APPROACHES to OVERCOMING CORRUPTION in the NIGERIAN AGRICULTURAL SECTOR Enwelu, I

Nigerian Journal of Rural Sociology Vol. 15, No. 2, March 2015

APPROACHES TO OVERCOMING CORRUPTION IN THE NIGERIAN AGRICULTURAL SECTOR Enwelu, I. A. Department of Agricultural Extension, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria Email Addresses: [email protected] ABSTRACT The paper explored the causes and effects of corruption in the Nigerian agricultural sector and various approaches to overcome it and prevent it in the long-run. The paper was based on desk review of available relevant literature. Information was accessed through web search, journals, newspapers, magazines, books and reports. The major causes of corruption identified were: colonial influence, ethnic inclination/patron-client relationships; psychological influence and poor remuneration/ condition of service. The effects of corruption in the agricultural sector included: strangled economic development, neglect of real development priorities in favour of oil, widened the gap between the rich and the poor, increased debt burden- loans paid to private pockets, thus creating opportunity for food for thought and in the short-run increasing economic efficiency. The main approaches to overcome corruption include: awareness creation/campaign against corruption, strong political will backed with financial resources; creation of strong and durable institutions in terms of ethical reorientation; revitalized functional civil service; and full independent anti-corruption commission. In conclusion, corruption is prevalent in all facets of human endeavour. It cuts across professions, faiths, religious denominations and political systems and affects both young and old, man and woman alike. There is need for a renewed focus on agriculture to rid it of corruption and inefficiency. It is important that corruption stamped out in our agricultural sector to serve our poor rural farming communities better. Keywords: Agriculture sector, corruption, patron-client relationship

INTRODUCTION political systems and affects both young and old, Nigeria is undoubtedly one of the most richly man and woman alike. Corruption is found endowed nations of the world in terms of human in democratic and dictatorial politics; feudal, and natural resources. Unfortunately, Nigeria today capitalist and socialist economies. Christian, is one of the developing countries struggling to Muslim, Hindu, and Buddhist cultures are feed her citizens who incidentally are mostly equally bedevilled by this monster. Corrupt engaged in agricultural production. Historically, practices did not begin today; the history is as old agriculture is one of the oldest occupations dating as the world. Ancient civilizations have traces of back from early man who was engaged in gathering widespread illegality and corruption. Thus, of fruits and food crops. In Nigeria, agriculture was corruption has been ubiquitous in complex societies the dominant sector of the economy before the oil from boom era. According to World Bank (1989), ancient Egypt, Israel, Rome, and Greece down to agriculture has always been expected to play a key the present time (Lipset and Lenz, 2000). role in supplying food for the population and raw Although corruption can be found in all materials for industry, providing employment, countries and cultures, some countries are more earning foreign exchange and serving as a market prone to corruption than others. Similarly, for the industrial sector. The ability of the corruption can be found in every profession: agricultural sector to fulfil these roles has varied medicine, pharmacy, law, education, and over the last three decades. Presently, the capacity agriculture to mention but a few. And so, of agriculture to fulfil these roles has worsened. corruption in the agricultural sector is the main One of the factors militating against the focus of this paper. performance of the agricultural sector in fulfilling Generally speaking, corruption is a perversion these roles is corruption. or a change from good to bad (Dike, 2008). According to Dike (2008), there are many Specifically, it involves the violation of established unresolved problems in Nigeria, but the issue of the rules for personal gain and profit (Sen, 1999) and upsurge of corruption is troubling. And the efforts to secure wealth or power through illegal damages it has done to the polity are astronomical. means/ private gain at public expense; or a misuse It is believed by many in the society that corruption of public power for private benefit (Lipset and is the bane of Nigeria. Consequently, the issue Lenz, 2000). keeps reoccurring in every academic and informal This definition includes such behaviour as discussion in Nigeria. And the issue will hardly go bribery (use of a reward to pervert the judgment of away soon! a person in a position of trust); nepotism (bestowal Corruption is prevalent in all facets of human of patronage by reason of ascriptive relationship endeavour. Some writers say that corruption is rather than merit); and misappropriation (illegal endemic in all governments, and that it is not appropriation of public resources for private uses peculiar to any continent, region and ethnic group. (Banfield, 1958; United Nations, 1990). It cuts across faiths, religious denominations and Furthermore, Osoba (1996) defines corruption as

