High Frequency Microwave and Antenna Devices Based on Transformation Optics and Glide-Symmetric Metasurfaces

High Frequency Microwave and Antenna Devices based on Transformation Optics and Glide-Symmetric Metasurfaces

MAHSA EBRAHIMPOURI

Doctoral Thesis in Electrical Engineering School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science KTH Royal Institute of Technology Stockholm, Sweden, 2019 KTH Royal Institute of Technology School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science TRITA-EECS-AVL-2019:84 SE-114 28 Stockholm ISBN 978-91-7873-376-7 SWEDEN

Akademisk avhandling som med tillstånd av Kungl Tekniska högskolan framlägges till oﬀentlig granskning för avläggande av teknologie doktorsex- amen fredagen den 11:e december 2019 klockan 13:30 i Kollegiesalen, Bri- nellvägen 8, Kungl Tekniska högskolan, Stockholm.

Tryck: Universitetsservice US AB To my dear Mehrdad

Abstract

The new generation of wireless communication networks intends to support data rate of Gbit/s. One solution to make it possible is to move upwards in frequency range to employ the unused spectrum in mm-wave frequencies. This brings new challenges in the design of hardware for the communication networks, namely high free space path loss and expensive manufacturing. In this thesis, transformation optics and glide symmetry are employed to address these new challenges for the design of high frequency microwave components and lens antennas. Transformation optics provides a systematic tool to manipulate electromagnetic waves in a desired way. In this thesis, this tool has been used to improve the radiation properties of conventional homogeneous three-dimensional lenses and compress the size of two- dimensional graded-index lenses. Glide symmetry is a subset of higher-order symmetries and is described by a translation followed by a reflection with respect to a defined plane. Periodic structures possessing glide symmetry exhibit interesting properties. In this thesis, four of these properties are explored and possible applications are discussed. First, it is demonstrated that the first mode in a glide-symmetric periodic structures is significantly less dispersive than the corresponding conventional non-glide structure. This property was employed to design fully metallic wideband metasurface-based antennas. The losses in this type of antennas are only ohmic which make them suitable for high frequency applications. Second, it is shown that anisotropic glide- symmetric periodic structures can provide higher levels of anisotropy compared to their conventional periodic counterparts. This property is employed to design compressed two-dimensional lenses. Third, it is demonstrated that glide symmetry can be used to match the impedance of two vastly different dielectric media in a parallel plate waveguide configuration by enhancing the magnetic properties. This property was used to match the profile of two-dimensional homogeneous lenses. Fourth it is shown that glide-symmetric holey metallic structures achieve a significantly wider stop-band compared to conventional non-glide periodic structures. This property is exploited to design cost-effective waveguiding structures and microwave components at mm-wave frequencies. Furthermore, using this property, a flange design that provides contact-less measurement at mm-wave frequencies is presented. vi

Sammanfattning

Den nya generationen trådlösa kommunikationsnätverk avser stöd- ja datahastigheter upp till Gbit per sekund. En lösning för att göra det möjligt är att kommunicera på högre frekvenser där det oanvända spektrumet för mm-vågor kan nyttjas. Kommunikation på höga frekvenser medför nya utmaningar i utformningen av hårdvara för kom- munikationsnäten, nämligen hög förlust i frirymds-vågutbredningen och höga tillverkningskostnader. I denna avhandling används transformationsoptik och glidsymmetri för att möta dessa nya utmaningar i designen av högfrekventa mikrovågskomponenter och linsantenner. Transformationsoptik tillhandahåller ett systematiskt verktyg för att manipulera elektromagnetiska vågor på önskat sätt. I denna avhandling har detta verktyg använts för att förbättra strålningsegen- skaperna för konventionella homogena 3-dimensionella linser och kom- primera storleken av 2-dimensionella inhomogena linser. Glidsymmetri är en typ av högre symmetri och den beskrivs av en förskjutning följt av en reflektion med avseende på ett definierat plan. Periodiska strukturer med glidsymmetri uppvisar attraktiva egenskaper. I denna avhandling undersöks fyra av dessa egenskaper och möjliga tillämpningar diskuteras. Först demonstreras att den första moden i en glidsymmetrisk peri- odisk struktur har betydligt lägre frekvensberoende än i motsvarande konventionellt periodiska struktur. Den här egenskapen har använts för att designa helt metalliska bredbandiga metayt-baserade linsantenner. I denna antenntyp uppkommer enbart ohmiska förluster i metallen vil- ket gör den lämplig för högfrekvensapplikationer. För det andra visas det att anisotropa glidsymmetriska periodiska strukturer kan uppnå högre nivåer av anisotropi jämfört med deras konventionella periodiska motsvarighet. Den här egenskapen används för att designa komprime- rade tvådimensionella linser. För det tredje demonstreras att glidsymmetri kan användas för att matcha impedansen för två olika dielekt- riska medier i parallellplåt-vågledarkonfiguration genom att utöka de magnetiska egenskaperna. I denna avhandling har detta använts för att impedansanpassa tvådimensionella homogena linser. För det fjärde visas att en glidsymmetrisk gropig metallisk struktur uppnår betydligt bredare stoppband jämfört med den gropiga periodiska strukturen utan glidsymmetri. Den här egenskapen har utnyttjats för att utfor- ma kostnadseffektiva vågledare och mikrovågskomponenter för mm- vågfrekvenser. Slutligen används denna egenskap för att designa en fläns som möjliggör kontaktlösa mätningar vid mm-vågfrekvenser. vii Preface

This thesis is in partial fulﬁllment for the Doctor of Philosophy degree at KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden. The work presented in this thesis was performed at the Electromagnetic Engineering Di- vision of the School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science KTH. Associate Professor Oscar Quevedo-Teruel has supervised the work presented in this thesis. viii Acknowledgements

Five years ago the journey of my PhD started. During those times I never expected how much this journey would add to me both personally and sci- entifically. Now that the journey is going to finish, I would like to express my sincere appreciation to the people who were alongside me and helped me. First and foremost, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Asso- ciate Professor Oscar Quevedo-Teruel for trusting me and offering the oppor- tunity to start my PhD education at KTH. Without his continuous support, guidance, energy and encouragements completing this journey wouldn’t be possible. I would like to acknowledge Professor Martin Norgren, my co-supervisor and Professor Eva Rajo-Iglesias, who co-supervised a part of the thesis, for their useful comments and discussions. I send my special thanks to Professor Zvonimir Sipus, Dr. Astrid Algaba Brazalez, Dr. Lars Monholm and Dr. Luis Fernando Herran for their collaboration and valuable comments. I express my warm thanks to our head of the department, Professor Rajeev Thottappillil for his support, my advanced reviewer Professor Lars Johnson for his careful review of the thesis and valuable comments. Jesper Freiberg, who manufactured the mechanical parts required for my construc- tions and his engineering input. Peter Lönn for the technical support. Carin Norberg, Ulrika Pettersson, Brigitt Högberg for the administration work. My friends and colleagues: Fatemeh, Oskar, Qingbi, Qiao, Ahmad, An- drei, Leyla, Christos, Elena, Kun, Mauricio, Boules, Janne, Per, Kateryna, Roya, Mariana, Ebrahim, Kaveh, Ehsan, Mengni, Shuai, Sylvie, Jan-Henning, Sanja, Jing, Yue, Zakaria, Toan, Priyanka, Mrunal, Wadih and Patrik. It was great to know you. I would like to thank your companionship and all the nice time we had with each other. Last but not the least, I am very thankful to my dear husband, Mehrdad, and my family for their infinite love and support.

Mahsa Ebrahimpouri Stockholm, December 2019 Contents

Contents ix List of Acronyms ...... xi

1 Introduction 1 1.1 Motivation ...... 1 1.2 Background ...... 3 1.3 Thesis outline ...... 4 1.4 List of publications ...... 5 1.5 The author’s scientiﬁc contributions ...... 7

2 3D lenses based on quasi conformal transformation optics 11 2.1 Introduction on transformation optics ...... 11 2.2 Bespoke lenses ...... 15 2.3 Experimental results ...... 19 2.4 Conclusion ...... 20

3 2D lenses based on glide-symmetric metasurfaces 23 3.1 Introduction ...... 23 3.2 2D Luneburg lenses based on glide-symmetric structures . . . 30 3.3 Compressed 2D Luneburg lens using anisotropic glide-symmetric structures ...... 32 3.4 Wide-angle impedance matching using glide-symmetric structures ...... 33 3.5 Conclusion ...... 34

4 EBG structure based on glide-symmetric metasurfaces and its applications 37 4.1 Introduction ...... 37

ix x CONTENTS

4.2 Glide-symmetric EBG structures ...... 40 4.3 Application of glide-symmetric EBG structures ...... 42 4.4 Conclusions ...... 45

5 Contributions, future work and discussions on sustainability 47 5.1 Contributions ...... 47 5.2 Future works ...... 48 5.3 Sustainability evaluation of the designs and methods proposed in this thesis ...... 49

Bibliography 53 LIST OF ACRONYMS xi

List of Acronyms

1D/2D/3D One/Two/Three Dimensional

1G/2G/3G/4G/5G First/Second/Third/Fourth/Fifth Generation

AMC Artiﬁcial Magnetic Conductor

CNC Computer Numerical Control

CPW Coplanar Waveguide

CTS Continuous Transverse Stub

EBG Electromagnetic Band Gap

EDM Electric Discharge Machining

GO Geometrical Optics

GRIN Graded Index

PBG Photonic Band Gap

PCB Printed Circuit Board

PEC Perfect Electric Conductor

PMC Perfect Magnetic Conductor

PPW Parallel Plate Waveguide

QCTO Quasi Conformal Transformation Optics

RW Rectangular Waveguide

SIW Substrate Integrated Waveguide

SLL Side Lobe Level

TE Transverse Electric xii CONTENTS

TEM Transverse Electromagnetic

TM Transverse Magnetic

TO Transformation Optics Chapter 1

Introduction

This chapter brieﬂy discusses the motivation and background of this research study. The thesis outline, scientiﬁc contributions and the list of publications has been provided at the end of the chapter.

