are on average 20% higher than conventional production. on neighbouring conventional farms. These tend to increase with length of • Given the reduced costs, equivalent / higher participation in the programme. yields and market premia, farmers’ margi n s ar e now significantly higher than before. •Yields of other rotational crops (wheat, soya and chilli) are equal to or up to 20% •Wider, knock-on effects have been higher than those on conventional land. observed. Farmers not involved in the

The Real Green Revolution 25 project have halved their pesticide use. Yields are relatively low, about half of Shops that previously sold pesticides now conventional systems, but cotton is often also sell products acceptable within a in t e r mingled with other crops. The unique biodynamic system, and some merchants pigmentation of these varieties, which come in have joined the project, solely selling a variety of hues (including greens, browns and organic and biodynamic inputs. purples), offers a potential for generating pr emia prices, reg a r dless of formal orga n i c (Caldas, 2000a; Baruah, 2000) status (most of these systems are de facto Organic and native cotton in Peru rather than certified organic).

(V reeland, 1996) Two diffe r ent ecological cotton-grow i n g regimes are being established in Peru – one in Organic cotton production in Mali the arid coastal lowlands, the other in the Andes. They have very diffe r ent characteristics Cotton is a significant cash crop in Mali, and have been developed for diffe r ent reasons. contributing 10% of GDP and 50% of export revenues. Mali is the largest producer of cotton Most cotton production in Peru is in the arid in sub Saharan Africa, with more than half a coastal plain and therefore utilises irrigation. million hectares given over to its prod u c t i o n . Production has been in serious decline, As in other areas this has given rise to a influenced by changing policy, markets, number of health and ecological problems. In patterns of land tenure and problems with response to these problems, Helvetas (the Swiss pests and disease. By 1993 production had Association for International Development) declined to less than a quarter of its 1963 un d e r took a feasibility study and in the levels, and yields (per ha.) had declined by following year initiated trial organic plots 5%. Faced with these problems many coastal involving 10 producers. strip farmers are turning to organic cotton production. These farmers are achieving Yields in the first year were around half of yields 10-20% higher than the national those on the conventional plots maintained average (although not too much should be by the same farmers. Methods of pest control read into these benefits as this group are using neem extract were experimented with, considered to be more innovative and but were not entirely successful. Input costs productive farmers). By utilising varieties were significantly reduced, but labour costs that produce high quality fibre (in terms of rose. Despite poor yields in the first year, all staple length, strength, fineness and the farmers involved plan to continue with whiteness) they are able to generate market the scheme, which will be expanded to premia on quality grounds and through use include 30-40 farmers in 2000. of organic methods have reduced the need to (S o u r ce Valenghi et al., 20 0 0 ) purchase external inputs. The inaccessibility of ‘Green Revolution’ In the High Andes, traditional swidden systems technologies of Native Indians continue to make use of In many countries the cost and availability of Pe ru ’ s unique naturally pigmented varieties of hybrid seeds and agrochemicals has become a cotton, ensuring their survival. Growing cotton major constraining factor on their use. One in a humid environment at high altitude poses su r vey from two regions of Kenya showed a number of problems and these varieties are that the prop o r tion of farmers using ar guably best suited to such environ m e n t s . ag r ochemicals more than halved (from 97% Low crop density and a shifting pattern of to less than 40%) over the 1990s (Wac h i r a , cultivation minimise problems with pests. 2000). This decline is often a direct result of

26 the removal of state subsidies and other food needs is, nonetheless, instructive. su p p o r t mechanisms such as distribution (Scoones and Toulmin, 1999, p.60). Much of Cuba was driven to make such changes by the literature and many responses to our ci r cumstance rather than choice. The collapse su r vey suggest that in many areas (and of the Soviet bloc, its main customer for sugar especially poorer marginal ones with limited (at rates well above world market prices), market access) the use of artificial inputs is meant it was no longer able to purch a s e declining from an already low base, almost expensive inputs or, more importa n t l y , import en t i r ely due to economic circumstance. Harri s food to meet domestic req u i r ements (60% of et al.’s study (1998) of the potential of Cuban food req u i r ements were prev i o u s l y or ganic farming in sub-Saharan Africa im p o r ted). In response to this crisis Cuba has co n f i r ms the importance of this factor. Two developed a number of programmes, which th i r ds of farmers using organic methods said take it at least part of the way down the roa d that they did so because they cannot affo r d to being organic. fe r tilisers, pesticides or medicines for animals. One of the key changes made in this respect The financial risks associated with has been the development of a programme a g rochemical use can be severe. In India the of Biological Pest Control. Cuba had three number of peasant farmers committing relative advantages in this field: a strong suicide because of debt problems (and, in a scientific community, long-standing bitterly ironic twist, often using pesticides to experience in this field (some biological pest do so), has become a national scandal (Shiva control techniques have been in use since the et al., 2000). In another instance we heard 1930s) and a research programme that of farmers in Tigray incarcerated due to already prioritised this area. As a result Cuba c rop failures that prevented them fro m is now without doubt established as a world paying debts on chemicals and seeds leader in this area. Solutions that have been (Quinones, et al.. 1997 cited in Scoones successfully developed include: and Toulmin, 1999; Edwards, pers. comm.). Such experiences are driving many farm e r s • Lixophaga diatraeae – a parasitic fly used to adopt a less intensive and often de fa c t o in nearly all sugar cane areas since the o rganic approach to farming. Wi t h o u t 1930s to control cane borer. doubt, the largest-scale and most-studied example of an economically driven shift to • Trichogramma – a genus of parasitic o rganic farming methods is that of Cuba wasps used to control lepidopteran pests (see case study 3).22,23 (butterflies and moths– principally Mocis latipes) in improved cattle pasture and Case study 3 – Cuba: Towards a national more recently used in tobacco, tomato, organic regime? cassava and other crop systems to control Heilothis spp. Cuba has often been cited as an example of the first country to attempt a nationwide • Pheidole megacepheal – a species of conversion to organic agriculture. These predatory ant used to control the sweet claims may be an exaggeration, but the potato weevil, which has an efficacy rate Cuban experience in shifting from a highly of up to 99%. intensive, export-oriented, plantation-based agriculture to a lower input mixed system of • Bacillus thuringiensis – a bacteria effective farming which embodies many elements of against many lepidopteran pests on a organic practice and meets most domestic range of crops including cabbage,

The Real Green Revolution 27 tobacco, corn, cassava, squash, tomatoes The highly centralised state farms did not and improved grassland. It is also proving fare well in adjusting to the change to effective against mosquito larvae that organic agriculture, the logic of large-scale carry human diseases. plantations and centralised management being antithetical to the principles of organic • Beauvaria bassiana – effective against management. In 1993 Cuba radically coleopteran pests (beetles) such as the reorganised some state farms into small sweet potato and plantain weevils. co-operative production units, still owned by the state and required to meet production Little reliable data is available concerning the targets, but managed on a decentralised basis volume of production or the efficacy of these with surpluses free to be distributed as co-op treatments. Their method of production is members saw fit. The number of draft of some interest, as they are produced in animals (oxen) has more than doubled over more than 200 ‘artisanal’ production units, the past five years, reflecting the need to spread around the country and specialising minimise fuel imports and providing valuable in products sources of fertility. In addition, family-run food gardens (Autoconsumos) in cities have required in their area. They employ a become an important source of food supply. mixture of graduate technicians and high school graduates and are probably the only Despite these moves towards a more orga n i c places in the world where ‘the sons and system of agriculture, the system retains a daughters of local campesinos make modern dependency on artificial fertilisers and brea k i n g biotechnological products for local use’ up a long established mono-crop plantation (Rossett and Benjamin, 1996). economy is a lengthy process. Despite this 65% of Cuba’s rice and nearly 50% of fres h This system is not without its weaknesses: vegetables are now produced orga n i c a l l y . quality control can be difficult to manage Many of the technological and management within a decentralised system, and shortages practices adopted here may have a broa d e r of raw materials (both natural and relevance for other regions and countries. manufactured) can hinder production. In the Ex p o r ts of biocides and technical know-how first few years following the US-led embargo, and the publication of a Journal ‘Agricultura Cuba’s crop yields fell dramatically and there Or ganica’, all contribute to Cuba playing a were significant food shortages, especially for leading role in the organic movement. protein. Since that time there have been (S o u r ces: Rossett and Benjamin 1994, Echevarri a marked differences in the success of the et al. 2000a & b; Institute for Food and different sections of agricultural economy. Development Policy 2000; Scialabba, 2000, Production in the private sector (a mix of Ki l c h e r , pers. comm.) individual campesinos and co-operatives) recovered rapidly and now exceeds pre-crisis Valorising indigenous knowledge levels. Here, peasant farmers drew upon The cultural importance of organic traditional knowledge (of their parents and agriculture and agroecology lies in their grandparents), and the agricultural ministry ability to draw upon and validate local and ran agricultural workshops to help people traditional forms and sources of knowledge rediscover (and then disseminate) this (Kotschi, 2000). This point is frequently knowledge, which has been supplemented reinforced throughout the literature by access to new biotechnology in a fruitful (especially that of agroecology) and is a marriage of science and tradition. theme that frequently occurs within our case studies. A number of important consequences

28 flow from this. First, it emphasises the the absence of proactive government policies importance of participatory development, towards OAA, NGOs are of critical where ‘learning from’ farmers is as importance in promoting the uptake of OAA important, if not more so, than ‘teaching’ through research, training, education and them. Second, it implies an end to unilateral political lobbying. Section 3 of this report technology transfer from the industrialised contains numerous examples of the activities North to the South (Kotschi, 2000). Third, of such groups in Africa, Asia and Latin it implies an engagement with the value America. Case study 4 (over) illustrates the systems of rural communities, which will activities of one national group in Indonesia, almost inevitably extend beyond mere issues which is involved in promoting organic of agricultural productivity and embrace a agriculture as well as a range of other whole range of other activities, strategies ‘farmer first’ development strategies. and values that promote household security. Finally, it promotes and reinforces local Indigenous NGOs have a number of culture and know-how and thus helps build particular strengths. First, they are community self-confidence and their capacity established to address specific issues and do for addressing other issues (Boshoff, 2000). so from a culturally rooted context. Second, they are more inclined to have a longer-term The influence of the environment and perspective on the issues than Northern- development movements based NGOs. Finally, by using local capacity, The influence of Northern-based they are less likely to raise expectations when development and environment movements a project is set up or to create ‘project has already been discussed above (in section dependency’ (Kanyi, Okwudire, Schwarz, all 2.2). We should not, however, overlook the pers. comm.). However, in many cases they role of indigenous Southern-based are seriously under-resourced. Throughout development and environmental NGOs. In our survey we received many responses from

Table 2.4. The Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development Prize

2000 St. Jude Training Centre for Sustainable Integrated Agriculture (Uganda) Geo Farm (The Philippines) Pr ogram of Ecological Agriculture of GIRA (Interdi s c i p l i n a r y Group for Appropriate Rural Tec h n o l o g y ) (Mexico)

19 9 9 The Indian Institute for Integrated Rural Development (IIRD) (Maharashtra State, India) The Infanta Community Development Administration Inc (ICDAI) (The Philippines) The African Network for Development of Ecological Agriculture together with the Ghana Organic Agriculture Network (GOAN)

19 9 8 ADASF/Gallé (Mali) CET/CLADES (Chile) Bio-Dynamic Institute for Rural Development (Brazil)

1997 Egyptian Bio-Dynamic Association (EBDA/SEKEM) The Sustainable Agriculture Programme (ASAP) in the International Institute for Rice Research (The Ph i l i p p i n e s ) Ha r monie du Développement du Sahel Group (Mali)

1996 Agricultural Renewal Consortium in India for a Sustainable Environment (ARISE) The Kenya Institute of Organic Farming (KIOF) The Cuban Organic Farming Association (ACAO)

SARD (2001)

The Real Green Revolution 29 NGOs unable to realise their projects and They also act as important publicity and programmes due to a lack of funding – often, recruitment opportunities. by industrialised country standards, involving very small amounts of money. The main aims of WFDFFM are set out in ‘The Ganjurun Declaration’. They include Knowledge in the industrialised world of promoting sustainable patterns of NGO activity in the South can never hope production and consumption and, through to be complete, but this rep o r t has identified these, promoting ‘total sustainable human a number of diffe r ent and innovative proj e c t s . development’. One North e r n initiative to help prom o t e recognition of the achievements of Southern The main activities in which the WFDFFM NGOs working in this field (which also Secretariat is involved include: pr ovides them with some financial assistance in the form of prize money) • 'Gaduhan': an initiative that helps poor is the Sustainable Agriculture and Rural farmer groups obtain cattle, with the aim Development Prize (SARD). This prize, of increasing incomes and soil fertility. initiated in 1997 by a German agron o m i s t , The WFDFFM loans cattle to farmers Fr ederick von Mallinckrodt, is an groups for two breeding seasons. The ag r oecological equivalent of the ‘Right progeny are then shared. Livelihood Awa r ds’ and helps draw attention to the successes and achievements of Southern • Community-based seed bank: this activity NGOs (Ecology and Farming, 2001). begins by helping develop farmers’ awareness of the importance of their Case study 4 – World Food Day Farmers’ and seeds. Trial farms / plots are then Fi s h e r m e n ’ s’ Movement (Indonesia) established with farmers’ groups to experiment with seed and plant breeding. This case study focuses on the activities of Results are discussed after harvest and the one Southern NGO, to illustrate how the favoured crops are saved in a village seed support and development of organic farming bank. The final stage is that of breeding forms part of far broader ‘farmer first’ rural and distributing the seeds. As well as development strategies. Though organic developing seed banks, this activity also agriculture is important it is also inextricably develops local capacity in seed breeding. interwoven with other development objectives and strategies. • Assistance with organic/sustainable farming: this programme explains the The (Indonesian) World Food Day Farmers’ drawbacks of conventional farming and Fishermen’s Movement (WFDFFM) systems and provides advice, assistance is part of an international movement and visits to demonstration organic farms, celebrating the role of, and contribution so farmers can learn alternative methods made by, food producers across the world. for themselves. It was founded in October 1990 on the first celebration of World Food Day, which • Promoting ‘alternative’ marketing: coincides with the founding of the FAO. through an attempt to build alternative These annual celebrations continue to be marketing links, based around the a focal, festive event in the calendar, when Japanese teikei model, adapted to local local, regional and national events are held. situations. These festivals help farmers and fishermen experience a sense of global solidarity. • Advocating farmers’ rights: WFDFFM

30 advocate farmers rights in the face of of entry to export-oriented markets (e.g. cost increased pressure from companies of certification, low literacy levels and lack seeking to register intellectual property of trade liberalisation). These can represent rights over commonly held and used real barriers and are dealt with in some detail genetic resources. in sections 4.6 and 4.7. There are a number of other more fundamental constraints to the (S o u r ce: Utomo, pers. comm.) adoption of OAA, which we address below.24 Premia market opportunities The incentives offe r ed by premia export Lack of knowledge markets have been explored above, in section Although the importance of local knowledge 2.2. But there is a potential for domestic as basis for developing OAA has been markets also providing incentives for farme r s discussed, there are many situations where to adopt organic practices, although this is such knowledge either does not exist or has limited at present. . Incomes in most been lost. There is a clear difference within developing countries are low and the most the literature between those who emphasise pr essing issue for many is that of securing the value, extent and, sometimes, access to food. In addition there is a lack of sophisticated level of local understanding aw a r eness of the potential health issues of OAA principles and techniques, and those su r rounding intensive agriculture prod u c t i o n , who argue that such knowledge is often a widespread perception that ‘all food is partial, incomplete or lacking altogether. In or ganic’ and poor infrastruc t u r es – all of this vein, Harris et al. (1998, p.1) found that: which contribute to constraining the grow t h of domestic markets. Strong internal markets ‘Isolated techniques are sometimes practised, for organic produce are beginning to emerge (but) there is a general lack of an integrated in some countries, most notably Brazil, approach to soil fertility and crop protection Ar gentina and Egypt. . In China there is a management and under-exploitation of the gr owing demand for the half way house of full range of techniques which would “g r een food”, in which only non-persistent, maximise the benefits of locally-available non-toxic and non-accumulative natural resources’. ag r ochemicals are used in limited quantities (Li, et al.. 2000). In many other countries (see They also reported that more than 60% section 3, below) there are signs of the of farmers claimed that it was lack of em e r gence of a health-conscious orga n i c knowledge that prevented them adopting market and of producers mobilising to meet organic methods, four times more than for these demands. In general however, certi f i e d any other single cause (ibid. p. 12). Yet, the or ganic produce finds its principal outlet (and same group of authors (Lekasi et al. 1998) ce r tainly attracts more substantive premia) in in discussing manure management in the ex p o r t markets. For farmers (especially small- Kenyan Highlands also reported that scale ones), the problems of how to identify ‘farmers reveal an impressive range of ideas and gain entry to these markets rep r esent a for the management of solid manures’. major constraint. The potential for developing These apparently contradictory observations st r onger home markets is illustrated in case suggest that there are a wide range of study 10 on Sekem in section 4.5. different pre-existing knowledge levels of OAA, which are likely to be both process 2.3.2 – Constraints on adopting OAA and culturally specific. It is certainly not The constraints that Walaga (op. cit.) possible to generalise about either a wealth identifies around conversion to organic or an absence of indigenous knowledge. farming are mostly focused around problems However, it would appear that in many

The Real Green Revolution 31 circumstances lack of knowledge, inadequate being supportive of (or sympathetic to) training and lack of extension facilities act as organic farming and agroecology. In areas major constraints to the adoption of OAA. where pro-OAA policies have been adopted they can make a substantial contribution in Economic and political advocacy providing appropriate research and extension Political and economic structures and services, creating an affordable regulatory institutions play a significant role in infrastructure and promoting export determining the choices available to farmers opportunities. In most instances such and their knowledge of the available options. governmental interest in OAA is driven by a As mentioned earlier many governments have desire to tap into the economic opportunities historically helped subsidise and distribute that organic produce offers. The non-market agrochemicals in order to increase benefits, such as natural resource agricultural productivity. Whilst such conservation and protecting the livelihoods intervention is generally declining, many of resource-poor farmers, are less often governments still exhort their farmers to realised or pursued (Scialabba, 2000). In make use of agrochemicals through media many more cases the attitudes of other campaigns and the advice proffered by governments range from the unsympathetic extension workers. to the outwardly hostile. The perception of the superiority of agricultural Elias (2000 p.77) quotes the example of Mr. ‘modernisation’ remains a powerful influence Munae, a farmer in the Ethiopian lowlands, amongst many politicians, policy-makers and whose farm was used as a demonstration field workers, and is a formidable barrier to plot by the local extension services. He did the more widespread adoption of policies his own comparative trials with organic and that would help the spread of OAA. inorganic fertilisers and concluded that organic inputs were superior. They improved The recent recognition by the FAO of the texture and water retaining capacity of organic agriculture as a useful mechanism for the soil, were locally available and avoided promoting sustainable agriculture may go indebtedness. He wanted to stop using some way to softening attitudes towards artificial fertilisers altogether, but the OAA on a global scale. On a more localised extension staff forbade him from doing so, basis, authorities in some districts and or from telling other farmers about his regions where organic pilot projects have findings, for fear that it would reduce the been established have been persuaded not receptiveness of the local community to the o run campaigns promoting fertiliser and fertiliser package that they were promoting. pesticide use, in order to avoid sending Whilst this may be an unusual and extreme contradictory messages to the farming example, it highlights how deeply ingrained community (Edwards, pers. comm.). In other professional and institutional resistance to cases, district authorities who were initially OAA development can be. opposed to organic projects have subsequently adopted ‘pro’-OAA policies The purpose of this report is not to provide where the beneficial results of these projects a comparative assessment of agricultural have been visible (van Elzakker and Tulip, policy in the South. However, such policies 2000). Despite these small gains, the task of clearly impact on the support, both practical legitimising OAA – which in many circles is and ‘moral’, that OAA is likely to receive seen as representing a reversion to tradition – from national and regional governments. may prove to be a long and uphill struggle. The country profiles in section 3 provide some examples of governments who are One important constraint holding back the

32 adoption of OAA is the shift in the res o u rc i n g interest in adopting OAA. These hinge of agricultural support services that OAA around combinations of two factors: the level appears to req u i r e. Under the present system, of farming intensity and the market both res e a r ch and extension facilities can be orientation of existing systems (ibid. p.7). at least partially underwritten by profits from They identify three broad types of (small- sales of seeds and agrochemicals. The scale) farming systems according to these emphasis of OAA on developing closed cycles criteria: and using locally available res o u r ces res t r i c t s (though does not completely negate) the Farmers practising unimproved traditional scope for selling inputs to farmers. A shift to farming OAA would appear to imply higher levels of This group relies largely, if not completely, public funding to support res e a r ch and on fallowing to maintain soil productivity. extension work. Yet in many cases these These farmers tend to be in remoter rural se r vices are already under strain. Badejo, areas where population pressure is low and (1998) notes that in some parts of Nigeria the there is only limited engagement with ratio of extension workers to farmers is in markets. These farmers have limited access excess of 1:17,000. Even where these figures to agrochemicals and are likely to have ar e not so unfavourable, extension workers relatively little motivation to innovate, at ar e often ‘poorly motivated, demoralised and least while their traditional systems show no ov e r- s t r etched because of lack of adverse effects. In these situations some in f r a s t r uctural support such as vehicles for scope may exist for identifying and tr a n s p o r tation and inadequate transport promoting simple organic techniques, allowances’ (ibid. p. 217). especially for enhancing soil fertility.26

In addressing the issue of advocacy, the role Farmers engaged with markets and using of the agrochemical industries and seed limited amounts of agrochemicals suppliers cannot be ignored. Whilst not This group is thought to be typical of the wishing to enter into the realms of debate vast majority of small-scale African farmers. regarding the ethics or business practices of Having reached the limits of productivity these companies, the strength of their through traditional means, the farmers have influence on agricultural practice should not integrated new technologies (usually be overlooked. They are able to send clear agrochemicals) with traditional ones. Use of messages to farmers via advertising agrochemicals has been quite limited, and hoardings and the advice of salesmen and farmers have not normally been exposed to merchants.25 At the same time they will have their negative effects and thus have a limited a clear interest in influencing government awareness of the comparative advantages policy to create a climate that is favourable and disadvantages of organic and inorganic to their trading activities. systems. Many farmers within this group have withdrawn from (or significantly 2.3.3 – Assessing incentives and constraints reduced) fertiliser use as prices have risen, according to farm type but at the same time lack an awareness of The relative contribution of the factors how to intensify their use of locally available outlined above in influencing uptake of OAA resources. There is a considerable potential will not be uniform but will vary according for developing programmes to encourage to the situations faced by individual farmers. organic techniques amongst this group. Harris et al.’s (1998) study of sub-Saharan Africa usefully identifies a range of different Farmers practising intensive agriculture scenarios likely to affect farmers’ potential This group relies heavily on agroc h e m i c a l s ,

The Real Green Revolution 33 but also employs ‘sophisticated and intensive’ Plantations or ganic techniques of soil ferti l i t y At the other end of the spectrum we find management. They appear rel a t i v e l y traditional export-oriented plantations, un i n t e r ested in adopting exclusively orga n i c usually producing a single commodity. techniques, although they are likely to have Whilst the monocultural nature of these ob s e r ved the negative side effects of intensive systems appears to run contrary to many of ag r ochemical use. There is potential for the principals of organic farming, there are developing more intensive soil ferti l i t y many factors that may encourage plantation techniques amongst this group, although their owners to consider adopting OAA. As in t e r est in adopting OAA may vary accordi n g market (and often export) oriented to the cost of artificial ferti l i s e r . This grou p enterprises, they are more attuned to market consider organic pest and disease control signals, aware of growing demand for methods to be ineffective and further res e a rc h organic produce in the industrialised world, and more conclusive field trails would be and face the possibility of declining yields (or req u i r ed to convince them otherwise. More financial returns) from established systems of st r ongly market-orientated than the other intensive cropping. Although a shift to OAA gr oups, these farmers would be more likely to implies a major re-adjustment of the farming adopt organic practices in response to system (and the introduction of more diverse evidence of changing consumer demands. cropping patterns), plantations often have the financial and professional resources to We find this framework a useful one, but experiment with such a transition. The case believe that there is a case for including two study of the Ambootia Tea Estate in India further categories of farming systems, (over) illustrates the benefits and problems outlined below. of undertaking such a conversion.

Su m m a r y Traditional intensive farming systems These systems have often evolved in A number of complex, interacting factors relatively remote areas where farmers have, influence the way in which organic and by virtue of necessity, developed agroecological farming practices are taking sophisticated, complex, productive and self- root, or becoming re-established, in the sustaining agricultural systems. These are South. On the one hand there are farmers often associated with ‘tribal’ and minority who are consciously adopting organic cultures. Whilst primarily sustenance- management strategies in order to gain oriented, they also often contain elements market advantage or improve food security. of cash cropping. These systems can be On the other hand, there are probably many regarded as repositories of traditional more who are jumping off the agrochemical knowledge, with a potential for treadmill largely for economic reasons, but transferability. Our first case study, of the sometimes due to adverse health and Chagga Home Gardens in Tanzania, provides environmental impacts. This latter group one such example. Other examples can be represents a clear potential ‘organic found in different parts of the developed constituency’. However, their withdrawal world including South America and Asia (see from agrochemical use does not necessarily for example: Jiménez-Osornio and Silvia del mean that they have the skills or knowledge Amo; 1986; Silvia del Amo, et al. 1986; base to introduce productive OAA. The Faust, 1996 and Ross, 1996). relative size of this group and the potential that they have for implementing organic management techniques are both relatively unknown quantities.

34 • embarking on an extensive programme of Case study 5 – Ambootia Tea Estate pruning and replacing unhealthy plants – (Darjeeling, India) pruned areas are treated with BD bark paste, a biological disease inhibitor. The Ambootia Tea Estate covers 350 hectares and is one of many tea gardens in The initial years of conversion saw a 17% the foothills of the Himalayas. In common drop in output, but this was offset by higher with most other estates it has faced declining prices achieved through access to fair trade yields as a result of over-intensive farming. markets. Development of a new pruning Depletion of soil fertility and decreased regime is beginning to bring yields back to resistance to disease were major concerns. their former level, but it will be some time Labour relations were also very poor, as a before this regime is established across the mudslide had recently destroyed the living whole plantation. Ambootia Teas now have quarters of many plantation workers. Faced biodynamic and fair trade certification and with these issues a new management team new product lines are being developed. With (with a historical association with the the additional resources two 100KW garden) decided to adopt a socially and hydroelectric schemes are in preparation to environmentally sustainable approach to help meet the Estate’s electricity requirements the estate and with some assistance have and help stabilise landslide prone areas. developed a biodynamic management system that also meets fair trade requirements. Ecologically, the shift to biodynamic methods has significantly improved immunity to Key features of the farming system include: diseases, reduced problems of soil erosion and risk of landslide and increased retention • use of locally-gathered compost: making of soil moisture (in an area with very 2,100 tonnes of compost per year; seasonal rainfall). The social benefits have also been substantial. A shift to using local • almost doubling the size of the dairy herd, resources has increased labour demand by providing additional milk and manure; 35%. Milk supplies have increased, improving workers’ diets and allowing them • use of leguminous species to provide to augment their incomes. The abandonment nutrients and ground cover and of local of pesticide use has helped improve water herbs for biodynamic preparations; quality and reduced the prevalence of respiratory diseases. • extensive tree planting to provide shade (S o u r ce: Maxted Frost (1997) and R. Bansaal and stabilise the hilly land; (pers. comm.))

• using soil covers and contour planting to prevent run off – the harvesting of the soil cover plants provides compost material;

• promotion of ecological diversity strengthens natural pest control leading to increases in ladybirds which feed on major pests, such as thrips, aphids and red spiders;

The Real Green Revolution 35 3 – Regional perspectives producing a range of crops for internal and external consumption. Many countries are This chapter builds upon the information highly dependent on overseas earnings from on global organic production provided in commodity exports and their agricultural section 2.1. It outlines levels of organic policies often reflect this. At present there activity on the three Southern continents is very little certified organic production and describes in more detail a range of within Africa. Table 3.1 (over) shows the current initiatives and projects in countries most recent statistics for organic production where OAA appears to be attaining a critical in countries for which data is available. mass. These profiles are not comprehensive This suggests that only ten African countries overviews of all the organic initiatives within are presently engaged in organic production, the selected countries. Such analysis would and provides details of activity in only seven. require more detailed and in-depth In terms of certified land, Tunisia, Uganda, investigation. What it does do is provide a Tanzania and Egypt emerge as the main snapshot of some of the high-profile success actors. Madagascar, Cameroon and Egypt stories from within these countries. Much of fare well in terms of the number of farms this information, particularly regarding the and farmers involved. It is likely that these work of NGOs, was derived from responses figures were incomplete at the time of to our survey and to our knowledge has not publication and, given the growth of interest been bought together before. in sourcing organic produce, are likely to now be quite outdated. Table 3.2 (over), 3.1 – Africa shows that the range of organic produce Africa is the poorest of the continents and exported from African states (in 1999) the one which has most frequently (and often suggest a wider engagement with organic horrifyingly) suffered from food shortages farming than the figures derived from Willer and famines. Increasing population pressure, and Yussefi. diminishing soil fertility and, in many areas, irregular patterns of rainfall combine to Exports to the industrialised world, and create difficult circumstances for farmers in particular Europe, are likely to account attempting to meet present and projected for a large proportion of certified organic food needs. The ‘Green Revolution’ has had production in Africa. Domestic markets are a limited impact in Africa, and much relatively underdeveloped due to a agricultural production is small-scale, combination of low incomes, a general traditional and unimproved. Some argue perception that most agricultural produce that the introduction of high technology is organic, and a poor infrastructure. agriculture into Africa has not only failed Exceptions to this are South Africa, which to resolve existing problems but has actually has a growing organic market (and imports made the situation worse, contributing to the from neighbouring countries) and Egypt, rapid development of new kinds of problems. where Sekem have been at the forefront of These include: developing a strong domestic demand, and market their produce (organic teas, cotton ‘marginalization, the raising of export and phytoceuticals) to around 10,000 production, a falling level of self sufficiency, outlets. Other attempts to develop local and an increase in environmental problems’ markets are being fostered in parts of West (Njoroge, 1997) Africa (Anobah, 2000; Crole-Rees, 2000) and there is evidence of informal markets Yet at the same time, there are also highly developing in Senegal (Anon, 1999). productive and intensively-farmed areas

36 Table 3.1. Organic Farming Statistics for Africa

Country (date of data) no. of farms ha . % of ag. land mean farm size (ha)

Ca m e r oon (1999) 30 3 71 9 0. 0 1 2.4

Egypt (1999) 22 0 26 6 7 0. 0 8 12 . 1

Madagascar (1998) 10 0 0 - - -

Malawi (1998) 2 80 0. 0 0 2 40 . 0

Mauritius (1995) 3 17 5 0. 1 5 58.3

South Africa (1998) 35 - - -

Tanzania (1998) 40 0 0 0. 0 1 -

Tunisia (1999) 90 80 0 0 0. 0 9 88 . 9

Uganda (1999) 70 0 0 52 5 0 0. 0 6 0. 7 5

Zimbabwe (1999) - 10 0 0 0. 0 0 5 - adopted from Willer and Yussefi (2000 & 2001)27

Table 3.2 – African organic agricultural products on international markets

Product / Country AL G BE N B. F . CA M CO M EG Y GH A I. C . MA D MA L MA U MO R MO Z S. A . TAN TU N UG A ZA M ZI M

Avo c a d o s # #

Ba n a n a s # #

Cashew Nuts #

Co c o a ## #

Co c o n u t # #

Co ff e e # ##

Co t t o n # # ## ##

Dried Frui t ## # # #

He r b s # # ### #

Ho n e y # ## #

Olive oil #

Palm Oil #

Pi n e a p p l e s # # # #

Se s a m e ## # #

Sp i c e s # #

Su g a r # #

Tea #

Van i l l a # #

Veg e t a b l e s # # ###

Abbreviations for countries: Algeria; Benin; Burkino Faso; Cameroon; Comoros; Egypt; Ghana; Ivory Coast; Madagascar; Malawi; Mauritius; Morocco; Mozambique; South Africa; Tanzania; Tunisia; Uganda; Zambia; Zimbabwe.

The Real Green Revolution 37 While some question marks remain over the Whilst these global perspectives cast a extent of certified organic farming in Africa, somewhat contradictory picture, our there is more uncertainty over the extent to im p r ession is that the low use of arti f i c i a l which de facto organic agriculture is inputs is due more to the high price of, and/or practised. Willer and Yussefi (2000) claim di f ficulty in obtaining, fertilizers and pesticides that much agricultural produce sold on rather than a result of conscious decisions to conventional markets in Africa is in practice adopt organic techniques. (See for example organic, although it is rarely certified as Ha r ris et al., 1998, Scooles and Tou l m i n , such. The Ghanaian Organic Agriculture 1999; Wachira, 2000). In the remainder of Network (GOAN), estimates that there are this section we focus upon those countries around 250,000 families in south and east wh e r e OAA is being more consciously Africa farming around 60 million hectares pr omoted, where it appears to be gaining on an organic basis. GOAN claim that these a ‘critical mass’, and where successful and farmers produce double the average yields innovative strategies are being developed. of conventional or traditional farmers (cited in Scialabba, 2000). Anobah (2000) Burkina Faso was the first African country estimates that over one third of West African to host the biennial IFOAM International agricultural produce is organically produced. Scientific Conference, where the Declaration of Ouagadougou, which states that ‘organic In contrast, one recent survey of farming agriculture in developing countries is not a practices in sub-Saharan Africa (Harris et luxury but a precondition for attaining food al.., 1998) found organic farming to be security’, was launched (see Djigma et al.. extremely uncommon: 1989). Rediscovery of traditional techniques (such as Zaï – see case study 6, over) have ‘W e found no examples of organic farming proved of benefit in restoring desertified to standards specified in developed countries… land, improving yields and establishing food Th e r e was little understanding of the concept security. Their use is now spreading to of organic farming as a holistic approach to neighbouring countries. There is evidence ag r i c u l t u r e… Understanding of the inter- of some governmental support for organic relationships of component parts of the initiatives through the Ministry for Peasant fa r ming system was also limited… However, Co-operative Action (Ouedraogo, 1989a). some farmers did appreciate such interactions In addition a number of NGOs, women’s and farmers did use organic techniques to and farmers’ organizations are involved in va r ying degrees, but without perceiving this to promoting organic, participative agriculture be organic farming.’ (ib i d . p. 2 ) primarily for environmental and food security reasons (Ouedraogo, 1989b). The same authors also found: The Ligue des Consommateurs in ‘Use of agrochemicals is widespread amongst Ouagadougou promotes organic agriculture fa r mers throughout [sub-Saharan Africa]. and defends consumers’ rights (ITC, 1999). Amongst [those surveyed] there is little More recently a pilot centre for technological evidence of knowledge and adoption of soil training in organic food processing has been fe r tility management and crop prot e c t i o n set up by AVAPAS under the aegis of the practices of a non chemical nature. ’ (ib i d . , p.1) IFOAM OA2002 programme.

At the same time we have come across studies and received several responses to our surve y which suggest that in many African countries the use of artificial inputs is relatively low.