Nigerian Journal of Rural Sociology Vol. 16, No. 1, June 2015 an anti-social behaviour conferring improper and dominance of major internal institutions such benefits contrary to legal and moral norms, and as polity. The later, on the other hand represents which undermine the authorities to improve the what is commonly referred to as neo-colonialism or living conditions of the people. extension of especially economic domination of a Dike (2008) observes that even though some of people beyond the attainment of self rule. This these definitions of corruption have been around second phase of colonization is associated with for over decades, the recent development in Nigeria practices, policies and structures inherited from the where discoveries of stolen public funds run into first phase. The researchers affirm that active billions of US Dollars and Nigeria Naira, make colonialism is associated with the origin/birth of these definitions very adequate and appropriate. corrupt practices while passive colonialism is Corruption is probably the main means to considered to be partially responsible for the accumulate quick wealth in Nigeria. Corruption entrenchment of it. occurs in many forms , and it has contributed As stated earlier, since African (Nigerian) immensely to the povert y and misery of a large economy could not accommodate corruption, the segment of the Nigerian population. industrial revolution of the 19 th century pioneered It is also pertinent to observe that the foregoing by colonial masters provided a fertile ground for definitions of corruption have bearing in the corruption. It was the financial growth which agricultural sector. Consequently, the overall accompanied this historical event that was directly objective of this paper is to explore various responsible for the birth of white-collar crime approaches to overcome corruption in the which is a component of corruption (Robb, 1992; agricultural sector. Specifically, the paper sought Munyae and Gwen, 1998). This behaviour was to: identify causes of corruption in agriculture in instilled into the colonial peoples during the Nigeria; describe instances of corruption in colonial period and was carried into the post agricultural sector; ascertain effects of corruption colonial era. This was inevitable considering the on agriculture; as well as determine approaches to fact that colonialism was an extension of the new overcoming/ preventing corruption in the economic order and its concomitant problems agricultural sector. which resulted from industrial revolution. Since corruption requires a well developed METHODOLOGY monetary economy to thrive, the new economies The paper was based on desk review of promoted by colonial governments had to nurture available relevant literature. Information was the conditions for the evolution of structures that accessed mainly through web search, journals, were conducive to corrupt practices. One way to magazines, periodicals, newspapers, books and achieve that was introduction of payment of taxes reports. by the colonized countries. In Nigeria, British government introduced compulsory tax payable RESULTS AND DISCUSSION only in cash for purposes of meeting the cost of Causes of corruption in agriculture in Nigeria administration and generation of cheap labour It is an effort in futility to treat an ailment necessary for the establishment of productive without establishing the cause. The causes of activities (Munyae and Gwen, 1998). According to corruption in Nigeria are many and diverse and as them, it was not the introduction of taxation per se such have trickled down and/or overwhelmed the that encouraged corrupt behaviour but the manner agricultural sector. Attempt is made in this study to in which the tax itself was collected. To collect present causes of corruption in agriculture in taxes, the colonial government mostly relied on Nigeria thus: local leaders and especially the chiefs. Above all, to Colonial influence motivate them to generate as much tax revenue as Prior to the colonial period, Nigeria culture and possible and to do so with zeal, the colonial economy had little or no corrupting tendencies and administration allowed the chiefs to retain a part of as such few cases of corruption if any could be it. This practice led to taking of kickbacks by observed. The origin of corruption in Nigeria can African chiefs (Nigeria). be traced to the time of colonial invasion of Africa. This scenario, gave an entirely new meaning to Johnson (1995) defines colonialism as international the traditional practice of giving gifts to chiefs system of economic exploitation in which more which had existed in different parts of Africa long powerful nations dominate weaker ones. However, before colonialism. In the British ”gift‘ to chiefs, it Munyae and Gwen (1998) make a distinction was a source of inducement to use obnoxious between two phases of colonialism namely active means to collect taxes from their kinsmen. and passive colonialism. The former refers to Gradually, these corrupting tendencies grew and conquest of a people followed by the direct control matured and the beneficiaries (chiefs) became (or domination) of the same by conquerors using a instrument of oppression and retrogression œ a combination of measures such as military coercion phenomenon being witnessed in contemporary

Nigerian Journal of Rural Sociology Vol. 15, No. 2, March 2015 time. The task force sent to establish agricultural psychological influence of the surrounding projects in communities colluded with the chiefs in environment may compel the person to see the communities to frustrate the projects. corruption as the easiest option. Also, judicial Blinded by the financial gains, the chiefs system where the culprits (corrupt workers) are to collaborated with the colonial masters and coerced be disciplined is affected by the same poor African men, migrant labourers and even slaves to conditions of service. In such situations, it is the work in their industries (including agro-allied poor people that suffer the brunt of injustices as the industries) at their home country. The women were rich always stand a better chance of getting justice left at home to carry out farm work and even sell over the poor. A typical case of poor condition of their