1.1 Motivation

The invention of radio in the late 19th century was the origin of wireless communications [1]. Nowadays, by advents in technologies instant communications over long distances are possible and the concept of global village has emerged. Every new generation of the wireless network provided higher data rate and better functionality; 1G provided ﬁrst analog cellphone calls, 2G enabled digitally encrypted signals and provided data services such as text messages and 3G enabled video streaming by providing higher data rates. In 4G the data rates and the performance of 3G were enhanced. 5G intents to provide even higher data rate and lower latency [2]. The ﬁrst four generations all operated in the sub-6 GHz bands. However, these bands are becoming overloaded. Therefore, in order to deliver on its promise, 5G is required to partly operate at higher frequencies, where, by employing wider bands, higher data rates are achievable. From the Friis transmission equation, it is evident that wireless communications at high frequencies are subject to high path loss. Therefore, high gain antennas are generally required at these high frequencies. High gain antennas can be categorized in two groups:

1 2 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

1. Non-quasi-optical antennas.

2. Quasi-optical antennas.

Non-quasi-optical antennas are those not designed based on the concept of geometrical optics (GO). GO describes the wave propagation by deter- mining ray trajectories locally orthogonal to the wave phase fronts [3]. Some examples of this type of antennas are microstrip arrays [4] and waveguide based antenna arrays with radiating elements of horns [5], slots [6–8] and continuous transverse stubs (CTS) [9]. Microstrip arrays can be quite lossy due to the use of dielectrics and fringing fields at high frequencies. Waveg- uide based antenna arrays can be considerably efficient. However, these antennas require complex and lossy circuitry for beam forming and beam steering at high frequencies. Quasi-optical antennas are those designed based on GO such as parabolic reflectors [10, 11], reflect and transmit-arrays [12, 13] and lenses [14–16]. For GO to be valid, the analyzed structure needs to be large in terms of wavelengths. Therefore, as a consequence, the main drawback regarding this antenna category is their bulky size, in particular at low frequencies. Parabolic reflectors provide high gain; however, in order to steer the beam, mechanical rotation of antenna is often required, which results in relatively slow beam scanning. Electronically beam scanning can be provided by lens antennas and reflect and transmit-arrays. Lens antennas can offer larger bandwidth and higher gain compared to the transmit and reflect arrays. At higher frequencies, lens antennas are an attractive solution since their size is smaller. However, the use of lens antennas in many practical applications is limited due to the dielectric losses, their relatively large size, the reflections on the contour of homogeneous dense lenses, their cost and manufacturing issues. The work in this thesis is aimed to improve the performance of lens antennas in terms of radiation properties, size and cost of manufacturing. This is accomplished by the employment of transformation optics (TO) and metasurfaces with higher symmetries. In addition, based on metasurfaces with higher symmetries, cost-effective waveguiding structures and microwave components for high frequencies are proposed, which can be integrated with the designed antennas to form efficient radio frequency front-ends. 1.2. BACKGROUND 3

1.2 Background

In this part, I provide a brief background about the two main tools that have been used in this thesis: metasurfaces and TO.

Metasurfaces

Metamaterials are sub-wavelength metallic and/or dielectric structures that are periodic in three dimensions and exhibit properties that do not occur or may not be readily available in nature [17]. The interesting properties of these structures such as producing negative refractive-indexes [18] or manipulating the wave propagation [17] have significantly attracted the attention of researchers and led to the publication of thousands of papers on this topic in the last 20 years. Nevertheless, practical application of metamaterials is limited by their strong dispersion, high losses and the difficult fabrication of 3D sub-wavelength periodic structures. Metasurfaces, or 2D metamaterials, have overcome some of the limita- tions of metamaterials. Metasurfaces can be easily manufactured by, for example, lithography [19]. Moreover, the losses can be significantly de- creased in the direction perpendicular to the surface due to their ultra-thin profile [20]. However, in most of the cases, the narrow bandwidth of metasurfaces which initiates from the dispersive response of the periodic inclusions, limit the application of the designed device. As noted in Section 1.1, lens antennas provide attractive properties at high frequencies. However, conventional lenses are relatively bulky and exhibit dielectric losses. Moreover, reflections on the contour of homogeneous dense dielectric lenses degrade their performance. Recently, metasurface- based lenses were proposed to solve some of these problems [21–24]. In this thesis, higher symmetries have been proposed to overcome the problems associated with the bandwidth and losses of conventional metasurface-based lenses. Additionally, metasurfaces possessing higher symmetries are able to increase the bandwidth and attenuation of EBGs. These band gaps are studied and reported in this thesis. In particular, a holey glide-symmetric EBG structure is investigated in this thesis to produce cost-effective waveguiding structures and microwave components at high frequencies. 4 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Transformation Optics (TO) TO was proposed in 2006 [25,26]. It originates from a simple fact: a gradual change in the permittivity and permeability of a medium creates a curved path for the light. Classical optical devices such as Luneburg lens [27], Eaton lens [28], Maxwell’s fish-eye lens [29] and Mikaelian’s lens [30] were also designed based on this fact. TO provides a general, powerful systematic method to design optical devices by molding the pattern of light in a desired way. Specifically, designing optical devices using TO is done by solving an inverse electromagnetic problem; the desired pattern of light is given and the material properties that provide the desired pattern is required. Maxwell’s equations are form-invariant in different coordinate systems [31]. Using this property, the coordinate transformation from the transformed space (desired space) to the original space can be calculated. This coordinate transformation can be absorbed into material properties [25, 26]. With the obtained material properties in the original space, the fields behave the same as they do in the transformed space. TO garnered significant attention of researchers since it provides a new degree of freedom for manipulating electromagnetic waves. Over the last decade, TO has been applied in various areas, for instance in designing in- visibility cloaks [32], manipulating the radiation of antennas [33] and space- compression [34]. In this thesis, TO is employed to improve the radiation properties of lens antennas and compress their size.

1.3 Thesis outline

This thesis contains ﬁve chapters:

• Chapter 1: This chapter is the current one. It discusses the motivation, background and structure of the thesis.

• Chapter 2: In this chapter, the details and methods of TO are discussed. The design of bespoke lenses is presented. Bespoke lenses are graded-index lenses which are designed ad-hoc to a speciﬁc feeding.

• Chapter 3: In this chapter the deﬁnition of glide symmetry and a brief introduction on periodic structures are presented. The properties of isotropic and anisotropic glide-symmetric unit cells are discussed. 1.4. LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 5

Using the proposed glide-symmetric metasurfaces, the design of two- dimensional lenses are presented. In addition, impedance matching of a conventional two-dimensional lens using glide-symmetric structures is discussed.

• Chapter 4: In this chapter, a brief introduction on EBG structures and gap-waveguide technology is presented. A glide-symmetric EBG structure is proposed. In order to highlight diﬀerent applications for the proposed EBG structure, designs of cost-eﬀective waveguiding structures, microwave components and contact-less measurement techniques are presented.

• Chapter 5: In this chapter, a summary of the main ﬁndings, future lines and sustainability discussions on the proposed methods are presented.

1.4 List of publications

This thesis is based on the following papers:

1. M. Ebrahimpouri and O. Quevedo-Teruel, "Bespoke Lenses Based on Quasi-Conformal Transformation Optics Technique," in IEEE Trans- actions on Antennas and Propagation, vol. 65, no. 5, pp. 2256-2264, May 2017.

2. M. Ebrahimpouri, O. Zetterstrom and O. Quevedo-Teruel, "Exper- imental Validation of a Bespoke Lens for a Slot log-spiral Feed", submitted to IEEE Antennas and Wireless Propagation Letters, 2019.

3. O. Quevedo-Teruel, M. Ebrahimpouri and M. Ng Mou Kehn, "Ul- trawideband Metasurface Lenses Based on Oﬀ-Shifted Opposite Lay- ers," in IEEE Antennas and Wireless Propagation Letters, vol. 15, pp. 484-487, Dec. 2016.

4. M. Ebrahimpouri, O. Quevedo-Teruel, M. Ettorre, and A. Grbic, "Broadband Planar Leaky Wave Antenna Using Glide-symmetric Me- andered Transmission Lines," submitted to the 14th European Con- ference on Antennas and Propagation (EuCAP), Copenhagen, 2020. 6 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

5. M. Ebrahimpouri, O. Quevedo-Teruel, "Ultra-wideband Anisotropic Glide-symmetric Metasurfaces", in IEEE Antennas and Wireless Prop- agation Letters, vol. 18, no. 8, pp. 1547-1551, Aug. 2019.