38 mouth, even to neighbouring countries such Case study 6 – Zaï: A traditional method for as Niger, where some 5,800 hectares of restoring degraded land degraded land has been res t o r ed using the same technique. Thus this simple and Zaï (or tassa) is a traditional agricultural traditional technique is proving of multiple method used in Burkina Faso to restore arid benefit in increasing yields, res t o r i n g and crusted areas of fields. The technique degraded land and, by generating involves making seed holes 20-30 cm wide employment opportunities, helping slow the and deep and using the earth to make a pr ocess of rural/urban migration. raised ‘demi-lune’ barrier on the downslope (S o u r ces: Harrison 1987; Ouedraogo 1989a; side. Compost and/or natural phosphate is Hassan 1996; Kassaogué et al.. 1996; Ouedraogo placed in each hole and sorghum or millet & Kaboré 1996; Wedem et al. 1996; Reij et al. seeds planted when it rains. This technique 1996; Pretty & Hine; 2001b) improves the organic structure of the soil, helps retain moisture and, through Figure 3.1 – Illustration of Zaï or planting pit promoting termite activity, increases water filtration into the soil. The crops are planted relatively densely to increase ground cover and prevent water loss through evapotranspiration. Stones removed from the field while digging the holes are often used to make contour bunds to further stabilize the soil and reduce run-off and erosion.

Estimates of the success of this technique v a ry, but all suggest very favourable re s u l t s . Ouedraogo (1989a) estimates yield increases of 30-35% and emphasizes the resilience of this system especially in dry years. Other re p o rts suggest that Zaï, combined with contour bunding, can lead to yield incre a s e s f rom an average of 150-300 kg/ha to 440 kg/ha in a dry year and 700-1000 kg in a wet one. Reij (1996) estimates that the Source: Kassaogué et al.. (1996) families using these techniques move from an average cereal deficit of 644 kg p.a. Egypt has what is probably the most (equivalent to more than a 6 month developed organic sector in North Africa. s h o rtfall) to a 153 kg surplus. Initial interest in organic production was triggered as a reaction to increasing health The system is labour intensive and best suited problems experienced by farmers and rural to farms with a labour surplus. Because of dwellers from pesticide poisoning, and cotton this it is also generating new opportunities for yields remaining constant or declining despite work locally, encouraging some young men to increased use of pesticides. Aerial spraying of stay in the region rather than migrate to the cotton is now banned in Egypt and much cities in search of work. In Burkina Faso pest control now done through the use of some 100,000 hectares of degraded land have pheromones, even though systems are not been res t o r ed over the past decade. Use of the wholly organic (Scialabba, 2000). technique has largely spread via word of

The Real Green Revolution 39 The NGO Sekem has been responsible for Ghana. The Ghanaian Organic Agricultural most of the early development of the organic Network (GOAN) is a grouping of organic movement in Egypt (see case study 10). It NGOs. They were joint winners of the SARD established its first biodynamic farm in the prize in 1999 and have worked actively with late 1970s and has since helped build up the the Henry Doubleday Research Association biodynamic movement. It has established the (HDRA) in developing a range of Egyptian Biodynamic Association, which programmes to support OAA. The Ghanaian offers training and extension services for government provides some support services, biodynamic farmers and those considering including research, but these are inadequately conversion, and an independent certification funded (Scialabba, 2000). The country has a agency: the Centre for Organic Agriculture favourable climate and produces a wide in Egypt (COAE). More recently a second range of fruits and vegetables. ITC (1999) organic NGO, the Egyptian Centre of claim that there is very limited use of Organic Agriculture (ECOA), was established chemical inputs in Ghanaian agriculture and to promote the organic sector, provide a strong potential for developing a thriving training and support for organic farmers, organic sector. There is some demand for promote conferences, seminars and research organic produce in Accra. Water resource and act as a local certification and inspection disputes (arising from deforestation and body (El-Araby, 1999). ECOA are also inappropriate farming) led to the establishing an international presence, having establishment of one organic farming project, recently run workshops and training combined with forestry, nurseries and seminars in Tunisia and Palestine, helped training. The system brings rewards (premia establish an organic project in Bosnia and for organic cashews) and is leading from a trained organic inspectors from eight other shift from slash and burn to sedentary African countries (ibid.). agriculture (Scialabba, 2000).

Egypt now has more than 200 organic and Kenya has a very active organic sector, with biodynamic farms, covering more than 2500 more IFOAM members than any other hectares. Many of these farms are ‘desert’ African country, the majority of these being farms, using irrigation from the Nile. They NGOs. There was a strong response to our grow a wide variety of crops, including fruit, survey from Kenyan organizations and a vegetables, cereals, spices and tea, as well as relative wealth of literature and case studies non-food crops such as cotton and medicinal regarding the development of OAA in Kenya. plants. While much produce is exported, One of the leading organizations in Kenya is primarily to Europe, there is also strong the Kenyan Institute of Organic Farming demand within Egypt and other parts of the (KIOF), founded in 1987 by Dr. Njorogye in Arab world for a number of products. Today response to the problems of declining yields the majority of Sekem’s production is aimed faced by small-scale but highly intensive and at domestic markets, which offers it the productive farmers in the Kenyan highlands. opportunity to add value through processing KIOF’s mission is fivefold, including: rather than exporting commodities. In the training, extension, information early days Sekem’s ratio of domestic sales to dissemination, external consultancy and exports was 1:4. It has now reversed this and outreach (Stolton, 1997). Methods advocated only exports 20% of its produce, relying on by KIOF include composting, double deep domestic markets for the large majority of its digging and water harvesting. KIOF offers sales (Abouleish, 2001). training and extension facilities and to date it has trained over 200 farmer groups with over 5000 individual members (Ker, 1995;

40 International Development Research Centre, Greater continuity of food supply has led to 1997). Its training programmes range from a noticeable improvement in children’s health week-long courses for interested farmers and a reduction in susceptibility to disease through to a one and a half year certificate (Pretty and Hine, 2001b). course for school leavers. Kenya is also blessed with a number of KIOF was one of the first winners of the international research institutes with a SARD prize. It has recently been involved in commitment to promoting sustainable a res e a r ch project with the Dutch-based agriculture. Some of their work is having consultancy Education Training Consultants major impacts in promoting organic farming to assess the potential and limitations of methods within Kenya and creating or ganic farming in diffe r ent agroe c o l o g i c a l initiatives that are being taken beyond its and socio-economic conditions within Kenya. borders. The International Centre for Insect Prior to this study it had been assumed that Physiology and Ecology (ICEPE) 28 has done or ganic farming was most suited to ‘high pioneering work in controlling ‘stemborer’, potential’ agricultural areas. The study which causes major yield losses in subsistence showed that medium potential areas are also cereal production throughout sub-Saharan ve r y suitable for organic agriculture. This Africa. It has developed a push–pull system study found that maize cultivation using for controlling damage to maize and compost alone fared significantly better than sorghum. Field margins are planted with that with manure / fertilizer mixtures (Stolton, ‘trap crops’ that attract stemborer: the two 1997). Overall, organic systems were found to most successful species used have been be producing good yields, significantly out- Napiergrass (Pennisetum purpureum) and pe rf o r ming conventional systems in some Sudan grass (Sorghum sudanensis). The crops ar eas in terms of grain yields, net cash benefits themselves are inter-planted with molasses and ret u r ns to labour and capital. It also grass (Desmodium uncinatum) and two found that women were particularly drawn legume species: silverleaf (D. intortium) and to organic farming systems (Scialabba, 2000). greenleaf (S. hermonthica).

The Association for Better Land Husbandry The International Research Centre into (ABLH) is another NGO promoting low-cost Ag ro f o re s t r y (IRCAF) is currently doing methods of conservation-based farming. It res e a r ch and extension work on the use of focuses on developing local skills, knowledge leguminous tree fallows such as Se s b a n i a and social co-operation to develop Sesban, Crotolaria Grahamiana and Tep h ro s i . sustainable agricultural systems. Its approach These species recycle up to 150 kg of nitrog e n requires nearly no cash investments, but per tree per annum – enough to significantly instead considerable initial labour input. in c r ease soil fertility and prod u c t i v i t y . IRCAF It particularly promotes the use of double has also introduced a tree species (C a l l i a n d r a dug beds, incorporating compost, animal and ca l o t h y r s u s ) fr om Mexico which prov i d e s plant manures. Members of groups working animal fodder at a low cost, thereby increa s i n g with ABLH find that the investment made in milk and manure yields. Farmers who have their land provides a better return than adopted this species on their holdings talk of taking outside jobs: it enriches the soil and a move from ‘subsistence’ to ‘sustenance’ enables them to grow vegetables well into ag r i c u l t u r e (Collis, 2000). Elsewhere in Kenya, the dry season. One review (of 26 districts the Coffee Research Council has introduced involved with the scheme), found that 75% a species of naturally pest-resistant coffe e of households have attained all-year food (discussed in section 4.2) which has now been security, and the proportion buying in adopted by one third of small coffee grow e r s . vegetables has declined from 85% to 11%.

The Real Green Revolution 41 Figure 3.2 – The push-pull method for Senegalese NGOs to publicize their work. controlling maize stemborer Badji (1989) describes an urban rubbish composting project in Louga (population 70,000) in the Sahel. The scheme was developed as a reaction to the declining adequacy of traditional techniques (fallowing, straw burning and use of manure) to cope with pressure for growing more food. Component activities of the project involved collection and sieving of rubbish (93% of rubbish from samples was compostable), experimenting with composting techniques and evaluating the chemical and physical properties of the compost. Though short on qualitative data, the paper notes three main benefits: (Source: ICIPE (2001)) improved sanitation in the town; creation of a productive green belt, which also According to local sources (Mulagoli, pers. protects against desertification; and the comm.), the emphasis of the government creation of new jobs and market gardening agricultural extension service is primarily opportunities. upon meeting food security needs, with export promotion being a secondary priority. Since this time the US-based Rodale Institute The government has a long tradition of has become involved in promoting urban supporting soil and water conservation composting schemes in Senegal. It was measures and since the start of the 1990s recently awarded the ‘President’s National has moved towards whole river-basin water Prize’ for work with women’s groups on catchment strategies, utilizing participatory developing composting techniques. It is also techniques to engage the farming involved in regenerating agricultural areas communities on their own terms (Pretty and characterized by sandy soils. It conducts Hines, 2001b). Moreover, ‘the ministry projects with around 2000 farmers in 59 extension service includes organic farming groups promoting stall-fed livestock, messages in its training curriculum’ (ibid.). composting systems, use of green manures, Since 1998 some government programmes water harvesting systems and rock have been introduced to provide support for phosphate. Yields of millet and peanuts have farmers reverting to organic management increased dramatically by 75-195% and 75- strategies. This includes the development of 165% respectively. Because the soils have a ‘farmer extension workers’ whose plots often greater water retaining capacity, fluctuations serve as demonstration farms. Thus the in yields are less pronounced between high government’s position on organic agriculture and low rainfall years. is moving from one of hostility to one of support (Wachira, 2000). Thiam and Dieng (1989) provide an account of a market gardening project in the fertile Senegal has an active NGO sector with more ‘Niayes’ coastal strip area of Senegal, set up IFOAM members than any other African in response to problems of agrochemical use country, with the exception of Kenya. The and declining soil fertility. The project 1989 IFOAM conference in nearby Burkina includes manuring and biological pest Faso presented an opportunity for several control regimes, field afforestation and

42 monitoring production data. At the time of issued draft legislation to enable organic writing, more funding had been obtained to and biodynamic certification. Local efforts extend the project with the aim of are afoot to set up a national certifying body disseminating the results through the to reduce costs. A few larger farmers are now extension service. Monneveux (1989) reports beginning to get involved as they recognize on a peasant-centred development opportunities here, but few smaller farmers programme in which local peasants identified are pursuing this approach, seeing the social, economic and environmental conventional intensification as the line to pressures that they were facing and success (ibid.). South Africa is also a market introduced a programme of measures to destination for organic produce from nearby address them. These included the southern African states, particularly introduction of a composting/manuring Mozambique. scheme, a nursery and tree planting to fence fields – reducing erosion and providing There are also several NGO projects of protection against livestock. interest, most with an emphasis on building food security. Auerbach (2000) describes a Today a number of indigenous NGOs pilot project in which an existing wetland promoting OAA are operating in Senegal. has been used as a reservoir, yielding enough These include Recours à la Terre, which runs water to irrigate 3 hectares of previously a 5 hectares organic demonstration garden rain-fed land. Combined with organic and experiments with organic techniques management practices (composting and appropriate to the marâichage. These include mulching), farm income increased from soil fertility, water conservation techniques 1,000 rand to 30,000 rand per year. This and experimentation with species that pilot project is now being extended to sixty- provide protection against salt winds. It has five other sites within the same river engaged in joint projects with the Institut de catchment area. Recherche Agricole on the use of Sesbania (a nitrogen fixing bush species), the banana Boshoff (2000) describes the activities of the producers group of Senegal and regional Food Garden Foundation, which encourages producer groups (Sarr, pers. comm.) poor households to adopt trench gardening Elsewhere the Federation des Agropasteurs methods using domestic and locally-available de Diende is engaged in experimenting with compost materials. Their activities help improved composting techniques (including provide food security, improved health and the use of fish meal) and in developing rice additional income to almost 300,000 people cultures in saline and poor farming areas in Guateng Province (one of the poorest in (Gueye, pers. comm.). In addition Senegal is South Africa). The programme also helps the home of one of the regional offices of restore soil fertility, conserve water and Agroecol, a centre which gathers and empowers people. disseminates information about OAA across West Africa. . Tun i s i a is trying to take advantage of its pr oximity to the EU market. It has developed South Africa has had an organic farming st a n d a r ds that comply with EU ones and movement for many years, although it has established a national commission for orga n i c grown in ‘fits and starts’ (Geernat, pers. ag r i c u l t u r e. Budget allocations include help comm.). The leading organic organization is with up to 30% of investment costs to the Biodynamic Agricultural Association of fa r mers and 70% of certification costs over South Africa. The government is committed the first five years. One constraint faced to promoting intensification but has also within Tunisia is a poor supply of orga n i c

The Real Green Revolution 43 fe rt i l i z e r , but res e a r ch is being undertaken organic cotton and sesame over more than as how to best utilize waste from the food 100,000 acres. This project was initiated by pr ocessing industry (Scialabba, 2000) a foreign development agency but has experienced problems through growing too Uganda is highly dependent on agriculture, fast. For example, it has had problems in which accounts for 45% of GDP, and securing access to markets and providing employs 80% of the population. Coffee is sufficient infrastructure – both in terms of a major crop, accounting for 40-70% of storage and processing capacity and export earnings. In the past, political extension facilities. Management of the instability over two decades hindered project has recently been taken over by Bo agricultural modernization, and in Weevil who are trying to put the project back consequence fertilizers and pesticides are not on a sound footing and seeking the necessary widely used except on tea, coffee and other finances to provide the infrastructure to meet export crops (e.g. tomatoes and salads). In the expectations of farmers who have general, most farms are small-scale and converted to organic production. The organic by default. Many small farmers do Ugandan organic movement believes that not keep livestock and therefore face a 10-15% of Uganda’s coffee exports could problem in building and maintaining soil realistically be certified as organic within fertility. The government is deeply committed 5-10 years (Wajje, 2000), but the lessons of to modernizing agriculture, to drawing it out Lango show it is not only the farming of subsistence mode, eradicating poverty and element that needs to be developed in order increasing capacity for agri-food processing. to establish successful schemes. However, they intend doing this along a conventional high input/output model. At the There is also a strong NGO sector promoting same time state support is being cut back, organic agriculture within Uganda. Luyiga so responsibility for extension will fall (1997) identifies thirty NGOs directly increasingly to the private sector. These involved in this field. Church organizations elements of policy are antithetical to the (of a number of different denominations) are development of an organic movement which heavily represented and play an important feels it could otherwise fill the government’s role in fostering rural development. The objectives of reducing poverty and hunger. Department of Social and Economic The task facing the organic movement in Development (SED) is one such organization. Uganda is to convince the state and farmers It runs an organic demonstration farm and not to go down this path but to focus on has trained over 300 animateurs and almost developing natural methods of building soil 1600 farmers in soil fertility techniques, soil fertility and controlling pests (Wajje, 2000). and water conservation, agroforestry, pest The Ugandan organic movement held its first control methods and the role of livestock. conference in January 2001 to mobilize Those who have been involved in the project support and unity across the sector. It intends have noticed increases in food production to set up a certification committee, which and household nutritional status (Luyiga, aims to develop domestic capacity for 1997). Other NGOs include the Anziaceni standard setting and certification. Integrated Rural Development Project in Arua, which works with school drop-outs – Organic coffee, sesame and cotton are teaching them the principles of sustainable already grown and exported (van Elzakker agriculture and environmental protection – and Tulip, 2000). One project, run by the the and the Bukonzo Sustainable Agriculture Lango Co-operative, has more than 12,000 Development Association, which promotes farmers in 266 villages involved in growing organic dairy farming in Kasese (ibid.). More

44 recently the Kulika Charitable Trust has that SÖL has collected, although this mostly relocated to Kampala, where it intends to occurs on a very small scale. provide year-long training courses in organic methods (Cadoret, pers. comm.). Data on IFOAM members (see Table 2.4) roughly corresponds with these statistics. 3.2 – Asia India has by far the highest representation Asia is the world’s largest and most populous of IFOAM members (39), followed by China continent. Many areas, particularly in the (16), the Philippines (9), Turkey (7), Sri south and south-east, are densely populated Lanka (6), Malaysia (5) and Pakistan (5). and there is high pres s u r e on land use. ‘Gree n ANGOC’s Directory (1997) of NGOs Revolution’ technologies have taken root in involved in promoting sustainable agriculture these countries to a far greater extent than reveals a somewhat different pattern, with el s e w h e r e and in consequence a shift to other countries having a high level of NGO or ganic agriculture may be more prob l e m a t i c activity: Thailand (with 41 identified NGOs), than in other areas. Willer and Yus s e f i ’ s Cambodia (23), the Philippines (20)29, fi g u r es (2001) show that Asia’s share of global Bangladesh (14), Nepal (9) and India (8). or ganic production is very small, although this is almost certainly a gross underestimate of de Although the formal organic sector in Asia facto organic production. is relatively undeveloped at present, there are signs that it is a rapidly growing area Table 3.3 (over) shows that Turkey has the of activity. China, India, Malaysia, the most developed organic sector, with more Philippines and Thailand are all working than twice as much land in organic towards establishing national standards in production as any other Asian country. order both to facilitate export opportunities Limited as they are, these figures suggest that and to satisfy domestic demand. in general, holding sizes are small: 5 hectares Organizations in China and Thailand are or less in all cases except the Philippines. among the few from the South to have ITC’s report (1999) suggests that organic applied for IFOAM accredited certification production is more widespread than the data status (IFOAM, 2001).

Table 3.3 – Organic farming statistics for Asia

Country (date of data) No. of farms ha . % of ag. land Mean farm size (ha)

China (2000) 85 0 8 0. 0 0 2

Hong Kong (2000) 8 12 2 15 . 2 5

India (1999) 30 4 17 1 1 0. 0 0 1 5. 0

Japan (1999) 50 8 3 0. 0 9

Kazakhstan (1998) 20

Rep. of Korea 30 (1 9 9 8 ) 1, 2 3 7 90 2 0. 0 4 0. 7 3

Lebanon (1999) 10 0 0. 0 3

Papua New Guinea (1995) 46 2 5

Philippines (1999) 9 95 10 . 6

Sri Lanka (1999) 17 2 55 0 0. 0 2 3. 2

Taiwan (2000) 12 4 0

Turkey (1997)31 7, 5 0 0 18 , 0 0 0 0. 0 5 2. 4 adopted from Willer and Yussefi (2000 & 2001)32

The Real Green Revolution 45 Japan rep r esents one of the largest global China. The growth of organic agriculture in markets for organic produce, estimated at $3 China in recent years has been phenomenal. billion (Masuda, 2000), much of which is According to Chinese sources, certified im p o r ted. This rep r esents an importa n t organic production (which was non existent market opportunity for south-east Asian in 1995) now exceeds 40,000 hectares or ganic producers. Japan’s organic sector has (Organic Food Development Centre- OFDC, its own individual characteristics, with ten 2001). There are now more than 100 ce r tifying bodies all employing diffe re n t enterprizes certified as growers, processors or st a n d a r ds. It also has a tradition of exporters (ibid.), producing nearly 100 co m m u n i t y - s u p p o r ted agriculture schemes varieties of organic produce (OFDC, called teikei, which provide very strong links undated). There are several dedicated organic between producers and consumers processing and export companies. Zhengfang (Hashimoto, 2000). Teikei systems are rep u t e d and Wei (2000) estimate that around 10,000 to have more than 1 million regular customers farming families in China are now involved (m o r e than 1% of the population), yet have in organic production and that the current no formal certification processes, rel y i n g export value of the organic sector exceeds instead on mutual trust. They potentially £12 million, and shows an annual growth pr ovide a model for alternative ways of rate of 30% (OFDC, undated). developing organic markets based on close personal contact and mutual trust, which China is in the unusual position of having avoid the need for certification processes. two separate certification systems, run by two different government departments. As in the previous section we provide here a ‘Organic Food’ is run by the Environmental number of ‘snapshots’ illustrating initiatives Protection Agency. The Ministry of and developments in OAA in a selected Agriculture runs ‘Green Food’, a scheme with number of countries. These profiles draw on two categories: ‘A’ which allows limited published and ‘grey’ literature and responses agrochemical use (if of low toxicity and received to our survey. persistence), and ‘AA’, equivalent to IFOAM basic standards (Li, et al.. 2000). While the Bangladesh has been facing a situation of two schemes were set up separately, there are stagnant or declining yields for a number of indications that the two agencies are now years, despite increasing fertilizer application. working more closely together. Proshika, a local NGO, has been trying to introduce agroecology to the country since The OFDC have established an eight year 1976. By 1988-99 around 10,000 farmers collaborative programme with the German had received formal training in ecological Development Agency (GTZ) developing agricultural practices. Proshika finds that the national certification and labelling issues involved in promoting agroecology are programmes, providing extension and complex. There is limited availability of fuel training services and building links with for cooking, which places competing and agricultural universities (OFDC, undated). more urgent demands on manure and crop To date, branches have been established in residues. Proshika encourages farmers to use 18 provinces and demonstration farms in 28 green manure crops, compost, quick provinces. In addition they have organized compost, rice straw and water hyacinth as seven national workshops on organic food alternative methods for developing soil development and four training courses for fertility. There is also a move to afforesting organic inspectors (OFDC, 2001). They farmland to provide fodder, fuel and living publish two quarterly magazines (Organic fences (Hussein, 2000). Food Times and Organic Fields Newsletter).

46 A separate organic food advisory centre was Agricultural Holdings Ltd, 2000). For the established in 1999 to provide research and Chinese the allure of premia markets in the advisory services. developed world is clearly a major incentive for shifting towards organic production. Ch i n a ’ s interest in developing an orga n i c sector is primarily driven by a desire to In d i a . In some respects India can be reg a rd e d in c r ease foreign earnings. However, there is as one of the homes of organic agriculture. also recognition of the environmental and At the turn of the century Lord Albert po v e r ty alleviation benefits implicit in Ho w a r d, a colonial administrator who was adopting OAA. To date, state-initiated sent to India to help ‘modernize’ agricultural pr ojects have attempted to avoid areas where techniques, developed an interest in th e r e is intensive agrochemical usage, focusing traditional Indian agriculture. He ret u r ned to upon areas where the social benefits will be Britain a convert to natural farming practices, gr eatest and conversion less problematic. going on to become one of the founders of the Soil Association (Research Foundation The development of a viable organic for Science Technology and Ecology and agricultural sector is not without problems, Navdanya, 2000). Equally the concepts of even when the state is able to mobilize or ganic agriculture resonate strongly with considerable resources and draw upon the traditions of Ayu r vedic medicine and the legacy of a network of co-operatives with Gandhian philosophy of ‘sarvodaya’, which established chains of command and often emphasizes self-reliance (Daniel, 2000). common processing and/or marketing facilities. The costs of certification represent At present India does not have any forma l a major problem, as do the differing ce r tification system in place, and prod u c e requirements of different certification bodies. destined for export is mostly certified by Literacy levels and requirements for ex t e r nal agencies.33 Initial discussions have translation also raise handicaps to the taken place between the government and effective communication and dissemination pr oducers, processors and exporters, but the of ideas (Zhengfang & Wei 2000). In establishment of a fully-fledged orga n i c addition, there is a need to strengthen agency is expected to take several more years technical support. The physical remoteness (Sathayanarayana, 2000, Wai, pers. comm.). of much of rural China makes it difficult for For the time being the Indian government has many areas to engage with export-oriented placed responsibility for developing the production (Lamin, pers. corr.). There is a or ganic sector with the Agricultural and significant potential for developing this Pr ocessed Foods Export Development organic production. ITC (1989) suggests that Authority (Mohan, pers. corr.), a decision 30% of the tea from Anhui and Zhejiang which speaks volumes about how the provinces could relatively easily be converted go v e r nment perceives the role of orga n i c to organic produce. One Chinese company, fa r ming in India. Other export- f o c u s e d Chaoda Modern Agricultural Holdings Ltd, agencies, such as Indian Spice Board and the intends to promote high technology Tea Board of India, are already supportive of biological farming and through this ‘become or ganic farming – having recognized its the flagship of China’s agriculture strategy ea r ning potential. Some specialist groups have and to rank among the 500 largest recently emerged, such as the Indian Bio Tea enterprises in the world within ten years’. Its Or ganization and the Peermade Development current plans include trebling the amount of So c i e t y , an organic spice farmers consorti u m land it currently has in organic production based in Kerala (George, 2000). by the end of 2002 (Chaoda Modern

The Real Green Revolution 47 India has a number of high profile, large of farmers (i.e. 5 million) in his part of Bihar scale organic production facilities and farm organically, a practice assisted by the networks. This report profiles two Indian annual flooding of the river (the Nepli), case studies – the Ambootia Tea Estate and bringing tons of topsoil from the Himalayas the Makaii bio fibre project. Other and providing a convenient, if not significant projects include: sustainable, source of fertility (Prakash, pers. comm.). Venkatesh (in Institute for • The Dooars Tea Plantation in Bengal, Integrated Development, 2001), estimates producing half a million kilograms of tea than only in one in five dryland farmers in p.a. (Mohan, pers. corr.); India use chemical inputs, the great majority relying upon manure and green compost for • The Peermade Development Society, maintaining soil fertility. whose membership has risen from less than 200 to more than 1000 between Notably India has almost twice as many 1997 and 1998 (George, 2000), and; IFOAM members as any other developing co u n t r y, and a large majority of these are • Enfield Agrobase, a private company in NGO advocates of OAA, working to develop Tamil Nadu, with 175 acres of organic technical, advisory and logistical support for farms. At present this group of farms In d i a ’ s farming community. The Institute for grows cashews, mango, coconut, Integrated Rural Development in India is one sugarcane, groundnut, sesame and paddy of the main NGOs involved in prom o t i n g rice and maintains a herd of fifty cattle for OAA. It provides training and extension milk and manure. The farms have se r vices, runs a three year diploma course in established facilities for processing jaggery or ganic agriculture, and has been involved in from sugarcane, for processing coconut oil setting up local organic food markets. In and shelling and grading coconuts. They Ja n u a r y 2001 it promoted the first all-India intend to expand to 500 acres in the next Or ganic conference (ibid.). The Research year and to establish facilities for Foundation for Science, Technology and processing cashews. All of their produce is Ecology adopts a more overt lobbying rol e presently aimed at domestic markets as and has published a series of publications they feel that they are too small to questioning the wisdom and sustainability of compete on international markets (Rao, chemical-dependent farming practices (Shiva pers. comm.). et al. 2000, Shiva, 2001).34 It also prom o t e s or ganic practices, particularly the maintenance Such examples represent only the most of biodiversity through seed exchange visible facet of organic production within networks (Shiva et al. 1995). We rec e i v e d India, and are almost certainly only the tip rep o r ts about a recently published all-Indian of the iceberg. Despite official support for di re c t o r y of NGOs engaged in sustainable the ‘Green Revolution’, traditional farmers ag r i c u l t u r e, but were unable to locate this. have maintained a resistance to adopting such techniques. In such a vast and varied Some local commentators (Mohan, pers. country it is difficult to estimate the extent of corr., Faisal, pers. corr.) criticized the lack of de facto organic production, especially as resources made available to conduct scientific such forms of agriculture have been neglected research into technical aspects of organic by development and extension services. Some farming. Whilst not doubting that this is an responses to our survey suggest that de facto under-resourced area we did nonetheless find organic farming is extremely widespread. evidence of some significant research One survey respondent estimated that 40% capacity and interest in this area through

48 independent institutions and the academic fe r tilizers sixfold over the next 20 years. community. The Central Arid Zone Research On the other it has recognized the adverse Institute (CAZRI) in Rajasthan has en v i r onmental effect of such chemicals and undertaken work in encouraging the has stated that it will not encourage farme r s development of organically grown medically to use hazardous pesticides (Ghimire, pers. beneficial plants (Sharma, 1998) and in comm.). The desire to avoid the use of integrated resource management for pesticides has led to the creation of Integrated sustained crop production (Gupta and Pest Management (IPM) schools being set up Agarwal, 1992). The Central Research in 26 districts (Sharma, 2000). Institute for Dryland Management in Andhra Pradesh has also undertaken research on One criticism of state agricultural policy is green manuring (Reddy et al.. 1991). Gupta that it is nationally focused and does not pay and Patel (1992a & b, 1993a & b, 1994, sufficient attention to the significant regional 1995, 1996, all cited in Stoll 2000), have variations that exist within Nepal. For written extensively about farmer innovations example, the intensity of farming varies in Gujarat State. A Bangalore-based NGO significantly between the upland areas, where (Agriculture, Man and Ecology) is centrally forestry resources can be drawn upon, and involved in IFOAM’s global research the intensively populated and cultivated programme in the sustainability of different plains, where farms have to rely more upon farming systems in different parts of the farm sources for building soil fertility (ibid.) world (Chinnakonda and Lanting, 2000). A Equally these different farming systems have recent Tamil language publication different levels of market engagement. In (Srinavasan et al. 2001) argues the case for remote upland areas transport and eco-farming and provides detailed examples communication networks are virtually non- of crop and pest management. existent and the exchange and bartering of commodities within and between There is some evidence of a growing communities is the main form of exchange. domestic demand for organic produce (Baksi, Lowland areas have a stronger engagement 2001). Most trade in organic produce is done with markets and some non-certified organic on the basis of ‘self- certification’ and mutual produce is traded, particularly to the tourist trust (Prakash, pers. comm.), although more and hotel sector in Kathmandu and other organized attempts at building more visible popular destinations. Only very limited outlets for organic produce are now amounts of high value produce (e.g. tea, emerging (Daniel, 1999; Sathayanarayana, coffee and spices) is certified and traded 2000). With a substantial middle class there internationally (ibid.). is undoubtedly a potentially large demand for such produce. One of the main NGOs promoting OAA is the Ecological Services Centre, which claims Ne p a l is a remote and landlocked kingdom, to have worked with more than 10,000 with one of the lowest levels of per capita farmers. The approaches that it promotes GDP in the world. Significant prop o r tions of vary according to agroecological zones. In the population are rural based and dependent hill regions, where significant ‘off farm’ upon agriculture for their livelihoods. resources may be used, the emphasis is on Ac c o r ding to Sharma (2000), agricultural agroforestry, homestead gardening, pr oductivity is in a state of decline. composting, green manuring and natural pest Go v e r nment response to this problem appears control. In lowland regions, soil fertility ve r y mixed. On the one hand the state has management through composting and green adopted plans to increase use of arti f i c i a l manuring and natural pest control methods

The Real Green Revolution 49 are the main priorities. Other organizations families are involved in the projects and involved in promoting OAA in Nepal include around 2000 hectares have been converted the Institute for Sustainable Agriculture, the to organic methods (de la Merced, 2000). Permaculture Group and the Nepal MASIPAG has initiated a farmer-scientist Community Support Group (ibid.). partnership since 1986, which works directly with small farmers on alternative ways of Sh a r ma suggests that significantly improv e d conducting research, training, education and yields have been obtained through conversion marketing. The British VSO program is also to agroecological approaches, quoting involved in sustainable agricultural activities in c r eases of up to 175% in some instances. (Briones, pers. comm.) The International Ho w e v e r , details of crop types and changes in Institute for Rural Reconstruction, set up in management practices are not provided. 1960, also exists to promote OAA. Wai identifies several exemplary Filipino NGO The Philippines. The formal organic sector in initiatives, including Agtalon, AVDF and the Philippines is small. It does however Alter Trade. Sampson et al. (2000), report pr oduce around 20,000 tonnes per year of on a project in Negros, where a group of or ganic coffee (Cannono, 2000) and some former hacienda workers bought their estate muscovado sugar (Haessig Alle, pers. comm.). and have converted it to a green village using Some coffee and sugar is also produced under organic agriculture. fair trade labels. Some vegetables, fruits and da i r y produce are produced for local Responses from the Philippines indicated consumption, although rarely certified as that although there is an impressive array or ganic. The main markets are within and of NGOs actively promoting OAA, the sum ar ound Manila (ibid.), although production is total of their effo r ts does not make much still on a small scale, it is growing at 10-20 % im p r ession in such a large and populous per year and could be substantially accelerated co u n t r y. This is especially the case since most by government support (Canono, 2000). funding remains directed toward the pr omotion of conventional and industrial Interest in OAA is largely driven by ‘NGOs, agricultural production (Briones, pers. eco-friendly advocates and religious comm.). Assistance with setting up domestic organizations’ (ibid.). Most of the research in ce r tification capacity is reg a r ded as a high alternative farming methods, training, priority by those in the commercial and NGO extension and marketing activities is being sectors (ibid. and Haessig Alle, pers. comm.). done by NGOs and farmers’ organizations. Publicly-funded research institutions and Th a i l a n d . Organic farming in Thailand universities remain firmly rooted in research, em e r ged in the 1980s as a grassroots farme r development and extension for conventional reaction to the effects of chemical-dependent agriculture and, more recently, supporting fa r ming (Phinthupan, 2000). It is part of a the commercialization of GM crops (Briones, br oader agenda for developing alterna t i v e pers. comm.). fo r ms of agriculture, which includes more sustainable and equitable (i.e. fair trade) There are numerous self-help groups in the ap p r oaches. The Alternative Agriculture Philippines practising OAA. They include: Network, which has 85 member NGOs, has BIND, which is working with peasant cr eated Organic Agriculture Certi f i c a t i o n farmers in Negros Occidental, providing Thailand (ACT) to establish a domestic credit facilities and training in ecological pest benchmark for organic produce. Green Net management, lowland rice cultivation, was set up as an alternative trading composting and recycling. More than 500 or ganization in 1994. It handles over 300

50 pr oduct lines, including organic food, organic production and trade. Working to handicrafts and fair trade products. The EU standards, it has independent certification volume of fair trade rice that it exports has status and a dedicated research group in c r eased from 15,000 to 225,000 tonnes per (Scialabba, 2000). In Iran, concern about annum over the ten years leading up to 2000. levels of pesticide use (as residues are It is also promoting fair trade projects with inhibiting exports) has led to a phased pr oducers of soy beans, organic vegetables withdrawal of subsidies on their use. and palm sugar (Panyakul, 2000). Orga n i c The government has undertaken a feasibility pr oduction in Thailand is still rel a t i v e l y study on global organic agriculture to test its limited. Phinthupan (2000) identifies 85 relevance to Iran and established a National ce r tified organic farmers, managing 160 Committee to consider the type of support to he c t a r es with a further 90 hectares in offer peasants (ibid.) One group of producers conversion, although the number farming on a in Iran is involved in manufacturing rose de facto basis is certainly larger than this. The water. Previously involved in poppy growing, Bangkok Post recently ran an article outlining they now find that organic production is the development of organic farming in Chiang more profitable (Hardy, pers. comm.). In the Mai Province. Assisted by the Thailand Lebanon, the Middle Eastern Centre for Re s e a r ch Fund, the group is attempting to Transfer of Alternative Technology develop mixed organic farming systems, local (MECTAT) is trying to encourage the growth outlets and is seeking certification. This rep o r t of the organic sector. It is an active member illustrates the difficulties as well as benefits of of IFOAM and is applying for EU changing production methods, as many development aid to help establish an organic fa r mers have become disheartened by their sector (Ghougassian 2000). initial lack of prog r ess. Those who have stuck with the project are beginning to enjoy the 3.3 – Latin America benefits of a more productive system, safer food for their families and premia on local As indicated earlier, Latin America has the markets (Anon, 2000a). most developed organic sector in the South. Table 3.4. provides more detailed informa t i o n Elsewhere in Asia, Sri Lanka appears to have about numbers of farms, land under orga n i c a relatively well-developed organic sector, management and average farm size. with more than 4000 smallholders currently engaged in certified organic production, Argentina stands apart from the other Latin mostly of herbs, spices, fruits, nuts and tea American countries with 3 million hectares (Williges and Sauerborn, 2000). There are of land under organic management. This also several NGOs, such as Gami Seva makes it the country with the second largest Sevana and the Nagenahiru Foundation, amount of organically managed land in the involved in promoting organic practices as a world after Australia (Willer and Yussefi, form of rural development strategy (Wai, 2001). Other countries in Latin America with pers. comm., Emmanuel, pers comm.). There substantial amounts of organically managed are also signs of emerging organic land include Brazil and Mexico, both of movements in Korea (Anon, 1995), Malaysia which have more than 85,000 hectares. (Singh, 2000), Pakistan (Wai, 1995) and Costa Rica and Surinam both have more Vietnam (Caldas, 2000b). than 0.25% of their agricultural land under organic production. Notably there is In the Middle East a number of initiatives are relatively little recorded certified land in the underway. In Turkey, the government has Caribbean, where there is reliable data for increased its policy interventions to support only three countries.