few animals to augment money for payment service and corruption that follows it was the abuse of tax (Colclough and McCarthy, 1980; Tlou and of motorcycles provided to extension agents by the Campbell, 1984). World Bank to help them in their farm and home Ethnic inclination/patron-client relationships visits. When the World Bank handed over the The post colonial African leaders applied the Agricultural Development Projects to the states, the principle of divide and rule which they learned allowances to maintain the motorcycles were from the colonial masters by favouring one tribe stopped and extension agents began to use the over another. The political equation in Nigeria has motorcycles for transportation (—Okada“) business. been such that one major tribe joins another major Instances of corrupt practices in agricultural tribe to be in power and share the ”national cake‘. sector Such patron-client relationships are maintained Land title/tenure - Land is a major factor in through corrupt practices. Munyae and Gwen agricultural production. However, in rural Nigeria, (1998), state that people in such position are not land ownership is one of the key limiting factors of only overwhelmed with financial pressure from production (Peterman et al ., 2010). The land tenure their family, but also from kin, clan, hometown and system in Nigeria encouraged fragmentation of tribal or ethnic constituents. Such obligations are land such that land required by farmers to engage almost always fulfilled through corrupt means. in profitable agribusiness is rarely available. The Thus the participants in corruption are many Nigerian land use Act of 1978 nationalised all land besides the politicians or elites who actually engage and vested authority in the State Governor who in the act (Brima, 2009). holds it in trust on behalf of all. In practice Psychological influence however, the way land is owned and accessed According to Brima (2009), there are varies from place to place in Nigeria and can be an numerous psychological factors that can help to amalgam of traditional, Islamic Sharia and other explain some causes of corruption. Internally, some local governance practices (Mabogunje, 2010). The people are ”naturally evil‘ and will commit criminal Land Use Act instead of solving the problem of acts, including corrupt ones in any type of system. land users including farmers become politicised However, pressure and peer comparison can such that the process of obtaining Certificate of contribute greatly to acts of corruption especially Occupancy is fraught with corrupt practices starting where the socially revered are the corrupt ones. For from the clerk that carries file to the highest instance, a person who corruptly enriched himself authority. In rural areas, women who are the and ”helped‘ his people secure employment in majority that use land for agricultural purposes agricultural institution where he served will be some times fall into the hand of fraudsters who given a red carpet reception while his counterpart promise to give land to them. Sometimes, people who avoided being entangled in corruption will be requiring land for agricultural purposes procure ignored and derided in his/her community. This can land through individuals that have multiple titles to impact psychological effects on the upcoming ones the land. Rodney (2002) confirms that problems who see such people and others around them with land ownership, registration, tenure and sales benefiting from corruption being recognized to impede agricultural development in many choose to indulge in corruption too. countries. Multiple titles exist on many parcels and Poor remuneration/condition of service the rights of family members, especially women One major direct cause of corruption in the and children, are not well defined in some societies. agricultural sector is poor and untimely Moreover, registration of title is often a slow, remuneration and condition of service of complex, and costly process, which is vulnerable to agricultural staff. If the take home pay of any bribes offered or demanded for service. worker is not enough to take care of the family and Distribution of farm inputs/credit other immediate needs, there will be compelling availability - Farm inputs are required for the need to seek other means of making both ends to agricultural sector to flourish in Nigeria. For me et al though one may be tempted to say that such instance fertiliser, agrochemicals, improved crop means must not be through corrupt practices like and animal varieties etc are needed to boost taking bribes or embezzling public funds, but agricultural productivity. Unfortunately,

Nigerian Journal of Rural Sociology Vol. 16, No. 1, June 2015 government officials responsible for equitable factory was modernized in 1989 when an ultra- distribution and sale of these commodities take modern Japanese technology was installed to bribes and even make the process of getting the increase the operating capacity to about 2000 materials complex and difficult. Farmers who may metric tonnes per year. However, the plant has require credit to engage in farm business face the since been closed down due to management same ordeal. According to Rodney (2002), problem (Ezeagu, 2002). The Cotton Mill industry corruption occurs in the allocation of government- in the North has sacked most of its staff and others subsidised credit. Most typically, unnecessary fees remaining are being owed months of unpaid and percentage payments are ways that government salaries. The Fertiliser Plant at Onne Port Harcourt officials use to garner funds when granting credit. to mention but a few is an agriculture related Farm supply/transportation - Another area project operating at skeletal level far below the corruption manifests in agricultural sector is objectives of setting