6. M. Ebrahimpouri, L. F. Herran and O. Quevedo-Teruel, "Wide An- gle Impedance Matching Using Glide-symmetric Metasurfaces", accepted in IEEE Microwave and Wireless Components Letters, 2019.

7. M. Ebrahimpouri, O. Quevedo-Teruel and E. Rajo-Iglesias, "Design Guidelines for Gap Waveguide Technology Based on Glide-Symmetric Holey Structures," in IEEE Microwave and Wireless Components Let- ters, vol. 27, no. 6, pp. 542-544, June 2017.

8. M. Ebrahimpouri, E. Rajo-Iglesias and O. Quevedo-Teruel, "Wide- band glide-symmetric holey structures for gap-waveguide technology," in the 11th European Conference on Antennas and Propagation (Eu- CAP), Paris, 2017, pp. 1658-1660.

9. M. Ebrahimpouri, E. Rajo-Iglesias, Z. Sipus and O. Quevedo-Teruel, "Cost-Eﬀective Gap Waveguide Technology Based on Glide-Symmetric Holey EBG Structures," in IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques, vol. 66, no. 2, pp. 927-934, Feb. 2018.

10. E. Rajo-Iglesias, M. Ebrahimpouri and O. Quevedo-Teruel, "Wide- band Phase Shifter in Groove Gap Waveguide Technology Implemented With Glide-Symmetric Holey EBG," in IEEE Microwave and Wireless Components Letters, vol. 28, no. 6, pp. 476-478, June 2018.

11. M. Ebrahimpouri, O. Quevedo-Teruel and E. Rajo-Iglesias, "Design of microwave components in groove gap waveguide technology implemented by holey EBG," in the 11th European Conference on Antennas and Propagation (EuCAP), Paris, 2017, pp. 746-748.

12. M. Ebrahimpouri, A. Algaba Brazalez, L. Manholm and O. Quevedo- Teruel, "Using Glide-Symmetric Holes to Reduce Leakage Between Waveguide Flanges," in IEEE Microwave and Wireless Components Letters, vol. 28, no. 6, pp. 473-475, June 2018. 1.5. THE AUTHOR’S SCIENTIFIC CONTRIBUTIONS 7

Other publications related to but not included in this thesis:

13. O. Quevedo-Teruel, M. Ebrahimpouri, and F. Ghasemifard, “Lens antennas for 5G communications systems,” IEEE Communications Magazine, special issue on Future 5G millimeter Wave Systems and Terminals, vol. 56, no. 7, pp. 36–41, July 2018.

14. M. McCall, J. B. Pendry, V. Galdi, Y. Lai, S. A. R. Horsley, J. Li, J. Zhu, R. C. Mitchell-Thomas, O. Quevedo-Teruel, P. Tassin, V. Gi- nis, E. Martini, G. Minatti, S. Maci, M. Ebrahimpouri, Y. Hao, P. Kinsler, J. Gratus, J. M. Lukens, A. M. Weiner, U. Leonhardt, I. I. Smolyaninov, V. N. Smolyaninova, R. T. Thompson, M. Wegener, Mu. Kadic, S. A. Cummer "Roadmap on transformation optics", Journal of Optics, Volume 20, Number 6, May 2018.

15. F. Ghasemifard, M. Ebrahimpouri, M. Norgren and O. Quevedo- Teruel, "Mode matching analysis of two-dimensional glide-symmetric corrugated metasurfaces," in the 11th European Conference on Anten- nas and Propagation (EuCAP), Paris, 2017, pp. 749-751.

16. A. Alex-Amor, F. Ghasemifard, G. Valerio, M. Ebrahimpouri, P. Padilla, J. M. Fernandez-Gonzalez and O. Quevedo-Teruel, "Glide- Symmetric Metallic Structures with Elliptical Holes for Lens Com- pression," submitted to IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques, 2019.

1.5 The author’s scientiﬁc contributions

Paper 1: O.Q.T. suggested the overall topic and supervised the work. I developed the MATLAB codes and designed the structures and performed the simulations. I wrote the manuscript. All authors reviewed and edited the manuscript.

Paper 2: O.Q.T. suggested the overall topic and supervised the work. I designed the structures and performed the simulations and worked on manufacturing the lenses. O.Z. and I performed the measurements. I wrote the manuscript. All authors reviewed and edited the manuscript. 8 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Paper 3: O.Q.T. suggested the overall topic and supervised the work. I designed the structures and performed all the simulations. O.Q.T. wrote the manuscript. All authors reviewed and edited the manuscript.

Paper 4: O.Q.T. suggested the overall topic. M.E. helped with the design of the leaky structure. I designed the structures and performed the simulations. I wrote the manuscript. O.Q.T. and A.G. supervised the work.

Paper 5 I suggested the overall topic. I developed the MATLAB code and designed the structures and performed the simulations. I wrote the manuscript. All authors reviewed and edited the manuscript.

Paper 6 I suggested the overall topic. I developed the MATLAB code and designed the structures. L.F.H. manufactured the structures and performed the measurements. I wrote the manuscript. All authors reviewed and edited the manuscript.

Paper 7 O.Q.T. and E.R.I. suggested the overall topic. I performed the simulations and measurements. O.Q.T. and E.R.I. supervised the work. E.R.I. wrote the manuscript. All authors reviewed and edited the manuscript.

Paper 8 I suggested the overall topic and performed the simulations. O.Q.T. and E.R.I. supervised the work. I wrote the manuscript. All authors reviewed and edited the manuscript.

Paper 9 O.Q.T. suggested the overall topic. I performed the simulations and measurements. Z.S., E.R.I and O.Q.T. supervised the work. I wrote the manuscript. All authors reviewed and edited the manuscript.

Paper 10 E.R.I. suggested the overall topic. I performed the simulations. I did the measurements. O.Q.T. and E.R.I. supervised the work. E.R.I. wrote the manuscript. All authors reviewed and edited the manuscript.

Paper 11 I suggested the overall topic and performed the simulations. O.Q.T. and E.R.I. supervised the work. I wrote the manuscript. All authors reviewed and edited the manuscript.

Paper 12 I suggested the overall topic. A.A.B. and L.M. helped with the 1.5. THE AUTHOR’S SCIENTIFIC CONTRIBUTIONS 9 design. O.Q.T. supervised the work. I wrote the manuscript. All authors reviewed and edited the manuscript.

Chapter 2

3D lenses based on quasi conformal transformation optics

This chapter ﬁrst discusses TO and the challenges regarding the practical implementation of designs based on general TO. Diﬀerent methods such as conformal, quasi conformal and Non-Euclidean TO are also introduced in this chapter, which make the practical implementation of TO designs possible, either with dielectric materials or by manipulation of the geometry. Finally, the theory of bespoke lenses based on quasi-conformal TO (QCTO) is demonstrated for a couple of feedings. An experimental validation of a bespoke lens designed for a log-spiral slot feed is presented.

2.1 Introduction on transformation optics

The concept of TO is analogous to general relativity. According to general relativity, gravitational pull of massive objects leads to a deformation of space and time. This deformation creates a curvature in the path of light. Similarly, TO provides a systematic tool to mold the light in a desired way by engineering the variation of the material properties in space [25, 26]. According to Fermat’s principle, the path of a ray of light between two points of A and B in a medium with inhomogeneous distribution of refractive-index, n(s), is the path that can be traversed in the least time [3].

11 CHAPTER 2. 3D LENSES BASED ON QUASI CONFORMAL 12 TRANSFORMATION OPTICS

Figure 2.1: Example for the path of a ray in (a) original space and (b) transformed space.

The optical length for this path, S, can be calculated using the following formula:

B Z S = n(s)ds (2.1) A where s is the arc length measured along the path from A to B. TO was proposed independently by Prof. Pendry’s group [25] and Prof. Leonhardt [26] in 2006. This technique utilizes the Fermat’s principle to find the electric and magnetic properties of the materials that are required to have specific ray trajectories. In order to apply TO to an electromagnetic problem, first the original and desired trajectories of the light rays and the attributed coordinates should be defined. The coordinates attributed to an initial pattern of light is called "original" or "virtual" space and the coordinates attributed to a desired trajectory of the light rays is called "transformed" or "physical" space. Throughout this thesis, the terminologies of "original space" and "transformed space" are used. Fig. 2.1 represents the path of a ray in an example of original and transformed spaces. As seen, the path of the ray has been deformed in the transformed coordinates. Using the "form-invariant" property of Maxwell’s equations [35–37], any deformation in the coordinates can be subsumed in the material properties. These material properties in the transformed space (ε0,µ0) are calculated using the following formulas in three-dimensional coordinates: 2.1. INTRODUCTION ON TRANSFORMATION OPTICS 13

JεJ T ε0 = (2.2a) |J|

JµJ T µ0 = (2.2b) |J| where ε and µ represent the permittivity and permeability in the original space. J is the Jacobian matrix associated with the transformation between the original (x, y, z) and transformed (x0, y0, z0) coordinates, as represented in Eq. 2.3.

 ∂x0 ∂x0 ∂x0  /∂x /∂y /∂z  0 0 0  J =  ∂y/ ∂y/ ∂y/  (2.3)  ∂x ∂y ∂z  ∂z0 ∂z0 ∂z0 /∂x /∂y /∂z According to Eq. 2.2, generally inhomogeneous anisotropic materials are required to realize TO designs. These materials can be realized using metamaterials; however, their narrow bandwidth, which is associated to the resonant behaviour, limits their application for practical designs [38]. Moreover, in many cases, the designs require extreme material properties making the realization extremely diﬃcult and expensive. These practical problems in realizing the designs led to the investigation of new solutions, such as conformal, quasi-conformal and non-euclidean TO. These techniques will be discussed brieﬂy in the following subsections.