The Real Green Revolution 51 Table 3.4 – Organic farming statistics for Latin America

as % of mean farm Co u n t r y no. of farms total ha. ag. land size (ha)

Ar gentina (2000) 1, 0 0 0 3, 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 0. 2 2 30 0 0 . 0

Bolivia (1997) 3 80 0 0 0. 0 2 26 6 6 . 7

Brazil (1999) 1, 2 0 0 10 0 , 0 0 0 0. 0 4 83 . 0

Chile (1998) 20 0 2, 7 0 0 0. 0 2 13 . 5

Colombia (1999) 18 5 20 2 0. 0 0 0 4 1. 1

Costa Rica (1995) 4, 0 0 0 9, 0 0 0 0. 3 2 2. 3

Dominican Republic (1997) 1, 0 0 0

El Salvador (1996) 4, 9 0 0

Guatemala (-) 7, 0 0 0

Mexico (2000) 27 , 2 8 2 85 , 7 6 7 3. 1 3. 1

Nicaragua (-) 1, 4 0 0

Paraguay (1998) 19 , 2 1 8

Pe r u (1999) 2, 0 7 2 12 , 0 0 0 0. 0 4 5. 8

Surinam (1998) 25 0 0. 2 8

Trinidad and Tobago (1999) 80

Ur uguay (1999) 15 0 1, 3 0 0 0. 0 1 8. 7

adopted from Willer H. and M. Yussefi. (2000 & 2001)

Latin America exhibits great contrasts in maté, dairy and meat products, honey and terms of the size of organic holdings, wool (ITC, 1999). Organic production has reflecting in large part the highly inequitable developed especially rapidly in Arge n t i n a , distribution of land, which is a feature of with a fifty-five fold increase in the past much of the continent. In some countries the decade. Mexico and Brazil have also seen a average size of holdings under organic rapid development in their export markets. management is extremely large – cocoa The Interamerican Development Bank (Banco plantations of more than 3,800 hectares in Interamericano de Desarrollo), has rec o g n i z e d Bolivia, and average unit sizes of 3000 the importance of the organic sector, rec e n t l y hectares in Argentina (mostly due to the publishing a rep o r t on the sector as part of its large size of organic ranches in the pampas). Global Project series (Marsden et al. 2000). By contrast, average organic holding sizes in Though primarily export-orientated, there is Colombia, Mexico and Costa Rica are all gr owing domestic demand (O’Connor and under 2.5 hectares. Farmers working on Silva, 1999) and many superma r k e t s , these very different sized holdings face especially in Argentina and Brazil, stock disparate challenges in their agricultural and or ganic produce. In other areas local markets marketing practices. and box schemes provide links between consumer and prod u c e r . There is curren t l y Much Latin American agricultural prod u c t i o n much sociological interest in the mechanisms is export-orientated (Berdegué & Escobier being employed to develop links between 1997) and this is reflected in the orga n i c consumers and producers (Florit 2000; sector (ITC, 1999; Willer and Yussefi, 2001). Fonseca et al. 2000a; Fonseca and Tei x e r a , The main organic export crops include cane 2000; Guivant et al., 2000; Paula et al.., su g a r , cocoa, coffee, cotton, fruits, grains, 2000). For small-scale producers, especially

52 those in more marginal areas and often 1000+ families participating in the project lacking formal certification, the challenge of have seen their production increase to a how to successfully market ecological prod u c e level sufficient to meet their annual food is a pressing one. Many innovative forms of requirements, and other local NGOs are association and co-operation are emerging as now adopting and disseminating these small-scale farmers group together to find techniques. This is beginning to have economic ways of marketing their produce. knock-on effects, enabling farmers to diversify from staple to cash crop The profile of IFOAM members within Latin production, raising wage levels by 50% America shows a higher prop o r tion of for the landless and near landless and co m m e r cially-oriented organizations than for reversing a long-established trend of rural Africa or Asia. This is largely due to higher out-migration. levels of engagement with export markets, but also partly due to the fact that many • The re-establishment of traditional NGOs in Latin America involved in patterns of Incan agriculture, which are pr omoting OAA align themselves more being promoted by a number of NGOs. readily with agroecology networks rather These include the re-establishment of than the ‘formal’ organic movement (Barkin, raised bed systems at altitudes often up to pers. comm.). While there is considerable 4000m. These systems traditionally data available on certified orga n i c produced bounteous harvests in adverse pr oduction, there is much less on climatic conditions. Reconstruction of ag r oecological production which has yet to be terracing, canal networks and of raised subject to ‘comprehensive or systemic’ studies beds requires major initial investment of (W ilkinson, pers. comm.). Latin America has labour but contributes to significant a long-standing tradition of de facto orga n i c increases in yields and farmer incomes. ag r i c u l t u r e which dates back at least two millennia through the Inca civilization and • In Cuba, the Organic Agricultural beyond. Many native Indian peoples are now Association (ACAO) has played a lead rol e consciously aligning themselves to the orga n i c in establishing integrated farming systems and agroecological movements, rec o g n i z i n g in the province of Havana. These systems the market opportunities and renewed self- incorporate a number of key agroe c o l o g i c a l respect that they bring. fe a t u r es, including tree planting, planned cr op rotation, polycultures and use of gree n Altieri (2001) provides some examples of the ma n u r es. These have resulted in range and effectiveness of de facto organic significantly higher yields and, as the agricultural systems being promoted by systems have become established, in NGOs in Latin America. These initiatives diminishing labour req u i re m e n t s . now involve almost 100,000 farming families/units and cover almost 1.5 million • In the highlands of Bolivia, the use of hectares of land. Specific projects identified bonemeal and phosphate rock and by Altieri include the following: intercropping with nitrogen-fixing Lupin species (L. mutablis) have significantly • A project in the Honduras, which contributed to increases in potato yields. emphasized soil conservation practices such as drainage and contour ditches, Altieri’s work provides evidence of the grass barriers and rock walls, and the use tangible benefits of agroecological projects of organic fertilization methods and led to within Latin America, which significantly a tripling or quadrupling of yields. The contribute to increased yields and incomes

The Real Green Revolution 53 for resource-poor farmers and enhance mostly beef cattle, but also some sheep and sustainability. Despite the impressive da i r y. The organic beef sector in Arge n t i n a numbers of farmers engaged in formal OAA has grown particularly rapidly. This is partl y projects, they represent only a tiny fraction due to the existence of the fertile grazing of Latin America’s estimated 16 million lands of the ‘pampas’, but also attributable to peasant farming units (Altieri, 2000). In view fa r mers’ attitudes. Many of the farmers who of this, there is considerable scope to have converted to organic production in ‘promote the right policies and institutional recent years have longer-standing membership partnerships that can scale up ecologically of the Association for the Promotion of based agriculture so that its multi functional Intensive Rotational Grazing (APPRI), set up impacts are spread across the rural in 1965 to develop ecological management landscapes of Latin America’ (ibid. p.630). systems for herds and pastureland. With a In the remainder of this section we outline long history of resisting the use of synthetic a range organic and agroecological initiatives chemicals and the routine use of antibiotics, within a sample of Latin American countries. these farmers were already predisposed to adopting organic management practices Argentina’s interest in organic production (H a rr i e t - W alsh, 1998). Export markets are a began in the 1980s and it is now the second key to the success of organic livestock largest organic producer (in terms of land pr oduction. The Argentinean beef sector ships mass) in the world. The country has now up to 2000 kilos of prime beef per week to developed a significant competitive edge over Belgium, sends an eleven tonne container to its rivals. It is the only country in the South Italy every six weeks and 700 kilos of prime to have obtained ‘Listed Country’ status with beef to Swiss Air on a monthly basis (ibid.). the EU, which greatly facilitates export procedures, as the certification systems of The main organic crops in Argentina include Listed Countries are regarded as equivalent sunflowers, olives, wheat, soya beans and to EU standards.35 It is also one of the very fr uits (ITC, 1999). Argentina is also few Southern countries to have a certification developing a significant capacity for body (Argencert) with IFOAM accreditation. pr ocessing organic food. Pais (1996) identifies some of the lines now being produced in There has been significant state support in Ar gentina, often in significant quantities: developing the organic sector in Argentina. The government was one of the first in the • 2 million litres of olive oil per year from South to pass legislation regarding organic three major processors standards, and national and regional levels of government provide marketing support for • daily milk sales of two and a half million export-led organic production. Recently a litres through ‘La Serenisima’ number of national and regional agencies came together with MAPO (Moviemiento • 150,000 litres of wine produced per Argentino para la Produccion Orgánica) to annum by Valle Orgánico produce a promotional CD, showcasing Argentina’s organic sector and potential • 200 tonnes of wheat used annually in an (MAPO, 2001). organic bakery

Hager and Balbi (2000) estimate Arge n t i n a ’ s • Organic honey production in excess of 40 or ganic production to be currently worth $20 tonnes per annum. million, 85% of which is exported. More than 90% of organic land is dedicated to livestock,

54 The commercial development of the organic have the means to engage with the proc e d u re s sector in Argentina is perhaps the great ne c e s s a r y to acquire formal certified status. success story of the organic sector in the Despite having a relatively large area of South. Yet there is also much interest in the fo r mally certified land and its own role of small scale agroecological schemes as ce r tification body (Instituto Biodinamica), a means to promoting the livelihoods of Brazil has only recently established farmers in impoverished and marginalized pr ovisional regulations defining orga n i c regions. A system of organic orchards has pr oduction methods (Fonseca, pers. comm.).36 been established by Pro-Huerta with support from the Ministry of Social Development. As the largest country in Latin America, This is designed to improve nutritional status Brazil contains a wide variety of ecological, of the poorest rural communities and has climatic and agricultural conditions and it benefited 2 million people since 1996 makes little sense to talk of national (Scialabba, 2000). In Patagonia, which priorities or programmes. Significant inter experiences harsh climatic conditions and has and intra-regional variations in income seen significant rural exodus over the past levels, land holdings and (farmers’) access to decade, the Centre for Investigation and resources mean that both market and Teaching on Sustainable Agriculture (CIESA) development-led approaches to promoting has been involved in developing small bio- OAA have relevance. This country profile intensive plots designed to maximize food focuses on a few of many projects currently yield using minimal external resources. Their in place across Brazil. experiments in using double dig methods on plots of less than a hectare yield sufficient The Rio Agroecology Network (RAN) was produce to feed a family of four for six set up in 1998 as a partnership between a months, and create a cash income of $2- number of governmental and non- 3,000 from vegetable sales. Productivity on governmental organizations all working to these plots increases over time as the organic promote agroecology. Its objectives included: soil content of the soil increases. CIESA is strengthening the role of agriculture in the currently working with the provincial region, promoting greater sustainability and government to extend this work and sustain improving farmers’ income, increasing the rural livelihoods (Pia, 2000). Other NGOs supply of organic produce, training farmers active in promoting OAA as a mechanism for and technicians in agroecological cultivation rural development include the Environment systems and consolidating an existing Action and Study Centre (CEAA) and Eco reference centre on agroecology and Ver (Harriet-Walsh, 1998). appropriate technology. The network has two main arms. One is concerned with the Bra z i l has a tradition in organic agriculture social economy, with a focus on participatory going back to 1973 and today has a large diagnostics, market research and number of co-operatives, smallholders and dissemination. The second has a more companies practising organic farming. Most technological focus, developing integrated ce r tified produce is destined for export. The agroecological systems, participatory field main export commodities include frui t s , research and validation of technologies, vegetables, wheat, tea, coffee, sugar, nuts, certification and the production of sesame, palm oil and essential oils. There is agroecological inputs. After just two years also a growing internal demand (ITC, 1999). the project has recorded a number of Finding ways of developing and accessing successes. The number of certified organic in t e r nal markets is particularly important for farmers in the region have increased from small-scale producers who are less likely to twenty to almost one hundred and fifty.

The Real Green Revolution 55 The local university has seen seven theses on of biological activity and water-retaining agroecology completed, with eighteen more capacity. Yields of maize and soybeans have in progress. Food with the regional organic increased by 66%. Significant labour savings logo is now available in several supermarkets have been achieved through a reduction in in the city of Rio and there is a growing the need to plough and weed. Reviews of demand for organic produce within the state. this work suggest that maintaining soil cover However, the project is a relatively short- is more important in combating erosion than term one (in terms of external funding), and more intensive methods such as terracing or has experienced a number of organizational bunding. More than 38,000 farmers have problems largely related to the differing benefited from these services since 1991 institutional cultures of the organizations (Guijt cited in Altieri, 2001). concerned and the issues involved in reconciling these (Fonseca et al.., 2000a). In the hot and dry Ceara region another NGO, ESPLAR, has been involved in a state- In the north-east of Brazil, a region dominated wide agroecology development programme by large-scale sugar cane plantations, AS-PTA promoting a training programme for village have been involved in promoting the ‘Paraiba’ leaders. This programme has resulted in pr oject. This aims to promote the sustainable adoption of a number of agroecological use and conservation of natural res o u r ces and practices across the state, including: in c r ease farmers’ incomes. Over a few years they have succeeded in establishing • Return of arboreal cotton cultivation to community seed banks for beans and yams, mixed cropping systems. Together with the latter particularly significant as an integrated control of boll weevil this has op p o r tunity for farmers to access an enabled restoration of abandoned cotton im p o r tant market for cash crops. The fields. sc h e m e ’ s other priorities include helping install domestic water storage facilities for sixty • Enriching grazing areas with selected households and developing and testing new varieties of seed, permitting a 50% ap p r oaches to livestock management and increase in stocking rates. ag ro f o re s t r y techniques. Local confidence and capacity is increasing. As with many NGO • The introduction of herbaceous legumes pr ojects, it is small-scale in nature and lacks for fodder in crop mixtures and rotation the res o u r ces to expand its influence so as to systems, and make a significant impact on rural poverty (S i d e r s k y , pers. comm.). • The use of small dams to provide irrigation for vegetable production. In the southern state of Santa Catarina, the (von der Weid, 1994, cited in Altieri, 2001). State Extension and Research Service works with farmers. The focus of their work is on Costa Rica has almost 4,000 organic farms soil and water conservation in micro- and with the exception of Argentina has the watersheds, using contour grass barriers, highest proportion of land under organic contour ploughing and green manures. Some management of any country in Latin sixty different crop species, leguminous and America. Bananas are the main crop, non-leguminous, have been experimented although cocoa, coffee, fruits, vegetables, with. These are inter-cropped or planted herbs and spices are also important. during fallow periods in a wide variety of According to ITC (1999), there is a strong cropping systems. The experiments have had interest in organic agriculture in the country. major impacts on yields, soil quality, levels The University of San José has a research

56 programme on organic agriculture and Soil organic content had decreased from 5% several other research projects are being to 2% and the lack of ground cover created carried out under the auspices of NGOs. the potential for soil erosion. Strategies for replenishing the soil included addition of The Costa Rican government has a history chicken manure (available only in limited of combating environmentally damaging quantities) and developing composts using agricultural development.37 This approach citrus residues from the processing plant. has translated into active support for the One of the main issues that faces the organic sector. The Ministry of Agriculture management is the question of how to re- has recently established an organic establish ground cover without creating department and has drafted regulations on competition for available nutrients. Locally organic production, labelling and occurring grasses have been sown in an certification. The organic producers’ attempt to provide ground cover and the site association has established a national is being monitored for the effects on local programme and a certification agency. insect populations. The attempt to convert They are working in collaboration with the a perennial monoculture system to organic national coffee institute to develop facilities production is not straightforward and there for processing organic coffee. The Costa is a need to exchange information and Rican Chamber of Commerce promoted an research findings from similar enterprizes. organic trade fair between 1995 and 1997 in collaboration with GTZ, the German The Dominican Republic has been involved development agency (Geier, 1996). The in organic agriculture since 1982. It is an Consortium of Coffee Co-operatives of important producer of organic coffee, Guanacaste and Montes del Oro is a bananas and sugar. Organic banana coalition of six coffee co-operatives in a production first began here in 1989 and now remote rainforest area of Cost Rica providing involves 2,500 small farmers (see case study an example of a joint organic/fair trade 7, below). A co-operative of 12,000 families initiative. It has developed a partnership with has converted half of its sugar production to Equal Exchange (USA) and exports over 4 organic methods. It is estimated that around million pounds of coffee at guaranteed fair 20% of the Republic’s fruit and vegetable trade prices to North America. The benefits exports are now organically produced and include additional incomes to the farmer and the premia generated are making a major preservation of the surrounding rainforest. impact in alleviating poverty in rural areas (Holderness et al. 2000). Chubb (2000) writes of a 3000-plus hectare citrus estate, owned by the Commonwealth Involvement in these new markets has led Development Corporation (a UK to the development of producer co- government-owned corporation) in the north operatives, whose work extends beyond of the country that recently converted more agricultural issues and covers rural than 500 hectares to organic production. development in a broader sense. ITC (1999) The estate already contained many fingers of identifies nine groups involved in producing forest (following the lines of watercourses), and/or marketing organic produce, most of breaking up the plantations and allowing a whom have a broader rural development free flow of flora and fauna (including role. GRAN has about 1000 farmers spread natural predators) into the citrus groves. across 12 villages. It supports organic and A history of regular application of fertilizer biodynamic agriculture and provides credit, and herbicide had acidified the soil, which technical and marketing assistance and required routine applications of limestone. certification services. Conacado is another

The Real Green Revolution 57 producer group promoting organic The organic sector in Mexico is thought to agriculture, which has a membership of have a good potential for growth (ITC, 1999). around 2000 small and medium size farmers Th e r e are extreme disparities of wealth within involved in coffee and cocoa production. Mexico and many farmers, especially indigenous peoples, face extreme poverty and M ex i c o has a very active organic sector, and a lack of res o u r ces. In many instances fair is Latin America’s biggest supplier of org a n i c trade schemes which offer access to credit c o ffee. Russell (2000) estimates that there is and non-exploitative access to processing and c u rrently 55,000 hectares of land under marketing facilities have been seen as more o rganic management and 28,000 re g i s t e re d relevant to the problems of the rural poor. In p roducers. 98% of organic producers are some instances these may be joint fair smallholders, although there are also some tr a d e / o r ganic initiatives. The collaboration l a rge fincas engaged in organic cocoa, sugar between Equal Exchange and the Union of and coffee production. Organic pro d u c t i o n Indigenous Communities of the Isthmus c u rrently generates $70 million per year in Region (UCIRI) is one example. UCIRI were e x p o rt earnings. Joint ventures between US- the first group of farmers in Mexico to export based importers and small producers are co f fee under a fair trade label. Since then common, especially important in pro v i d i n g incomes for the 3000 farmers in 53 villages specialized inputs such as seeds, packing has doubled, enabling them to establish the materials, agronomist advice and first public bus service, the only public c e rtification (Scialabba, 2000). Mexico’s se c o n d a r y school in the area and build a p roximity to the US and its membership of community health clinic. They have also built N A F TA both contribute to its ability to tap their own community-owned clothing factory into this important export market. The (Equal Exchange, 2000). Other co-operatives, F o rest Stewardship Council has its head such as Unión de Ejidos Maravillas Ten e j a p a o ffice in Oaxaca and has a high pro f i l e and Campesinos Ecológicas de la Sierra within the country. Ma d r e de Chiapas (both in Chiapas) are st r uggling to gain entry for their orga n i c The Ministry of Social Development is pr oduce in export markets (ITC, 1999). particularly supportive of organic agriculture and provides assistance to several producer Case study 7 – Organic and ethical banana groups. AMEA (Assn. de Agricultores pr o d u c t i o n Ecológicos) was founded in 1992 to provide an umbrella organization for the organic Bananas are the fourth most important food movement. It has influenced the Ministry of crop in the world in terms of value of Agriculture to develop a regulatory production. They are grown both as a staple framework for organic agriculture. This was and an export crop. More than 85% of established in 1995 and amended in 1997. A bananas sold on the world market come national certification body was established at from Latin America and the Caribbean, a around the same time. However, the Mexican trade which generates export earnings of regulatory framework has not achieved more than $4 billion for the region. More equivalence with EU standards, so external than 80% of bananas destined for export inspection agencies are still used for produce come from large plantations using destined for European markets. Some conventional farming methods and relying European buyers and certifiers have now set heavily upon chemical fertilizers and sprays. up regional offices in Mexico, including There are environmental concerns about the Naturland, the world’s largest coffee certifier. effects of intensive farming and deforestation in these areas, which are exceptionally rich in

58 wildlife and are often described as The Windward Islands were identified as ‘biodiversity hotspots.’ There are also social a particularly favourable area for organic concerns over working conditions within banana production. With a relative absence plantations and over the effect of of Black Sigatoka, they also have an existing liberalization of global markets in exposing banana culture, networks of farmers small-scale producers, especially in the associations and young farmers who appear Caribbean, to competition from larger scale, interested in pursuing organic production. more cost-efficient plantations. In response The removal of ‘favoured trading’ status with to these concerns a number of different the EU provides an incentive for these islands certification schemes are emerging. These to seek alternative markets and there is a include organic, fair trade and possibility of linking organic production with ‘environmentally friendly’ labels, and eco tourism initiatives. combinations of these. Elsewhere in Latin America the Rainforest The Dominican Republic has been an Alliance and Fairtrade Labelling important innovator in organic production. Organization have joined forces to create the Its experiences hold valuable lessons for ‘Better Banana Project’ (BBP), the world’s other countries in the Caribbean considering largest eco-labelling system for bananas. adopting pro-organic policies. In 1999 a Criteria for inclusion cover environmental workshop on the production and marketing and social considerations. These include: of organic bananas was held to review the experiences of the Dominican Republic and • Eliminating use of the most harmful assess their relevance and replicability pesticides and encouraging overall elsewhere in the Caribbean. A number of reduction in pesticide use. technical and social issues were identified: • Implementation of soil conservation, • Problems of controlling Black Sigatoka, a waste management and wildlife protection fungal disease, which affects bananas. The plans and reforestation programmes, Cavendish variety, one of the most widely particularly along stream edges. grown varieties, is particularly susceptible to this disease, but can be substituted by • Provision of decent wages, safety other more resistant varieties. equipment and training for workers, and of medical care, housing and education • The urgent need to provide training to for the families. farmers considering conversion. One recommended avenue for this is the To date more than 150 farms, across four selection of ‘leader farmers’ as focal points countries (Ecuador, Panama, Colombia and for training and using them to disseminate Costa Rica) have joined the scheme. Between this knowledge in their communities. them they cover 74,000 hectares. Dozens more small farms in Honduras and • The use of producer co-ops to overcome Guatemala have enrolled and are in the certification costs was recommended, as process of complying with requirements. was the development of links between the BBP production now exceeds 60 million organic and fair trade movements, to boxes per year, about 10% of the total improve market access and premia. Where export production in Latin America and the possible the same certifiers should be used Caribbean. Some of the largest banana to reduce costs. producers have joined the scheme. Chiquita Brands International are committed to

The Real Green Revolution 59 certifying all of their plantations by the end compete with ‘environmentally friendly’ of 2001, and Reybancorp, the second largest ones, and both attempt to set minimum banana producer in Ecuador, has also signed social criteria for inclusion within their up to the scheme. The scheme is not only labelling programmes. Consumer and aimed at large plantations but also includes customer recognition of these different many co-operatives of smaller producers. brands will prove to be a particularly important test. The interplay and competition between (S o u r ces FAO, 2000b & c; Holderness et al. 2000; these different labelling systems may raise Scialabba 2000; Wille, 2000.) interesting questions, as organic systems

60 4.1 – Productivity and sustainability 4 – Key themes OAA differs from conventionally intensive In this section we explore the main benefits ag r i c u l t u r e in that it seeks to achieve optimal of, and obstacles to, the uptake of OAA in the sustainable yields rather than maximizing South. The first four of these themes relate to output. Perceptions of the potential of the natural world, focusing on agricultural or ganic farming to meet world food demand and ecological aspects of OAA. First, we have largely been based upon the experience examine evidence reg a r ding comparative (in the industrialised world) of conversion yields from OAA and conventional systems fr om one system (and set of aims) to the and discuss alternative approaches to ot h e r . Transitions to organic farming have evaluating farm perfo r mance. Second, we turn th e re f o r e often resulted in a net loss of yields to look at what we believe to be a key being rec o r ded, often by as much as 15% defining characteristic of OAA, the prom o t i o n (G r olink, 1999). These declines are most and maintenance of agrob i o d i v e r s i t y , that is marked in the initial years of conversion, biodiversity within farming systems. We then when soil fertility needs to be built up and the tu r n to examine issues of promoting and fa r mer has to learn new management maintaining soil fertility and of natural forms strategies. They are also more noticeable with of pest and disease control. some crop types, particularly grain. In the industrialised world, declining yields and the The second set of themes relates to the social resultant loss of income to the farmer can world and examines the social, economic and often be compensated for through a political benefits and challenges associated combination of state subsidies (justified on with the adoption of OAA. In the first en v i r onmental grounds) and premia for instance, we look at the issues of trade and or ganic produce. With the exception of the market premia, paying particular reg a r d to pr emia available through export markets, the question of the orientation of trade neither of these safety nets is generally (between local and international markets), available in the South. Thus, a conventional and the implications that this has for wisdom has emerged that countries with pr oducers wishing to develop the capacity to pr essing food security problems would be ill add value at a local level. We also examine the advised to contemplate a shift to orga n i c complex and sometimes contentious issues practices and that farmers would suffer if su r rounding certification where there appear they were to adopt these practices (see to be inherent tensions between maintaining Woo d w a r d, 1998). FAO identify this as ef fective and verifiable quality assurance possibly the single biggest factor holding back without inhibiting the participation of small the development of the organic movement: pr oducer groups. In the final two sections we revisit some of the questions raised in prev i o u s ‘most people in all kinds of areas, including chapters that concern ‘macro’ and ‘micro’ scientists, researchers, extension workers and influences on the adoption of OAA. These politicians strongly believe that organic range from the policy orientations of agriculture is not a feasible option to go v e r nments to more finely-textured local improve food security’. FAO (1998, p.12) factors. We pay particular attention to the im p o r tance of developing approp r i a t e This belief however is largely misplaced, as it methods for tapping into existing layers of is underpinned by the erroneous assumption knowledge where it exists, augmenting it that farmers in the South will be converti n g wh e r e req u i r ed and promoting its transfer, fr om ‘intensive’ systems. In what is prob a b l y wh e r e it is incomplete or absent. the majority of instances, this is not the case. What then is the effect of switching from non-

The Real Green Revolution 61 intensive, and often under-capitalized farmi n g In this res e a r ch we have found many examples systems to organic methods? There is as yet wh e r e the adoption of OAA has led to in s u f ficient evidence to provide conclusive significantly increased yields. Table 4.1 (over) answers, largely due to the relative infancy of pr ovides examples of such evidence. Whilst not the organic movement and the lack of a comprehensive review of comparative comparative res e a r ch in this area (Scialabba, studies, it does suggest that in many 1998). In general however, it is thought that ci r cumstances the adoption of OAA can OAA can bring significant increases in yields significantly increase yields, particularly in in comparison to conventional farmi n g comparison to unimproved traditional practices. Compared to ‘Green Revolution’ practices. Case study 8 (over), provides a more fa r ming systems, OAA is thought to be detailed illustration of two new approaches to neutral in terms of yields, although it brings rice cultivation which have had significant other benefits, such as reducing the need for impacts on yields and disease resistance. ex t e r nal inputs (Grolink, 2000).

Table 4.1 – Examples of yield increases attributable to adoption of OAA

Altieri (2001) quotes several examples from Latin America where adoption or rec r eation of OAA has res u l t e d in significantly increased yields for farmers. In Brazil the use of green manures and cover crops in maize/wheat cropping systems has led to increases in yields of between 20-250%. Similar yield increases for maize crops have been achieved in Guatemala and Honduras through the use of soil conservation and gree n manuring. In Peru, the restoration of traditional Incan terraces has led to increases in the order of 150% in a range of upland crops. In Mexico, Oaxacan co-operatives have seen similar yield increases in their coffe e ha r vest through adaptation of composting, contour planting and terracing.

Edwards (2000) co m p a r es figures from composted, chemically fertilized and unimproved (control) plots in Tigray from 1997-8 (see case study 9). In all instances composting led to yield increases of between 3 and 5 times the untreated plots. Yields on the composted plots were generally better than on the chemically fe r tilized ones. Figures in parenthesis show the range of yields for composted plots in comparison to ar tificially fertilized ones: Barley (+9 / -0.5%); Wheat (+20 / -0.2%); Maize (+7 / -21%); Tef (+107%); Finger millet (+3%); Kerka’ta (-8%). Due to shortages of compostable material, only half the recommended rate of 16 tonnes / ha. of compost was applied on most plots and the full potential of the organic approach was not realized in these trials.

Hödtke, et al. (undated) experimented in Brazil on intercr opping maize with legumes (Vigna unguiculata and Canavalis ensiformis) and ploughing these back in as green manures. They found that grain yield and total ni t r ogen content of leaves were significantly increa s e d .

Ogol et al. (1999) found that alley cropping systems in Kenya reduced pest numbers in comparison to mo n o c r opping and yields were higher despite planting densities in the alley cropping systems being 25% lo w e r .

Rist (2000) rep o r ts on AGRUCO’s development and extension work with ‘de facto’ organic farmers in Bolivia, which has increased potato yields by 20% and more.

Sharma (2000) rep o r ts yield increases of 175% on farms in Nepal adopting agroecological management strategies (crops not specified).

Soto-Pinto et al. (2000) studied outputs from shade-grown coffee production in Mexico and found that shaded groves had yields 23-38% higher than exposed plots. The role of trees in harbouring predators of pests and diffusing sunlight are thought to be the main contributory factors.

Wai (1995) rep o r ts on work at a demonstration farm on reclaimed saline land near Lahore (Pakistan). This incorporated a number of techniques including fish farming, affo r estation and a biogas digester for fe r menting slurry and manure. Rice yields were 23% greater than under conventional systems and wheat yields 25% higher.