it up. The canker worm stifling supply/transportation of agricultural equipment and the life of these projects and more is corruption materials. For instance people empowered to within and among all stakeholders involved in import farm machinery and irrigation equipment managing the projects. It is pertinent to observe negotiate with manufacturers to supply inferior that agricultural projects like the Rubber Estate in products at the same amount for the superior Ondo State being managed by foreign stakeholders products. Also, transporters of agricultural continues to function optimally and contributing to equipment and materials collude with government economic growth of the country because of zero officials to divert the goods to unknown tolerance to corruption. destinations sometimes outside the shores of the Effects of corruption in the agricultural country. Rodney (2002) asserts that corruption in sector - The effects of corruption on a nation‘s government contracts or licenses for agricultural socio-political and economic development are supplies is common. Poor quality, undelivered myriad. Agriculture is the backbone of any goods and high prices are typical outcomes from developing country and as such when agricultural collusion between government officials and private sector is adversely affected all other sectors are sector firms. An example is a government agency equally affected. Corruption is a monster that has buying fertiliser from a private sector company at directly and indirectly affected agricultural sector an elevated price and receiving a share of the profit. for decades. The effects of corruption in the This increases the cost of agricultural production agricultural sector are mainly negative although and eliminates competition in the fertiliser industry positive effects may be argued. The summary of as other firms have little chance of getting the effects of corruption is as follows: government contract. Strangulating economic development - Product standards and certification - Corruption in agricultural sector strangles Product standards and certification constitute economic development through poor execution of another source of corruption, as individual agro-industrial projects. Agro-allied industries are producers attempt to bribe produce inspectors to fraught with such corrupt practices as bribery, get the desired certification. The efforts of Standard nepotism, misappropriation, kickback etc. Organisation of Nigeria (SON) are appreciated but Consequently, the ability of these industries to the effects are yet to be felt by poor farmers who generate income and employment is hampered with are the main beneficiaries. The development of poor resource farmers seriously receiving the bulk quality improvement centres in rural communities of the impacts. Corruption presents a scenario in Nigeria will help support objective grading of where money meant for development of a products by pooling produce for inspection and particular agricultural project is not released eliminating the opportunity for individual because the opportunity of embezzling the money producers to offer bribes (Rodney, 2002). is not clearly established. This has negative impacts White elephant projects - Poorly executed on economic growth. Lipset and Lenz (2000) note projects especially in the agricultural sector are the that the effect on growth, is in part, a result of conduit for personal enrichment. There are many reduced level of investment, as it adds to cases of abandoned agricultural projects in the investment risk. Corruption is a complex country because of corruption. For instance the phenomenon. Its roots lie deep in bureaucratic and Vegetable Oil Production Plant in Nachi Enugu political institutions, and its effect on development State known as (AVOP) established by old varies with country conditions. But while costs may Anambra State Government was razed down by vary and systemic corruption may coexist with fire to cover up corruption in the industry. strong economic performance, experience suggests Similarly, the first cashew processing industry for that corruption is bad for development. It leads export in Nigeria was established by Premier governments to intervene where they need not, and Cashew Processing Industry at Oghe, in Ezeagu it undermines their ability to enact and implement Local Government Area of Enugu State. The policies in areas in which government intervention

Nigerian Journal of Rural Sociology Vol. 15, No. 2, March 2015 is clearly needed–whether environmental is that such loans would have to be paid with regulation, health and safety regulation, social interest and at the same time increasing the debt safety nets, macroeconomic stabilization, or burden of the country (Brima, 2009). contract enforcement (World Bank, 1997). Corruption in increasing economic Neglect of real development priorities in efficiency only on the short-run - There is this favour of oil - One of the greatest impacts of believe that giving bribes to agricultural staff in corruption normally arises out of the choices and order to procure farm inputs like fertiliser, agro- priorities of governments. This occurs when the chemicals, improved varieties of crops/animals etc real development priorities of a country are often may help the farmers meet up with their time- neglected in favour of those that generate the bound activities. This may be true in the short-run greatest personal gains for the decision makers. but in the long-run the cost of production will Here, it is clearly evident that many projects have increase thereby increasing the profitability of the become white elephants and easy route for personal farm business. World Bank (1997) argues that enrichment (Brima, 2009). The discovery of oil in corruption may not distort the short-run efficiency Nigeria