Conformal TO The conformal mapping is mostly applied to 2D problems. This transformation makes the realization of TO designs possible with inhomogenious isotropic dielectric materials; however, with considering some restrictions for the original and transformed coordinates [39]. In a 2D space, for an original space with unity permeability matrix and isotropic permittivity of value ε, the coordinates in the original and transformed space for the conformal mapping must satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann conditions, as represented in Eq. 2.4:

∂x ∂y = , (2.4a) ∂x0 ∂y0 CHAPTER 2. 3D LENSES BASED ON QUASI CONFORMAL 14 TRANSFORMATION OPTICS

∂x ∂y = − . (2.4b) ∂y0 ∂x0 In this case, the material parameters in the transformed space can be calculated as:

 1 0 0  µ0 =  0 1 0  , (2.5a)  1  0 0 /|det J|

 ε 0 0  ε0 =  0 ε 0  . (2.5b)  ε  0 0 /|det J| Using this technique, TO designs for the transverse electric polarization in 2D can be realized with dielectric materials. Therefore, employing this method, the requirement for anisotropic materials is lifted. It should be remarked that in 3D problems, the only existing conformal mapping is the Möbius transformation, which its application is limited to translation, inversion or magniﬁcation [39, 40].

Quasi-Conformal TO In most of the TO problems, it is diﬃcult to ﬁnd an analytical solution for the conformal transformation. Therefore in [32], quasi conformal transformation optics (QCTO), which is a numerical method, was proposed to realize any arbitrary 2D transformation with only dielectric materials. The requirement for this transformation is that the angles and orthogonality of the grids in both original and transformed coordinates should be preserved. Using this technique, the realization of arbitrary transformations for the transversal polarization in 2D becomes possible with only dielectric materials. The mapping is done using the same formula obtained for the conformal transformation: ε ε0 = . (2.6) |det J| This formula can be reduced to the ratio of the area between the transformed and original spaces [41]. 2.2. BESPOKE LENSES 15

For 3D QCTO, diﬀerent methods were proposed in [40, 42]. However, these methods cannot be applied if the coordinate transformation is too abrupt. On the other hand, if the transformation is suﬃciently smooth, the anisotropy can be neglected and the realization with an isotropic media is possible.

Non-Euclidean TO With conformal TO and quasi-conformal TO introduced in the previous subsections, TO designs can be realized with only dielectric materials. Alter- natively, TO devices can be designed using non-Euclidean transformations. Non-Euclidean transformation is a well-known method in geometrical optics (GO) and it was the base for the design of the Maxwell’s ﬁsh eye lens [29]. According to the Fermat’s principle, the shortest optical path between two points depends on the physical path length and the refractive-index distribution between the points (Eq. 2.1). Using non-Euclidean TO, the refractive-index of TO designs can be implemented based on the change of the physical path length by introducing a geodesic curvature in the transformed space. After the introduction of TO, the combination of non- Euclidean transformation and TO resulted in more ﬂexibility for the realization of TO designs. This method was applied to produce collimating lenses [43], surface wave cloaks [44,45] and to practically realize of singular- ities in lenses [46].

2.2 Bespoke lenses

Lens antennas belong to the quasi-optical antenna group. Lenses are used to direct the fields in a similar fashion as the beam forming in phased arrays. Conventional lenses such as the hyper-hemispherical, elliptical or hyperbolic lenses are very popular for frequencies ranging from microwaves to optics. They are used in combination with different feedings such as aperture, microstrip and slot to form an antenna [47–49]. In such antenna systems the phase fronts of the feedings are assumed to be spherical since the lenses are designed to transform a point source to a plane wave. However, the phase fronts of a real feeding may deviate from the spherical phase fronts. Us- ing such feedings in combination with the conventional lenses leads to high side lobe levels (SLL) and low antenna aperture efficiency. Moreover, the dense profiles of the conventional dielectric lens antennas create multiple CHAPTER 2. 3D LENSES BASED ON QUASI CONFORMAL 16 TRANSFORMATION OPTICS

Figure 2.2: Two examples of arbitrary phase front distributions (left) are mapped to the desired flat fronts (right) using two different bespoke lenses. reflections inside and on the contour of the lens, distorting the radiation pattern. In order to solve the aforementioned problems in the conventional lenses, the concept of bespoke lenses is proposed in this thesis and discussed in detail in Paper 1 [50]. These lenses are called bespoke lenses, since they are designed, using TO, for a given feeding. As discussed in Section 2.1, although TO is a powerful tool to manipulate the electromagnetic waves, its implementation using dispersive and lossy anisotropic metamaterials is a limiting factor for the realization of the designs in practice. Here, we make use of QCTO, which allows a full dielectric implementation of the designs. In order to design a bespoke lens for a particular feeding, the phase fronts produced by the feeding must be derived first. The phase distribution produces a radiation pattern and directivity which is specific for that feeding. By manipulating the phase fronts of the feed using the lens, the desired radiation pattern, for instance a directive radiation, can be obtained. Fig. 2.2 represents the concept of bespoke lenses. Two examples of arbitrary phase front distributions are shown at the left side of this figure, which can be transformed to a desired phase front, using two different bespoke lenses. The desired phase front is flat in this case, which is shown in the right side of Fig. 2.2. In order to make the design steps more clear, the design methodology is discussed briefly for an aperture feed in the following 2.2. BESPOKE LENSES 17

Figure 2.3: A rectangular aperture feed. subsection.

Bespoke lens for an aperture feed Let’s consider a rectangular aperture feed in X-band (8-12 GHz), Fig. 2.3. The methodology of designing a quasi-optimal bespoke lens for this aperture feed is as follows:

1. Extract the phase fronts of the feed in the H-plane (transverse electric plane) at the lowest working frequency.

2. Choose a contour of phase front depending on the required directivity and size of the antenna.

3. Map the phase front to a ﬂat phase front using QCTO.

4. Extract the permittivity proﬁle using Eq. 2.6.

5. Sweep the permittivity proﬁle around the propagation direction in order to get the proﬁle of the lens.

Fig. 2.4 (a) represents the original space which follows the phase fronts of the fundamental mode (TE10) of the aperture feed at 8 GHz. The grid of the original space is calculated by solving the Laplace equation which provides an orthogonal structured grid, fulﬁlling the conditions for a QCTO transformation. By stretching the phase front to a straight line, the transformed space with a ﬂat top boundary is formed. Fig. 2.4(b) shows the transformed space. It should be remarked that the blue and red lines in CHAPTER 2. 3D LENSES BASED ON QUASI CONFORMAL 18 TRANSFORMATION OPTICS

Figure 2.4: (a) Original space formed by the phase front of the aperture feed. (b) Transformed space to produce a ﬂat phase front. (c) Calculated permittivity map using QCTO.

the original space correspond to the constant Y 0 and Z0 in the transformed space and the blue and red lines in the transformed space correspond to the constant Y and Z in the original space. The permittivity map of this transformation is calculated using Eq. 2.6 and is represented in Fig. 2.4 (c). After disregarding the permittivity values below unity, the proﬁle of the lens is obtained by sweeping the permittivity map around the propagation direction. Fig. 2.5 (a) and (b) represent the phase fronts at 8 GHz on the designed bespoke lens. As can be observed, the phase fronts are ﬂat. The radiation pattern associated with these phase fronts is represented in Fig. 2.5 (c), indicating a directive beam. More details about the radiation properties of the designed bespoke lens for the aperture feed and a comparison of the results with a hyper-hemispherical lens are presented in Paper 1. 2.3. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS 19

Figure 2.5: Radiation properties of a bespoke lens at 8 GHz. (a) Phase fronts on two perpendicular planes to the surface of the lens. (b) Phase fronts on a parallel plane to the surface of the lens. (c) Directivity pattern.

Design of a bespoke lens for a log spiral and leaky slot feed Paper 1 also includes the design of bespoke lens for a slot log-spiral feed. The simulated results demonstrated that the proposed method works well also for circular polarization. In addition, to validate the wide-band performance of the proposed method, a bespoke lens is designed for the broadband leaky slot introduced in [47]. The radiation properties of the designed bespoke lens is compared with the enhanced hyper-hemispherical lens with and without matching layers. Similar results in enhancing the aperture eﬃciency and directivity are also reported for this structure. The details of the design and a discussion on the results are reported in Paper 1.

2.3 Experimental results

In Paper 2 [51], a bespoke lens for a slot log-spiral feed is designed and manufactured. The measurement results conﬁrm that the bespoke lens out- performs a conventional hyper-hemispherical lens with the same aperture size. Speciﬁcally, according to the measured results, the bespoke lens provides a higher gain and lower side lobe levels and cross polarization than CHAPTER 2. 3D LENSES BASED ON QUASI CONFORMAL 20 TRANSFORMATION OPTICS the conventional hyper-hemispherical lens. The manufactured bespoke and hyper-hemispherical lens antennas are represented in Fig. 2.6.