62 • The third change is that of spacing plants Case study 8 – New developments in rice more widely apart, at densities of 15-20 production per square metre as opposed to the 50- 100 common in other systems. This Two recent developments in rice production provides individual plants with a larger techniques from different sides of the globe area from which to draw nutrients and the show the importance of innovation and opportunity to develop a more robust root experimentation with new techniques for system. growing the most important staple crop in the world. • The fourth change is that of periodic drying of fields. From observation and System of Rice Intensification (SRI) discussions with local farmers, Father Ma d a g a s c a r Laulanie began experimenting with SRI was initially discovered by a development periodic drying of fields so that they were aid worker, Father Henri du Laulanie, and not continually submerged. It is thought has been subsequently developed by an NGO, that this changed practice contributes to Associacion Tefy Saina, and two Malagy plant development through increasing Universities. Its methods have led to aeration and subjecting the plant to remarkable increases in yields, from the 2-3 periodic (but not excessive) stress, which tons per hectare common in most parts of encourages growth. Ma d a g a s c a r , to yields of 6, 8, or 10 tons per he c t a r e. This has been achieved on nutrient • This system involves more regular weeding deficient, acidic soils. SRI uses commonly than flooded paddy systems, which available germplasm but changes rice su p p r ess weed growth. Experiments have cultivation techniques in fundamental ways, shown that greater frequency of weeding described below. also helps plant development due to gr eater aeration of the roots of the plant. • The first of these was discovered by accident, as a result of attempting to • Finally, SRI is practised using manures double production from a seed nursery in and composts. Initially chemical fertilizers response to a drought that threatened to were used, but as prices rose in the 1980s shorten the growing season. Rice seedlings experiments with compost were were transplanted after 15 days, as undertaken. It has not yet been established opposed to the normal 30. The plants did whether compost and natural fertilizers so well that the technique was repeated are more or less effective in this system again in subsequent years and further than artificial inputs. experiments were done planting at 12, 10 and 8 days, all producing positive results. IRS has evolved over almost twenty years in Madagascar and been used in many different • The second change in practice is planting ecological and climatic conditions. Farmers single seedlings rather than the using SRI on the borders of a national park conventional practice of planting groups of (with particularly poor soils) have recorded th r ee or four, which is designed to ensure yields 50-60% higher than those on su r vival of at least one or two plants. More demonstration farms in fertile areas managed ca r e has to be taken with single planting, by private companies experimenting with but if done properly it encourages stron g e r input intensive systems and hybrid seeds. and more vigorous plants, throu g h Labour inputs for SRI are significantly higher reducing intra-species competition. than under conventional systems, but are

The Real Green Revolution 63 more than rewarded. Farms with labour area, the more effective the technique shortages find that it is more profitable to became. Gross income per hectare increased cultivate part of their land under SRI rather by 15%, not including savings on fungicides, than the whole farm under conventional and there was a reduction of fungicide runoff management techniques. While spectacular, into local water-courses. Though not the successes of SRI have not yet been fully necessarily an organic production system, the explained. Uphoff provides rationales for experiment demonstrates the benefits of the some of the success of this approach, though application of one of the principles of OAA – others require further research and the promotion of diversity. explanation. Regular weeding and aeration (S o u r ce: Stott, 2000) appear to be strongly correlated with yields, but the synergies between the different Indicators used to evaluate conventional elements of the management techniques are agriculture often give primacy to single crop not yet fully understood. More critically, SRI yields as the main criterion of efficiency. Yet has not yet been experimented with, nor the such measures are often inappropriate for results replicated, outside Madagascar. both organic and traditional forms of Agronomists have arguably been wary of farming. As noted earlier, traditional farmers taking up research that challenges orthodox are often more concerned with avoiding risk practice. The rice research community is now rather than maximizing output. Farmers beginning to respond to these challenges by often sow different varieties of the same crop attempting to replicate and explain these to insure against the risk of drought or successes. The evolution of these systems disease. They do so knowing that their yields illustrates the potential of farmer / NGO-led will be lower, but that they are minimizing experimentation to evolve new farming exposure to the calamity of losing a whole approaches with potentially wider harvest. Equally, farmers may well choose applicability. lower-yielding grain varieties if they have other desirable characteristics. For example, (S o u r ce: Uphoff, 1999; Pretty and Hine, 2001b) in India many farmers choose varieties of rice Intercropping as a strategy against disease that produce good quality fodder for The second innovation is a system of inter- livestock and an acceptable grain yield cropping developed by Prof. Chris Mundt (Shiva, 1995, p.85). (Oregon State University) and the International Rice Research Institute. Single crop yields are not the only criteria by Farmers in Yunnan Province (China), were which agricultural productivity should be persuaded to interplant their traditional judged. Other ‘output based’ approaches such sticky rice crop, prone to the fungal disease as net farm prod u c t i v i t y , ret u r n to capital, rice blast, with a disease resistant hybrid. land or labour, are also important indicators The two varieties were planted in alternating of farm prod u c t i v i t y . These measures are blocks and the hybrid seeds acted as firewall likely to be more relevant to small-scale against the disease. In the first year of the fa r mers growing a range of crops, often from experiment rice blast was reduced by 94% limited res o u r ces. One study in South India and yields were up by 89%. Neighbouring co m p a r ed seven paired farms (one ecological townships joined the experiment the and one conventional) with similar following year and by the end of this period, ag r oecological characteristics and market 60,000 ha of rice were being grown by this orientations. It found no significant economic method. Fungicides (previously applied eight di ff e r ences between the two sets of farms , times a season) were no longer required and with gross income and margins, variable it was found that the larger the experimental costs, net cash income, days of labour per

64 land unit and ret u r ns to labour all within a and capital); and social aspects (e.g. equity, similar range. The two sets of farms did, community participation, food self- ho w e v e r , vary in a number of other res p e c t s . sufficiency) (ibid.). Ecological farmers cultivated a broader range of crops with more mixed intercro p p i n g , The aim of this approach is not to provide systems using a wider range of species and a ‘single index’-based comparison between mo r e varieties of the same species. The different farming systems (which would ecological farmers were less dependent upon inevitably involve value judgements about ex t e r nal sources of nutrients and used a wider the weighting given to different measures), range of techniques to maintain soil ferti l i t y but to be able to compare how different on a larger and more efficient scale. There farming systems perform according to these we r e no significant diffe r ences between yields criteria. Use of the FARMS programme on the two sets of farms, with the exception (Chinnakonda, 1997) enables intra and inter- of rice yields, which were higher on the regional comparisons to be made against ecological farms (der Wer f 1993). baseline sustainability criteria

Whilst comparative evaluations of farm Studies employing this methodology are productivity are important in assessing cu r rently being carried out with partn e r returns to farmers in the short to medium or ganizations in ten countries across the term, broader and longer term measures of South: in Africa (Ethiopia and Kenya); Asia sustainability also need to be considered. Of (China, India, Nepal, The Philippines, Sri particular interest are those which take into Lanka) and Latin America (Costa Rica, El account the ‘environmental services obtained Salvador and Nicaragua). Some initial res u l t s from complex, integrated agroecological fr om the first phases of these comparative systems featuring many crop varieties su r veys were presented at IFOAM 2000. together with trees and animals’ (Altieri, Chinnakonda and Lanting (2000) describe 2001, p.1). Conventional measures of farm some of the initial findings. They identify some outputs and returns tend to neglect these general criteria of sustainability where orga n i c non-monetized aspects of farm productivity, fa r ms perfo r m better than conventional ones. although they are critical in maintaining These include energy use, nutrient source s , productive capacity. New measures are being mixed cropping and the generation of developed which take such features into livestock feed. In low-rainfall areas, the use account. A partnership project between of organic matter is a crucial determinant of IFOAM, LEISA and FAO is developing a su s t a i n a b i l i t y , as it plays a central role in universal methodology for comparing farm helping reduce loss of soil moisture. In humid performance against parameters of zones with high levels of tree cover, both sustainability.38 The factors considered in this or ganic and conventional farms exhibit high model include: capital assets; renewable levels of biodiversity. Organic and energy use; energy, water and nutrient conventional farmers within the same area s balances; organic vs. chemical nutrients; also exhibit similar levels of dependency on organic matter applied; market dependence; ex t e r nal inputs and markets, suggesting that external input dependence; area under trees; pr evailing market systems influence these number of species; and degree of mixed parameters more than the farming methods cropping (Witte 1999). In addition, wider adopted. Interes t i n g l y , the study also found a impacts of the farm and farming system are lower participation rate of women and considered, including: agricultural succeeding generations within organic farms , biodiversity; environmental impacts; financial leading the authors to question the performance (productivity of land, labour sustainability of organic farms as enterprizes.

The Real Green Revolution 65 These findings are prel i m i n a r y and based upon services beyond the production of food, a limited number of case studies where including the recycling of nutrients, su f ficient data has been gathered and regulation of microclimate and local pr ocessed. This res e a r ch programme, still in its hydrological processes, suppression of early stages, has the potential for providing a undesirable organisms and detoxification ‘system’ rather than output-oriented analysis of of noxious chemicals.’ (p.19) the perfo r mance of agricultural approa c h e s . 39 In time, it may provide a more informed basis The emphasis that proponents of OAA lay for evaluating the contested benefits and upon maintaining and enhancing diversity is drawbacks of organic and conventional in stark contrast with the monocultural fa r ming systems in a range of agroe c o l o g i c a l approach favoured by industrial models of contexts. Some of the diffe r ences in the agriculture. It has much more in common parameters may only become visible in the with traditional farming systems which longer term. Indicators such as soil fertility employ strategies which ‘have more to do and biodiversity can only really be assessed with minimizing the risk of failure rather over the medium to long term. Others, such than maximizing yield per se’ (Kinnon and as yields and ret u r ns also req u i r e a longer-t e r m Bayo, 1989 p.58). Two specific forms of ‘risk perspective and need to be averaged over a reduction strategy’ employed by traditional number of years, as they are influenced by farmers across the world are set out in Table exogenous factors such as climate and, in the 4.2 (over). Each has a compelling logic for later instance, market conditions. traditional farmers and emphasizes the importance of maintaining sustained yields in 4.2 – Organic agriculture and diversity preference to maximizing outputs. The maintenance and promotion of diversity is arguably the single key defining Different levels of sophistication may exist in characteristic of OAA. According to Altieri the employment of both phased and mixed (1999) there are a number of reasons why cropping regimes. In some cases, simple diversity is important within individual combinations of two or three crops may be agroecosystems. used to spread risk, maintain soil cover, suppress weeds, increase soil fertility and/or ‘Research suggests that the level of internal deter pests. An illustration of how regulations of function in agroecosystems is agrobiodiversity at this simple level helps largely dependent on the level of plant and maintain ecosystem stability is shown in animal diversity present. In agroecosystems, Table 4.3, which compares annual rates of biodiversity performs a variety of ecological topsoil loss in Nigeria under a monoculture

Table 4.2 – Risk-reduction strategies of traditional farmers

Mixed planting: Phased planting

En s u r es a continuing and varied supply of food Minimizes risks, especially from climatic th r oughout the year. un c e r tainties.

In c r eases overall production units per area. Pr ovides phased harvests.

Helps reduce incidences of pests and diseases. Evens out labour demand over the year.

Enables planting to take account of soil variations. Reduces land preparation costs

Pr ovides soil cover against eros i o n . Pr ovides ground cover.

Assists with weed control and reduces labour inputs.

Adopted from Kinnon and Bayo, (1989)

66 Table 4.3 – Annual soil loss (tons/hectare) at Ibadan, Nigeria

Cassava Slope (%) Cassava only and maize Difference

1 3 3 0%

5 87 50 43 %

10 12 5 86 32 %

15 22 1 13 7 38 %

Aina et al. (cited in Kinnon et Bayo, 1989). of cassava and under a joint cassava/maize the topsoil and reduces runoff, suppresses regime. On slopes of 5% or more the inter- other weeds, is used as fodder or bedding cropping system resulted in soil loss rates for animals and then returned to the land as between 30-40% less than the monoculture, compost (Pandeya, 1995). as the former provides more effective and continuous ground cover. Thus inter- Studies by the International Institute of cropping has an important role to play in Tropical Agriculture have found that basic helping safeguard the existence of the cereals (such as maize and cassava) primary natural resource upon which intercropped with ‘Egusi’ melon agriculture depends – the topsoil. (Cucumerospis mannii) need weeding only once every two to three weeks instead of Intercropping can also have major benefits weekly. The ground cover provided by the for weed control, a major problem in most ‘Egusi’ suppresses weed growth until the agricultural systems. In some places the melons are harvested, by which time the laborious work of hand-weeding can account cereals have established themselves and for more than 80% of labour demand in developed their own canopies (Akobundu, traditional low input farming systems 1993). Other experiments have shown (Abbiw, 1989). In other areas the labour mulching to reduce weed biomass by up to required for weed control constrains the 90% (Thijssen 1995). Mulching can also amount of land that families choose to farm. contribute to changes in the composition of Use of cover crops or ‘live mulches’ can weeds. In an inter-cropping system (involving significantly reduce the burden of weeding, Gliricidia, Leucaena and Cassia species) in freeing up time for other, more productive Kenya, weed composition changed from activities. Blench (1997) identifies a number grasses to broad-leaved weeds, which are far of leguminous species which are being used easier to control (ibid.). to improve fallows and control weeds. Species used include the velvet bean (Mucuna The effectiveness and choice of intercropping spp.), jack bean (Canavalia ensiformis), systems depends upon many factors. Blench tropical kudzu (Pueraria phaseoloides), and (1997) argues that the multi-functionality of perennial peanuts (Arachis pintoi). The these crops are important factors in practice of using velvet bean is to control determining their attractiveness to farmers. imperata grass (Imperata spp.), which is Many of these crops, such as the ‘Egusi’ spreading throughout Togo, Benin and melon, the high altitude scarlet runner bean Columbia. Velvet and jack beans are being (Phaseolus coccineus) and the widely used used in Panama to control paja blanca velvet bean (Mucuna spp.), also produce (Saccharum spp) and nutgrass in several food for human consumption. Others other countries. In Nepal, gandhejhar is left provide animal feed. In Campeche (Mexico), in fields until ploughing starts. It stabilizes the seed of the velvet bean is cooked, ground

The Real Green Revolution 67 and mixed with maize to provide pig fodder, water. The deep rooting systems of trees help and while most leguminous mulches do not recycle nutrients by returning leached cations graze well, they can be cut and used for to the soil as leaf litter. The ability of certain fodder after even months of drought (ibid. species to survive the dry season and and Abbiw, 1989). maintain their green leaves means that there will be active roots in the soil when there is At a more complex level, experiments a flush of mineralized nitrogen at the start of conducted by the International Centre for the rains. The roots act as a safety net Insect Physiology and Ecology (see section capturing the nitrogen that would otherwise 3.1) illustrate how mixed cropping and the be leached away.’ use of ‘host’ and ‘trap’ crops can contribute to pest control, suppress weeds and provide Trees also serve other functions, providing valuable additional forage for cattle. More the farm with fuel and construction sophisticated practices such as ‘alley materials, attracting birds and wildlife and cropping’, involve planting parallel lines of ‘providing shade for livestock and people’ legumes, staple crops and bushes, together (Kenyan farmer, quoted in Collis, 2000). In with nitrogen fixing and/or fruit bearing Kenya the International Research Centre into trees. Such systems are widely employed in Agroforestry is doing research and extension different parts of the world, with alley work on the use of leguminous tree fallows cropping methods recorded in Brazil which recycle 100-150 kg nitrogen per tree (Bertalot et al.., 2000), Cameroon (Adesina p.a.. They have also introduced species from et al., 2000), Kenya (Ogol et al., 1999), Mexico, which provide animal fodder at low Nigeria (Cashman, 1987) and Sri Lanka cost, increasing milk and manure yields (see (Sangakkara and Ratnayake, 1989). Kho section 3.1). In the area around Debre Zeit (2000) suggests that alley intercropping (Shoa Province, Ethiopia), self-seeded Acacia would be viable in around 15% of land in Albida trees are maintained by peasant the tropics. He suggests that such systems farmers who recognize their capacity to have significant benefits for nitrogen enrich and stabilize the soil and provide retention/accumulation, but not for other fodder (Harrison, 1987). Research from nutrients. Alley cropping can have some Senegal (see table 4.4), shows the beneficial drawbacks in that trees may compete with effect of this species on millet protein yields. crops for scarce water supplies. Islam and Weil (2000) found that reafforestation with acacia species in Trees can play a key role in helping maintain Bangladesh significantly improved soil the diversity and productivity of farms. As quality. However a similar study in Costa Edwards (2000, p.8) notes: Rica found agroforestry systems had not significantly improved soils compared to ‘In windy areas the windbreak effect of trees adjacent pastureland (Tournquist, 1999). can significantly reduce the loss of water This suggests that agroforestry is not a through evapotranspiration. Trees also universal panacea. In general however, maintain and restore soil fertility and control intercropping of trees and annual crops erosion. Their leaves can be used as fodder produces a number of beneficial synergies, as well as for composting. They provide soil illustrated in Figure 4.1 which shows the cover when the pruned branches and leaves influence of trees on the growing are left on the soil. These increase soil environment of maize in Tlaxacal, Mexico. nutrients, suppress weeds and improve soil structure. Tree roots help bind the soil Despite the known beneficial effects of trees together and promote the infiltration of in the farm environment, tree cover in arid

68 Table 4.4 – Effects of A. Albida on millet yield in Senegal

Near tree trunk Edge of tree canopy Outside tree canopy

Millet protein yield (kg/ha) 18 0 84 52 fr om Charreau and Vidal (cited in Kinnon et Bayo, 1989) zones is being lost at an alarming rate. Kenya (Maathai, 1986) have a specific focus Climate change, pressure from overgrazing on encouraging tree planting on a and the over-riding need for fuel are all community basis. Other institutes, such as contributory factors. Once lost, tree cover is the International Centre for Research into usually difficult to re-establish. Moreover, the Agroforestry (Collis, 2000) and the Henry division of administrative responsibilities Doubleday Research Association (Harris et between farming on the one hand and al., 1989) undertake research and extension forestry on the other, means that there is work on the tolerance and effectiveness of rarely much governmental support for different species of tree. Badejo (1998) dispersed tree planting programmes. Some identifies more thirty species of trees endemic NGOs, such as the Green Belt Movement in to savannah ecosystems, which play a major

Figure 4.1 – Influence of trees on maize cropping in Tlaxacal (Mexico)

(f r om Farrell, 1984, reprinted in Farrell, 1987)

The Real Green Revolution 69 role in increasing fodder available to sepa with pepper. Pepper as a climbing plant livestock, provide coppicing materials and in particularly suits to be integrated into many instances have nitrogen-fixing capacity. agroforestry systems (sic); it climbs on fruit trees most of the time. This way the farmer One piece of research from South India, makes double the profit from one area (fruits comparing seven pairs of ‘conventional’ and and spices) and takes no economic risk in ‘ecological’ farms found that the greatest case of bad pepper prices. The bottom layer difference in the agronomic characteristics of is planted with low growing species, in terms the farms was the density of tree cover. of spices, cardamom (which prospers in Ecological farms had an average tree density woody structures), ginger or turmeric; in of almost 200 per hectare, but conventional terms of fruit pineapple or starchy plants like ones less than 40 per hectare (der Werf, colocasie (Colacasia esculenta) and cassava 1993). This suggests that organic farmers (Manihot esculenta).’ more fully appreciate the multi-functional benefits of trees than their conventional General overviews of the extent and range of counterparts. Our impression is that there is agroforestry across the world can be found insufficient research in this area, that in Farrell (1987) and Egger (2000). While extension services are lacking and that both there is a long history of research in this area activities are poorly integrated with (see for example; Ruthenberg, 1971), it was agricultural development programmes. until recently thought that ‘these systems (while) of great historic interest, could not Ag ro f o re s t r y provides an example of the most provide any advice for actual agricultural diverse and complex type of agroe c o s y s t e m . development’ (Egger, op. cit.). The Ag ro f o re s t r y systems consciously mimic the International Centre for Research in mu l t i - s t o r eyed patterns of surrounding fores t s . Agroforestry (ICRAF) in Nairobi exists to They have nearly closed cycles of biomass and promote and disseminate information and nutrient production, provide year-ro u n d research in this field. supplies of food, and permanent ground cover (H a r rison, 1987). Crops are grown at Ag ro f o re s t r y systems tend to be more closely di ff e r ent heights, with the tree canopy aligned with agroecological than orga n i c managed so as to provide both shaded and pr oduction, although several ‘agrof o re s t r y sunny areas. The density of vegetation assists systems’ are organically certified, including with microclimatic regulation in terms of the Chagga (for their coffee) and the Meru te m p e r a t u r e, humidity and rainfall absorption. (for dried herbs). ‘Shade-grown’ coffee and The case study of the Chagga Home Garde n s cocoa, even if not certified as organic, also pr ovides but one example of the complexity generate premia from environ m e n t a l l y - and diversity of agrof o re s t r y systems. Hampl minded consumers in the North and (2000, p.427) describes the complexity of a contribute to maintaining biodiversity (Johns, typical agrof o re s t r y spice field in Zanzibar: 1999). Soto-Pinto et al. (2000) identify several benefits of shade-grown coffee prod u c t i o n ‘The highest layer of 20m height is composed systems in Mexico, which help reduce pest of coconut trees and various fruit trees such pr oblems and, through filtering excessive as malayan apples (Eugania jambos), mango sunlight, contribute to yield increases. They fruit (Mangifera indica), jackfruit calculate optimal shade cover as being (Artocarpus heterophylla) etc. The between 23 and 48% with yields declining at succeeding layer of clove trees is about 12- higher shade densities, although this figure 15m high; below that grow papayas (Carica pr obably varies according to heat/sunlight papaya), banana trees and often Glyricidia intensities in diffe r ent climatic zones.

70 Although agroforestry systems normally plant species worldwide provide 90 per cent result from human management of existing of the calories used to feed the world’ (Soule forests, there are several examples of such et al., 1990, cited in Kirschenman, 1998). systems being established from cleared land. In this respect, it might be argued that poor In Burma in the 1930s, the landless poor peasant farmers do more to maintain global were encouraged to plant food crops for a biodiversity and the resilience of the gene period of four years on cleared forest land. pool than publicly and privately funded No rent was charged for the use of the plot, institutions put together. They do so out self- instead the farmers were obliged to plant and interest. The use of what Blench (1998) protect young trees for this period, thus terms ‘minority and neglected species’ is a enabling regeneration of the forests. In necessary survival strategy for many farmers, Brazil, recent experimental work using especially those maintaining a livelihood in agroforestry techniques has led to the harsh, marginal environments. rehabilitation of cleared land into productive and diverse usage, without the use of ‘(Minority) species are strongly associated external inputs (Peneireiro et al.., 2000). with marginal environments; regions where extreme heat, poor soils and access problems Ag ro f o re s t r y systems generally exhibit a make the large scale production of world gr eat range of species diversity. For example, crops and livestock uneconomic. These the Chagga cultivate 39 species of woody (species) play a disproportionately large role tr ees and shrubs, and 15 varieties of bananas in food security strategies. Plants that will in their home gardens (Fernandes, undated). grow in infertile or degraded soils, and In West Java, res e a r chers have identified more livestock that will eat degraded vegetation, than 230 species of plant within a dual are often critical to household nutritional cr opping system, which includes strategies.’ (ibid.) ‘a g ro f o re s t r y’ home gardens and outfields (Christanty et al., 1986 cited in Blench, Recent years have seen a growing interest 1998). In Mexico, the Huastec Indians amongst Southern-based NGOs in manage a number of plots (home garde n s , developing and maintaining seed exchange fo r est plots, and agricultural and fallow networks. In so doing they are formalizing fields) in which up to 300 species are a strategy that resource poor farmers have cultivated. Areas around the house may practised for millennia. In Peru for example, contain between 80-125 useful species, many indigenous farmers cultivate more than three with medicinal prop e r ties (Alcorn, 1984, cited thousand varieties of potato. More than five in Altieri, 2001). Local knowledge of the thousand varieties of sweet potato are pro p e r ties and characteristics of such a cultivated in Papua New Guinea (Shiva, diverse range of species rep r esents a 2001). In southeast Ethiopia, the Konso significant rep o s i t o r y of knowledge, often cultivate 49 species of plant, shrub and tree, orally maintained, which has potential global and 24 different species have been counted significance. In this respect the discipline of within one 0.2 hectare field (Harrison, ethnobotany has much to contribute to the 1987). Such diversity has only been achieved pr omotion and dissemination of knowledge through constant exchange, development and reg a r ding OAA. experimentation with seed varieties, where peasant farmers select and adapt the most The diversity of species maintained within suitable varieties to grow under a range of traditional farming systems is in stark conditions. Today more formalized, better- contrast to the dominant pattern of intensive documented, approaches to seed exchange agricultural practice, in which ‘15 varieties of are being developed.

The Real Green Revolution 71 Several of the NGOs responding to our plants, but also to livestock. Animals play a survey see their work in developing seed cr ucial role in the strategies of many peasant exchange networks as a key activity, crucial fa r mers, converting otherwise inedible to maintaining the productive resource base vegetable matter to protein, providing much- available to farmers (see, for example, case needed manure and also often acting as beasts study 6 on the World Food Day Farmers’ of burden. Their role in recycling nutrients and Fishermen’s Movement in Indonesia). In and maintaining soil fertility is parti c u l a r l y many cases, seed exchanges are organized im p o r tant and is considered below. through ‘market days’, where farmers can bring seeds and swap experiences (Shiva, As with crops, the conventional focus upon 1995; Intermediate Technology Research high-yielding animal species, which also Group, 1999). In other cases there is an often require high inputs, has led to the emphasis on building national databases neglect of ‘minority species’ which are often from existing, but often orally maintained, more adapted to local habitats and local and regional knowledge. For example, agroecological circumstances (Blench, 1998). in India, Navdanya have established a The FAO has documented 5,000 Community Agricultural Biodiversity domesticated livestock and poultry breeds, of Register. This has been developed to facilitate which one third are in danger of extinction. exchange of information, protect endangered It is believed that these indigenous species are plant varieties and most importantly, currently disappearing at a rate of one a establish intellectual property ownership week (Anon, 2001). In many instances such rights for the Indian peasantry (Shiva, op. cit. species play a central role in maintaining the p.78).40 Shortly after its establishment it had economic well-being and cultural identity of already recorded 250 varieties of rice in use marginal farming or pastoralist communities by peasant farmers across India, as well as (see for example Köhler-Rollefson; Rathore; dozens of varieties of other grains and pulses. Yakshi et al.., all 2001). Locally preferred species, which require low inputs and are Whilst the use of traditional seeds and adapted to specific socio-ecological niches varieties has a very important role within are often neglected from research OAA, this does not mean that there is no programmes (Blench, 1998).41 Such role for the development of new species. programmes often focus upon issues such as Indeed there is a potential for developing how to introduce and adapt species that have synergies between traditional and scientific proven successful under high input systems in approaches. A new coffee variety, Ruiri 11, the industrialised world (ibid.). In so doing which is pest-resistant and does not require they ignore both the multifunctional role of any chemical spraying, has been developed animals within the domestic economy and by the Coffee Research Foundation. After the inappropriateness of promoting high some initial scepticism this variety has now input/high output into low input economies. been adopted with considerable success by one in three Kenyan smallholders (Gathimbu, In India, attempts are being made to preserve 2000). Successes such as this appear and reintroduce indigenous species and to relatively isolated however, with Southern improve and develop relevant (and low cost) NGOs increasingly vigilant to the threat of animal husbandry techniques (Daniel, 1989; ‘biopiracy’ (Shiva, 1985) Harbola and Kumar, 2000; Köhler-Rollefson; Yakshi et al. and Rathore, all 2001). A recent The importance of species diversity as a international workshop, held in Rajasthan strategy within organic, agroecological and and involving NGOs, herders, scientists and traditional farming does not just apply to others, discussed the relevance of local

72 livestock breeds for sustainable rural Food movement recently established a prize development. This workshop led to the to honour and rew a r d individuals actively issuing of the ‘SADRI Declaration’, which involved in this field (Scaffadi, 2001). Of those acknowledges the importance of indigenous nominated for the first annual prize in 2000, breeds for rural development in India and half are involved in promoting traditional recommends a series of measures designed to knowledge systems of agriculture and/or enhance the survival and well-being of these methods of production in the South. In 2000, species and the peoples who depend upon nominated projects of this kind included: them (Anon 2001a). Elsewhere the importance of ethnoveterinary medicine is • A company pasteurizing and selling milk beginning to receive scientific recognition from nomadic herdsmen in Mauritania (Mathias, 2001a). An annotated bibliography of ethnoveterinary medicine is due to be • two biologists working in Mexico to published by the Intermediate Technology preserve an indigenous species of fish and Group in London.42 the ecosystem on which it depends

Two other complementary and synergistic • the promotion of traditional vanilla production systems are also worthy of cultivation in Mexico mention – those of aquaculture and apiculture. Both have long established • maintenance of an endangered bee species traditions in many different parts of the in Turkey, which produces a unique form globe. Bergleiter and Stiedle (2000) explore of honey. the potential of organic aquaculture systems 4.3 – Natural methods of enhancing soil and Stoll (2000, p.96) notes that rice/fish fe rt i l i t y inter-cropping is particularly effective in protecting rice against stemborer and Maintenance of soil fertility under organic planthoppers, and also reduces numbers of and agroecological approaches is a leafhoppers and leaffolders. Fish also help pa r ticularly complex topic, involving a wide reduce the prevalence of a number of rice range of variables. Natural variations in soil diseases and viruses such as sheath blight, types, climate, mineralization rates and bacterial leaf blight and rice stripe. Published cr opping systems all affect levels of soil evaluations of sustainable rice/fish culture fe r tility and trends of nutrient depletion or systems exist for Thailand (Mackay et al.., accumulation. The availability of local 1986) and Bangladesh (Thrupp, 1996). In res o u r ces (both on and off- f a r m) for building Ecuador an organic shrimp farming and maintaining fertility helps determine the enterprise has recently been established range of viable strategies for the maintenance (Bergleiter, 2001), an innovation which is and improvement of soil ferti l i t y . Social attracting interest from other parts of the factors influence the social approp r i a t e n e s s world, not least because of the often and acceptability of diffe r ent soil ferti l i t y catastrophic consequences of conventional management techniques. These will include: shrimp harvesting on mangrove eco-systems. the intensity of existing farming practice; Apiculture (bee-keeping) also plays a st ru c t u r e of farm holdings (including tenure significant role in farm ecosystems, and the availability and division of labour); particularly via the important role of bees levels of local knowledge and social co- in helping pollination (Weiler, 2001). operation; and the existence, or otherwise, of technical support. Unlike conventional In recognition of the vital role of biodiversity ag r i c u l t u r e with its ‘one size fits all approa c h ’ , and its pres e r vation, the Italian based Slow th e r e are no single recipes for success and

The Real Green Revolution 73 ‘extensive experimentation work and a key role in transforming otherwise inedible cr eativity are req u i re d ’ (F AO, 1998, p.10). grasses and crop residues into manure (and protein). This role is especially important Traditionally in many areas, especially in when animals are grazing marginal or more arid zones, soil fertility has been otherwise unproductive land. Mixed farming maintained by extended fallow periods, patterns incorporating livestock and cropping often in association with slash and burn are commonplace across the globe (but rare techniques. However, with growing in humid tropical zones, owing to the population pressures these fallow periods prevalence of tryponosomiasis) and might be are in many cases becoming shorter (or non- regarded as forming the basis of sustainable existent) and more proactive strategies for organic farming practice. In some areas, such managing soil fertility are required. These as Java, farmers attach as much importance may draw on traditional practices and local to the manure produced by livestock as to materials, rely on industrial inputs, or a the protein. Their strategies for managing mixture of the two. Hilhorst and Muchena livestock are geared towards maximizing (2000) identify a number of different soil manure production; essential to ‘maintaining nutrient management practices available to one of the world’s most intensive smallholder farmers (see Table 4.5, over). Although this farming systems’ (Tanner et al. 2000). The range of practices was identified as part of a management of animal waste and its use in study of nutrient dynamics in Africa, it does promoting soil fertility is a key topic in its seem to reasonably comprehensively cover own right (see, for example, Lekasi et al.. the range of options open to farmers.42 43 1998, for a discussion of strategies amongst We use it here as a basis for discussion of upland farmers in Kenya). The issue of some of the issues and constraints involved maintaining soil fertility in areas that cannot in using natural techniques as the basis for support large ruminants is more problematic. managing soil fertility. The inclusion of artificial fertilizers in Table The effectiveness and popularity of the 4.5 (above) is useful, in that it highlights techniques described below will vary some of the advantages and disadvantages ac c o r ding to natural and social constraints implicit in their use, and by extension some and opportunities. In hilly areas, and/or those of the constraints and incentives to with heavy periodic rainfall, construction of converting to OAA. This is an important bunds and terraces may well be the most issue to consider in seeking to understand im p o r tant mechanism for preventing eros i o n how farmers evaluate between the range of and maintaining the presence of topsoil. options open to them. For farmers, more Ho w e v e r , the willingness of farmers to invest concerned with obtaining a decent harvest in these labour-intensive solutions is likely to than with ecological purism, artificial depend on a number of factors – especially fertilizers are another potential tool available their security of tenure, for there is little point to support their struggle to make a living in investing heavily in land improvements if from their land. Cost and limited availability th e r e is insecurity over land rights. Such a may often be constraints on their use, but lack of security can also be a disincentive for there are other disadvantages too: they need other labour intensive approaches, such as annual applications, can get washed away in tr ee planting or double dug beds. heavy rains, potentially damage crops in dry periods and contribute to a hardening of the The availability of livestock can play a key soil. However, their consistency and the ease role in determining soil fertility management of transporting and applying them can make strategies available to farmers. Livestock play them an attractive option in some situations,

74 Table 4.5 – Nutrient management strategies

Nutrient management strategies Advantages and relevance Disadvantages and constraints

1. Adding nutrients

1.1 Fallowing Traditional method often Population pres s u r e leaves less associated with cut and burn. land available to fallow (or for less time). In response, farmers have sometimes moved to less pr oductive soils and accelerated soil degradation. Cut and burn is now discouraged by many go v e rn m e n t s .

1.2. Use of mineral ferti l i z e r s Encouraged by many Need to be purchased go v e r nments, often throu g h in advance. Price increa s e s subsidy or state orga n i z e d have restricted use in many distribution systems. Easy to places: often they are used tr a n s p o r t, apply and of only on cash crops, where consistent quality. the outlay will be recouped. They req u i r e annual application. Fa r mers may be aware of some negative effects on soil quality, especially in dry areas where they may harm (burn) crops.

1.3. Use of rock phosphates Helps recapitalize soils Works best in combination with th r ough a one-off application. other fertility techniques Cu r rently being promoted in (chemical or organic). Africa under a number of Distribution systems have prov e d di ff e r ent schemes. inadequate. Use of phosphate not An indigenous res o u r ce to fully understood by farme r s . several developing countries.

1.4. Inflows of nutrients from grazing Im p o r tant and traditional Mo r e available to wealthier farm technique of maintaining soil households who own (more) fe r tility which effi c i e n t l y cattle. Livestock less common in utilizes local res o u r ces. humid areas due to problems of disease.

1.5. Cultivation of nitrogen-fixing crops Mixed cropping incorporating As pres s u r e on land increa s e s , legumes has a long tradition. legumes are given lower priority Use of nitrogen-fixing tree s in cropping system. and leguminous species within or on the edge of fields is being pursued in some ar eas, often with considerable success.

2. Minimizing nutrient loss Advantages and relevance Disadvantages and constraints

2.1 Controlling erosion, run Th e r e is a long tradition of Historically such approaches have of fand leaching pr eventing soil eros i o n often been top down and not th r ough building bunds and been adequately maintained in te r races. In many area s ‘post project’ phases. They are in t e r est is being rev i t a l i z e d labour intensive processes and as soil erosion and nutrient mobilizing res o u r ces can be loss become more pres s i n g pr oblematic. co n c e r ns.

2.2 Trees in fields A traditional approach that Only practised in some areas. In can help stabilize soils, fix other areas extension workers nutrients, create fertile niches have encouraged tree clearance. in fields and provide timber, fodder and shelter.

The Real Green Revolution 75 2.3 Double dug beds Double digging aerates the Ver y labour intensive and only soil, improves water absorption generally used on high value and retention, prom o t e s cash crop s . st r onger root growth and encourages more ready uptake of nutrients.

3. Managing internal flows

3.1 Use of manure, slurry & urine See 1.4. above. Techniques for See 1.4 above. managing animal wastes vary considerably according to intensity of system and assets of individual farme r s . Applications do not need to be made annually.

3.2. Recycling and composting Widely used and on the Labour intensive and bulky to or ganic materials in c r ease, particularly amongst tr a n s p o r t (especially when fa r mers with little or no holdings are dispersed). livestock. Applications do not Sometimes availability is limited. need to be made annually. Quality can be variable. Often selectively used, particularly on ‘home gardens’.

3.3. Incorporating crop Im p r oves soil ferti l i t y , water Not widely used (in Africa). residues into the soil holding capacity and other Cr op residues more often soil characteristics. used for fodder. Labour intensive if done manually.

4. Increasing efficiency of nutrient uptake Advantages and relevance Disadvantages and constraints

4.1 Selecting crops to match Popular and widely used Re q u i r es detailed knowledge of soil fertility levels technique- which accords with soils and plant characteristics. mixed cropping strategies.

4.2 Concentrating nutrients Widely used in response to As above. in certain fields cr op types and accessibility of diffe r ent parts of the farms. Often used at a micro level – selectively improv i n g the quality of small areas.

4.3 Managing application of nutrient Makes careful use of scarce Can be labour intensive. to crops (organic or artificial inputs) res o u r ces by fertilizing se l e c t i v e l y , e.g. placing compost in a pit under the Zaï system.