opens a greater opportunity for policy of an economy if it merely entails a transfer of makers and administrators to generate the greatest economic rents from a private party to a personal gain through corrupt practices. There was government official. It however agrees that the so much money in the country then that the problem with this line of reasoning is that it fails to problem of managers of the economy was how to take into account any objective other than short- spend the money. Agriculture which would have term efficiency. been a willing horse to receive the money in other Opportunity for food for thought - Although to lay a solid foundation for real development was it is hard to believe, but when corruption has gone utterly neglected. The agricultural programmes by full circle, there may be a ray of light at the end of successive governments in Nigeria like Operation the tunnel. This is because the slightest opportunity Feed the Nation, Green Revolution etc are poorly of change can be overwhelmingly embraced by implemented because of corruption. Nwakoby majority of the people like what is being witnessed (2007) laments that there is lack of integrity, in Nigeria recently. Similarly, Dike (2008) reports accountability and transparency on the part of that the scandals associated with the Abacha era people who are supposed to implement (looting of the treasury and human rights developmental projects in the rural areas. Public violations) have given the nation some food for funds (made for rural projects) are stashed away in thought. The last administration of Good-luck bank vaults in Europe and America, while an Ebele Jonathan is currently under attack. Nigeria is overwhelming proportion of the population live in still perplexed and preoccupied with the issues of abject poverty. how to strengthen the nation‘s essential Widening of the gap between the rich and governmental structures to avoid the reoccurrence the poor - Another serious effect of corruption in of these kinds of looting and atrocities in future. the agricultural sector is its ability to widen the gap Gluckman (1955) also opines that scandals between the rich and the poor. In developing associated with corruption sometimes have the country like Nigeria where majority of people are effect of strengthening a value system of a society engaged in agriculture, any diversion of money as a whole. However, according to Dike (2008), the meant for agricultural projects is likely to apparent benefits of corruption notwithstanding, no negatively affect the larger population which are right thinking person in Nigeria where ubiquitous mostly poor farmers. Developing economies are corruption has ravaged the society will agree that predominantly buffeted with barrages of corrupt corruption is beneficial, no matter how plausible it practices that have deep anchorage in the socio- may be. political and cultural psyche and existence in such Approaches of overcoming corruption in the nations. This is particularly so in Sub-Saharan agricultural sector Africa where majority of the populations especially There may be no single approach that can in the rural areas suffer untold hardship as a result stamp out corruption completely in our society. of what can be termed as organised or systematised Only multifaceted approaches can attempt to corruption (Brima, 2009). ameliorate the effect of corruption in the short-run Increase in debt burden - Governments at and when sustained may prevent corruption in the various levels (federal, state and local) in Nigeria long-run. Therefore, there may be no clear-cut have embarked on various strategies geared short-run and long-run approaches in overcoming towards making funds (in form of loans) available corruption as most short-run approaches may to farmers to improve agricultural production. continue in the long-run. However, for the purpose When loans taken by governments on the pretext of of this study, short-run and long-run approaches of undertaking some agricultural projects are diverted overcoming corruption in agriculture are presented. to private accounts and coffers, the attendant effect

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Short-run approaches to overcome corruption adage says, —You cannot give a person with dry in agriculture skin palm oil to keep for you“. Similarly, it is very Awareness creation/campaign against risky to assume that agricultural staff who handle corruption - The best way to start the war against and receive funds for agricultural projects should corruption is through awareness creation/campaign. imbibe the virtues of integrity not to tamper with The general public including the farmers shall be the funds when back home their families or loved inundated with information of the evil of corruption ones cannot eat or be taking to hospital for in agriculture. The media including radio, treatment. In-fact, all staff of agriculture should be television, newspaper, magazine, social media well paid and on time especially the chief (face-book, twitter etc) and other communication executive, those in charge of project monitoring outfits should be used in enlightening all segments and execution, finance and audit staff and staff of the society on the negative effects of corruption charged with the responsibility of enforcing rules on our collective survival. Agricultural institutions and regulations. The officer receiving the payment should organise seminars, symposia, conferences would know that corrupt behaviour may involve and other academic fora to enlighten stake holders serious loss of a high-salary employment if things in agriculture about the need to fight the scourge were to go bad (that is, if he or she is caught with (corruption). Faith-based organisations and other his or her hand in the cookie jar ) (Sen, 2000). governmental