Figure 2.6: Manufactured bespoke and hyper-hemispherical lens antennas. (a) Slot log-spiral feed. (b) Bottom view of the structure of the antennas. (c) Top view of the structure of the bespoke lens antenna. (d) Top view of the structure of the hyper-hemispherical lens antenna. (e) Bespoke and hyper- hemispherical lenses. (f) Milled dielectrics with diﬀerent permittivities that construct the bespoke lens.

2.4 Conclusion

In this chapter, a systematic approach to design quasi-optimum lens antennas ad-hoc to a feeding, called "bespoke lens", is presented. The proposed bespoke lens designs provide a higher directivity and lower side lobe levels 2.4. CONCLUSION 21 and cross polarization compared to the conventional hyper-hemispherical lenses. In addition, the graded-index profile of the bespoke lenses min- imize the reflections inside the lens, providing smoother transmission of the fields. However, the fabrication cost of bespoke lenses may be higher than conventional dielectric lenses, since bespoke lenses consists of several dielectric layers. To make the fabrication process easy and cost-effective, different techniques can be employed such as 3D printing [52], drilling sub- wavelength holes with different sizes in dielectric materials [53] or printing sub-wavelength metallic patches with different sizes on dielectric slabs [34]. An experimental validation of the properties of a bespoke lens designed for a slot log-spiral feed is presented in Paper 2. The bespoke lens in this paper is fabricated by milling layers of low loss dielectrics [54] with different permittivities.

Chapter 3

2D lenses based on glide-symmetric metasurfaces

In this chapter, first, the definition of glide symmetry and a brief introduction on periodic structures and 2D lenses are presented. Then, the content of the Papers 3-6 is discussed. These papers treat different applications of glide-symmetric structures for designing 2D lenses.

3.1 Introduction

Periodic Structures

Periodic structures consist of an inﬁnite number of identical components that are repeated in 1D, 2D or 3D. In this section, the analysis of 1D and 2D periodic structures is brieﬂy outlined.

Fig. 3.1 represents a 1D array of scatterers. In this figure, (k0, θ0) and (k, θ) are the wave numbers and angles of the incident and scattered waves and p is the periodicity. In order to have constructive interference of the scattered fields, the difference in the path lengths must be a multiple of the wavelength, λ, as shown in Eq. 3.1, where m is an integer number.

p cos θ − p cos θ0 = mλ. (3.1)

23 CHAPTER 3. 2D LENSES BASED ON GLIDE-SYMMETRIC 24 METASURFACES

Figure 3.1: 1D array of scatterers.

The same amplitude for the incident and scattered wave numbers is assumed (|k| = |k0|), which is called the elastic condition and ensures the conservation of energy. By applying the elastic condition and multiplying both sides with |k|, Eq. 3.2 is derived.

~p · (~k − ~k0) = 2πm. (3.2)

For a 2D array with periodicities of p1 and p2, similar equations can be −j~k ·~r obtained. For this case, an incident plane wave E0 ∝ e 0 is assumed. Ignoring multiple scatterings and assuming that the scatterers act as point sources, the total scattered wave (Es) can be written as:

X −j~k0·~rmn −j~k·(~r−~rmn) Es ∝ e e , m,n ~ X ~ ~ =e−jk·~r ej(k−k0)·(m~p1+n~p2), m,n (3.3) m=M,n=N ~ X ~ ~ ~ ~ =e−jk·~r ej(k−k0)·(m~p1)ej(k−k0)·(n~p2). m=0,n=0

Using the sum of geometrical series, Eq. 3.3 can be simpliﬁed to:

 ~ ~   ~ ~  ejM(k−k0)·~p1 − 1 ejN(k−k0)·~p2 − 1 |Es| ∝  ~ ~  ·  ~ ~  , ej(k−k0)·~p1 − 1 ej(k−k0)·~p2 − 1 h i h i (3.4)  ~ ~ ~p1M   ~ ~ ~p2N  sin k − k0 · 2 sin k − k0 · 2 ∝  h i  ·  h i  . ~ ~ ~p1 ~ ~ ~p2 sin k − k0 · 2 sin k − k0 · 2 3.1. INTRODUCTION 25

where ~r is the position vector and ~rmn = m~p1 + n~p2 is the lattice vector. m and n are integer numbers. The strongest scattering occurs for wavenumbers for which the denomi- nator is zero. Therefore, similar to the 1D case, the Eq. 3.5 can be derived. These equations are called the Laue conditions.

~k − ~k0 · ~p1 = 2πn1, (3.5a)

~k − ~k0 · ~p2 = 2πn2. (3.5b)

Deﬁning ~k − ~k0 = G~ , where G~ = n1g1xˆ + n2g2yˆ, the elements of g1 and g2 can be derived from Eq. 3.5. ( 2π g1 = / p1 . (3.6) g = 2π/ 2 p2

G~ is called the reciprocal lattice vector. ~k0, ~k and G~ form an isosceles triangle considering elastic condition, which is considering the same magni- tudes of the wave number for the incident and scattered ﬁelds. In this case, we have:

2 2 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 2 k0 = k − G ⇒ 2k · G = |G| . (3.7) An interesting consequence of the Laue condition is the Bragg condition. This condition is derived here for the 1D case with periodicity of p. Inserting

~ 2πn G = p in Eq. 3.7, the following equation is obtained:

~ ~ 2 ~ 2 k G = |G| ⇒ k p = πn. (3.8) Eq. 3.8 represents the Bragg condition for total reflection. Under this condition, the incident and reflected waves are in phase and a strong reflection is observed, which means that the propagation is stopped. The frequency range for which this condition is fulfilled is called stop-band and the structure showing this property is called photonic band gap (PBG) or electromagnetic band gap (EBG) structure, depending on the operating frequency. The size of the stop-band depends on the elements of the periodic structure and the coupling between neighbouring elements. In Chapter 4, more discussions on EBG structures are presented. CHAPTER 3. 2D LENSES BASED ON GLIDE-SYMMETRIC 26 METASURFACES In order to investigate the propagation properties of a structure, its dispersion relation should be studied. The dispersion relation is a relation between the frequency and propagation constants of different modes, and it is plotted in the dispersion diagram. Since the dispersion diagram of a periodic structures is periodic [55], it is sufficient to study the dispersion in the smallest repeatable region, which is called the Brillouin zone. Fig. 3.2, represents the physical and reciprocal or k-space for a 2D periodic structure. In order to define Brillouin zone in the reciprocal space, as shown in Fig. 3.2, we consider a lattice point and highlight the region which is closer to that point compared to the other lattice points [55]. This highlighted area is called the Brillouin zone or the first Brillouin zone.

Figure 3.2: (a) Physical space. (b) Reciprocal space with the Brillouin zone highlighted in yellow.

If the periodic structure has an additional symmetry, such as rotation or mirror symmetry, the dispersion diagram is also symmetric. The smallest region in the Brillouin zone for which the frequency band is not repeating is called the irreducible Brillouin zone. Fig 3.3 shows the irreducible Brillouin zone corresponding to the case of having rotational symmetry of 90◦.

Glide symmetry Glide symmetry or glide reﬂection symmetry is a subset of higher symmetries. Higher symmetries in general can be described by a translation and a second geometrical operation, for instance mirroring or rotation [56]. Glide 3.1. INTRODUCTION 27

Figure 3.3: (a) Reciprocal space with the irreducible Brillouin zone highlighted in green for the case of having rotational symmetry invariant under a 90◦ rotation. (b) Irreducible Brillouin zone with the bespoken names of special points. symmetry, illustrated in Fig. 3.4, is a composition of a reﬂection with respect to a plane followed by a translation along the same plane. This symmetry can be found abundantly in nature; our foot prints when walking are an example. Numerous examples of this symmetry can be also found in art. For instance, 500 years ago, Johann Sebastian Bach used glide reﬂection symmetry to produce the musical piece of Canon 5 [57].

Figure 3.4: Illustration of glide symmetry which consists of a reﬂection with respect to a plane followed by a translation along the same plane.

In electromagnetics, structures possessing glide symmetry exhibit interesting properties. These structures were first studied in 60’s and 70’s [58–61]. In [58, 59], one-dimensional (1D) structures possessing higher symmetries CHAPTER 3. 2D LENSES BASED ON GLIDE-SYMMETRIC 28 METASURFACES such as glide and twist symmetries were analyzed through the generalized Floquet theorem. Twist symmetry is another subdivision of higher symmetries that is describes by a translation along an axis followed by a rotation along the same axis. In addition, glide symmetry was applied to waveguides [60] and radiating structures [61]. Recently, in Paper 3, an interesting property of glide-symmetric periodic structures in providing low-dispersive guided mode was explored and applied to realize broadband 2D lenses. A similar low-dispersive behavior is also found in twist-symmetric structures [62–65]. The discovery of this interesting property inspired several scientific works to analyze these structures using circuit models [66, 67], the mode matching method [68–71] and the Bloch mode approach [72]. Furthermore, in Paper 7, it was found that glide-symmetric holes in a parallel plate waveguide can provide a wide rejection band. This property also led to several scientific works, where the application of this EBG structure in waveguides was studied [73–78]. More discussion on this property is provided in Chapter 4. The graph shown in Fig. 3.5 illustrates the contributions of this thesis in the investigation of the properties and applications of glide-symmetric structures. The details are discussed in the current and the next chapter.