Fr om Hilhorst and Muchena (2000)

particularly, as Hilhorst and Muchena note, problems by cooking the seeds (Dalzell et al., in remote ‘bush’ fields. 1987; Ozores–Hampton 1998). But in some areas competition for biomass can be severe. Organic techniques for improving soil Overgrazing and the need for fuel (both fertility have a number of competing wood and dung) can both exert extreme attractions: they often can be made on the pressures on local bio-productivity, leading to farm (thus obviating the need to purchase net nutrient loss and reducing the amount of inputs), their effects last for more than one available compostable and recyclable organic year, they help improve the moisture materials.46 Buerkeri et al.. (2000) argue, retaining capacity of the soil and improve quite logically, that where soils have a low soil structure. Composting can also and declining nutrient status, recycling per se significantly help with reducing weed cannot add to this. They go on to argue that

76 in such situations, inputs of artificial ecological land management techniques and fertilizers are necessary to build up soil water conservation are helping to bring back fertility (p.21). Given that these communities hope to marginal farming communities in the are likely to be resource poor in the first highlands of Tigray. place, it is not apparent how they would afford such inputs. It is not clear either, that Case study 9 – Ecological land restoration in even if they were donated, whether such Tigray inputs would represent the most appropriate form of assistance. Use of nitrogen-fixing Tigray is the northernmost province of leguminous species would arguably provide a Ethiopia. More than 85% of its population more sustainable solution than ‘fertilizer depend upon agriculture. As a result of fixes.’ Other soil amendments, such as rock serious land degradation crop yields are low. phosphate, might be used to remedy other The Tigray Agriculture Bureau (TAB) has forms of nutrient deficiency. In eastern Africa adopted the ‘Sasakowa Global 2000’ reasearch has identified shrubs (Tithonia package as a solution to these problems. diversifolia and Lantana camara), which This is based on high input-demanding contain high proportions of both nitrogen varieties and chemical fertilizers. The and phosphorous in their leaves and so can Institute for Sustainable Development (ISD), make a useful mulch and address nutrient has entered a partnership with TAB to deficiencies (Niang, 1996). experiment with alternative approaches including compost making and soil and Natural techniques for replenishing the soil water conservation through physical and can also be used to help stabilize swidden biological means. agriculture. In the north of Guatemala, farmers previously engaged in slash and burn Four small pilot areas (about 50 hectares have found that through planting velvet bean each) were selected to be rep r esentative of they can grow maize on the same fields year conditions within Tig r a y . Three were in, or after year, with some long term increases in adjacent to, mountainous areas and sparsely productivity (Blench 1997). In Ghana, populated. Soil quality and fertility levels farmers are adopting an unusual approach varied between the areas, being poor in two to stabilizing fertility – one involves densely and relatively good in one. All had planting Leucaena trees (up to 30,000 per experienced problems of vegetation loss from hectare) and lightly burning them every year- hillsides and were experiencing significant a practice which has enabled farmers to grow pr oblems with gullying and soil erosion. In maize on the same land for 20 years in one case, gullies were eating away at farme r s ’ succession (ibid.). fields. The fourth area was more fertile, more densely populated and has a high cattle Organic and agroecological systems certainly de n s i t y . It was chosen due to its location on do not provide panaceas for areas with the edge of the only lake in Tig r a y . This lake is depleted and declining nutrient status. situated in a closed basin, with no outlet, has However, as two of our case studies (in a good stock of fish and attracts many wild Burkina Faso and Tigray) show, they can bi r ds. This site was selected due to concerns significantly help address problems of that intensive agrochemical usage would harm declining soil fertility. In so doing, they focus the ecology and productivity of the lake. upon building up local productive capacity (both ecological and social), rather than TAB seconded an experienced extension relying upon external inputs. Case Study 9 worker to work as animateur and co- (over) provides an illustration of how ordinator for these villages, who was put

The Real Green Revolution 77 through an intensive OAA orientation ISD have found that it is easier to work in programme. Meetings were held in villages partnership with villages that are ‘on the to identify issues and possible solutions. edge’. They have little to lose and are Many villages adopted schemes that prepared to experiment. Even so, contained similar features. Check dams were compensation is available if the experiment built in the gullies, wherever possible, to doesn’t work. Most villages have well- reduce run off and erosion. Small reservoirs structured committees who will discuss the formed behind these and the water retaining ways and means of implementing schemes capacity of the soils around the gullies was beforehand. Through discussion, potential vastly increased, leading to a spectacular re- adverse effects are more likely to be vegetation of the banks and significant recognized. Travelling seminars and improvements in size and yield of crops demonstration farms are proving useful closest to the gully. Stone bunds were methods of dissemination. On the evidence introduced to slow down erosion. Trench of the success of these four pilot villages, bunds, incorporating compost, have also another 40 have now come forward to been constructed. Sesparai sesban bushes develop OAA solutions to environmental were planted to help fix nitrogen, provide degradation and declining yields. TAB have fodder to animals and stabilize the soil. agreed not to promote Sasakowa Global 2000 technologies in experimental villages Th e r e is very little tradition of composting and are beginning to take an interest in the in Tigray and villagers were initially rel u c t a n t potential of the schemes. to adopt this technique. Some villagers, (S o u r ce: Edwards, 2000 and intervi e w ) ho w e v e r , were prep a r ed to experiment, and others, seeing their success, followed suit in Strategies required to address the problems subsequent years. Compostable materials are of restoring marginalized or degraded land in short supply, mostly derived from local need to draw upon local knowledge and weeds and kitchen waste. In some instances traditions, upon experience of dealing with grass seeds were collected from hilltops and similar situations in other geographic sown locally to increase compostable material. locations and upon awareness of prevailing In others, villagers used small amounts of ecological and socio-cultural constraints. ni t r ogen fertiliser to encourage the growth of Steiner (1998), Scoones and Toulmin (1999), local grasses and form a basis for composting. and Hilhorst and Murchena (2000) all provide examples of where such strategies All villages have seen an increase in yields, in have successfully been deployed. the range of crops that they can grow and in the vegetative struc t u r e. Farmers have learnt Three further strategies for improving soil that they don’t need to manure plots every fertility are worthy of mention, although ye a r , as they do with artificial fertilizers. One these are not discussed in Table 4.5 above. village worked together to build a communal First is the use of (solid) human waste. compost pit. They ran their own experiments The omission of this from Table 4.5 is in one dry season, finding that composted understandable, as this practice is extremely cr ops thrived (due to increased water ret e n t i o n rare in Africa, due to cultural aversion for capacity of the soil) but that arti f i c i a l l y working with human excrement. However fe r tilized ones ‘burnt out’. Although the in many other parts of the world, especially composting levels that they are using are only Asia, there is a long-standing traditions in half the recommended rates, yields from these gathering and recycling ‘night soil’. We were fields often exceeded those from arti f i c i a l l y surprised to find very little mention of this fe r tilized ones (see Table 4.1, above). practice in our literature survey. We only

78 came across one paper which stressed the A third mechanism for promoting soil ferti l i t y importance of utilizing human waste as an is through the use of purchased orga n i c integral part of closing nutrient cycles compounds – e.g. concentrated plant extracts. (Cheong and Cheong, 2000). We can only This is unlikely to be a viable solution for poor speculate as to whether this is due to the fa r mers and to some extent runs against the practice being largely abandoned, or whether closed cycle philosophy of organic prod u c t i o n . it is one that is rarely written about it. We Such an approach may nonetheless prov e suspect that it is probably the latter and feel useful in rectifying mineral or nutrient that this is an important gap in the literature. deficiencies on a one–off basis. In our web Issues of management of night soil on se a r ches we found several companies based in different spatial scales (i.e. household, village the South specializing in the manufacture of and peri-urban), on safe composting such products, providing evidence of an techniques and the benefits which such em e r ging market for these products. practices bring appear to be very little reported. Further research, documentation In summary, there is a wide range of natural and dissemination of such practices may well and organic techniques available to farmers be of value. for maintaining soil fertility. Their relevance to good farming practice lies not only in A further source of fertility inputs, widely maintaining soil fertility, but also helping to available in urban and peri-urban areas is build soil structure and water retention th r ough the recycling of biodegradable waste capacity. The use of manure, mulches, material. Several successful urban composting composts and nitrogen-fixing species is not schemes have been set up in Senegal (see restricted to farmers who rely on OAA but is section 3.1 above) which utilize waste from also widespread amongst farmers who use domestic sources and markets. In much of the agrochemicals. The benefits of such South the prop o r tion of organic matter within techniques are widely appreciated by farmers the waste stream is relatively high. Allison et of all types across the world. Improving al. (1998), recently conducted a global res e a rc h knowledge about, and access to information pr oject on the recycling of compostable urban concerning the efficacy of different waste. They identify a number of successful techniques is likely to have widespread pr ojects as well as a range of constraints – benefits for the global farming community. technical, logistical and social – facing such Two projects currently under way offer the initiatives. More recently a workshop was held promise of substantially improving access to in Accra on the same theme (Pay and Kunze, knowledge in this field. One, a joint 1999). In other instances, compostable programme between Wye College and material is rec o v e r ed from food proc e s s i n g UNESCO’s Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility activities (see for example, Kufa et al.., 2000). Programme in Nairobi, is building an organic Solutions such as these are generally more resource database containing details of applicable to urban and peri-urban area s , nutrient content, decomposition rates and which often generate high volumes of orga n i c other key features of tropical plant species waste and frequently have pressing food which can be used for compost. Its aim is to security needs. The intensification of local advance soil fertility improvement from ag r i c u l t u r e and promotion of the efficiency of empirical knowledge to predictive practice. kitchen gardens through the use of locally To date it has tested and registered over 300 available organic waste could bring significant plant species and is inviting contributions benefits as demonstrated by the Food Garde n from other researchers (Palm et al.., 2001). Fo u n d a t i o n ’ s activities in South Africa At the time of writing the FAO is currently (B o s h o f f, 2000). planning a comparative survey of the

The Real Green Revolution 79 performance of different organic fertilizers repellent and trap crops. In general, OAA (FAO 2001). Both these programmes are relies upon preventive measures of pest likely to contribute to increasing the control in preference to curative ones. Stoll availability of information on the relative (ibid. pp. 88-92) identifies nine main benefits of the use of natural techniques for principles of preventive crop protection, maintaining soil fertility, thereby promoting summarized below. the objective of developing closed cycle farming systems. Knowledge of agroecosystems: the agricultural ecosystem and the environment 4.4 – Natural regimes of pest and in which it is embedded are the primary disease control factors determining pest pressure on crops. Regimes of pest and disease control under organic management systems are highly The following aspects are of particular context specific: different diseases and pests importance: may attack different crops under different climactic conditions. In view of this, this • The biology of pests and their enemies, section of the report does not set out to including life cycles, breeding behaviour, provide a comprehensive guide to pest and feeding habits, etc. disease control. Rather, it seeks to identify some general principles of organic methods • the seasonality of pests and their enemies of pest and disease control and illustrate these with some specific examples. In so • the season and stage of development when doing it draws heavily upon what is plants are most susceptible to attack considered to be the authoritative guide to natural crop protection in the tropics (Stoll, • conditions (climatic and physical) under 2000).47 48 Aimed primarily at fieldworkers, which pests thrive the book is divided into four main sections. The first provides guidance on how to • alternate host plants, which will attract a recognize and guard against crop specific pest away from a crop, or harbour the pests. The following two sections of the pest at other times of the year. guide examine methods of protection in the field and in storage. The final section While farmers may have some knowledge of provides case studies of participatory these issues, they will rarely have it all. For research projects that have enabled farmers, example, farmers’ knowledge about the life extension workers and scientists to develop cycle and habits of predators is often far from new approaches to pest control. The complete, or they may not know about appendices of the book contain more than ce r tain forms of pathogen that can control or 700 references to scientific papers, and repel pests. In such situations, the exchange identify more than 60 web sites related to of diffe r ent forms of knowledge, local and integrated pest management (IPM), scientific, can generate new methods of entomology, plant toxicology, ethnobotany dealing with specific problems. It can also and methods of storage protection. lead to farmer experimentation on the most ef fective ways of applying solutions that have Preventive measures in the field been found to be useful elsewhere. The Some examples of pest and disease methods used to exchange knowledge and management in the field have already been engage farmers in this process are parti c u l a r l y described in earlier sections of this report. im p o r tant. Stoll’s book contains eight case They include inter-planting and the use of studies on how synergies between local and

80 scientific knowledge have been generated rice stemborer. Similarly, in Ghana, farmers (ibid. pp. 264-338). Elsewhere in the orga n i c only plant maize in the main rainy season, and agroecological literatures a grea t as the crop suffers high infestation from stem emphasis is laid on parti c i p a t o r y approa c h e s borer in the lesser rainy season. to exchanging knowledge, reflecting the general importance of using approp r i a t e Crop rotation: This is one of the key features mechanisms for teaching and learning. of OAA, important both for maintaining soil fertility and controlling pests. It is Healthy plants and soils: Plants that are over particularly effective for controlling pests or under-nourished are more prone to that live within the soil, such as nematodes, infestation. There is a close relationship wireworms and cutworms. Rotation between the physiology of a plant, its interrupts the life cycle of these pests and location, soil structure, nutrient availability, helps prevent their numbers building up to type of agricultural practice and infestation. a critical mass that could severely damage a According to Chaboussou (1987, cited in crop. Rotation is also an important strategy Stoll, p. 89), plants with high levels of water for maintaining soil fertility. soluble substances, such as sugars, amino acids and glycosides in their cells are more Mixed farming and diversification: prone to attack as pests prefer to feed on Intercropping strategies, using ‘companion these substances. Field trials in Latin America planting’ techniques can be used to deter suggest that crop infestation by stemborer, pests. These can work through a number fall army worms and aphids is encouraged of mechanisms: by high levels of application of nitrogen fertilizer (van Huis, 1982, cited in Stoll, • Physically camouflaging the main crop, 2000). Farmers in Latin America have found e.g. planting bean seedlings amongst rice that incorporating organic matter into the stubble, or beans amongst maize. In soil provides an effective means of avoiding Colombia, damage to beans from jassids attack from white grub, which ignores the is reduced by two thirds by planting maize roots of crops if there is sufficient organic 20-30 days before the beans: the maize matter in the soil. The relationship between provides shelter for the beans, making it soil treatment and the susceptibility of plants harder for predators to identify them to pests and disease is explored in more (Stoll, 2000 p. 90). detail in a number of papers in Allen and van Dusen (1986, pp. 553-606). • Creating mechanical barriers that restrict the dispersal of pests. For example, grass Natural rhythms and optimal planting times: borders deter leafhoppers and in West Outbreaks of pests and diseases are often Africa farmers dig small, steep sided pits associated with particular climatic conditions to provide physical traps for grasshoppers that may correspond with vulnerable stages (Kinnon and Bayo, 1989). in the life cycles of a crop. Knowledge of the life cycles of pests and disease can help • Creating physical environments which farmers plan their planting so as to minimise discourage pests: for example aphids are damage. Different strategies may be more attracted to cole crops grown on a employed and Stoll identifies several bare soil, as opposed to a weedy or more examples. In South East Asia, traditional rice diverse background; red and opal growers only plant one crop in the rainy coloured plants deter some types of season (even though it is possible to harvest insects; mixing plant leaf shapes and twice), so as to interrupt the life cycle of the textures can also deter some pests.

The Real Green Revolution 81 • Masking or diluting the attractant stimuli of California found that cultivating strips (e.g. leaf shape, texture, or scent) of host of alfalfa increased the population of insect- plants. eating spiders by a factor of ten (Rincon- Vitova, 1995, cited in Stoll, 2000 p.91). • Producing repellent chemical stimuli e.g. the strong odours of garlic, leek, coriander In many areas ants have been found to be or basil. effective in managing a range of different pests. Sugar solutions can be used to attract • Diverting the pest to a more attractive ant populations (as well as other useful ‘trap crop’. For example, fruit borers can predators, such as ladybirds and spiders). be attracted away from tomatoes by In one experiment in the Honduras, sugar marigolds. water solutions were applied weekly for the first five weeks after the maize crop emerged. Host plant resistance and tolerance: In On average twice the number of predators natural systems plants rely upon their own were found in the treated areas as in the defences to ward off predators. These may untreated ones, leaf damage was 35% less in include chemical defences which are bitter the treated areas and whorl infestation was tasting and/or toxic. These self-defence 18% less (Cañas and O’Neil, 1998, cited in mechanisms may take many forms: pests may Stoll, 2000). Indian farmers employ a similar be deterred from feeding or laying eggs on practice of using a combined sugar/ghee these resistant varieties, they may sicken after solution to attract ants to control beetles feeding on the host plant, or the host plants preying on mango trees (Gupta and Patel, may be able to tolerate feeding and recover 1991, cited in Stoll, 2000). again. However, the orientation of breeding programmes towards high-yielding varieties Fa r mers in Vietnam use weaver ants to control has contributed to a loss of these self-defence ci t r us pests. In two years of trials the ants mechanisms. Seed exchange networks, which have been shown to reduce infestation by preserve indigenous varieties that may have ci t r us stinkbug by 94%, of swallowtail pest resistant characteristics, are a useful bu t t e r fly larvae by 92%, of citrus aphids by mechanism for maintaining and distributing 67%, and to reduce leafminer damage by these more robust varieties. Science can also 12%. In addition, crops with a weaver ant play a role in helping develop pest resistant pr esence also yield shinier fruit, and have varieties (for example the development of gr eater appeal to consumers (Stoll, 2000, Ruiri 11,discussed in section 4.2. above). p.99). In Tanzania, farmers also use weaver However, the development of successful ants to protect fruit crops and encourage them breeding programmes for such varieties is to them colonize trees by building arti f i c i a l a costly and lengthy process (Hillocks et al.., ‘bridges’ with steel or plastic wires (ibid. 1996 cited in Stoll, 2000) p.100). In Kenya, farmers facing infestations of caterpillars and grasshoppers will set traps Managing natural enemies: Maintaining for soldier ants and release them in the area diversity within an agroecosystem can also that they want cleared (ibid.). In other places help provide habitats and food sources for fa r mers attract birds to control natural the natural predators of pests. By managing pr edators. In India, turmeric rice is used to the farm environment in this way, the farmer attract birds to castor fields infested with can effectively recruit an ‘unpaid army of castor semiloopers. When a suffi c i e n t farm workers’, who will undertake much of population of birds has been attracted and the the work involved in managing pests. For rice supply exhausted they then prey on the example, experiments from the University la r vae of this pest (ibid.).

82 In other areas, natural predators may be bred 1997-8 the government conducted a national and released into the wild in order to manage campaign against rodents, encouraging people pest populations or as agents for controlling to catch them and substantially red u c i n g invasive weeds (see Julien, 1992 for details of rodent numbers. potential of the latter strategy). In Cuba, different species of flies, ants wasps and Pr otecting newly planted seeds: One of the bacteria are all bred and released in areas most vulnerable times in the cropping cycle where there are specific predator problems is when seeds have just been planted. Farme r s (see case study 3). In sub-Saharan Africa one adopt a range of mechanisms to increase the species of wasp (E. lopezi) has been identified chances of survival of freshly planted seeds. which controls the mealybug, a major threat In many countries, food particles are scattered to cassava, one of the staple crops of the area ar ound or over seedbeds when they have just (Kinnon et Bayo, 1989, p.67). This has been been planted to provide an alternative food successfully released in twenty-five countries so u r ce for ants. Farmers find that the smaller with very successful results (Schulthness et the particles of food, the more effective the al., 1997). Hoffmann et al.. (1998) identify strategy in ensuring that ants are kept away promising results from a programme fr om the crop (Stoll, 2000, p. 97). involving the release of leaf-feeding beetles (Leptinotersa texana) to control the spread It is common to soak seeds in water for a few of silver leaf nightshade, an imported and days before planting them. This gives them a invasive species which has caused problems small head start, and means that the seedbeds in Southern Africa. Large-scale programmes have to be protected for less time. In parts of such as these last two involve co-ordinating West Africa, farmers select seed by soaking resources and research in ways that are not them in a 10% salt solution with the ones that generally available to local farmer groups. float being discarded as damaged or diseased (Njai, pers. comm.). In the same area seeds are Field sanitation: This can be important in often mixed with ash to give them a darker controlling the life cycle of pests. Measures colour and make it more difficult for birds to might include the removal or destruction of find them. They may also be soaked in a prematurely fallen fruits (which may harbour water/neem leaf mixture to make the seeds pupae or larvae) and of infected harvest taste bitter and unattractive to termites and residues. Trap crops should also be removed other pests (Kinnon et Bayo, 1989). Stoll at appropriate times of the year so that they rep o r ts a number of methods of pre- t re a t i n g do not harbour pest populations for the seeds before planting in order to make them following year. Stoll (2000) also identifies less attractive to a range of pests. These distance between infested fields and plant involve soaking seeds in infusions of plant nurseries as a factor that can contribute to extracts (such as neem, gliricidia, papaya, cross-infestation. sweet flag), cow dung slurry or petrol (in minute quantities), in order to make them Social (collective) action: Some pests range less palatable to pests. over large territories and their numbers cannot be managed effectively by farmers working Botanical defence systems in d i v i d u a l l y . Stoll illustrates how variegated grasshopper populations can be controlled by In addition to these preventive measures a seeking out and destroying their nests (usually number of plants are known to have pest no more than 1 per square kilometre). If done and disease controlling properties. These ef fectively over a large area this can red u c e plants can often be grown locally and the numbers by 70-80%. Similarly in Vietnam in relatively simple preparations made in situ

The Real Green Revolution 83 by farmers themselves. Stoll identifies a range solar drying equipment can all be employed of plants and plant extracts, used in different to accelerate the drying process or make it parts of the world to control insects and more effective. Farmers may treat only part other pests. Table 4.6 (over) identifies the of their crop in these ways, using less plants most commonly used to control pests intensive methods for crops intended for and diseases within the tropics. short and medium term domestic consumption and paying extra regard to that Methods of storage protection portion of the crop destined for longer term storage (e.g. seed for next year). In areas of the world lacking modern day storage facilities, such as refrigeration or Storage facilities may vary in size and scope, controlled temperature/humidity granaries from communal buildings (such as the rice the threat of losing crops after harvesting barns constructed by the World Food Day remains a significant one. According to FAO Farmers’ and Fishermen’s Movement in estimates around 15% of annual global food Indonesia – see case study) to home built production is lost in storage, almost half of sandpits or even gourds. Hygiene is always that lost to pests and diseases in the field at a premium. The removal of old stored (FAO, 1998, cited in Stoll, p. 10). Whilst produce, thorough cleaning and protection often overlooked in the literature, storage from damp and rodents are all essential techniques remain a critical component in preparations. Checking produce and terms of promoting global food security. removing damaged or potentially infested grain/vegetables is also an important Many of the principles involved in successful precaution. food storage start in the field. Harvesting at the correct time, when crops are less likely to A number of different preventive approaches become damp, and eliminating infestations to infestation can be employed. Several that may already have occurred in the field plants identified in Table 4.6 (above) are are both critical factors. Choice of effective against storage pests. Basil is used in appropriate species and varieties is also several countries to suppress bean bruchids. important. For example, some farmers prefer Chilli is used in many forms to prevent crop traditional varieties of maize, as the cob infestation. In Nigeria, farmers protect husks have a more closed profile than cowpeas by sprinkling chillies among them. modern day hybrids and provide better In the Philippines, farmers dry and fumigate natural protection from maize weevil their grain at the same time by adding chillies infestation. For grain, relative humidity is a to the fire used for drying. The fish bean particularly important factor. Stoll (2000, plant is used to control bruchid infestation in p.231) suggests that grain should be stored Zambia and, in Latin America, muña is at a humidity level of between 8-10%. widely used to protect stored potatoes. Beyond this level the possibility of insect Neem, sweet flag and velvet leaf are other infestation greatly increases. At 13% botanical sources used in differing quantities humidity the risk of mould developing is to protect against post-harvest infestation greatly increased. (after Stoll, 2000) (examples from Stoll, 2000, pp 235-252).

Farmers often use a range of drying Vegetable oils are often also used as a techniques. The simplest of these is exposure mechanism for reducing risk of infestation. to sun and wind. Other more capital/labour They include oils made from coconut, cotton, intensive techniques, such as heating in sesame, neem and other locally-available simple ovens, boiling and drying, or use of species. Some of these oils have a toxic effect

84 Table 4.6 – Plants with pest-controlling properties

Field insects ABCD FB Ga Gi Gl IP Ml Mm Mg N Pa PL Po Py QRS SF Ti To Tu

American bollworm x x x x x x x

An t s x x x

Ap h i d s x xxxxxx xx xxxx xx xx

Arm y w o r m x x x x x x x

Asian corn borer x x

Avocado lacebug x

Banana pseudostem borer x

Bean aphid x

Bean fly x

Bean pod borer x

Bean pod weevils x x x

Beet army w o r m x

Be e t l e s x

Black carpet beetle x

Black rice bug x

Blister beetle x x

Br own planthopper x x x

Br own rice planthopper x x

Bunch caterpillar x

Cabbage aphid x

Cabbage looper x x x

Cabbagehead caterpillar x x x

Cabbage worm x x x

Castor caterpillar x x

Ca t e r p i l l a r s x x x x x x x x x

Ch r ysanthemum aphid x

Codling moth x

Ci t r us aphid x

Ci t r us leaf miner x x x

Ci t r us psyllid x

Ci t r us red mite x

Ci t r us scale x

Ci t r us thrips x

Cockchafer grub x

Co c k ro a c h e s x

Co f fee grub s x

Co f fee gree n s c a l e x x

Colorado beetle x x x x x

The Real Green Revolution 85 Field insects ABCD FB Ga Gi Gl IP Ml Mm Mg N Pa PL Po Py QRS SF Ti To Tu

Co r n roo t w o r m x

Cotton stainer x x x x x

Cotton semilooper x

Cucumber beetle x x

Cu t w o rm s x x x x

De s e r t locust x

Diamondback moth x x x x x x x x x x x x x

Eggplant fruit & shoot borer x

Eu r opean corn borer x x

Fall army w o r m x x x

False codling moth x

Fl e a s x

Flea beetle x x x x x x x

Flower thrips x

Fr uit flies x x x

Gall midge x

Gram pod borer x

Gr a s s h o p p e r s x x x x

Gr een bugs, x

Gr een leafhopper x x x x x

Gr een peach aphid x

Gr een rice leafhopper, x x x

Gr een scale x

Gr een stinkbug x

Ha i r y caterpillar x

Ha i r y chinchbug x

Ho u s e f l i e s x x

Im p o r ted cabbage worm x x x x x

La r ge cabbage worm x x

Leaf beetle x

Leaf bug x

Leaf cutting insects x

Leaf eating caterpillars x

Leaf hoppers x x

Leaf miners x x x x

Lo c u s t s x

Maize stalk borer x

Maize stemborer s x x

Mango leafhopper x

Me a l y b u g s x

86 Field insects ABCD FB Ga Gi Gl IP Ml Mm Mg N Pa PL Po Py QRS SF Ti To Tu

Me d i t e r ranean frui t f l y x x x

Melon aphid x

Melon fly x

Melon worm x x x

Mexican bean beetle x x x

Mi g r a t o r y locust x x

Mi t e s x x x x x x x

Mo s q u i t o x

Mo t h s x

Mu s t a r d sawfly x

Onion thrip x

Oriental fruit fly x x

Oriental fruit moth x

Pink bollworm x

Potato aphid x

Potato jassid x

Potato tuber moth x x x

Red ants x

Red coffee mite x

Red crevice tea mite x x

Red pumpkin beetle, x

Red spider mites x

Red tea mite x

Rh i n o c e r os beetle x

Rice bug x

Rice caseworm x

Rice gall midge x x

Rice leaf folder x x

Rice leaf rol l e r x

Rice stalkborer s x

Rice stemborer s x x x x

Rice thrips x

Sa w f l i e s x

Sc a l e s x x

Si l k w o r m x x

Sl u g s x

So r ghum shootfly x

So u t h e r n army w o r m x

Squash bugs x x

Spider mites x

The Real Green Revolution 87 Field insects ABCD FB Ga Gi Gl IP Ml Mm Mg N Pa PL Po Py QRS SF Ti To Tu

St e m b o re r s x x

Stink bugs x x

Sweet pepper weevils x

Tent caterpillar x

Term i t e s x x x

Tic k s x

Th r i p s x x x x x x

Tobacco budworm x

White backed rice planthopper x x x

White cabbage butterfl y x x

Wh i t e f l y x x x x x x

White grub s x

Wire w o r m x

Ro d e n t s x

Ne m a t o d e s

Root knot nematode x x

Var i o u s x

Field diseases

Ba c t e r i a x

Bacterial blight x

Basal stem rot x

Bean anthracnose x

Br own leafspot on rice x x

Br own rot x

Co f fee berry disease x

Co f fee rus t x

Cucumber mosaic virus x

Cucumber ringspot virus x

Cucumber scab x

Downy mildew x

Gr ey leaf spot x

Kasahui (fungal disease of potatoes) x

Leaf curl virus x

Leaf rus t x

Mango anthracnose x

Mosaic virus x

Po w d e r y mildew x x x

Rice blast x

Rust in beans and wheat x

Tobacco etch virus x

88 Field insects ABCD FB Ga Gi Gl IP Ml Mm Mg N Pa PL Po Py QRS SF Ti To Tu

Tobacco etch virus x

Tobacco mosaic virus x

Tobacco ringspot virus x

Tomato blight x

Vir uses (not specified) x

Fungal diseases

As p e r hillus flavus x

Pyriculria oryz a e x

Storage insects

Aduki bean weevil x x x x

Angoumois grain moth x x

Black carpet beetles x

Bru c h i d s x

Cowpea weevil x x

Grain weevils x x

Khapra beetle x

La r ge grain borer x

Lesser grain borer x x x x x

Maize weevil x x x

Red flour weevil x

Rice flour weevil x x

Rice weevil x x x x x

Saw toothed grain beetle x

War ehouse moth x

(after Stoll, 2000) on the predators themselves, others inhibit such as these are effective in inhibiting the the hatching of eggs and all make it harder movement of insects and pests, reducing their for eggs to be laid on the grains of the chances of breeding and of laying their eggs treated crop. wi d e l y . Some fine-grained particles abrade the skin/shell surfaces of pests, thus furth e r In e r t dusts, including sand, wood ash, kaolin weakening them. In Benin, farmers use a and paddy husks are often used as a combination of these techniques, mixing dry traditional method of storage for grains and ea r th and chillies to protect their bean vegetables. Their wide availability and the low ha r vest. As with other organic techniques and op p o r tunity cost involved in gathering them methods, experimentation and make them a particularly attractive storage communication are key factors in prom o t i n g medium for poor farmers. For example, in and disseminating good practice for the West Africa, farmers store beans in fine sand management of both field and storage pests. to protect them against beetle infestation (Kinnon et Bayo, 1989). Fine-grained parti c l e s

The Real Green Revolution 89 4.5 – Markets and premia This creates new opportunities for producers There has been a noticeable and rapid in the South to tap into potentially lucrative growth in the demand for organic food in markets, especially through providing exotic recent years, with the biggest markets and and ‘out of season’ produce. This fastest growth rates occuring in the engagement with Northern markets is the industrialised world: the USA, Japan and main driving force behind the development particularly the EU. Demand for organic of the certified organic sector in the South. produce in some Northern countries has Such is the demand in the industrialised almost doubled in the past three years, and world that many companies are actively some estimates suggest that the organic share seeking out producer groups to supply them. of total food retail sales could increase from Recognition of the commercial and foreign 1% to 10% over the next ten years earnings potential of export-oriented organic (International Trade Centre 1999). Such production provides by far the most growth rates in food demand are almost important motivation in the South for state unprecedented, and the organic sector is involvement in promoting organic inevitably attracting many new entrants. production (FAO, 1998; Scialabba, 2000). Large multinational companies including It is no coincidence that poorer countries Nestlé, McDonalds, Novartis, Heinz, Kraft, that are geographically and culturally closest Unilever and General Mills are beginning to to the affluent markets of the North (e.g. develop organic lines or buying up existing Turkey, Tunisia, Mexico and Argentina), are organic processors (Willis and Yussefi, 2000; often those with the most developed organic Pollan, 2001). In Germany, 80% of baby sectors (Barkin, pers. comm.) food is now organically produced and 30% of all bread distributed around Munich is Th e r e is much evidence to suggest that orga n i c now organic (Geier, pers. comm.). Organic ce r tification can generate significant prem i a produce is no longer a niche market, but is for primary producers. Table 4.6, below, now thoroughly in the economic mainstream. pr ovides some examples of premia achieved

Table 4.6 – Premia generated by organic producers

UNDP (1992) found that 9 out of 11 organic projects studied showed an increase in net income and only 2 a de c r ease. Deducting organic premia, 5 of the 11 showed higher ret u r ns than non-organic farms.

Gugal (2000) identifies a group of organic/fair trade pepper growers in Brazil who benefit from 35-40% pr emia.

van Elzakker & Tulip (2000) identify 15-30% premia gained by organic coffee, cotton and sesame producers in Uganda and Tanzania, with a knock-on benefit of increasing local market prices.

Cheong & Cheong (2000) describe a village that has converted to organic production and also manufactures medicinally beneficial teas made from local weeds for export to Japan. Farmers in this village earn four times as much as conventional rice farmers in other parts of Korea.

Zonin et al.. (2000) discuss a farme r -led agroecology project in the Erexim region of Brazil, which markets locally and has resulted in significant increases in farmers’ incomes in an area previously subject to significant rural exodus as a result of lack of opportunities.

Faisal (pers. comm.) describes how rice grown on his own farm achieved a 30% premia on local Indian markets because of its better taste and quality, although it was not formally certified as orga n i c .

Ha r dy (pers. comm.) describes an organic rosewater co-op in Iran, which is more profitable than prev i o u s poppy growing related activities.

Myers (pers. comm.) describes a herb growing project in a remote and often inaccessible part of Kenya (M e r u) which is so successful that it is attracting economic migrants back from the slums of Nairobi.