2D lenses Antennas with high gain and beam steering capability at millimeter and sub-millimeter wavelength are required for the new communication systems. As discussed briefly in Chapter 1, different antenna candidates have been investigated in recent years to tackle this need. Lens antennas are promis- ing candidates since they do not require phase shifters and complicated circuitry for beam forming network. However, these type of antennas have some drawbacks. First, dense dielectrics, which are generally lossy, are required to realize the profile of lens antennas. In addition, for conventional homogeneous lenses, as discussed in Chapter 2, the dense dielectric profiles result in multiple reflections in the lens, degrading their radiation properties. For inhomogeneous lenses, fabrication methods are generally difficult and expensive [34, 38, 53]. Another well-known drawback associated with lens antennas is their bulky sizes, even at millimeter-wavelengths. In order to overcome the problem associated with the size of lens antennas, 2D lenses can be employed in some applications. Particularly, 2D 3.1. INTRODUCTION 29

Figure 3.5: Contributions of this thesis in the investigation of the properties and applications of glide-symmetric structures.

Luneburg lens antennas have received significant attention. Luneburg lenses are graded index lenses that can transform a point source excited at the bor- der of the lens to a plane wave in the diametrically opposite direction. These lenses are popular for their attractive properties such as matched profile to free space and rotational symmetry which provides beam steering capabilities with low scan losses. The refractive-index distribution of the Luneburg lens is: s r2 n(r) = 2 − , (3.9) R2 where R is the radius of the lens and r is the distance to the center of the lens. CHAPTER 3. 2D LENSES BASED ON GLIDE-SYMMETRIC 30 METASURFACES Several 2D Luneburg lenses were reported in the literature [79–97]. The loss and bandwidth of these lenses mainly depend on the method employed to implement of the graded index (GRIN) profile from Eq. 3.9. In [79], a geodesic Luneburg lens was proposed for the first time. In this type of lens, the refractive-index distribution is translated into geodesic surfaces. This method was further studied in [80–83]. In the implementation of these lenses, there is no requirement for dielectric materials or metamaterials; therefore, these lenses are generally broadband and have low-losses. However, their profile can be much thicker than the metasurface- based Luneburg lenses. In [84–86], inhomogeneous sub-wavelength holes created in dielectric is used to control the permittivity variations of the lens profile. However, this type of fabrication is difficult at high frequencies, since the dimensions of the holes must be small enough to avoid diffraction. Additionally, since the wave propagates in a dielectric, the losses are high. Using a bed of metallic posts or holes to realize the permittivity profile of a Luneburg lens was proposed for the first time in 1960 [21]. The method proposed in that work adhere to the class of metasurfaces; although, the terminology of "metasurfaces" was not introduced yet. Since then, several works were accomplished to realize the GRIN profile of Luneburg lens with metasurfaces [87–98]. Employing metasurfaces facilitated the fabrication process, enabling the realization of the lenses in a cheap and compact way. The losses mainly depend on the medium in which the wave propagates. The operating bandwidth depends on the dispersion nature of the selected unit cell.

3.2 2D Luneburg lenses based on glide-symmetric structures

Fully metallic planar Luneburg lens The propagation characteristics in parallel plate waveguides loaded with periodic of glide and non-glide metallic holes and pins are studied in Pa- per 3 [98]. Comparing their responses, it can be concluded that the glide- symmetric unit cells have a less dispersive dominant mode. This is because less variations of the structural parameters are required to achieve a specific equivalent refractive-index using the glide-symmetric unit cells. In other 3.2. 2D LUNEBURG LENSES BASED ON GLIDE-SYMMETRIC STRUCTURES 31 words, having the same structural parameters, a glide-symmetric unit cell provides a higher effective refractive-index. Additionally, in Paper 3, it was found that a glide-symmetric structure can be more isotropic than its conventionally periodic counterpart. Furthermore, in Paper 3, a glide-symmetric holey unit cell is employed to realize the GRIN profile of a Luneburg lens. The final structure operates in an ultra-wide band and has low loss, since it is fully metallic. Using a similar approach, a Luneburg lens antenna was recently manufactured and measured [91].

Planar Luneburg lens based on PCB technology In Paper 4 [99], a glide-symmetric meandered line unit cell with a hexagonal lattice is proposed to realize the GRIN profile of a Luneburg lens. This unit cell provides a constant refractive-index over a wide band of operation (1-45 GHz). In order to radiate the collimated fields by Luneburg lens, a non- dispersive leaky wave structure is designed. The Luneburg lens antenna is broad band, 10-20 GHz, and produces a pencil beam with steering capability from −60◦ to 60◦. This configuration was chosen to enable an easy manufacturing process using PCB technology. However, in the manufacturing process, we realized that the copper cladding wrinkles when added on a thin layer of foam. Fig. 3.6 shows a cladded foam with the thickness of 0.5 mm. The wrinkling occurs because the foam layer shrinks during the cool down process after the copper cladding is added.

Figure 3.6: Wrinkling produced during the cool down of the copper cladding on a thin layer of foam. CHAPTER 3. 2D LENSES BASED ON GLIDE-SYMMETRIC 32 METASURFACES In order to solve this problem, following the procedure in Paper 4, a new lens is designed with a smaller radius, R = 50 mm, on Rogers 5880 substrate with a thickness of 0.254 mm. Fig. 3.7 represents the ﬁeld distribution in this lens in the frequency range of 5-35 GHz. As a future work, this lens could be combined with a leaky structure to practically realize the proposed antenna.

Figure 3.7: The simulated phase distribution in the designed lens on the Rogers 5880 substrate.

3.3 Compressed 2D Luneburg lens using anisotropic glide-symmetric structures

Although by employing 2D lenses, the problem associated with the bulky size of lens antennas is partially resolved, it is still desirable to further reduce their size. In Paper 5 [100], anisotropic glide-symmetric unit cells are proposed. These unit cells provide higher levels of anisotropy than the non- glide unit cells, in a broad bandwidth. Using this property and TO, a 2D Luneburg lens is compressed by 30% and it is realized with a glide-symmetric elliptical unit cells. It should be remarked that such compression with non- glide unit cell, with the same structural parameters, is not achievable due to the low levels of anisotropy and equivalent refractive-index. The designed 2D lens performs in an ultra-wideband (1-13 GHz). Fig. 3.8 represents the electric ﬁeld phase distribution in the designed lens at diﬀerent frequencies and locations of the point source. The details of the design are presented in Paper 5 and the corrections to Paper 5 [101]. 3.4. WIDE-ANGLE IMPEDANCE MATCHING USING GLIDE-SYMMETRIC STRUCTURES 33

(a)

(b)

Figure 3.8: The simulated phase distribution in the designed lens at diﬀerent frequencies. (a) Point source at 0◦. (b) Point source at 45◦.

3.4 Wide-angle impedance matching using glide-symmetric structures

As discussed in Section 3.1, multiple reflections on the dense dielectric profiles of conventional homogeneous lenses degrade their radiation properties. CHAPTER 3. 2D LENSES BASED ON GLIDE-SYMMETRIC 34 METASURFACES In Paper 6 [102], this problem is resolved for 2D lenses. In this work, it is shown that, using glide-symmetric structures, high dielectric constants can be matched to free space in a parallel plate waveguide configuration. Impedance matching for normal incidence is experimentally validated in Paper 6. In order to validate impedance matching for oblique incidences, glide-symmetric holes with varying radii are designed to match the profile of a hyperbolic dielectric lens with permittivity of 10 to free space. Fig. 3.9 represents the structure of the conventional dielectric hyperbolic lens and the matched lens with glide-symmetric holes in a PPW configuration. The phase distribution corresponding to these two lenses is represented in Fig. 3.10 for different frequencies. The reflections on the contour of a 2D hyperbolic lens with glide-symmetric holes is minimized by enhancing the magnetic properties. The details of the design is presented in Paper 6.

(a) (b)

Figure 3.9: An example ray on (a) a 2D hyperbolic dielectric lens in PPW. (b) a 2D hyperbolic dielectric lens with glide-symmetric holes at top and bottom. (The parts are displaced for a better illustration.)

3.5 Conclusion

In this chapter, It was demonstrated that glide-symmetric metasurfaces have lower dispersion than their conventional non-glide counterparts. This property was employed to design wide band Luneburg lens antennas. 3.5. CONCLUSION 35

Figure 3.10: Phase distribution in a hyperbolic lens when excited from a point source at the left side at the frequency range of 2-18 GHz on (a) the dielectric hyperbolic lens (Fig. 3.9 (a)) and (b) the matched dielectric hyperbolic lens with glide-symmetric holey metasurfaces (Fig. 3.9 (b)).

Another feature of glide-symmetric metasurfaces, which is providing high levels of anisotropy, was also explored in this chapter. This property is used to realize the proﬁle of a compressed 2D Luneburg lens, which is designed based on TO. Moreover, glide-symmetric metasurfaces are demonstrated to considerably enhance the magnetic properties. This property was employed to match the impedance of two vastly diﬀerent media in PPW.

Chapter 4

EBG structure based on glide-symmetric metasurfaces and its applications

In this chapter, a background about EBG structures and gap waveguide technology is presented. A novel fully metallic EBG structure based on glide- symmetric holes is proposed. In addition, the application of the proposed EBG structure in waveguides and microwave devices is discussed.

4.1 Introduction

Electromagnetic band gap structures In 1887, frequency bands in which no light can propagate, called band gaps, were explored for 1D periodic stacked dielectrics by Lord Rayleigh [103]. Later on, in 1987, the band gaps were explored in photonic crystals [104,105]. Due to the similarity to the band gaps present for electron-states in solid- state physics, these crystals are said to possess a photonic band gap (PBG). Since 1987, the topic has received signiﬁcant attention and been investigated further [55, 106]. In the microwave regime, structures with band gaps or stop-bands are called EBG. EBG structures are periodic structures that can be used to

37 CHAPTER 4. EBG STRUCTURE BASED ON GLIDE-SYMMETRIC 38 METASURFACES AND ITS APPLICATIONS control the propagation of waves by not allowing the wave propagation at certain frequency bands. We categorize the EBG structures in three groups based on the constituent materials: 1) dielectric, 2) dielectric-metallic, and 3) metallic. EBG structures in the ﬁrst group are designed by creating inhomo- geneities in dielectric materials, and ﬁnd application in antennas and waveguiding structures [107,108]. EBG structures in the second group are designed by loading a dielectric host medium with metallic inclusions. This type of EBG structure is typically fabricated with PCB technology has several applications in antennas and microwave circuits, for instance to suppress surface waves [108–111]. Due to the presence of dielectrics, the aforementioned groups are po- tentially lossy. Therefore, they are not ideal candidates for high frequency devices. Instead, the third group of EBG structures can be employed. There are a few examples of fully metallic EBG structures in the literature. The pin-type EBG structure [112] is popular for due to its wide band-gap. A grid of holes with a lid on the top, reported in [113], is another example of a metallic EBG structure. However, this latter structure only provides a narrow stop-band. In Paper 7, I propose a novel metallic EBG structure based on glide-symmetric holes that provides a broad stop-band. This structure is presented in more detail in Section 4.2.

Gap waveguide technology As discussed in Chapter 1, the next generation of the wireless systems will operate partly at millimeter-wave frequencies. Wave propagation in this range of frequency suffers from high path loss and atmospheric attenuation [114]. Therefore, efficient transmission lines and microwave devices are required besides high gain antenna systems to compensate the high path losses [16]. Conventional planar transmission lines such as microstrip, strip line and co-planar waveguide are not suitable candidates at mm-wave frequencies [115]. Although these transmission lines provide low fabrication cost and support integration of active and passive components on one board, they suffer severe drawbacks at millimeter-wave frequencies. High dielectric and ohmic losses, low efficiency, spurious radiation, packaging problems and thermal management issues are disadvantages of using the aforementioned planar transmission lines at millimeter-wave frequencies. 4.1. INTRODUCTION 39

Hollow metallic waveguides have low insertion loss and high efficiency due to the complete shielding and fully metallic configuration. In addition, they have high power handling capacity. However, manufacturing these waveguides is quite difficult and expensive at millimeter-wave frequencies, since the dimensions of the waveguide become quite small. The waveguide is typically fabricated in separate parts using CNC machining or electric discharge machining (EDM) and connected by deep-brazing techniques or diffusion bonding, which are time consuming and expensive processes. Fur- thermore, hollow metallic waveguides do not allow for an easy integration of active and passive components on the same module. Substrate integrated waveguides (SIWs) provide an intermediate solution between conventional planar transmission lines and hollow metallic waveguides. SIW was proposed in 1994 [116] and is a planar dielectric-filled waveguide where the solid side walls are replaced by metallic posts. Integration with active elements is easy in an SIW because of its planar profile. Due to the longitudinal discontinuous on the side walls of SIW, the currents gov- erning TM and TEnm (m 6= 0) modes on the walls cannot exist. Therefore, this structure only supports TEn0 modes. SIWs can be manufactured using PCB technology in a cost-effective way and does not suffer from spurious radiations and packaging problems [117]. However, the wave propagates inside a dielectric, which results in higher losses compared to hollow metallic waveguides [118]. Gap waveguide technology, introduced in [119, 120], offers a trade-off between the two opposing factors of losses and manufacturing flexibility. The basic concept of this technology is shown in Fig. 4.1. Two parallel plates of perfect magnetic/electric conductor (PMC/PEC) do not allow propagation c of waves in between, below the cut-off frequency of fc = /4h, where c and h represent the velocity of light and separation between the plates. If a part of the PMC plate is replaced by a PEC strip, a confined TEM mode can propagate in the PEC/PEC region below the cut-off frequency. This waveguiding structure is called gap waveguide. PMC does not exist in nature; however, it can be emulated by arti- ficial magnetic conductor (AMC) structures such as mushroom [110] or pin-type [112]. Based on the type of the employed AMC and propagation characteristics, gap waveguide structures can be categorized into four groups. These four groups are microstrip gap waveguide [121], inverted- microstrip gap waveguide [115], ridge gap waveguide [119] and groove gap waveguide [122]. At high frequencies, it is preferred to have fully metal- CHAPTER 4. EBG STRUCTURE BASED ON GLIDE-SYMMETRIC 40 METASURFACES AND ITS APPLICATIONS

Figure 4.1: Basic concept of gap waveguide technology. If the separation between plates is smaller than λ/4, the close-by PMC/PEC regions stop the propagation of the wave and PEC/PEC regions guide the wave. lic structures to avoid dielectric losses. The two latter groups of ridge and groove gap waveguide with pin-type EBG are mostly used at high frequencies. Employing these waveguiding structures have several advantages compared to the conventional waveguiding structures. First, they have lower loss compared to SIW, since the wave propagates in air and hence, there is no dielectric loss. Second, they are mechanically more ﬂexible and easier to manufacture compared to the hollow metallic waveguides. Gap waveguides can be manufactured in two parts and joined with a few screws. A good electrical contact is not required between the two parts since the EBG structure suppresses the leakage in the gap between the plates. In addition, waveguides, microwave components and antennas can be integrated on one module using this technology. The drawback of this technology is the manufacturing tolerances and cost. At high frequencies, the periodicity of the pin-type EBG structure is small and the manufacturing is diﬃcult and expensive. Furthermore, thin, tall and and closely spaced pins are easy to break and require higher precision and accuracy of manufacturing.

4.2 Glide-symmetric EBG structures

As discussed in Section 4.1, one of the metallic EBG structures reported in the literature consist of periodic holes in a plate, with a smooth metallic 4.2. GLIDE-SYMMETRIC EBG STRUCTURES 41 lid on the top [113]. The stop-band of this EBG is very narrow and is only in one direction. By increasing the density of the holes, a narrow stop- band in all directions can be obtained. Fig. 4.2 represents the unit cell of this structure and the corresponding dispersion diagram over the irreducible Brillouin zone. The full stop-band of this unit cell is between 46.3 GHz and 53 GHz (about 13%).

Figure 4.2: Dispersion diagram corresponding to a conventional metallic holey EBG. The dimensions are: a = 3.5 mm, h = 1.5 mm, r = 1.4 mm, g = 50 µm.

In Paper 7 [123], a novel metallic EBG structure made of glide-symmetric holes is proposed. Appearance-wise, it is similar to the EBG structure in Fig. 4.2, but with the top lid replaced by a holey structure which is displaced half a period in two directions with respect to the bottom holey layer. Fig. 4.3 shows the structure of the proposed unit cell and its corresponding dispersion diagram. By introducing glide symmetry, a wider stop-band from 40 GHz to 77 GHz (63%) is achieved in all directions. The properties of the proposed EBG structure are investigated in Paper 7. Importantly, the stop-band is not sensitive to the change in the depth of the holes after a certain minimum value. This fact simpliﬁes the manufacturing of the EBG structure since the depth of the holes can be drilled with low accuracy and the bottom of the holes can have any shape, for instance conical, which is typically easier to achieve than ﬂat. In Paper 7 the results are experimentally validated. In Paper 8 [124], the square and hexagonal lattices of glide-symmetric holes and the corresponding stop-bands are studied. In this paper, it is shown that a hexagonal lattice of glide-symmetric holes provides a wider CHAPTER 4. EBG STRUCTURE BASED ON GLIDE-SYMMETRIC 42 METASURFACES AND ITS APPLICATIONS

Figure 4.3: Dispersion diagram corresponding to the glide-symmetric metallic holey EBG. The dimensions are: a = 3.5 mm, h = 1.5 mm, r = 1.4 mm, g = 50 µm. stop-band compared to a square lattice for the same gap (g) between the plates.

4.3 Application of glide-symmetric EBG structures

Cost-eﬀective gap waveguide technology As discussed in Section 4.1, the pin-type EBG is typically employed in gap waveguides. However, due to the small dimensions of the pins, high accuracy manufacturing techniques are required, which results in expensive manufacturing, especially at mm-wave frequencies. In Paper 9 [73], I propose the use of glide-symmetric holey EBGs instead of the conventional pin-type EBG structure in groove gap waveguide technology. Fig. 4.4 represents the comparison of the unit cells and dispersion diagrams of a pin-type and glide-symmetric holey EBG structure covering U-band, having the same gap between the metallic plates. The stop-band of the pin-type EBG structure is from 28.3 GHz to 88.6 GHz (103%) while the stop-band of the glide-symmetric holey EBG structure is from 40 GHz to 77 GHz (63%). Therefore, the pin-type EBG structure provides wider stop-band than the glide-symmetric holey EBG. However, both unit cells provide a wide enough stop-band to cover the whole U-band. On the other hand, the periodicity of the glide-symmetric holey EBG structure is larger 4.3. APPLICATION OF GLIDE-SYMMETRIC EBG STRUCTURES 43

Figure 4.4: (a) Unit cell of a pin-type EBG. (b) Unit cell of the glide- symmetric holey EBG. (c) Comparison of the dispersion diagrams of (a) and (b). The dimensions are: p = 1.35 mm, d = 1.6 mm, t = 0.56 mm, h = 1.5 mm, r = 1.4 mm, a = 3.5 mm, g = 50 µm. Red and blue areas correspond to the stop-bands of the glide-symmetric and pin-type EBG, respectively.