90 by organic growers, mostly from export counterpart. The overwhelming majority of markets but occasionally from domestic ones. organic produce from the South is sold as unprocessed commodities or primary Despite these encouraging examples, there is processed foodstuffs. International trade an inherent danger in embarking upon a tariffs, lack of capital to develop processing transition to organic farming solely because facilities, and to a lesser extent, a lack of on the promise of premia for certi f i e d awareness of rigorous levels of quality pr oduce. First, certification can often be a assurance expected by Northern customers, di f ficult obstacle to negotiate (see following all present significant barriers to producers section). Second, as commodity prod u c e r s in poorer countries being able to add value have found to their cost in the past, to their produce. While there are some dependency on export markets is not risk-free . exceptions to this rule (for example high- A decline in the rate of growth of demand in value added phytoceuticals, aimed at niche the rich world, a rapid expansion of supplies health markets), the structure of the global fr om the South and the possibility of trading economy makes it problematic for ce r tification proc e d u r es being discred i t e d , 49 producers in the South to engage with could all (singly or in combination) potentially anything more than primary production. un d e r mine the benefits currently accruing to ex p o r t-oriented organic prod u c e r s . A further handicap to engagement with world markets is the general lack of infrastruc t u r e in Organic production systems do however many parts of the South. Several surve y offer some cushion against the vagaries and respondents identified poor accessibility and centralizing tendencies of global markets. communications as major barriers to entry The nature of organic farming, with its into export markets. This is a parti c u l a r emphasis on mixed systems, means that pr oblem for landlocked countries in Africa farmers are less likely to be solely reliant (S c h w a r z, pers. comm.), but one that occurs upon one crop and less exposed in times of in many remote regions. In parts of China, crop failure or oversupply and low prices. wh e r e much organic tea is grown, the harve s t Because organic farming relies more on has to be carried down the mountain by hand locally-available natural resources and labour or pack animal (Lamin, pers. corr.). Equally, inputs than conventional agriculture, the in the Gambia one attempt to establish an benefits are likely to be more equitably intensive farm up-country foundered because distributed than under more capital intensive of the quality of the roads: ‘they were sending systems. And in some instances farmers out crates of tomatoes from the farm, but it growing ‘minority species’ (who are more was nearly purée by the time it arrived in likely to be small-scale producers in marginal Banjul’ (Njai, pers. com.). areas) can, through niche marketing, achieve additional competitive advantage through Access to primary processing facilities and a selling organic ‘exotics’ (Blench, 1998). For focus on high value-to-volume ratio can help example, in Latin America Mayan Indians overcome some of these obstacles. The Meru accrue such advantages through marketing region of Kenya is often inaccessible during organic Aloe Vera and Mayan oranges, a the rainy season but a project for growing thin-skinned and very sweet variety, which and drying herbs that can be delivered in the are often processed into jams and preserves dry season when the roads are passable is (Neugebauer and Mukul-Ek, 2000). improving the incomes and opportunities for the local community (Myers, pers. comm.) In many other respects however, organic Simple processing facilities can open up new agriculture in the South suffers from the market opportunities. SAFLEG, in Togo, same structural handicaps as its conventional grow and dry organic pineapple for export as

The Real Green Revolution 91 ‘health’ snacks and muesli ingredients. With organic methods of storage and processing juicing machinery they are able to use (FAO, 2001). ‘outgrade’ fruits to produce fresh juice for local markets (Centre for the Development of There is a growing awareness of a pressing Industry, 1999). Simple processing facilities need to stimulate and develop local markets also have other benefits. They permit longer- within producing countries (Guivant, et al.. term storage, an important factor in areas 2000). In Egypt, Sekem have pursued a where access is an issue. They can also bring strategy of developing local markets and ecological benefits. Primary processing capacity for value-adding (see case study 10, facilities, close to point of production, will over). There are however, evident difficulties generate significant quantities of compostable in building markets in countries where the waste material that can be used to help vast majority of people live in poverty and maintain soil fertility instead of being often struggle to satisfy basic nutritional exported out of the region or country (see for needs. Equally, in much of the South there example Anobah 2000; Kufa et al.. 2000). may not be a strong awareness of the difference between conventionally and The importance of developing processing organically produced crops. These issues facilities was highlighted in several responses notwithstanding, many poorer countries do to our survey.50 Soita (pers. comm.) wrote of have urban elites who may be prepared to the substantial benefits to farmers within the pay extra for the health, environmental or HOPE Foundation in Kenya, who had been taste benefits of organic produce. One study able to acquire small hand-powered mills to in Santa Grossa (Brazil) found that ‘most process sunflower seeds into oil. This enabled consumers were prepared to pay 20-30% farmers to gain a far better return on their premia and change their shopping habits in produce than they would otherwise receive order to have agroecological produce’ from selling to a ‘middleman’. Simple (Santos et al.., 2000) [our emphasis]. technologies such as these can vastly improve Interestingly this report found that one of the earning capacity of small-scale farmers. the key determinants of people’s willingness In many cases, the difficulties involved in to pay was concern over the health impacts obtaining credit and sometimes accessing of agrochemical use on farm workers, an appropriate machinery often pose serious issue which rarely surfaces in discussions handicaps to realizing this potential. about the benefits of organic production in the industrialised world. In Senegal, one Several projects have recently been commentator found that some people prefer established to develop local value-adding organic potatoes, as ones grown with capacity in the organic sector. In West Africa, fertilizers are thought to be too ‘fluffy’ pilot centres for technological training in (Kenton, pers. comm.). organic food processing have been set up in Ghana, Burkina Faso and Senegal (Anobah, Tapping into consumer loyalties through 2000). In Mali, an association for naturally a combination of taste, health and drying mangoes intended for domestic and philanthropic concerns does not necessarily export markets has been set up (Crole-Rees, require certification, especially where 2000). In the High Andes, efforts are being relatively direct marketing links can be made to process fruits into conserves, which established between producer and consumer. have better storage life and are more readily Such links might more readily be achieved in marketed (Zaurez, 2000). Recognizing the the South, where food supply chains tend to importance of this part of the food chain, the be shorter and relatively little processed food FAO is planning to undertake research into is consumed. There are reports of informal,

92 trust-based, organic distribution networks Sekem’s activities are not restricted to springing up in many poorer countries, agriculture and extension work, and it has including Senegal, (Anon, 1999) Brazil and also been involved in value adding activities. Argentina (Florit, 2000; Willer and Yussefi, It has established its own fruit and vegetable 2001) and India (Baksi, 2001). packing company that exports to the EU. It cultivates plants with medicinal properties The ability to tap into premia exports and has secured a licence with Weleda to markets in the rich world may be a key manufacture and market cosmetics in Egypt. driving force behind the expansion of organic It cultivates and manufactures phytoceuticals agriculture in the South at present. However and essential oils. It was also one of the first it is not the only benefit that accrues to organizations in Egypt to start growing producers. As one group of farmers in cotton organically, again adding value by Madhya Pradesh (India) testifies: manufacturing and exporting finished garments. It now markets these products ‘(When) asked what they would do if there under four separate brands and is established was no premium paying buyer for their as a ‘brand leader’ in these fields in Egypt. organic produce, they stated very emphatically that they were producing better, Sekem is also actively involved in developing cheaper crops under their present system and domestic markets for its food, herbal it would not matter if they were not attached remedies, cosmetics and clothes. It operates to an export chain.’ (Caldas, 2000a). its own shops in the suburbs of Cairo and its products can be found in thousands of shops Case study 10 – Sekem (Egypt) across Egypt. More than 65% of its produce is now sold domestically, distancing it from Sekem (meaning life force) is an Islamic the uncertainties of the global marketplace. cultural and social movement, based in Egypt, in which biodynamic farming plays a With more than 2000 employees, Sekem is key role. The Sekem Farm was founded in actively involved in cultural and social 1977 on 70 hectares of desert near Cairo. development programmes, as well as Under the guidance of a German agronomist, pr oviding benefits such as clinics, schools and biodynamic methods adapted for their ki n d e rg a r ten to its members. It is widely effectiveness in arid zones were employed. viewed as a major force for social change and This former desert site is now a thriving farm im p r ovement within Egypt, the basis of which supporting crops, livestock and bees. Sekem is rooted within its successful biodynamic has developed an organic agriculture ag r i c u l t u r e and associated activities. advisory service (the Egyptian Biodynamic (S o u r ce: Maxted Frost 1997, Abouleish, 2001). Association), which through its extension programmes, has contributed to the 4.6 – Certification conversion of more than 150 farms covering 4,000 hectares to biodynamic farming Ce r tification is at the very heart of the proc e s s practices. In partnership with two of increasing organic prod u c e ’ s value, at least international organic organizations it has within market economies. As with all forms developed an independent inspection and of quality assurance, organic certi f i c a t i o n certification body, the Centre of Organic se r ves to protect the propriety and rep u t a t i o n Agriculture in Egypt (COOA), subsequently of the products concerned. Only throu g h appointed by the Egyptian Ministry of ce r tification can the standards associated with Agriculture as the national accredited or ganic farming be protected from dilution inspection body. and misrep r esentation. Yet at the same time,

The Real Green Revolution 93 it can also raise barriers to market entry. This country (Argentina) has acquired this status aspect of certification is particularly keenly (Suma, 2000). A few countries, including felt in the South, where the cost, complexities China and Mauritius, are in the process of and logistics of the systems are freq u e n t l y applying for Listed Country status. Most seen as providing real barriers to parti c i p a t i o n countries have yet to pass relevant legislation in organic markets. This issue was the focus although some are in the process of doing so of much debate at the most recent IFOAM (Lernoud, 2000). co n f e r ence (Alföldi et al. 2000), where some commentators likened the new certi f i c a t i o n Producers in Listed Countries have a agencies to ‘a new breed of missionaries and relatively quick and cheap method of settlers’ (Boersma, 2000). There is also a accessing European markets. It does however wi d e s p r ead view that the ‘i n t e r p r etation of require that government takes an interest and ce r tification can be and is used as a trade becomes involved in establishing a regulatory ba rr i e r ’ (Suma, pers. comm.) and that framework. Yet few governments in the ‘existing approaches do not lend themselves South view the promotion of organic to participation by Southern stakeholders’ production as a priority. Many see it as a (Blowfield, 1999). Yet certification is a marginal activity, whose potential does not ne c e s s a r y process, req u i r ed to justify the warrant the time and expense necessary to pr emia that consumers are prep a r ed to pay put such structures in place. In other for organic produce and which prod u c e r s countries, still committed to agricultural benefit from. Indeed the issue of certi f i c a t i o n ‘modernization’, the organic message may and standards is so important that a new fall on deaf ears. In such cases producers jo u r nal dedicated specifically to the topic has have to pursue other avenues to secure just been published.51 market access. A second approach available to producers in the South is the licensing of To understand the issues surrounding individual inspection bodies to operate in a certification systems, a brief discussion of the third country at the request of an EU mechanisms through which they operate is member state. This approach has only been required. By way of example we focus upon used on one occasion (in Turkey) and the the European Union, which has the longest implications of it have not yet been fully established international standard, granting explored. In principle this method should access to the world’s largest organic market. offer similar benefits to Listed Country status For producers located outside the EU the (Suma, 2000). legislation can be particularly complex. It offers three routes for organic producers A third approach, known as the ‘back door from outside the region who wish to gain mechanism’, was designed as a derogation access to European markets. The first of for importers but now accounts for 80% of these, intended as the principal mechanism, organic imports into the EU (ibid.). Under is for produce from ‘Listed Countries’. To this system, importers within member states achieve this status, countries must have may market organic produce if they can enacted legislation equivalent to EU prove that the produce has been inspected by standards and established a recognized a system equivalent to the EU regulation. certification body. Once approved by the EU This creates opportunities for registered these bodies can then undertake all necessary certifiers in industrialised countries to act as inspection work and issue certificates for all brokers for importers, either by directly consignments. However, the application inspecting producer groups and issuing process is lengthy, and ten years after the EU certificates or by setting up branch offices in legislation was passed only one Southern the South. As individual certifiers and EU

94 member states have slightly differing The remainder of this section addresses these regulations, this can create a complicated issues in turn. regulatory environment for producers. For example, import licences to individual groups One of the main issues of contention are issued for different time periods, ranging surrounding organic certification at present from five years to less than one year. The is the concentration of competence in problems involved in gaining certification certification in industrialised countries. Of can lead to expensive and time-consuming the sixteen accreditation bodies recognized problems for producers (see in particular, by IFOAM, only three are located in the Wilhelm 2001).52 Nycander (2000) recounts South (one each in Argentina, Bolivia and one such incident: Brazil, IFOAM 2001).53 The lack of certification capacity in the South raises cost ‘In September 1999, the first organic certified and logistical barriers for producers. The cost Robusta coffee in Uganda was ready for of certification, almost invariably the export. But when import clearance in the EU responsibility of ‘First World’ certifiers can was held up, the customer lost interest. Five be prohibitively expensive for many small months later the two containers were still at ‘Third World’ producer groups. Even when the factory in Kampala.’ locals are employed to do much of the inspection work, average external inspectors’ A number of different and sometimes costs of around $300 per day (plus travel controversial issues surround the inspection expenses) are considerably more than the and certification processes. These include: annual incomes of many of those whom they are inspecting. Fonseca (2000) estimates that • the current concentration of the cost of certification for small-holders in internationally recognized certification Brazil varies between 0.5 and 2.5% of bodies in the North business turnover, making it difficult for some of them to maintain organic status. • the difficulty of agreeing protocols for inspection (particularly for large co- Two diffe r ent approaches to reducing the operatives) scale of this problem are currently being developed. In many instances industrialised • the difficulties that producer groups have co u n t r y certifiers are setting up reg i o n a l in coming to terms with the detailed of fices in the South and employing local staff. paperwork necessary to satisfy This brings a number of advantages: local certification proceedings st a f f members will have more detailed knowledge of local social, agricultural and • the extent to which organic standards ecological practices; they will command wage should incorporate social criteria (and levels commensurate with the value added by thereby develop synergies with fair-trade local organic production; and, by virtue of labelling) having local offices, the certifiers will attract mo r e custom. Whilst certification competence • a broader range of ethical issues la r gely remains a North e r n monopoly, there is surrounding organic production, related a growing trend for North e r n-based certi f y i n g to issues such as food miles and agencies to sub-contract much of the work to ‘seasonality’. So u t h e r n-based offices. However, this does not negate the need for annual inspections fr om the ‘head office’.

The Real Green Revolution 95 A second approach for driving down costs systems, in which every farm is inspected by of certification (and marketing) is through local inspectors, and limiting the role of the the formation of co-operatives and producer outside inspector to that of primarily checking groups. This is common practice in many the efficacy of this system (Heid, 1999; Anon poorer counties, particularly where there are 2001b). This approach however has yet to be a large number of producers in the same ag r eed or ratified. In the longer term these region producing the same export issues might be resolved when developing commodities. The question of how to countries establish their own legislation and manage the inspection of large producer co- ce r tification authorities. At present most of ops has been a particularly contentious one the interest in establishing certification bodies in recent years. National (and individual in the South comes not from governments but certifying bodies’) standards regarding the fr om NGOs (FAO, 2001), and the prospect of proportion of farms which should be subject ex p o r ting countries having their own to external inspection vary substantially. One ce r tification systems in place in the near the one hand there is a (natural) desire to fu t u r e seems rem o t e . have stringent inspection requirements before granting certification. Yet at the same time, A further and related issue is that of the this must be balanced by the economics of technical complexity of the certification inspection. Some producer co-ops in poorer process. This can represent particular countries may include several thousand small problems in areas with low literacy rates, farms, scattered across several villages over where certification forms and other areas of up to 10,000 square kilometres paperwork may be difficult to understand. (Heidi, 1999). Recent debates have focused This problem may be compounded by around the question of the percentage of language and translation issues. One farms that should be subject to external commentator claims that at least ten small inspection and the flexibility that should be organic producer groups in Mexico lost their attached to this. organic certification in 1999 because of their inability to deal with and process all the Many certifying bodies argue that minimum relevant paperwork (Boersma, 2000, p.571). pe r centage inspection rates are likely to be The author contended (somewhat self-defeating targets. For example an rhetorically), that not only do farmers have inspection rate of 20% (the mid range of to be literate to be organic farmers under EU cu r rent figures) would impose intolerable rules but that they also require a computer to financial costs upon a producer co-operative keep up with the administration – clearly not with, for example, 1200 members, yet would a realistic option for most Mexican be inadequate for a co-operative of ten or campesinos. The development of locally- twenty members. Moreo v e r , in the reality of managed quality control and inspection the South any minimum inspection rate would systems (discussed above) may significantly be likely to result in international inspectors reduce this problem. visiting the most accessible (by road) farms and neglecting distant farms which are only A further issue of contention is the sensitivity accessible by foot. The danger of this scenario of standards of local situations and practices. would be that the accessible farms would Most organic standards have evolved in the become inspection ‘show farms’ and that far- industrialised world under specific farming flung farms would be subject to minimal systems and are now being applied to very inspection and regulation. A consensus different farming systems and socio-economic appears to be emerging that the best solution contexts in the South. There is a clear tension is to increase the capacity for internal control here between the desire for flexibility, which

96 reflects local and traditional practices (as less exploitative than some conventional advocated by agroecologists), and the need to farming systems. This creates something of a maintain standards that are respected in dilemma, as there is a widespread acceptance destination markets (the organic approach). that organic consumers also wish to be Although there is some guardedness between ethical consumers and often assume the these two approaches, we have not found produce that they buy is ‘fair traded’. To a any concrete examples of substances or lesser extent the reverse also holds true practices employed in agroecological systems (Browne et al., 2000). These assumptions are that would not be permitted in organic ones. not necessarily correct, and accreditation under both forms of certification can bring There is a potential for such tensions to arise. significant benefits. The Ambootia Tea Estate The use of indigenous botanical extracts as found that the premia on fair trade tea made pest and disease controls provide one up for losses in yield while they were in the possible cause, as some of these are unlikely process of conversion to a biodynamic to be known or tested in the North.54 Under system. Gugal (2000) reports on a fair EU regulations preparations for pest and trade/organic producer co-op in Brazil, disease control must be on an approved list growing hot peppers for export and domestic (as opposed to fertility-promoting substances, consumption, that yields a 35-40% premia which can be used as long as they are not over and above normal market prices. In proscribed (Hardy, pers. comm.)). As the cost Nicaragua, small-scale coffee farmers have and time implications of testing such been assisted to shift to organic/fair trade ‘traditional’ materials is likely to be high, this schemes (and increase their incomes) by the may act as a deterrent to the use of Co-operative League of the United States traditional, geographically and culturally (CLUSA) (Maxted-Frost, 1997). Yet at specific methods of pest and disease control. present only a limited amount of produce is A second potential source of tension is the traded under both labels (see Equal planned removal (in 2004) of some non- Exchange, 2001; and case studies 5 and 7) organic compounds from the approved lists and these often involve separate certification of substances. This includes copper-based procedures, which adds to transaction costs. substances, which are often used to combat fungal disease. This change is likely to affect For the most part, producers in the South producers in the North and the South face uncertainty as to the relative benefits of equally. On the balance of evidence that we these different accreditation schemes in terms have discovered it is difficult to evaluate of securing access to markets and adding whether there are real conflicts likely here or value to their produce (FAO, 2000). A whether resistance to standards is rooted in growing literature is emerging about the ‘agroecologists’ aversion to the normative possibility of joining the two schemes organic approach’ (Caldas, pers. comm.). together, or at least creating links between them (Blowfield, 1999; Browne et al. 2000; A further substantive issue is the question of Biofach 2001). This is especially relevant for whether and to what extent standards should traditional plantation crops such as sugar, include social criteria. At present, organic tea, coffee and bananas. standards are almost exclusively process- oriented agricultural ones with little or no At present the organic movement seems to social content. Thus there is a limited basis be keener to incorporate social values into for guaranteeing that organic produce is its accreditation processes than the fair trade grown under conditions that are (dangers movement is to adopt practices of organic from pesticides and insecticides aside) any management. Several organic certifiers (e.g.

The Real Green Revolution 97 the Soil Association) already have a policy significantly expand the current legal scope regarding ‘social justice’ within their of organic standards, will be universally standards, although these are generally not accepted.56 What might emerge from this well developed. IFOAM has a chapter on debate is a ‘gold’ organic standard, which social justice within its present standards,55 incorporates these broader issues and would but wishes to strengthen it and make it more be aimed primarily at ‘core’ organic specific. IFOAM is in negotiations with the consumers.57 Fairtrade Labelling Organization (FLO) over 4.7 – Institutional and political issues this issue (Cierpka, 1999; Biofach 2001) and the FAO (2000a) recently held a seminar on Certification issues aside, there are very real integrating the two systems in banana institutional and political barriers to the production. This, while generally in favour of development of OAA. At present, developing links between the two governmental involvement in promoting approaches, identified some difficulties in OAA is quite rare and in most instances doing so successfully. In particular, trade-offs motivated by a desire to tap into the earnings were identified between the ‘efficient’ potential of export markets. Other potential development of standards and stakeholder benefits of OAA, such as increasing food participation and between specificity in security, village self-reliance, environmental standards (which might disadvantage some resilience and biodiversity are rarely groups of farmers) and flexibility (which considered as explicit reasons for its might undermine the credibility of the adoption (Scialabba, 1998). Governments scheme). Thus while there are intentions of in the South are with few exceptions at best achieving a closer alignment between the two indifferent and at worst hostile to the approaches to certification, there are some development of organic and agroecological difficulties in doing so. farming systems.58 Often such approaches run counter to the policy initiatives which A final interesting twist in the discussion they are supporting or financing: initiatives about standards concerns the issues of food that frequently involve promoting the miles and seasonality. The organic movement intensification of agricultural systems, has long valued the importance of local and usually through increasing the uptake of seasonal produce. However these concerns fertilizer, pesticide and hybrid seeds. In have rarely been codified into standards. consequence, the promotion of OAA in the With the increase in global organic trading, South is almost exclusively led by NGOs such values are at the risk of being and ‘ecological entrepreneurs’. In the case marginalized (see, Köpke, 2000; Banks and of non export-oriented production systems, Marsden, 2001), as food travels long under-resourcing of research and extension distances by fossil fuel-powered transport – activities often proves a major constraint, as producing pollution and contributing to with very few exceptions NGOs have limited climate change. Questions are now being financial resources and scientific expertise asked as to whether existing standards can (Vos and Plowright 2000). satisfactorily incorporate issues such as ‘food miles’ and the substitution of domestic and Governments could play a significant role in seasonal produce with imports (Geier, 2001). advancing the cause of OAA within their With the growing involvement of large countries. Areas of activity where corporations in the organic market and governments are arguably better placed than increased competitiveness between NGOs in promoting OAA include those certification bodies, it would appear unlikely which involve a more systematic and better that issues such as these, which would resourced (particularly in terms of scientific

98 expertise) approach to research and res e a r ch, but also for res e a r ch which is trans- extension. Such areas of activity would di s c i p l i n a r y. For example, Vos and Plowright include: (2000) identify ‘a strong need for res e a rc h that integrates soil fertility and pest • Identifying areas where organic and management [since] farmers have a basic agroecological approaches (including ‘de understanding of pest and soil fertility issues facto’ organic farming) are already [but] little understanding of interactions practised, the effectiveness of existing [between the two]’. Indeed this call for trans- practices, the depth of the knowledge and di s c i p l i n a r y res e a r ch should arguably be the problems experienced. extended to include four key and often inter- related objectives (see table 4.7 below). • Identifying areas where traditional and/or Rather than pursue these objectives chemical-dependent farming practices no in d i v i d u a l l y , there is often scope for adopting longer provide adequate solutions . management strategies that produce synergi e s between them. The importance attached to • Developing ‘bottom up’ capacity (e.g. field the these objectives will clearly vary in schools and demonstration plots) for di ff e r ent circumstances, as will the constraints addressing problems identified in the two upon realizing synergies between them . items above. Table 4.7 – A flow chart for identifying synergies in OAA research. • Reorienting the priorities of state-funded research and educational institutes so as to include topics and issues relevant to OAA.

• Exploration of the possibilities for developing urban composting schemes to develop the potential for producing of food close to population centres.

• Giving consideration to the market potential of OAA in both local and international contexts and in terms of primary and value-added produce.

• Providing support (legal and logistical) to enable the development of organic standards and the capacity for carrying out inspection and certification work Growing recognition by international domestically. agencies (especially the FAO, and some foreign donors) of the potential for OAA to • Giving fuller consideration of the potential address a number of inter-related problems role of livestock (including poultry) may, in the long term, result in governments aquaculture and agroforestry within in the South adopting a more sympathetic existing cropping systems. and pro-active approach to OAA. It is likely that this will only occur on an incremental One frequently rec u r ring theme within the basis. On this, the macro-level, there is a li t e r a t u r e is the need not only for parti c i p a t i v e need for the organic and agroecological

The Real Green Revolution 99 movements to work together and develop a and NGO activities provide a rea s o n a b l y capacity for ‘global advocacy’, to publicize good advisory service on OAA to farme r s . the ‘how, what and why’ of OAA. Thus diffe r ent countries face very diff e re n t scales of challenge. H o w e v e r, influencing established institutions may prove to be a long and slow pro c e s s . Any shift towards promoting OAA has The spread of OAA poses threats to vested implications for the funding and structures i n t e rests, both financial and pro f e s s i o n a l . of extension and research facilities. As M a n u f a c t u rers and distributors of fert i l i z e r s , knowledge about OAA and the resources pesticides, herbicides and hybrid seeds all that it employs are both, almost exclusively, have a strong financial incentive in public goods, there is less incentive for the maintaining the status quo. Similarly, policy private sector to engage in or support advisers and scientists who have dedicated research and extension activities. A shift their professional careers to pro m o t i n g towards OAA therefore implies a need for conventional agricultural ‘modern i z a t i o n ’ greater public funding of these activities. This a re unlikely to be sympathetic to new is not necessarily easily achieved when there schools of thought and practice which are many competing claims on government contradict many of the premises upon which budgets. Indeed, it is one that is likely only their professional lives have been based. to be justified through providing hard, Both these sets of actors, there f o re, are likely empirical evidence of the multiple benefits to raize objections to the advancement of that a shift to OAA can bring. OAA. One of the major tasks facing advocates of OAA will be overcoming the Yet the spread of OAA is not solely e n t renched prejudices which appear to be dependent upon financing and training p revalent in many political, scientific and ‘armies’ of extension workers. Alternative agricultural communities. However, this models can and are being employed. In b a rrier is not an insuperable one. The US- Kenya and India some NGOs train farmers based International Fertilizer Development in OAA techniques on the understanding that Center (with a branch in Togo) has moved they will then go and train other farmers in f rom a very pro - f e rtilizer stance to one their locality, or use their plot as a which has a much more balanced appro a c h demonstration farm (Njoroge 1996; in favour of mixed organic and inorg a n i c Mariaselvam pers. comm.). This ‘snowball’ a p p roaches to promoting soil fert i l i t y approach has a potential for significantly ( Toulmin, pers. comm.). decreasing the costs of an extension service once a basic structure is in place. Some of Br eaking down these prejudices will not, the more successful innovations in OAA may ho w e v e r , automatically result in a flow of need very little institutional support to funds for the promotion of OAA. In many become accepted. The practice of digging zai countries extension services are poorly funded (case study 6) has spread across and beyond and motivated (Badejo, 1998) and there is a Burkina Faso, largely via word of mouth – lack of trained extension workers (FAO , through farmers observing how successful 2000b). The extent of the problem varies the method is and deciding to emulate it. In between countries. For example, van Elzakker China, paddy farmers have spontaneously and Tulip (2000) claim that extension servi c e s adopted ‘fire break’ cropping patterns as a in Tanzania and Uganda are virtually non- result of seeing their neighbours’ successes existent. By contrast, in neighbouring Kenya with a simple and virtually cost-free rep o r ts suggest (see section 3.1) that a technique (see case study 8). combination of government extension servi c e s

100 A shift to OAA also implies changes in the study of the Chagga is but one example. ways in which ‘know–how’ is transmitted, Upawansa (2000) identifies more than 500 with a shift from vertical patterns of indigenous practices that could inform knowledge transfer to horizontal ones.59 organic and biodynamic practices in Sri This implies involving different actors in Lanka. Gupta and Patel (1992a & b, 1993a, the information exchange process and/or & b, 1994, 1995, 1996, all cited in Stoll equipping them with different skills. In the 2000) have written extensively about farmer South there is a particular need for extension innovations in Gujarat (India). Norton et al. workers to be able to combine ‘traditional’ (1998) describe how the Zuni’s sophisticated and ‘scientific’ forms of knowledge. This is knowledge of local soil quality in New not always an easy balance to strike as Mexico enables them to farm in an arid and ‘scientific’ and ‘folk’ knowledge can take inhospitable area. very different forms. The latter is highly context dependent. The ability to understand On the other hand, many other rep o rt s peasant knowledge systems and rationalities suggest that lack of information and can challenge the scientific world view of aw a r eness is the principal barrier to the researchers, who are more accustomed to adoption of OAA. In a survey of African seeking universally applicable solutions and fa r mers, Harris et al. (1998, p.1) found ‘l i t t l e less attuned to the resource constraints faced evidence of knowledge and adoption of by small farmers. Reliance on contrasting im p r oved soil fertility management and crop forms of knowledge often leads to different pr otection practices of a non-chemical approaches to resource management, as na t u re ’ . Fa r mers in this survey cited a lack of Vivan (2000) demonstrates when comparing knowledge of organic management techniques agroforestry management strategies preferred four times more frequently than any other by agronomists and peasants in Brazil. reason as the main reason for their non- Approaches to evolving the best of both adoption of OAA (ibid. p.12). Toulmin (pers. worlds are discussed in the following section. comm.) writes of how fifty years of chemical- dependent cotton growing in Mali have all 4.8 – Social and cultural issues but destroyed local traditional knowledge. Knowledge and other resources for developing OAA Paradoxically, very contrasting levels of knowledge can exist almost side by side. This report has identified what are often Verkerk (1998) writes of visiting two organic contradictory reports and interpretations farms within three kilometres of each other about the cultural and knowledge-based in Zimbabwe. The first was organic by implications of adopting OAA. On the one default and gave the appearance of near- hand, many accounts extol OAA as fitting dereliction: aphids were rampant on mature closely with the priorities and cultural values plants, there was clear evidence of nitrogen of resource-poor farmers. Advocates of OAA deficiency, no evidence of organic matter argue that these approaches bring social as having been applied into the soil or of well as agricultural and environmental attempts to control weeds, mulch the soil or benefits. They extend and ‘revalorize’ provide shade. The vegetables were traditional knowledge and practices and help discoloured and malformed, and would have strengthen social capacity and community not been acceptable on local markets. By self-confidence. There are many examples of contrast, a nearby organic farm had healthy farming communities with sophisticated plants and a thriving nursery, showed levels of knowledge and experience in evidence of extensive composting and managing complex agroecosystems. The case mulching and of successful pest management.

The Real Green Revolution 101 Similarly, the properties of Cassia levels of knowledge? Bentley (2000) didymobotrya in treating skin and intestinal addresses this problem in a systemic manner, problems in animals are well known in providing a typology of folk knowledge, western Kenya but unrecognized in central described in terms of textures. Based on Kenya, where ‘it is considered to be just a work from the Integrated Pest Management shrub that smells bad’ (Thijssen, 1995). School in Honduras, he proposes four Thus, knowledge about OAA can vary different types of farmers’ knowledge, greatly, even within confined geographic summarized in Table 4.8 (below). Awareness areas. Getachew (1996) confirms this, of these can help develop appropriate observing the highly fragmented nature of patterns of information exchange between knowledge about OAA, where different skills farmers and extension workers. are found in scattered localities with little cross-reference or communication between Given the contrast between the great stores them. Though it may seem a paradoxical of knowledge in some areas and the almost suggestion, information and awareness may complete absence in others, it would appear simultaneously represent the largest single almost impossible to make bold constraint upon, and the most significant generalizations about the role of knowledge resource for, the development of OAA. and information as a resource for, or a constraint upon, the development of OAA. How then can we usefully conceptualize, and The challenge lies in developing practices and more importantly assist with the networks that are able to gather and development and transfer of such differing disseminate local information, and

Table 4.8 – Textures of folk knowledge

Knowledge type Ex a m p l e Ideal field worker response

Th i c k : im p o r tant and easy to observe . Honduran farmers know Le a r n from farme r s . Local people may know more about mo r e about wasp honey, Validate their knowledge and the topic than scientists do. Local and how to harvest it, te c h n i q u e s . knowledge can be empirically than entomologists do. verified by scientific methods. Fa r mers also know about non-lethal techniques for co n t r olling bird predation, such as stringing tape from old cassettes, like ribbons, ac r oss fields.

Th i n : un i m p o r tant, but easy to observe . Honduran farmers know After learning local systems, Local people know about a topic in a many pred a t o r y insects by teach people the missing ideas. way that scientists can understand, but folk names, but do not Add to their folk knowledge. local knowledge is less complete than realize that they are that of scientists. beneficial, natural, enemies of herbivorous insects.

Em p t y : un i m p o r tant and difficult Honduran farmers are Fill in the gaps in local knowledge, to observe. Local people know little un a w a r e of the existence teach them about the existence (and or nothing about the topic. of parasitic wasps. role of) parasitic wasps, etc.

Gr i t t y : im p o r tant but diffi c u l t The belief that insect pests Be careful. Avoid contradicting to observe. Local people have ar e spontaneously beliefs unless it matters to the beliefs and perceptions that are generated by the use of pr ogramme. Learn the belief and the at odds with scientific notions. insecticides and chemical reasoning behind it, which is often These ideas cannot be verified fe r tilizer is quite logical but based on incomplete by scientific methods. wi d e s p r ead amongst facts. Use local rhetoric to explain smallholder farmers in he scientific perspective. Teach these Honduras. ideas with respect.

(S o u r ce: Bentley 2000)

102 supplementing this with knowledge from suited to the needs and circumstances of other areas. specific peasant groups has been obtained’.

This in turn raises the question of how to The need to disseminate information about promote more context-sensitive forms of technical aspects of organic farming (e.g. research. There are many examples of optimal patterns of rotation, varieties to use, farmer-oriented research and dissemination optimal planting times, soil fertility and pest activity projects (see for example Stoll, pp management practices) is likely to be most 264-366). We noted earlier that participatory pr essing during early periods of conversion. farmer research forms a significant sub- Le a r ning and using farmers’ vocabularies for discipline in its own right. Some writers pests, predators or soil characteristics are question how effectively and whole-heartedly critical elements of this communication proc e s s the lessons learnt from such research are (Steiner 1998, Meir, 2000). As OAA sprea d s being applied within the organic movement. within a locality this knowledge should become Lockeretz (2000), for example, detects mo r e widespread and part of ‘local folklore. ’ elements of rhetoric in claims ‘that organic Finding the res o u r ces to start communities off research is farmer-oriented, holistic, multi- on this learning curve is arguably the most disciplinary and systems-oriented’, believing pr oblematic issue facing the development of that organic research methods currently OAA in many parts of the world. employed are ‘not significantly different from conventional agricultural research’. Knowledge is not the only res o u r ce that needs to be shared. In an earlier section we discussed Undoubtedly the main issue in this regard is the importance of minority and endangered to develop research capacities that can help species. Exchange of seeds has long been an solve locally-identified problems. Because im p o r tant though informal form of OAA is so context specific, both ecologically networking amongst traditional farmers. In and culturally, there are no uniform mo r e recent times more formal Seed Exchange solutions. Problem analysis needs to be Networks (SENs) have been set up, such as ‘user’, rather than ‘resource’ specific PELUM (based in Zambia, and covering (Scialabba, 1998). This in turn implies a need South and East Africa) and Navdanya in for participatory, not top down, approaches India. Several of the NGOs who responded to to research. Sharing and enhancing our survey saw this as their most importa n t traditional knowledge in developing ar ea of activity, as it maintains and expands countries is of critical importance in organic the res o u r ce base on which locally-specific agriculture (FAO, 1998, p.9). As Altieri fo r ms of agriculture depend. (2001, p.1) notes: Access to organic inputs can also be ‘most agroecologists recognize that problematic. Whilst organic farms should traditional systems and indigenous ideally be able to draw on their own knowledge will not yield panaceas for resources to maintain soil fertility or control agricultural problems… but the most pests, there are clearly occasions when rewarding aspect of agroecological research external inputs are needed. For example soil has been that by understanding the features amendments (e.g. rock phosphate) may be of traditional agriculture, such as the ability needed to rectify nutrient deficiencies. In to bear risk, biological folk taxonomies, the other cases the process of collecting or production efficiency of symbiotic crop preparing botanical treatments for pest mixtures, etc., important information on infestations may require skills, equipment or how to develop agricultural technologies best labour inputs that individual farmers lack.

The Real Green Revolution 103 There is thus a need to develop marketing new jobs, in Senegal the establishment of an and distribution networks through which urban composting scheme has had the same such inputs can be acquired at reasonable effect and in Meru (Kenya) the opportunities prices. One successful example is the created by an organic herb project attracted development of a neem seed processing unit villagers back from the city. These increases in Kenya which provides ‘ready-to-use’ pest are attributable to increased productivity, control materials to organic farmers (Förster improved access to markets or strategies of 2000). In India, when the Maikaal bio-cotton import substitution and are a result of the project grew to a critical mass, local traders improved economic capacity created by the were influenced to start carrying biodynamic adoption of OAA. Many factors, such as the preparations as well as or instead of degree of intensity of the existing farming conventional ones in response to the risk of systems, are likely to play a key role in going out of business (Caldas 2000a). determining how adopting OAA affects labour demand. Employment, land tenure and the domestic division of labour Security of land tenure can significantly influence farmers’ willingness to invest either There is a general consensus that organic time or money in achieving long term systems require a greater labour input than improvements in land fertility. Established conventional farming, although labour land rights (not necessarily the same as requirements are more evenly spread across ownership) are a prerequisite for developing the year because of practices such as multi- effective long-term organic management cropping (Lampkin and Padel, 1994; FAO, strategies. Issues of equity of land 1998b). Recent research goes some way to distribution and security of tenure will challenging this view, at least as a universal critically influence farmers’ decisions generalization. Garcia and Brombal (2000) regarding the extent that they are prepared recently analysed labour requirements on to invest in OAA techniques which may only conventional and organic farms in Sao Paulo yield long term benefits (Teshome, 2000). State (Brazil) and found no significant Even where land security is not an issue the difference in total labour requirements physical structure of farms may influence the between the two systems, although there extent to which farmers are prepared to were differences in the timing of labour adopt organic management strategies. In inputs (with the organic system being more some parts of the world, particularly where evenly spread). The main difference between radically different ecological and climatic farm labour requirements was attributable to zones exist in close proximity to another, the different crop types. Equally, data for farms may be dispersed across two or more labour requirements gathered from India and plots of land (e.g. ‘home gardens’ and bush Nicaragua as part of IFOAM’s OA ’99 fields’). Differences in accessibility may well Programme (see section 4.1., above), showed influence farmers’ willingness to engage in no consistent pattern of differences in labour fertility building techniques. For example, demand between organic and conventional ‘bush fields’ may be several miles from a systems (Witte et al., 2000). farmer’s home, raising obstacles to transporting compost. Several of the projects and initiatives reviewed in this report suggest that the Domestic divisions of labour can also adoption of organic methods can generate influence the uptake of organic systems new employment opportunities. For example, and adopting OAA can, by the same logic, in Burkina Faso, the digging of Zaï generates impact on domestic divisions of labour.

104 Traditionally many agricultural tasks are has led to them taking control of the family divided along gender lines. To oversimplify farms, hiring labour and even purchasing somewhat, men often assume responsibility vehicles to take produce to market. for cash crops and women for the kitchen gardens which feed the family. Commonly ‘Thinking organic’ these two different production systems are managed under different regimes, with scarce We earlier argued that much ‘de facto’ cash resources used to buy fertilizer for cash organic farming occurs by default, as crops and de facto organic systems employed resource-poor farmers cannot afford to buy on home vegetable gardens. artificial inputs. The question therefore arises of whether farmers, driven solely by Given the frequent gender division between economic necessity, will start using artificial these activities, it is argued that women are inputs if and when their circumstances more likely to be engaged with de facto improve. In other words, will organic organic farming and will have a greater management prove to be a short-term affinity with organic approaches (Moali- palliative that is abandoned for more Grine, 2000; Njai, pers. corr.),60 and may conventional practices in a few years time? have pools of knowledge that can more fully be drawn upon. Despite this, some For many in the organic movement, the commentators point out that the role of exercise is not merely one of increasing the women in organic agriculture is often number of certified (or ‘de facto’) producers’ overlooked, especially by extension services worldwide, but of winning over the hearts (Kinnon and Bayo, 1989; Kachru, 2000). and minds of producers (and consumers) to a more ‘holistic’ and ‘inclusive’ world view – Women rep r esent an important potential a world view which seeks to promote constituency for extension services, although ecological and economic self-reliance. One building effective contact with women orga n i c key to this endeavour is that of strengthening fa r mers can sometimes be prob l e m a t i c , social capacity and self-confidence. Many especially in societies that are rigidly divided adherents of OAA believe that these along gender lines. For example, in Zimbabwe approaches can play a key role in the South women growing organic cotton faced a in helping promote self-reliance and reducing pr oblem in becoming certified producers, as dependency on the ‘expertise’, technologies they traditionally have no land rights. A new and markets of the industrialised world. At mechanism, granting ‘Wif e ’ s Special the same time OAA can help valorize local Exemption’ was created to meet certi f i c a t i o n and traditional knowledge and practices. As req u i r ements. Reliance on freely available local Boersma (2000) notes, ‘for native Indians res o u r ces assisted these women to enter the being an organic farmer is also an expression cash economy without any initial investment – of art and beauty.’ an extremely significant development in a region where one third of households are While such attitudes may be prevalent headed by women (Page, 2000). amongst those groups with an established tradition of organic farming, those who farm In Kenya, participation in organic farming conventionally do not necessarily share them. has created a new status for women, with Interviews by Harris et al. (1998, p. 9.) those participating no longer feeling identify some resistance to organic farming themselves to be ‘just housewives, but family because it is perceived as requiring more managers who are economically empowered’ work. One farmer in Tanzania was (Njoroge 1996, p. 27). In some instances this reportedly reluctant to go organic as

The Real Green Revolution 105 ‘collecting and preparing ingredients needed The extent to which adopting OAA helps for organic farming is tedious and time generate ‘alternative’ world views, whereby consuming.’ Another in Ghana expressed traditional farmers and policy-makers view similar views, stating that ‘the practice of indigenous knowledge and resources with organic farming is tedious to undertake’. By pride as opposed to shame, is perhaps one of contrast, one farmer in Senegal was delighted the key criteria in its ability to bring about with the benefits that organic farming lasting change. This broader socially created. ‘Before, I used to spend 4200CFA transformative role of OAA is often [about £5.00] on the fertilizer needed to help overlooked in discussions about its potential. bring on my crops: with biological farming I It is nonetheless one that resonates strongly spend almost nothing, except for some with the development agenda in its widest manure and green compost. I am able to sense. It is therefore in some respects spend that money on other things and it is paradoxical that one of the main driving more than recovered through the sale of forces for the adoption of OAA in the South biological produce’ (Anon 2000, p.8). remains the prospect of a greater engagement Clearly attitudes towards the benefits and with markets in the North. drawbacks of organic farming vary as much according to the individual temperaments of farmers as to other factors.

106 5 – Conclusions and ap p r oaches vary significantly. Formal orga n i c recommendations ap p r oaches to farming are generally adopted to gain access to and/or competitive advantage in 5.1 – Creating a coherent ‘alternative’ ex p o r t markets. Where governments are agricultural movement involved in promoting organic farming it is The evidence in this rep o r t suggests that there is generally with the aim of boosting agricultural a rapidly growing interest in the South in the ex p o r t earnings. Other actors, however, are potential of OAA as a means for achieving a pr omoting OAA for very diffe r ent reasons. A number of objectives. These include: range of rural development and environ m e n t a l agencies and NGOs are beginning to use OAA • in c r easing farmers’ incomes as a tool to meet a range of broa d e r developmental and environmental objectives. • in c r easing yields and productivity in The emphasis of diffe r ent programmes and traditional, marginal, agricultural systems pr ojects may vary, but there is evidence that they often yield multiple benefits. At the same • im p r oving soil fertility and long term time farmers in many developing countries are sustainability of farming systems withdrawing, either partially or completely, fr om the ‘agrochemical treadmill’. Thus there is • reducing farmers’ dependency on arti f i c i a l a clear convergence of interest between the inputs and the exposure of rural populations agendas of diffe r ent agencies and many farmi n g and environments to their side effe c t s communities. Such a convergence could lead to a widespread uptake of OAA in what might • assisting with the restoration of degraded or pr ove to be a truly green ‘Green Revolution’. In abandoned land our opinion the potential of these individual ap p r oaches and the synergies between them has • maintaining and improving biodiversity yet to be fully explored.

• pr omoting and valorizing local knowledge Because the issues and agencies driving the and building self confidence. uptake of OAA are many and diffu s e , in f o r mation reg a r ding the incidence and Knowledge of the extent to which OAA is successes of OAA, and the constraints it faces, practised in the South is far from complete. is spread across many diffe r ent source s . Of ficial data relating to land under certi f i e d Di f fering approaches to OAA, (e.g. certi f i e d or ganic management suggests that orga n i c or ganic, agroe c o l o g y , agrof o re s t r y, and ‘de fa r ming is still very much a minority activity. facto’ organic practices adopted in Only one country in the South (Argentina) has rur a l / p a rt i c i p a t o r y development prog r a m m e s ) mo r e than 1% of its agricultural land under mean that there are many prof e s s i o n a l or ganic management. While such data may be gr oupings who have knowledge and experience incomplete, there is a far bigger gap in our of the issues, but who do not necessarily share knowledge of the extent to which de facto these res o u r ces or experiences with colleagues or ganic and agroecological systems are in other fields. employed throughout the world. Evidence suggests that these two latter approaches are Rist (2000) identifies that the lack of co- much more widely practised than the forma l or dination and communication between or ganic approach, although there is no rel i a b l e di ff e r ent disciplinary approaches (such as means of estimating by how much. ag r i c u l t u r e, livestock production, fores t r y, ag ro f o re s t r y, res e a r ch, education and Reasons for adopting these diffe re n t agricultural extension) provides a major

The Real Green Revolution 107 obstacle to developing more robust forms of • Which areas of work do we wish/feel best OAA and in communicating the benefits of able to support (e.g. pure and/or OAA to a broader audience. Greater cros s - pa r ticipative res e a r ch, promoting knowledge di s c i p l i n a r y and cros s - p ro f e s s i o n a l tr a n s f e r , supporting training and extension communication would significantly enhance the pr ogrammes, assisting with the development co m p r ehensiveness of current knowledge of the of mechanisms for inspection and benefits and potential of OAA. Whilst this may ce r tification, or education and advocacy)? be difficult to achieve on a global basis, it may be possible to create linkages between diffe re n t • What criteria will guide our choice of pr ofessional groupings involvement (e.g. promotion of conserva t i o n on local, regional and, sometimes a national in t e r ests promoting food security, res t o r i n g scale. This would be a valuable first step degraded land, promotion of specific OAA to w a r ds creating a more unified and coheren t te c h n i q u e s ) ? ‘a l t e r native’ agricultural community, one which sh a r es broadly similar values but has yet to • Do we have the capacity to build direct links le a r n to work together in the pursuit of with grass-roots organizations in the South, common goals – something which would or would we rather work with ‘first world’ enable it to share experiences and present a institutions with proven expertise and mo r e unified front to the world at large. existing links?

5.2 – Promoting OAA: defining objectives • Do we wish to work in areas where OAA A central objective of this rep o r t was to identify has established itself and where there is a mechanisms through which relevant funding baseline of local expertise and institutional and advocacy bodies might best engage with ca p a c i t y , or to develop seed-corn projects in pr omoting the development of OAA. We regions where OAA has yet to achieve believe that there are two main avenues a critical mass? th r ough which such effo r ts could be channelled: through global advocacy and Such questions are best answered by su p p o r ting grassroots initiatives. Each or ganizations themselves in view of their aims, ap p r oach has its attractions and drawbacks (see objectives and capacities – we do not pres u m e Schoones and Toulmin, 1999, in chapter 7 for to advise on such issues. What follows is a a general discussion of these issues). Before discussion of two broad approaches to discussing these approaches in any detail we pr omoting OAA, those of advocacy and raise a number of questions (below) reg a rd i n g building local capacity, which might be pursued or ganizational capacity and priorities – in isolation or combination. questions that we feel will help orga n i z a t i o n s 5.3 – Global research and advocacy clarify the issues and choices involved in selecting the most appropriate approach (or In this rep o r t we have identified a range of combination of approaches). pr ojects and initiatives that illustrate the benefits and potential of OAA in a range of • Which geographic areas can we most di ff e r ent ecological, agricultural and socio- ef fectively work in? economic contexts. We have identified a number of ways in which these methods and • How can we most effectively work (e.g. ap p r oaches can address a range of prob l e m s di r ect involvement in res e a r ch and proj e c t s facing farmers, rural (and sometimes urban) or financing and contracting others to do communities and policy-makers in the South. so ) ? Yet we are acutely aware that the desk-based

108 na t u r e and relatively short time span of this Such res e a r ch would also be of potential study have limited its scope and in t e r est to the academic community, as it co m p r ehensiveness. We are also aware that the resonates with a number of key curren t rep o r t raises more questions than it can answer. co n c e r ns within the social sciences including: We feel that further res e a r ch in this area has potential in at least three respects, outlined • How communities and decision-makers in be l o w . the South evaluate and implement competing models of ‘traditionalism’, Fi r s t l y , we believe that such res e a r ch and ‘ecological modernization’ and the (GM-led) advocacy has value in informing the debate ‘second Green Revolution’ about global food security, sustainability and the relationship between the two. One of the • How diffe r ent ‘quality conventions’ are main constraints on the development of OAA negotiated and implemented along food appears to be the attitudes of governments and supply chains and how these affect access to, other policy makers – who are often indiffe re n t , and competitiveness within, markets and occasionally hostile, to OAA. The FAO notes that there is a ‘widespread belief among • The relevance and effectiveness of many sections of society that orga n i c ‘oppositional’ strategies to globalization and ag r i c u l t u r e is not a feasible option for commodification, particularly in relation to im p r oving food security’ (1998, p.12). This it issues of agrob i o d i v e r s i t y . ar gues is a major constraint upon gaining gr eater support for OAA. The grow i n g In relation to the issues discussed in this rep o rt , recognition affo r ded to OAA by interna t i o n a l two potential res e a r ch areas emerge that may agencies (such as the FAO and UNCTAD) and pr ove of interest to the rural development fo r eign donors may well result in governm e n t s res e a r ch community: in the South adopting more sympathetic and pr o-active approaches to OAA. The orga n i c • The existing common ground, tensions (and and agroecological movements could help potential for resolving these) between the accelerate this process through building up and or ganic, agroecological and sustainable maintaining a capacity for ‘global advocacy’: ap p r oaches to agriculture and specifically, publicizing the ‘how, what and why’ of OAA. how these are played out on the ground in The task of promoting diverse and self-rel i a n t pr oject development and prioritization systems of food production becomes ever more ur gent given the dominant trends of • Whether and how OAA can develop as a centralization and commodification within food ‘paradigm of innovation’ which can build an pr oduction systems and the vested interes t s ef fective strategy of res e a r ch and which promote these proc e s s e s . development capable of widely diffusing best practice while absorbing new lessons from Re s e a r ch of this nature is also of considerable those areas where it is being adopted. potential interest to practitioners in the field. As 5.4 – Building local capacity we noted earlier, one of the paradoxes su r rounding OAA is the variation in the levels As well as developing a capacity for global of knowledge available to diffe re n t ad v o c a c y , there is clear need for further support communities. Gathering (and disseminating) in developing local abilities to implement OAA in f o r mation about best practice is one cruc i a l techniques and systems. Two diffe re n t way of improving the knowledge base within ap p r oaches might be adopted which help to knowledge-poor areas. build such capacity. The first involves working with established North e r n-based agencies

The Real Green Revolution 109 (consultancies, NGOs etc.) who have component but are rarely solely, or even experience and links in the South. The second pr i m a r i l y , geared towards these types of project. involves working directly with grassroo t s NGOs in the South. Two private charities (SARD and the Amber Foundation) are primarily oriented towards This study identifies a number of agencies with su p p o r ting NGOs and producer grou p s a proven track rec o r d in res e a rc h i n g , involved in OAA. SARD have established an developing and disseminating informa t i o n annual prize, worth $10,000 and normally split reg a r ding organic and agroecological practices. between three winners every year. Thus they Individually and collectively they have a wealth simultaneously lend financial support to of experience in developing programmes for gr a s s r oots NGOs and also publicize and res e a r ch and development, training, extension celebrate the successes and achievements of and marketing. A number of these NGOs in providing workable, sustainable or ganizations are identified in Appendix 2a. solutions. They include res e a r ch institutes, interna t i o n a l NGOs, and private sector consultancies. Most Th r oughout this project we identified a number of these agencies are dependent on externa l of grassroots organizations often in need of funding (from either the commercial or public funding to develop projects and res e a rc h sectors) to carry out their work. Inevitably in initiatives. Most frequently the concerns of their work, they will have identified proj e c t s , these groups fell into one of three area s : schemes and initiatives which they feel merit fu r ther investigation and/or development for • Developing educational/training/extension which they may have been unable to attract and marketing facilities to support farme r s funding. Thus they are well placed to advise on wishing to convert to organic and specific projects with development potential as ag r oecological methods of production well as those that have a potential for tr a n s f e r a b i l i t y . Organizations with little prior • Developing certification programmes so as experience in this area are likely to find that to put OAA on a formalized basis in orde r institutions such as these are well placed to to maintain standards markets, the id e n t i f y , develop and execute projects and cr edibility of organic produce in domestic pr ogrammes. markets and enable participation in export ma r k e t s A second option available to orga n i z a t i o n s wishing to involve themselves in this area is • Building up infrastruc t u r e to permit orga n i c that of building direct contact with NGOs in and agroecological producers to add value the South. This is clearly the most attractive to and more effectively store or market their option in terms of providing value for money pr oduce. and producing direct benefits on the grou n d . Yet it is also a relatively high-risk strategy, as it Some NGOs and producer groups who rep l i e d involves identifying and selecting groups who to the survey took the opportunity to send have the administrative capacity to manage detailed (and sometimes costed) proj e c t funds and to monitor and evaluate proj e c t pr oposals (although we assume that they were pe rf o r mance. Some governm e n t a l not drawn up solely in response to our req u e s t developmental agencies and many development for information). More commonly, these charities work on this basis (although more or ganizations discussed plans and aspirations often they have local field staff overseeing and the problems of accessing funds to develop pr ojects). The projects that they finance may their capacity as effective ambassadors for include those with a significant OAA OAA. Appendix 2b contains summary details

110 of, and contacts for, NGOs responding to our su rv e y . Inclusion within this list does not imply any seal of approval of the organizations on behalf of the authors (nor does omission from it imply disapproval). Rather the list prov i d e s an overview of NGO activities. This information might be used to identify di r ect opportunities for supporting grassroo t s or ganizations or, more generally, to identify the priorities of such groups with a view to developing programmes that effectively addres s issues of prime concern.

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The Real Green Revolution 127 Glossary of Abbreviations FL O and Acronyms Fa i r trade Labelling Organisation

AB L H GE T Association for Better Land Husbandry Gr eenpeace Environmental Trust

ACAO GM / GMO The Cuban Association for Organic Agriculture Genetically Modified / Orga n i s m s

AGRU C O GOA N Ag r oecologiciá Universidad Cochabamba Ghanaian Organic Agriculture Network (Bolivia) GT Z AP P R I Deutsche Gesellschaft für Tec h n i s c h e Association for the Promotion of Intensive Zusammenarbeit – (The Germany Agency for Rotational Grazing (Arge n t i n a ) Technical Co-operation).

BB P HD R A Better Banana Project He n r y Doubleday Research Institute

BD IC I P E Bi o d y n a m i c In t e r national Centre for Insect Physiology and Ec o l o g y CI E S A Ce n t r e for Investigation and Teaching on IC R A F Sustainable Agriculture (Arge n t i n a ) In t e r national Centre for Research in Ag ro f o re s t r y (Kenya) COA E Ce n t r e for Organic Agriculture in Egypt IF OA M In t e r national Federation of Orga n i c Df I D Agricultural Movements De p a r tment for International Development II E D EC O A In t e r national Institute for the Environment and Egyptian Centre of Organic Agriculture Development

ES R C IL E I A Economic and Social Research Council In f o r mation Centre for Low-Externa l - I n p u t and Sustainable Agriculture (The Netherlands) EU Eu r opean Union IT D G In t e r mediate Technology Development Grou p FAO Food and Agricultural Organisation (United LE I S A Na t i o n s ) Low External Input and Sustainable Ag r i c u l t u r e

SR I

128 System of Rice Intensification (Madagascar) US D A United States Department of Agriculture IS D Institute for Sustainable Development (Tigray) WH O World Health Orga n i s a t i o n IT C In t e r national Trade Centre (Switzerland) WFDFFM World Food Day Farmers’ and Fisherme n ’ s KI O Mo v e m e n t Kenyan Institute of Organic Farming WW F MA P O World Wide Fund for Nature Moviemiento Argentino para la Prod u c c i o n Org a n i c

NG O ( s ) Non Governmental Orga n i s a t i o n ( s )

OAA Or ganic and Agroecological Approa c h e s

OF D C Or ganic Food Development Centre (China)

SA R D Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development Pr i z e .

SÖ L Stiftung Ökologie and Landbau

TAB Tigray Agricultural Burea u

UC I R I Union of Indigenous Communities of the Isthmus Region (Mexico)

UN C TA D United Nations Centre for Trade and Development

UN D P United Nations Development Prog r a m m e

The Real Green Revolution 129 Appendix 1 – Bo weev i l El e c t r onic res o u r ces for OAA Associated with the good food foundation Bo weevil (named after the Cotton Boll Wee v i l ) Ag ex p r o n t works with cotton producers in the South. This Guatemalan base export business. site also explains the problems of conventional ht t p : / / w w w. a g e x p ro n t . c o m / i n g l e s . h t m cotton production and is well illustrated. ht t p : / / w w w. b o w e e v i l . n l / e n g l i s h / b w _ f r a m e s . Agro Eco Consultancy htm Dutch based agroecological consultancy who have experience in Africa, Latin America and CAB International Asia. They have involvement in Fores t r y and This site, launched by CAB International (and the EPOPA programme (Export Promotion of funded by MAFF) in October 2000, prov i d e s Or ganic Products from Africa) financed by the news, details of res e a r ch, training and job Swedish government agency, SIDA. They have op p o r tunities. It is mostly focused on Europ e also contributed a chapter on evaluating and North America, but plans are afoot to or ganic projects for a DfID handbook and have launch an internet based searchable database published material on developing orga n i c covering res e a r ch in Spring 2001. Subscription cotton systems. They have branch or associated based but offers a free trail. of fices in Argentina, Uganda and Zimbabwe ht t p : / / w w w. o rg a n i c - re s e a r ch.com and have worked in partnership with many overseas NGOs. ht t p : / / w w w. a g ro e c o . n l / a g ro e c o Centro Interdisciplinario de Estudios Sobre el De s a r r o l l o ,U r u g u a y (CIEDUR) As s o c . de Organisaciones de Productores Ur uguayan NGO with a specific focus on Ecologicós de Bolivi a sustainable development. Bolivian organic producers association. Site lists ht t p : / / f p . c h a s q u e . n e t : 8 0 8 1 / c i e d u r / 41 members (producers and consultants) and pre s e n t a t i o n . h t m l details of their publications, technical servi c e s and forthcoming events. Chaoda Modern Ag r i c u l t u r al Holdings Ltd. ht t p : / / w w w. m e g a l i n k . c o m / a o p e b / (C h i n a ) Home page for Chinese production and Bi o h e r b distribution company. Their mission is ‘to Ge r man based consultancy working mostly in pr omote hi technology biological farming and tr opical countries supporting producers and within ten years become the flagship of China’s pr ocessors of organic, medicinal and arom a t i c ag r i c u l t u r e strategy and to rank among the 500 plants. They currently are involved in proj e c t s la r gest enterprises in the world’. They pres e n t l y in China. Madagascar and Bolivia. Other have c.1,000 Ha. of land in agricultural countries in which they have experience include pr oduction, in 7 provinces , but mostly Nepal, Sri Lanka, Kazakhstan, Tanzania, Peru concentrated in and Malawi. Their site also contains a direc t o r y Fujian and Jiangsu provinces. They plan of third world organisations involved on tr ebling this figure by 2002 on the basis of land or ganic production and marketing. al r eady in conversion. Their also provides links ht t p : / / w w w .bioherb.de to over 30 Chinese companies and agencies (p r esumably with an interest in orga n i c pr oduction). ht t p : / / w w w. c h a o d a . c o m /

130 City Far m e r s Food and Agricultural Orga n i s a t i o n Web page from Canada’s Office of Urban The FAO is the largest autonomous Ag r i c u l t u r e. Has links to Urban farming news / or ganisation within the United Nations. sites in the third world. Its mandate is to raise levels of nutrition ht t p : / / w w w. c i t y f a rm e r. o rg / and standards of living, improve agricultural pro d u c t i v i t y , and better the condition of rur a l Daabon Organic populations. In 1999 the FAO Committee on Colombian organic traders and certi f i e r s . Ag r i c u l t u r e (COAG) (English language) ht t p : / / w w w. d a a b o n . c o m . c o / ap p r oved FAO involvement in orga n i c ag r i c u l t u r e. Undoubtedly FAO ’ s support for Eldis or ganic agriculture will give added legitimacy Gateway to many development orga n i s a t i o n s and weight to the organic movement. Alrea d y and topics. http://nt1.ids.ac.uk/eldis/eldsea.htm its web pages on Organic agriculture some of the most comprehensive to be found on the Eg yptian Centre of Organic Ag r i c u l t u r e in t e r net and include a facility to search on line Eg y p t ’ s accreditation organisation for orga n i c for bibliographic res o u rc e s . fa r ms and processors. Little Information here. ht t p : / / w w w. f a o . o rg / o rg a n i c a g / ht t p : / / w w w. e c o a . c o m . e g / Other FAO sites worth visiting are: The David Lubin Memorial Library Equal Exchange ht t p : / / w w w. f a o . o rg / l i b r a ry / d l u b i n / D l s i t e s E . h t m US based ‘fair trade’ organisation, which and WACIENT (World Agricultural focuses on organic and ‘shade grown’ coffe e . In f o r mation Centre) In t e r esting information about coffee grow i n g ht t p : / / w w w. f a o . o rg / w a i c e n t / s e a rc h / pr ocess and details of their projects / partn e r s de f a u l t . h t m or ganisations in Latin America, Tanzania, India and Indonesia. ht t p : / / w w w. e q u a l e x c h a n g e . c o m GaMa Brazilian importers and exporters, specialising European Universities' Consortium for a in Soya products. ht t p : / / w w w. g a m a . c o m . b r / Common Curriculum in Ecological Ag r i c u l t u r e Pr ovides links to Universities in the EU who Global Ag r i c u l t u r al Information Networ k pr ovide organic and agroecological courses and (GAIN) do res e a r ch in the field . This site is a subsidiary site the ES Federal ht t p : / / w w w. i r s . a b e r. a c . u k / re s e a rc h / O rg a n i c s / t r a i Agricultural Service (FAS). It mostly prov i d e s ni n g / c o n s o rt . h t m l links to rep o r ts of relevance for export of US agricultural produce. It has some useful market intelligence on organic production in demand in some developing countries. Use the subject search ‘Organic. ’ ht t p : / / w w w. f a s . u s d a . g o v / i n f o / f a c t s h e e t s / re p o rt s . html

The Real Green Revolution 131 Good Food Foundation the UK and abroad, where they also offer a Dutch based co-operative project for prom o t i n g tr opical advisory service, which has prov i d e d or ganic production in the third world. in f o r mation and advice since 1992 on trop i c a l Members are mostly food traders who work to or ganic agriculture to individuals and se c u r e supplies to meet domestic demand. They or ganisations in the tropics and sub-trop i c s . mostly work in Tur k e y , but have other proj e c t s The aim is to give small-scale, farmers the in Sri Lanka and China. Their site also gives knowledge and skills to enable them to links to a wide range im p r ove existing farming systems, increase food of other organic orga n i s a t i o n s . se c u r i t y , increase safe food production and ht t p : / / w w w .goodfood.nl contribute towards environmental protection. It runs a tree seed distribution prog r a m m e , Gr e e n A q u a su p p o r ts a seed saving programme and has Ecuadorian based organic aquaculture helped establish the Ghanaian Orga n i c company ht t p : / / w w w. g re e n a q u a . c o m Agricultural Network

Green Fou n d a t i o n Overseas Research includes: Site of an Indian based (Tamil Nadu) NGO who work closely with small and margi n a l • Or ganic agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa: fa r mers in the dry-land regions of South India. fa r mer demand and potential for Their main focus is on seed conservation / de v e l o p m e n t exchanges., promoting agri-biodiversity, traditional knowledge systems and orga n i c • Ma n u r e management in Kenya fa r ming practices. ht t p : / / w w w. g re e n c o n s e rv e . c o m • The use of urban waste in peri-urban agricultural systems Green Trade Net Ge r man based site providing a showcase for • Optimisation of neem products: value to or ganic products. It includes details of rep o rt s poor farmers and constraints to covering 18 of the most important trop i c a l de v e l o p m e n t im p o r ts. ht t p : / / w w w. g r een-tradenet.de • Pr osopis juliflora and related arborea l species: a monograph, extension manual and Gr o l i n k da t a b a s e Swedish based consultancy primarily aimed at pr omoting organic agriculture, developing • Ethical trading: definition, practice and ce r tification schemes. They also prov i d e possible links with organic agriculture training courses for those wishing to develop their experience in promoting organic systems • Assessment of the needs of Cuban urban in the third world. Much, but not all of their ag r i c u l t u r e work is marketing oriented. Site also contains a list of publications and details of their training • Composting workshops in Palestine pr ogrammes. ww w. g r olink.se ht t p : / / w w w. h d r a . o rg . u k /

Henry Doubleday Research As s o c i a t i o n Hess Naturtext i l i e n An organic gardening res e a r ch group based in Ge r man based organisation trading in England. It is involved in the pres e r vation of or ganically produced textiles (German language en d a n g e r ed vegetables and fruit species. They only) ht t p : / / w w w. h e s s - n a t u r. c o m ar e extensively involved in organic res e a r ch in

132 In c a t o p s development issues. Pe r uvian based and IFOAM reg i s t e re d ht t p : / / w w w. i d s . a c . u k / b l d s / i n d e x . h t m l . A search ma n u f a c t u r er of Alpaca tops. on the keywords ‘organics’ or ‘agroe c o l o g y ’ ww w. i n c a t o p s . c o m yielded 45+ hits, but very few more recent than 1997. In f ormation Centre for Low-External-Input and Sustainable Agriculture (ILEIA) Institute for Organic Ag r i c u l t u r e , Bonn Established in 1982 with Dutch governm e n t Mostly European focused res e a r ch institute funding, ILIEIA is now an independent –although has scientific res e a r ch proj e c t s or ganisation. Its is to promote Low Externa l ongoing in the South, mostly in Latin America. Input and Sustainable Agriculture (LEISA), ht t p : / / w w w. u n i - b o n n . d e / i o l / e n g l i s h . h t m th ro u g h Instituto Biodinamico • Collecting and exchanging informa t i o n Brazilian Biodynamic Organisation. Have 60 st a f f provide advice and consultation and run • Facilitating Farmer Guided Research to their own certification scheme. They rep o r t assess the viability of LEISA prod u c t i o n having 230 producer (groups) across South systems and America, covering 62,000 ha. ww w. i b d . c o m . b r

• Contributing to the political debate on International Centre for Research into sustainable agriculture. Ag r o f orestry (ICRAF), Nairobi The International Centre for Research in It has a library / documentation service on Ag ro f o re s t r y (ICRAF), established in Nairobi in ecologically-oriented agriculture, with arou n d 1977, is an autonomous, non-profit res e a rc h 7000 documents. (Which can be search e d body supported by the Consultative Group on remotely at ht t p : / / w w w .bib.wau.nl/ileia/ ). It In t e r national Agricultural Research. ICRAF publishes aims to improve human welfare by alleviating a quarterly newsletter in English and Spanish po v e rt y , improving food and nutritional which is distributed free to institutions and se c u r i t y , and enhancing environ m e n t a l individuals in the third world. resilience in the tropics. ICRAF conducts strategic and applied res e a r ch, in partn e r s h i p ILEIA has recently reviewed of its activities with national agricultural res e a r ch systems, for reviewed its activities and intends to stren g t h e n mo r e sustainable and productive land use. It its links with filed level development workers, has five res e a r ch and development themes: while at the same time developing stron g e r diversification and intensification of land use communication links with staff in academic th r ough domestication of agrof o re s t r y tree s ; and res e a r ch institutions and policy makers. soil fertility replenishment in nutrient-depleted Field workers will however remain its core, lands with agrof o re s t r y and other nutrient ta r get audience. To develop this new inputs; socio-economic and policy res e a r ch to pr ogramme allow policies that will benefit smallholder it is presently looking find a new donors to fa r mers; acceleration of impact on farm by contribute to an anticipated $2M p.a. budget ensuring that res e a r ch res u l t s req u i r ement. ht t p : / / w w w. o n e w o r l d . o rg / i l e i a / ar e used; and capacity and institutional st r engthening through training and the Institute for Development Studies dissemination of informa t i o n . Based at the University of Sussex, the British ht t p : / / w w w. i c r a f . c g i a r. o r g Li b r a r y for Development Studies at ISD claims to have the largest Library in Europe on International Development Research Centre

The Real Green Revolution 133 Ca n a d a ’ s development agency – has a good International Institute for Environment and series of thumbnail sketches of proj e c t s De velopment (IIED) ‘a d v e n t u r es in development’, including orga n i c UK based charitable body with impressive track and sustainable agricultural approa c h e s . rec o r d of instigating res e a r ch and project on a ht t p : / / w w w. i d rc . c a / i n d e x _ e . h t m l range of issues relating to sustainable development in the third world. Their curren t International Fed e r ation of Organic res e a r ch projects include a multi country study Ag r i c u l t u r al Movements (IFOAM ) on ‘Policies that work Sustainable Agriculture Re p r esents the world-wide movement for and Regenerated Rural Economies’. Their or ganic agriculture. It has more than 730 cu r rent publications list relating to agriculture member organisations in more than 100 contains a number of studies of soil fertility and countries. It publishes the global basic orga n i c sustainable st a n d a r ds, and has been influential in the land use issues, particularly in Africa, often negotiations with the WTO / WHO codex un d e r taken from a participative, bottom up alimentarius committee. It also prom o t e s perspective (in Tig r a y , Benin, Malawi and annual trade fairs and bi-annual conferen c e s , Kenya). ht t p : / / w w w. i i e d . o rg / i n d e x . h t m publishes a world-wide direc t o r y of member or ganisations, proceedings of its conferen c e s International Rice Research Institute (The and a quarterly magazine ‘Ecology and Philippines) Fa r ming’ ht t p : / / w w w. i f o a m . o r g Not an organic organisation, indeed they do much work on promoting GM variants. International Food Pol i c y Research Institute However their Sustainable Agricultural (IFPRI) development Programme did win the SARD IFPRIs Research focuses on economic grow t h Prize, reflecting the value of work that they do and poverty alleviation in low-income in this field. countries, improvement of the well-being of ht t p : / / w w w. c g i a r. o rg / i rr i / p a / i n d e x . h t m poor people, and sound management of the natural res o u r ce base that supports agriculture. Isic Tarim Ürünleri AS Though they have little specifically focused on Or ganically certified Turkish fruit packing or ganic farming or agroecology agriculture, co m p a n y . ht t p : / / w w w .isiktarim.com they have a strong res e a r ch profile in rel e v a n t fields. ht t p : / / w w w. i f p r i . o r g Louis Bolk Institute Dutch based res e a r ch institute with interests in or ganic food, agriculture and anthrop o s o p h i c a l medicine. Most of the site is in Dutch but their last two annual rep o r ts are available in English ht t p : / / w w w .louisbolk.nl/about/index.htm

Na t u r l a n d , Ge r man association promoting orga n i c ag r i c u l t u r e. Involved in certifying, inspection and advocating organic agriculture. Naturland have strong links with many third world countries. ww w. n a t u r l a n d . d e

134 Organic Cotton Site Pusat Pendidkan Lingkungan Hiduup This site dedicates itself to ‘all the farme r s , Network of Indonesian environ m e n t a l ma n u f a c t u r ers, activists, retailers and others who education centres, which includes amongst its ar e devoting their energies to making orga n i c pr ogrammes the promotion of organic farmi n g . cotton a viable agricultural and economic ht t p : / / w w w .webcom.com/pplh al t e r native’. Links range from details about pests and pesticide use to the design and fashion end of Pr i y a Chemicals the supply chain. It is Californian based. It has Co m m e r cial web site for company details of the BASIC (Biological Agricultural manufacturing and exporting amino acid based Systems in Cotton) programme designed to move bio-stimulants for agricultural and veterinarian fa r mers from chemically intensive to orga n i c purposes. ht t p : / / w w w. p r i y a c h e m . c o m systems, a system which may be transferable / applicable in other situations. Rapunzel (Germany) . ht t p : / / w w w. s u s t a i n a b l e c o t t o n . o rg / Mostly German language site from commerci a l suppliers ww w. r a p u n z e l . d e Organic Crop Improvement Association US based association, the world’s large s t Rapunzel (Tur k ey) or ganic certification agency. They have chapters Co m m e r cial site for group claiming to be in Latin America and claim (in IFOAM Tur k e y ’ s longest established and leading orga n i c Di re c t o r y) to have an interest in third world pr oduct development company. or ganic production. It is difficult to find much ht t p : / / a b o n e . s u p e ro n l i n e . c o m / ~ r a p m a s t e r / evidence of this on these web pages however. ww w. o c i a . o r g Re s e a r c h Institute of Organic Ag r i c u l t u r e (F i B L ) , Organic Farm and Garden Supplies Swiss based consultancy who are extensively Co m m e r cial site for South African based involved in agricultural res e a r ch, certi f i c a t i o n supplier of organic activators, water trea t m e n t and marketing. They have strong links with the systems and feed supplements for animals (TM: Swiss development agency who finance many Pe n a c ) . pr ojects on which FiBL are engaged. ht t p : / / w w w. o rg a n i c s a . c o . z a ht t p : / / w w w. f i b l . c h / e n g l . h t m l