(about 2.6 times) and hence, it is easier to manufacture. Furthermore, if CNC milling is employed for the manufacturing, drilling holes is easier than milling pins. In other manufacturing techniques, for instance EDM die sinking, the glide-symmetric holey EBG structure is less sensitive to the fabrication tolerances, due to the bigger dimensions of the holes. Fig. 4.5 represents the proposed gap waveguide with glide-symmetric CHAPTER 4. EBG STRUCTURE BASED ON GLIDE-SYMMETRIC 44 METASURFACES AND ITS APPLICATIONS

Figure 4.5: (a) Proposed structure of a gap waveguide with glide-symmetric holes. (b) Same waveguide with the parts displaced for a better illustration. holes. Using the proposed technique, the standard waveguide can be manufactured in two parts and joined by a few screws. A perfect electrical contact between the parts of the waveguide is not required, since the glide-symmetric holey EBG structure at the sides of the waveguide suppresses the leakage if there is a gap between the parts. Moreover, no transition to conventional rectangular waveguides (RWs) are needed since the standard dimensions of the RW are used in the gap waveguide. More explanations on the proposed technique and the experimental validations are provided in Paper 9.

Microwave components In order to demonstrate the applicability of the proposed waveguiding structure, two microwave components have been designed and tested. In Pa- per 10 [74], a mechanically reconﬁgurable phase shifter is designed and the results are validated through simulations and measurements. In Paper 4.4. CONCLUSIONS 45

11 [75], a mode converter is designed and tested through simulations. The experimental validation of this design in the Ka-band is presented in [77].

Contact-less measurements Furthermore, the proposed glide-symmetric EBG structure can be used to enable contact-less measurements, which gains extra importance at high frequencies. In Paper 12 [76], a gender-less, cost-effective flange design using the proposed EBG structure is presented. Using the proposed design leakage is suppressed in existence of possible gaps between the distinct waveguide components. The proposed flange design is patented by Ericsson AB [125].

4.4 Conclusions

In this chapter a novel metallic EBG structure and its applications for waveguiding structures are presented. The proposed cost-eﬀective waveguiding structures can be employed to feed the planar lenses discussed in Chapter 3 or for designing diﬀerent microwave components in order to constitute a RF front-end at high frequencies. The proposed waveguiding structure is cheaper and easier to manufacture with respect to the conventional ones, since the larger dimensions of the glide-symmetric holey EBG structure do not require high accuracy to be fabricated and are less sensitive to manufacturing tolerances. Moreover, the proposed waveguides are compatible with conventional RW and transitions are not required.

Chapter 5

Contributions, future work and discussions on sustainability

5.1 Contributions

Low loss directive wide-band lens antennas with a ﬁxed and wide-angle scanning beam are good candidates for future wireless networks. Along with the antennas, cost-eﬀective and low loss waveguiding structures and microwave components operating at high frequencies are demanded in the communication system. The main contributions of this thesis to the aforementioned needs are:

• 3D graded-index bespoke lenses are proposed that provide higher directivity and lower side lobe levels and cross-polarization compared to the conventional lens antennas with the same aperture size. (Paper 1 & 2)

• A 2D fully metallic Luneburg lens based on a glide-symmetric holey structure is designed. The proposed lens antenna has wide-angle beam steering capability and operates in an ultra-wide band. Since the wave propagates in the air between the two metallic plates the losses are low. (Paper 3)

47 CHAPTER 5. CONTRIBUTIONS, FUTURE WORK AND 48 DISCUSSIONS ON SUSTAINABILITY • A 2D Luneburg lens antenna based on a planar glide-symmetric unit cell with hexagonal lattice is designed. The proposed lens can be fabricated using PCB technology in a cost-eﬀective way and operates in ultra-wide band. (Paper 4)

• The size of a 2D Luneburg lens is compressed using TO. The material properties of the compressed Luneburg lens is realized using broadband anisotropic glide-symmetric unit cells. The structure of the designed lens can be manufactured using PCB technology and operates in broad bandwidth. (Paper 5)

• It is demonstrated that the impedance of two vastly diﬀerent parallel plate waveguide regions can be matched using a glide-symmetric structure. Using the proposed method, a dense 2D homogeneous hyperbolic lens is matched to the impedance of free space in broad bandwidth. (Paper 6)

• Cost-eﬀective waveguiding structures and microwave components based on a glide-symmetric holey EBG structure are proposed. The proposed waveguiding structures are easy and cheap to manufacture at high frequencies compared to the conventional gap waveguide structures that employ a pin-type EBG structure. (Paper 7 & 8 & 9 & 10 & 11)

• A flange design that enables contact-less measurements of waveguide components at high frequencies is proposed, which is based on a glide- symmetric EBG structure. Measurements of waveguide components at high frequencies are difficult and in many cases require repetitions to remove the effects of random errors. Using the proposed method, fast measurements can be done since the effects of the potential gaps between distinct microwave components are mitigated. (Paper 12)

5.2 Future works

This work can be continued in several ways:

• The bespoke lens designed in Paper 1 is only controlling the phase fronts of the feeding with an isotropic graded refractive-index. In order to maximize the aperture efficiency, both the amplitude and phase 5.3. SUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION OF THE DESIGNS AND METHODS PROPOSED IN THIS THESIS 49 should be controlled which requires an anisotropic graded refractive- index. Such index-profiles can be realized with inhomogeneous anisotropic sub-wavelength holes in a dielectric. These complex dielectrics can be manufactured with 3D printing. • The non-dispersive unit cell proposed in Paper 2 can be used to realize 2D lens designs that operate in a broad frequency band. • The antenna presented in Paper 3 can be redesigned on a dielectric substrate to facilitate the manufacturing. In order to scan the beam in 3D, a dispersive leaky structure can be designed and connected to the proposed lens. • The anisotropic glide-symmetric unit cells presented in Paper 4 can be used to realize 2D TO devices. The compressed Luneburg lens designed in this paper can be combined with a leaky structure to form a beam steering lens antenna in two dimensions. • The method presented in Paper 5 together with the anisotropic glide- symmetric unit cells presented in Paper 4 can be applied to realize 2D TO designs, which require composite electric and magnetic materials to be matched to given impedances. • Cost-effective couplers and other microwave components at high frequencies can be designed using the method proposed in Paper 8. • The flange design presented in Paper 12 can be combined with the choke flange design [126,127] to improve its performance and obtain a robust flange solution.

5.3 Sustainability evaluation of the designs and methods proposed in this thesis

Embedding a sustainability discussion in the design process for any product is essential and promotes the sustainable development of the whole planet. In this section, the discussion is focused on evaluating the sustainability of the methods and designs that are proposed in this thesis. Over the past decades, the power consumption of the wireless networks have continuously increased and it is expected to further increase in the future. The reasons for the increment in the power consumption is the growth CHAPTER 5. CONTRIBUTIONS, FUTURE WORK AND 50 DISCUSSIONS ON SUSTAINABILITY

Figure 5.1: Power consumption of mobile communications for a network with 3 billions of subscriptions, 4 millions of base stations and 17 thousands of controllers. in the number of subscriptions and base stations as well as the expansion of the capabilities of the network hardware that is required to support the desired data rate. In a typical wireless mobile communication system, which supports 3 billion subscriptions, 4 million base stations and 17 thousand controllers, the base stations are the main consumers of the power, as depicted in Fig. 5.1 [128]. In a base station, about 50-80% of the power is consumed by the power amplifiers and antennas [129]. Although the power amplifiers are the main power consumers, it is essential to design efficient and low-loss antennas. Moreover, the economical impact of a design is important for a sustainable development. In other words, the cost of the components used in the communication systems should be suitable for mass production. Otherwise, they may drain the economical resources that could be invested, for instance on research and development. The contributions of this thesis to the sustainable development of communication systems are:

• In Paper 1, bespoke lenses are proposed that can increase the aperture eﬃciency of conventional lens antennas and decrease their side lobe levels and cross polarization, having the same size. Therefore, the proposed solution is more eﬃcient in power consumption compared to conventional lenses.

• In Paper 2, beam steering lens antennas based on glide-symmetric structures are proposed. Since no dielectrics are incorporated in the 5.3. SUSTAINABILITY EVALUATION OF THE DESIGNS AND METHODS PROPOSED IN THIS THESIS 51 designs, the losses in these structures are only ohmic. Therefore, using the proposed solutions result in a high power eﬃciency.

• In Paper 7, a novel waveguiding structure based on a glide-symmetric holey EBG structure is proposed. The proposed waveguides can be cost-eﬀectively manufactured. Furthermore, they are more robust than conventional low-loss solutions at high frequencies. Therefore, they are suitable for mass production.

• In Paper 12, a contact-less technique for measurement of waveguide components is proposed. The technique prevents tedious repetitive measurements and saves time for the engineers who perform the measurements.

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