Organic Standards Resource Efficient Ag r i c u l t u r al Production On line journal maintained by Grol i n k (REAP) (Canada) dedicated to discussing issues surrou n d i n g An independent, non-profit organisation that or ganic standards ww w. o rg a n i c s t a n d a r d.com has been working since 1986 with farme r s , scientists, NGOs and industry, to advance the Phalad Agro Research Fou n d a t i o n development of sustainable farming systems. Co m m e r cial site for an Indian producer of They work with rural communities, both or ganic fertilisers and nutrients. domestically and interna t i o n a l l y , to prom o t e ww w. p h a l a d a a g r o.com en v i r onmentally sound development to addres s society's need for food, fuel and fibre. Planeta Verde ht t p : / / w w w. re a p . c a Multilingual site of a Brazilian organic brow n sugar prod u c e r . ht t p : / / w w w. p l a n e t a v e rd e . c o m . b r /

The Real Green Revolution 135 R.I.O IMPULS Stiftung Ökologie and Landbau (SÖL) Swiss based (and German language only) forum (F oundation for Ecology and Ag r i c u l t u r e ) for economics and ecology. Contains some A charity founded in 1961 and initially active in f o r mation about organic cotton / textile in the education and health. It has worked pr ojects. ht t p : / / w w w .rio.ch specifically on organic agriculture since 1975. It su p p o r ts numerous projects and studies rel a t e d Rodale Institute to organic agriculture. US based Foundation, set up in 1940s and An important aim is the effective dissemination originally called the soil and health foundation. of the knowledge gained. Many of SÖL's Focuses on promoting organic agriculture and activities relate to information about / for consumption. It places an emphasis on or ganic farming. Their publications include a education and has a number global database about organic farming and the of projects in the South, including Guatemala Ge r man language "Ökologie de facto and Senegal. The Institute was rec e n t l y Landbau" aw a r ded a national prize by the President a quarterly journal, which covers all aspects of of Senegal for its work with a with a local ecology and farming. ht t p : / / w w w .soel.de women's group on the regeneration of community waste management throu g h Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Devel o p m e n t composting. ww w. ro d a l e i n s t i t u t e . o r g Prize A privately funded prize (guaranteed for ten Se ke m years at a level of US$ 10,000) rew a r ding land A cultural and social project, based upon st e w a r dship with impact on the life of rur a l biodynamic farming. They now cultivate more po o r . ht t p : / / w w w. s a rd - than 2000ha, including significant amounts of ma l l i n c k r odt.de/index.shtml or ganic cotton. They have both economic and cultural influence within Sustainable Agriculture Network /Research and Egypt and are well thought within the orga n i c Education (SAN / SARE) movement as an example of sustainable US based network with few foreign links, development. ht t p : / / w w w .sekem.com but some projects possibly of interes t ht t p : / / w w w. s a re . o r g Sk a l Dutch based inspection and certi f i c a t i o n Tropical Research Institute or ganisation. ht t p : / / w w w .skal.com Dutch based Institute specialising in prom o t i n g in t e r national co-operation and intercu l t u r a l Spice Board, India communication. It has some experience in The site contains much of interests about the su p p o r ting agroecological projects and an im p o r tance and history of spices in general and extensive library. ht t p : / / w w w .kit.nl includes details of the recent developments in or ganic spice growing, the certi f i c a t i o n United Nature initiatives and lists of growers and exporte r s . Ge r man based organic trading company ht t p : / / w w w. i n d i a n s p i c e s . c o m / h t m l / s 0 6 5 0 o rg . h t ht t p : / / w w w. u n i t e d n a t u re . n e t m

136 Appendix 2A In t e r national Centre for Insect Physiology and Re s e a r ch Institutes and Consultancies Ecology (ICIPE). Dr. Hans Herren, Direc t o r General hh e r ren @ i c i p e . o r g This listing, which is by no means exhaustive, In t e r national Research Centre into Agrof o re s t r y details contacts for res e a r ch institutes, (ICRAF) Contact via ht t p : / / w w w. i c r a f . c g i a r. o r g/ development agencies and consultancies. It is mostly drawn from responses to survey work Ma l a ysia and articles written by staff members. These HUMUS Consultancy and Marketing. Has or ganisations have an international focus and, a good knowledge of the organics sector in S.E. for ease of ref e r ence are listed under their home Asia. Ong Kung Wai, , ku n g w a i @ t m . n e t . m y countries. Fuller details of their activities or res e a r ch expertise can either be found in the The Netherlands main body of the text or in Appendix 1. Ag r o Eco Consultancy. See entry under res o u r ces. Bo van Elzakker off i c e @ a g o e c o . n l Ca n a d a Bo - W eevil. Marck van Esch [email protected] City Farmers. Experience in urban farmi n g Good Food Foundation. Jan Schrijver pr ojects in the first and third world. Contact [email protected] via web pages ht t p : / / w w w. c i t y f a rm e r. o r g In f o r mation Centre for Low-Externa l - I n p u t and Sustainable Agriculture (ILEIA) Contact Re s o u r ce Efficient Agricultural Prod u c t i o n . via web site . Sustainable agriculture NGO. Contact via web ht t p : / / w w w. o n e w o r l d . o r g/ileia/bridges.htm site.. ht t p : / / w w w. re a p . c a Swe d e n Ch i l e Gr olink. Gunnar Rundgren, in f o @ g r olink.se Movimento Agroecologico en America Latina y El Caribe. Pan Latin American OAA network. Sw i t z e r l a n d Mario Ahumada ma a @ c t c re u n a . c l Re s e a r ch Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL). Swiss based consultancy with extensive Ge r m a n y involvement in development projects. Contact Bioherb: Consulting for Organic Agriculture. via web site ht t p : / / w w w. f i b l . c h / e n g l . h t m l Ulrich Helberg, bi o h e r b @ t - o n l i n e . d e Fair Trade Labelling Orga n i s a t i o n . United Kingdom In t e r national co-ordinator for fairtr a d e Ec o t r opic. UK based biodynamic consultancy labelling. Carol Doyle with extensive experience, including assisting in co o rd i n a t i o n @ f a i r Tr a d e . n e t conversion of two case studies described in this Institute for Organic Agriculture, Bonn. pr oject: Ambootia Tea Estate and the Maikall Contact via web site ht t p : / / w w w. u n i - Cotton project. Tadeu Caldas, bonn.de/iol/english.htm tc a l d a s _ e c o t ro p i c @ c o m p u s e rv e . c o m In t e r national Federation of Orga n i c He n r y Doubleday Research Association. See Agricultural Movements (IFOAM). Contact via res o u r ces for details. Contact web site ht t p : / / w w w. i f o a m . o r g en q u i ry @ h d r a . o r g.uk IACR Rothamstead. Prof. John Pickett It a l y jo h n . P i c k e t t @ b b s r c.as.uk Food and Agricultural Organisation. Nadia Scialabba, Environment Offi c e r In t e r national Institute for Environment Na d i a . S c i a l a b b a @ f a o . o r g and Development. contact via web site ht t p : / / w w w. i i e d . o rg / i n d e x . h t m Ken ya Twin Trading a Fair trade group who also

The Real Green Revolution 137 pr omote organic produce. Alex Holmes Appendix 2B – in f o @ t w i n . o r g.uk NGOs and producer grou p s

United States This listing, which is by no means exhaustive, Equal Exchange. Fairtrade organisation details contacts for NGOs and Prod u c e r with several organic projects. J. Rosenthal Gr oups whose activity is mostly within their jro s e n t h a l @ e q u a l e x c h a n g e . c o m own countries. It is mostly drawn from ww w .equalexchange.com responses to survey work and articles written Rodale Institute. Involved in projects, primarily by staff members. in Senegal. See res o u r ces and section on Senegal Description of the work of these groups is for details. Contact Amadou Dipo generally included within the main text of the ad i o p @ ro d a l e i n s t . o r g or in f o @ r odaleinst rep o r t or in Appendix 1. Only where these details are not included in earlier sections is a description of the groups activities included. Inclusion or exclusion of groups on this list does not constitute a value judgement on the authors behalf as to their ‘worth i n e s s ’

Af r i c a

Burkina Faso Raw Bio Process – producer group also covering Niger and Mali. Contact [email protected]

Egy p t Ce n t r e for Organic Agriculture in Egypt (COAE). Helmy Abouleish [email protected] Egyptian Centre of Organic Agriculture. Y.A . Hamadi ec o a @ s o f i c o m . c o m . r g Egyptian Centre of Organic Agriculture Society. Ahmed El-Araby [email protected]

Gh a n a Ghanaian Organic Agricultural Network (GOAN). Emmanuel Antwi [email protected]

Ken ya Association for Better Land Husbandry. Pr omotes organic and sustainable farming in Kenya on a ‘near-nil investment’ basis. Receive some support from DfID. They are also developing a certification programme for Kenya and promote OAA. Jim Cheatle PO Box 39042 Nairobi. jc h e a t l e @ n e t 2 0 0 0 k e . c o m

Gr een Farming Group. Small community fa r ming group with a 16ha. demonstration fa r m in Othaya. They are mostly involved

138 in teaching farmers about composting and Techniques. Rural development grou p water conservation techniques. John Kanyi, pr omoting OAA. Yacouba Tangara BP 2502, Gr een Farming Group, P.O. Box 897, Othaya, Bamako, MALI KE N YA . Hope Community Development Prog r a m m e Mo z a m b i q u e (Misikhu) A training organisation based in Or ganic Cotton Project. Group involved in we s t e r n Kenya involving >1000 farmers, with pr omoting organic cotton growing and other four extension workers. They have recently set fo r ms of organic agriculture. Norberto up a small sunflower oil processing unit for Mahalambe [email protected] local farmers (with aid from ICCO, a Dutch funding organisation). Contact Richard Soita. Ni g e r i a [email protected] Regfos Green Commission. Established NGO. Itemeini Organic Farming Self Help Grou p . Sunny Okwudire 7/13 Murtala Mohammed Waikwa Stephen Wachira [email protected] Way , PO Box 531 Jos, Nigeria Kenyan Institute for Organic Farming (KIOF). See text for details. Dr. John Wanjau Njorog e , Se n e g a l Di r ector ki o f @ e l c i . g n . a p c . o r g Agriculteurs Naturalistes. El Hadj Hamath Hane, ag r i n a t @ e n d a . s n Madagascar Association des Jeunes Agriculteurs de Association Tefy Saina Principle movers behind Casamace. Lamine Biaye, BP11 Sedhiou, the development of intensive rice grow i n g Se n e g a l techniques in Madagascar. Sébastian Ce n t r e d’Initiatives et de Recherches Paysannes Ra f a r a l a h y . te f y s a i n a @ s i m i c r o.mg PR O M A B I . pour l’Environment et le Développement Jean Claude Ratsimivony [email protected] Durable. Ibrahima Seck is e c k @ m o n c o u rr i e r .com Ma l aw i Federation des Agropasteurs de Diende: farme r Lipangwe Organic Manure Demonstration based res e a r ch extension and experimentation Fa r m, Lomadef. The only agroe c o l o g i c a l gr oup. Papa Gueye, Keur Abdou NDOYE, demonstration farm in Malawi. Have a Route de Kayar, Région membership of 1000+ members who come for de Thies, Sénégal. on farm training. Other Malawi based NGOs Recours á la Ter re. Run a 5 ha. demonstration send their staff and farmers there for training. ga r den and experiment with locally approp r i a t e In operational terms the biggest problem faced fo r ms of organic production and have run by the farm is lack of transportation for collaborative res e a r ch and extension extension work and monitoring. The biggest pr ogrammes with national and reg i o n a l pr oblem faced by local farmers is lack of (seed pr oducer groups. Abdoulaye SARR, BP 290 co r n) capital Tambacounda, Sénégal. Senegalaise pour le to purchase farm implements. J.J. Kanjange Pr omotion de l’Agriculture Biologique. Sheikh (D i r ector) PO Box 26, Matale, Ntcheu, Tidiane Dramé, [email protected] Malawi. Shiré Highland Organic Growers Orga n i z a t i o n . South Africa Gr oup of certified organic growers in Malawi- Biodynamic Agricultural Association of South mostly on expatriate farms but attempting to Africa. Intending to set up a certification and ou t r each to indigenous farmers. Arth u r inspection agency in South Africa. Pieter Sc h w a r z. PO Box 930, Blantyre, Malawi. Ge e r nat PO Box 115, Paulshof 2056, South Africa. Ma l i Food Gardens Foundation. NGO prom o t i n g Gr oupe de Recherches et d’Applications food self-sufficiency in poor townships and

The Real Green Revolution 139 rural areas. Allda Boshoff fg f @ g l o b a l . c o . z a SAPRD) and are expanding their role from a The Rainman Landcare Foundation. NGO regional to national level. They are also involved in promoting water harvesting and centrally involved in setting up the first national or ganic agriculture. Dr. Raymond Auerbach, or ganics conference and trying to develop the P.O. Box 2349, Hillcrest 3650, South Africa. or ganic sector. Elisabeth Nabanja-Makumbi PO Box 18272, Kayunga-Bugere UGANDA. Tog o World Vision, Contact Fred Wajje, who is also Gr oupement des Jeunes pour l’Entraide et le IFOAM co-ordinator for anglophone African Development (GJED) Young peasant farme r countries. P.O. Box 5319, Kampala UGANDA gr oup promoting organic farming in the Fre d _ w a j j e @ w v i . o r g Wes t e r n plateau area of Togo. The main aims of the group are experimentation with OAA Zi m b a b w e and dissemination of successful methods Zimbabwe Organic Producers and Proc e s s o r s amongst villages. They have established a Association. Tom Deiters pr i m a r y school where organic garden and Td e i t e r s @ a f r i c a o n l i n e . c o . z w teachings are at the heart of the curri c u l u m . As i a Although they intended this to be a pilot pr oject, they have not yet raised funds to Ba n g l a d e s h replicate the venture in other villages. They Pr oshika. NGO seeking to prom o t e have also established an information / economically viable ecological farming practices documentation centre where people can come into Bangladesh. and find out more about agroe c o l o g y . They are Zh o s s a i n @ p ro k i s h a . b d o n l i n e . c o m seeking funding to translate key texts and in f o r mation into local languages so that Ch i n a villagers can more readily avail themselves of Ag r oecology Research Institute, China this res o u r ce. Komla FOLY Agricultural University, Beijing. One of China’s [email protected]; [email protected] leading agroecological res e a r ch centres. Li WWOOF Togo – the only ‘Working Wee k e n d s Hufaen [email protected] On Organic Farms’ group in the South that is China Green Food Development Centre, Shi reg i s t e r ed with IFOAM. Yawo Tonato Agbeko Songkai cg f d c @ a g r i . g o v .cn ww o o f t o g o @ h o t m a i l . c o m China National Green Food Corporation, Shi Yongzhu org a n i c @ c h i n a g re e n f o o d s . c o m . Ug a n d a Kulika Charitable Trust. Training orga n i s a t i o n In t e r continental Centre for Agroe c o l o g i c a l recently relocated to Uganda. In d u s t r y Research and Development. Li ku l i k a @ c o m p u s e rv e . c o m Zhengfang ic a i a rd @ i l o n l i n e . c o m Mi r embe Self Help Organization of Uganda. Nanjing Global Organic Food Research and An active NGO group within the Ugandan Consulting Centre Xi Yun g u a n , OAA scene. They established a demonstration of rc c @ j l o n l i n e . c o m fa r m for organic farming and Agrof o re s t r y in Or ganic Food Development Centre of China, 1992 and provide extension and training Xingji Xiao, xi a o x i @ p u b l i c 1 . p t t . j s . c n facilities. Their interests also cover approp r i a t e technology and are renowned for having In d i a developed a cassava flour substitute for cement. Campaign for Organic Farming. Kranti They have now been elevated by the Prakesh, Kr a n t i _ P r a k a s h @ h o t m a i l . c o m go v e r nment to the status of The National Gr een Foundation. Vanaja Ramprassad Re s o u r ce Centre for Sustainable Agriculture na n d i t h a @ b l r. v s n l . n e t . i n and Parti c i p a t o r y Rural Development (NRC- Institute for Integrated Rural Development.

140 Alexander V. Daniel ii rd i n d @ b o m 4 . v s n l . n e t . i n Sungwon B’D 2/3 Garak Dong Songpa Gu In t e r national Society for Nature Farming. I.S. Seoul 138-160, Korea Hooda ha u @ h a u . re n . n i c . i n Ko r ean Society of Organic Agriculture – a Navdanya. NGO supporting the development mo r e academic based organisation, that has of community seedbanks. Vandanya Shiva pr omoted a number of national seminars. vs h i v a @ g i a s d l 0 1 . v s n l . n e t . i n Pe e r made Development Society. C.K. George The Lebanon pe d e s @ m d 2 . v s n l . n e t . i n Middle Eastern Centre for Approp r i a t e Pe o p l e ’ s Organic Farm. Established in 1981 Tec h n o l o g y . Lebanese based but pan Arabic and initially focused on establishing collective NGO interested in promoting OAA. They have fa r m units. Have subsequently developed al r eady undertaken some prel i m i n a r y res e a rc h watershed management, herb based community into potential of OAA and submitted a funding health and conservation of medicinal plant bid to the EU to help promote OAA in the pr ogrammes. Are currently considering Lebanon and Syria. Boghos Ghougassian developing organic agriculture as they rec o g n i s e [email protected]. that is the only way forwa r d for Indian pe a s a n t r y to escape cycles of indebtedness. Ma l ay s i a They are currently developing local farme r s Ce n t r e for Environment, Technology and gr oups to experiment with biodynamic Development (CETDEM) have a methods. Hey are establishing a rev o l v i n g demonstration organic farm with members (r epayable) fund to facilitate farmers to make who visit for advice and training. They have the initial labour inputs to developing also organised Malaysia’s first organic farmi n g composting systems. It is intended that those exhibition and are in discussion with the initially involved in the project will go onto to go v e r nment over drafting national standards . train other farmers, thereby creating a self- G. Singh ce t d e m @ p o . j a r i n g . m y Ma l a y s i a n sustaining network. P. Mariaselvam, People’s Or ganic Farming Network. Choo Ghee Sekl Agricultural Farm, 34 S. S. Nagar, Nizam ge n i n c o @ t m . n e t . m y Co l o n y , Pudukotti 622 001. India. Re s e a r ch Foundation for Science Tec h n o l o g y Ne p a l and Ecology. Research and advocacy on the Ecological serves Centre, Kathmandu. dangers of corporatist agriculture. Van d a n y a Nationwide NGO promoting OAA. Prov i d e s Shiva vs h i v a @ g i a s d l 0 1 . v s n l . n e t . i n advice, training and extension to farme r s working in a range of agroe c o l o g i c a l In d o n e s i a conditions. Have supported more than 10,000 Pusat Pendidkan Lingkungan Hiduup. fa r mers since they were set up. Contact Network of environmental education centres , Maheswar Ghimire. ec o c e @ m o s . c o m . n p with an interest in organic farming. Contact via Institute for Sustainable Agriculture Nepal ht t p : / / w w w. w e b c o m . c o m / p p l h (INSAN). Promoting perma c u l t u r e in Nepal. World Food Day Farmers and Fishers Have recently undertaken major review of the Movement. See case study in main text. state of Nepalese agriculture (see main text for Gr egorius Utomo [email protected] a summary). Bharat Shres t h a [email protected] or Govinda Sharma , Kor e a INSAN, PO Box 8126, Kathmandu, Nepal. Ko r ea Organic Farming Association. Established in 1978 against governm e n t Pak i s t a n opposition to organic practices. Curren t l y Sustainable Development and Policy Institute. pr ovides training to the National Co-operative Su b s i d i a r y of the Pakistan Agricultural Federation groups. Jin Young. 4th Floor, Re s e a r ch Council, arranges seminars and links

The Real Green Revolution 141 for government functionaries, donor agencies demonstration farm where the techniques can and NGOs. be displayed. Lal Emmanuel (Pres i d e n t ) It is does not deal directly with the farmi n g Na g e n a h i r [email protected] co m m u n i t y . Na t u r e Farming Research Centre. A res e a rc h Th a i l a n d institute at the University of Agriculture, Gr een Net. Vitton Panyakui Faisalbad, which is said to have a good track gr [email protected] rec o r d in demonstrating successful orga n i c techniques, but is less successful at Tur k ey disseminating results to the farmi n g ETKO. Currently has two projects: one in the co m m u n i t y . so u t h e r n part of Turkey where rural poverty is Pakistan Organic Farmers Association. Syed a harsh rea l i t y , the second in the mountainous Asad Husain 78 West Wood Colony, Lahore, we s t e r n of Tur k e y , mostly focused on frui t 53 7 0 0 pr oducing (apples, pears, plums, cherries etc.). Both need assistance in agricultural advice and Pal e s t i n e marketing. Mustafa Akyuz et k o g @ t u r k . n e t Palestinian Agricultural Relief Committees. Ismael Daiq pr @ p a l - a rc . o r g Vie t n a m Mountain Resources and Environment Centre. The Philippines Based at Thai Nguyen University in the north Br oad Initiatives for Negros Development of Vietnam. The centre is committed to (BIND). See section on Philippines in main text. developing economically and environ m e n t a l l y Eva de la Merced, BIND Rm, 2F CGT Bldg. sustainable framing systems for this lagging Locsin cor. Luzuriaga Sts. Bacalod City, Negros region. It currently has a partn e r s h i p Occidental, Philippines pr ogramme with International Global Change Flora Community. See section on Philippines in Institute in New Zealand, main text. Loiue Amongo c/o Masipag, 3346 in which they are seeking to promote orga n i c Aguika Street, Rhoda Subd. Bgy. Anos, Los ag r i c u l t u r e and address the needs of women, Banos, Laguna 4030, Philippines. the poorest, least educated and ethnic minority MA S I P AG. See section on Philippines in main gr oups in the region. Nguyen Thi Mao, text. Angelina M. Briones (as above). MERC, College of Agrof o re s t r y, Thai Nguyen Un i v e r s i t y , Thai Nguyen City, Vietnam. South Korea Coopération International pour le Ha n W ooMool Farming Co-operative – Développement et la Solidarité. Nguyen Than involved in promoting organic agriculture ci d s e h a n @ n e t n a m . o rg . v n th r ough extension and schools, and Latin America manufacturing traditional herbal remedies for ex p o r t to Japan. Ar g e n t i n a Ce n t r e for Investigation and Teaching on Sri Lanka Sustainable Agriculture (CIESA). NGO Gami Seva Sevana. NGO with interest in pr omoting OAA as a rural development pr omoting organic agriculture and village self- st r a t e g y . Fernando Pia ci e s a @ re d 4 2 . c o m . a r reliance. L. Ranjith S. de Silva Ir s d e s @ e u r eka.lk Moviemiento Argentino para la Prod u c c i o n Na g e n a h i r u Foundation. Conduct farmer field Or ganic (MAPO). Umbrella grouping for res e a r ch in indigenous and agroe c o l o g i c a l or ganic movement in Argentina. More practices in remote parts of Sri Lanka. They co m m e r cially oriented. Rodolfo Tarr a u b e l l a . attempt to disseminate results of best practice org a n i c o @ m a p o . c c within local communities and run a

142 Bo l iv i a Assoc. de Organisaciones de Prod u c t o re s Ecologicós de Bolivia. Francisco Mollo ao p e b @ m a i l . m e g a l i n k . c o m / a o p e b

Bra z i l Assessorias e Servicios a Projectos em Agricultura Alternitiva (ASPTA). Jean Marc von der Weid As p t a @ a x . a p c . o r g Associaçâo de Agricultura Organica (AAO). Wanderley das Neves Cardo s o or [email protected] or Ricardo Cerve i r a rce rv e i r a @ i g . c o m . b r Instituto Biodinámico. Biodynamic development and certification agency, which also runs a organic seedbank. ib d @ l a s e r. c o m . b r

Costa Rica Asociación Nacional de Agricultura Orga n i c a . Gabriela Soto Munoz, gs o t o @ c a r i a r i . u c r. a c . c r

Ho n d u ra s COESECHA- working with some 45,000 peasant farmers in Honduras and Guatemala pr omoting sustainable (predominantly OAA) ag r i c u l t u r e. Roland Bunch rol a n d o @ c o s e c h a . s d n h o n . o rg . h n

Mex i c o Gr upo Interdisciplinario de Tecnologia Rural Ap r oprida. Mexico’s appropriate technology gr oup, involved in promoting OAA. Mater As t i e r , gi r a a c @ y re r i . c re f a l . e d u . m x

Para g u a y Ce n t r o de Educación Capacitacion y Tecnologia Campesina. Rural development NGO with an interest in OAA. Andres T. Wehrle ce c t e c @ s c e . c n c . u n a . p y

Trinidad and Tob a g o Trinidad and Tobago Organic Agriculture Movement. Everard Nicholas Byer tt o a m l @ e m a i l . c o m

The Real Green Revolution 143 En d n o t e s Argentina), Lukas Kilcher 10 Although normally (FiBL, Switzerland), Dr. Uli considered part of Oceania, 1 And, given the importance Zerger (SÖL, Germany), for the purpose of this of the European market, the Torsten Piecha (The Amber analysis, Papua New Guinea EU standard is at present the Foundation, Germany), has been included within most important. Carlo Ponzio (Sultan Farm Asian statistics. Co. Ltd., Egypt), Tadeu 2 The term organic Caldas (Ecotropic, UK) and 11 At present there are only production also includes two John Myers (Soil three countries that have slightly more esoteric Association). achieved this status, approaches, ‘biodynamics’ Argentina, Bolivia and and ‘permaculture’. 7 A further IFOAM Brazil, all of whom rank publication, the organic highly amongst the top 3 As Raviv (op. cit.) points training directory (IFOAM, dozen organic producing out, this simultaneously 1995) was considered as a nations. brings general environmental potential resource, but is and health benefits but also both out of print and quite 12 For example, Scholer undermines the attractiveness dated. (2000) suggests that more of organic produce to than 90% of coffee grown in consumers in the long term. 8 The earlier of these were Ethiopia is probably de facto commissioned as part of the organic. If included in the 4 In this discussion we process of informing FAO’s figures this would probably exclude traditional decision over whether to exceed all the certified ‘extensive’ farming systems include organic agriculture organic land in Africa. such as ‘slash and burn’ or within its sustainable extended fallowing, which agriculture programme. The 13 However interpretations of do not incorporate soil more recent reports follow these statistics should be fertility management on from their decision to do treated with some caution as practices. Such systems often so, and are concerned with cultural, linguistic, rely on low (human) identifying a strategy for geographic or historical population density for their promoting OAA. factors may account for viability (Harrison, 1987) different organizational and, as population pressure 9 In some instances our structures in different increases, are becoming less surveys identified higher countries. sustainable. levels of certified organic land than the work 14 IFOAM President at the 5 As the project evolved, undertaken by SOL, time. numerous other web sites, particularly in the case of mostly belonging to organic China and Uganda. In the 15 Although increasingly these and rural development interests of consistency (and consultancies are opening agencies, were visited. An because we have not verified regional offices in the South annotated catalogue of these these figures through other and employing locally-based sites is provided in appendix sources) we retain SÖL’s staff (Hardy, Pers. Comm.) 1. estimates for this comparative estimate, 16 At the same time they also 6 These included: Bernard although discuss the other recognised and accepted the Geier (Director, IFOAM), figures in the country profiles potential value of GM Rodolfo Tarraubella elsewhere in the report. agriculture. (President MAPO,

144 17 FAO Agriculture 22 Although commentators 26 We note here that given a Department's Senior closer to the ground argue lack of use of artificial Technical Advisor that these claims have been inputs, conversion can be significantly exaggerated and achieved relatively quickly. 18 As well as studies while Cuba has achieved a referenced in this report FAO transition to a more 27 In addition to these have recently published and / sustainable and less intensive countries the authors identify or are presently preparing pattern of agriculture it is, that organic farming is reports on: factors with the exception of practised in Burkina Faso, influencing organic policies isolated initiatives, far from Ghana and Zambia, with a focus on developing organic (Kilcher, pers. although no figures are countries; organic agriculture comm.,). available. in Senegal; methodology for comparative analysis of 23 Another example of 28 Full details of ICIPE’s organic, traditional and economic circumstance research activities can be conventional (sic) driving a change to organic found in their Business Plan agriculture; a comparative methods is reported from and Research Outlook, study of different organic (the former) East Germany. (ICIPE, 2001). fertilisers; technical When barley growers Guidelines on Conservation couldn’t afford fungicides 29 Given that the Directory is and processing of organic they inter-cropped different produced in the Philippines fruits and vegetables and on barley varieties. Mildew this figure may reflect organic horticultural infection fell from around stronger local affiliations. production. 50% to 10%, but after the fall of the Berlin Wall they 30 According to ITC, the 19 Some schemes have a reverted to mono-cropping Korean Organic Association specific focus on increasing because the brewers has more than 17,000 farmer incomes through preferred single variety grain members, so the level of helping them access premia (Stott, 2000). activity estimated here could markets, for example be a substantial Swedish Government 24 Equally, we find that underestimate. financed “Export of Organic Walaga’s argument that Produce from Producers in population pressure is 31 ITC estimate that the land Africa” – EPOPA. encouraging farmers to in organic production had intensify traditional systems increased by 25% by the end 20 In our opinion Walaga not entirely convincing, as it of 1998. overlooks some constraints, might equally well act as an which are identified by other incentive to adopt (more 32 The authors also identify authors and discussed later sophisticated) organic the existence of organic in this section. practices, especially given the farming in Pakistan and problems associated with Taiwan, but without 21 Although, with a growing purchasing artificial inputs. quantifying its importance. tendency for setting up regional offices, employing 25 One Senegalese farmer is 33 Although both Soil local staff, this is becoming a memorably quoted in Thiam Association and the Swiss less pressing issue. and Dieng (1989) ‘without certifiers IMO have partner / chemical fertiliser it is better branch offices in India. to go to bed than to cultivate.’

The Real Green Revolution 145 34 See section 4.3 for more patent. They were supported reduce competing pressures details of this initiative. by a petition signed by half a for compostable material million Indian citizens. They (Omili et al, 1999) 35 See section 4.6 for a successfully managed to get discussion of the issues the patent revoked by the 47 Originally published in surrounding certification. European Patent Office on 1986, the new edition had the grounds that there was been significantly updated 36 Regulations are established no inventive step involved in and expanded. within some Provinces, the ‘invention’ (Anon, including the State of Rio de 2000b). 48 Other key texts in this Janeiro. field, identified but not 41 According to Blench the consulted by the authors, 37 For example it is not International Livestock include: Elwell and Maas’s permitted to clear forest Centre for Africa until (1995) practical guide to pest within 50m of running water recently discouraged research control in South and East (Chubb, 2000). on donkeys camels, pigs, Africa and Hoffman and rodents and indigenous bird Frodsham’s (1995) manual of 38 Earlier models have also species. natural enemies of vegetable been proposed, see for insect pests. example Shiva, 1995. 42 An ethnoveterinary medicine mailing list has also 49 Technical solutions to 39 A number of recently been created which detect attempts to cheat methodological issues need can be joined by sending a certification systems have resolving. For a discussion of blank email message to been developed by Terra these see Robens and [email protected] Preservada Alimentos Lanting, 2000. Orgânicos in Brazil to 43 With some important monitor for GM 40 The issue of intellectual exceptions, discussed below. contamination of soybeans property rights of plants has (Colkusi & Grüninger 2000). been a politically sensitive 44 Whilst this report was in In Sri Lanka tea buyers are one in India since the 1990s press the authors’ attention experimenting with when W.R. Grace won a was drawn to a new comparative time series data patent for a fungicide derived publication (Giller, 2001) to spot likely cheating and from the seeds of the Neem addressing the issue of reduce the frequency and tree. This species was already nitrogen fixing in tropical cost of inspections. Farmers commonly used for this cropping systems. whose yields are significantly purpose in India and above local/regional averages elsewhere in the world 45 Omile et al (1999) note or past levels of production (Bullard, 1995). A coalition that in Ethiopia many would be subject to more of Indian-based NGOs, the farmers complained that soil rigorous/frequent inspections Research Foundation for erosion negates the potential (Ranaweeera and Thatill, Science Technology and benefits of applying artificial 2000). Natural Resource Policy, fertilisers. supported by IFOAM and the European Parliamentary 46 Thus strengthening the Green Group, mounted a argument for tree planting in campaign against the such regions which would, in granting of a European the medium to long term,

146 50 This despite the emphasis 55 At present the IFOAM standards, making it difficult of the original letters of charter includes a to advertise food that is bio- inquiry being upon commitment to: ‘allow dynamically or locally grown agriculture rather than everyone involved in organic (Burton, pers. comm.). upstream and value adding production and processing a activities. quality of life conforming to 58 Cuba aside, one notable the UN Human Rights exception to this is the recent 51 Published by Grolink and Charter, to cover their basic (and unprecedented) decision available electronically at needs and obtain an by the parliament of www.organicstandard.com adequate return and Zanzibar to convert to 100% satisfaction from their work, organic agriculture, though it 52 This derogation is due to including a safe working remains questionable how expire at the end of 2004, environment’. (IFOAM, readily this can be achieved which raises questions about 1996) (Hampl, 2000). how producers from non listed countries will be able 56 Notably, however, one 59 See Morgan and Murdoch to secure market access Swiss certifier will not permit (2000) for a discussion of thereafter. organic produce to be air- this issue in a Northern freighted (Hardy, pers. context. 53 A further three Southern comm.) organizations: in Argentina, 60 This popular notion is, China and Thailand, are in 57 This will only be possible however, challenged by the process of applying. in some situations. There is Chinnakonda and Lanting some concern over the (2000). 54 See Stopes et al. (2000) for organic standards introduced a more detailed discussion of in theUSA, which some fear the regulation of biocides. might place a ‘ceiling’ on

The Real Green Revolution 147 Nicholas Parrott is a Research Associate at Cardiff University, studying the links between organic and quality foods and rural development. His doctoral thesis was on the environmental impact of road schemes in rural Wales. Other publications include work on crafts producers, artisanal cheesemaking, farmers' markets and a walking guide ' The West Yorkshire Way'.

Professor Terry Marsden is Head of the Department of City and Regional Planning at Cardiff University. He is presently Special Advisor on rural affairs for the National Assembly of Wales, Special Advisor to the Welsh Affairs Select Committee and co-director of the Economic and Social Research Councils' Research Centre for Business Relationships, Accountability, Sustainability and Society. His reasearch interests are focused around rural development, agro-food studies and environment policy and planning. For some, talk of 'sustainable agriculture' sounds like a luxury the poor can ill afford. But in truth it is good science, addressing real needs and delivering real results.

New Scientist

Greenpeace Environmental Trust Canonbury Villas, London N1 2PN, United Kingdom www.greenpeace.org.uk/trust

3 12 ISBN 1 903907 02 0