organisations should be in fore-front Long-run approaches to prevent corruption in in the campaign against corruption. agriculture Political will/finance to prosecute Agricultural extension education approach - corruption in agriculture - This One of the cardinal objectives of extension is awareness/campaign should be followed by the education of clientele to bring about changes in political will and adequate finance by governments their attitude, skill and knowledge. According to (federal, states, and local governments) to fight Laogun (2011), every extension worker is a teacher corruption in agriculture. The go vernments should with no fixed classroom but wherever he/she meets identify and prosecute known recent cases of people. His teaching is not by courses of study corruption in agriculture. There is need to unravel formally arranged, but is on any problem of what led to poor performance of Songhai Farms in immediate importance in farming or rural living some States of Nigeria, skeletal services by Cotton such as corruption. Therefore, the extension agency Mill and Fertiliser Plant at Onne, Port Harcourt. can be reorganised to emphasize the teaching of Dike (2008) affirms that prosecuting all the known zero tolerance to corruption in the agricultural corrupt political heavy weights in the society sector. The extension agents in addition to their should be put into practice as they contribute in normal training of farmers should also train them to making the nation‘s inchoate laws inoperable. abhor corruption by refusing to give or take bribes However, this will only be a temporary measure in in any agricultural undertaking. This can be fighting corruption. Principally, only men and achieved through value re-orientation and women of virtue have the moral justification to sensitization of farmers to imbibe patriotic spirit. wage the war of corruption. According to Dike (2008), the re-orientation of the Tough penalties/rules with vigorous youth in Nigeria to a good value system could help enforcement - It is not enough to prosecute people in the war against corruption. The World Values involved in corruption if adequate punishment is Surveys of 1990-1993 has a lot of attitude and not meted out to them to serve as deterrent to value information, which notes a relationship others. Those prosecuted and found culpable between values and corruption (World Values should be made to face the laws of the land. There Study Group, 1994). Preaching the gospel and shall be no sacred cows. There shall be put in place practice of virtue is the ultimate solution to adequate rules and regulations guiding all behavioural change and reduction in corruption. operations in agriculture and punishments for The farmers should be made to express love for circumventing any of the rules and regulations. their country by shunning corruption. Also, there shall be watch dogs trained like the Strengthening of social and governmental forest guards and deployed to police all agricultural institutions - There is need to strengthen projects to ensure vigorous enforcement of these institutions such as banks, schools, clubs, rules. Dike (2008) affirms that making tough rules cooperatives, labour rotatory groups etc which are with vigorous enforcement can deter corrupt directly or indirectly involved in agriculture with a behaviour. However, it is important to point out view to ridding them of corruption. The process of here that use of force to fight corruption may not be obtaining agricultural loans should be simple and a sustainable approach because when the force is transparent. A mechanism should be put in place removed people may revert to the status quo. such that bank official collaborators in crime Officers who are in position of power and should easily be detected and adequately punished. authority must be well remunerated - An Igbo The children in schools should be taught moral and

Nigerian Journal of Rural Sociology Vol. 15, No. 2, March 2015 citizenship lessons early in life and reward system Ezeagu, W. (2002). Assessment of the situation and put in place for exemplary students/pupils. development prospects for the cashew Full independent anti-corruption outfit - sector, a report carried out on behalf of the Corruption fighters club can be established in both International Trade Center UNCTAD/WTO rural and urban areas to wage war against (ITC) and funded by the ITC Global Trust corruption in the agricultural sector. This outfit Fund under project should be fully independent and free from control Gluckman, Max (1955). Custom and Conflicts in and manipulation of any other authority in issues of Africa , Oxford corruption and other related offences. Also, it Johnson, A. G. (1995). The Blackwell Dictionary should be well funded through direct budg et of Sociology: A User‘s Guide to al location. Sociological Language, Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers Ltd CONCLUSION Laogun (2011). Extension teaching/learning Corruption is prevalent in all facets of human process and extension methods. Agricultural endeavour. It cuts across professions, faiths, Extension in Nigeria. A publication of the religious denominations and political systems and Agricultural Extension Society of Nigeria: affects both young and old, man and woman alike. 270-278 Origin of corruption in Nigeria can be traced to the Lipset, Seymour Martin, and Gabriel Salman Lenz colonial invasion of Africa. Pressure and peer (2000). Corruption, Culture, and Markets, in comparison contribute greatly to acts of corruption Culture Matters, Lawrence E. Harrison, and especially where the socially revered are the Samuel P. Huntington, eds., (New York: corrupt ones. There are instances of corruption in Basic Books), p.112. land title/tenure for agricultural purposes as well as Mabogunye, A. L. (2010). Land reforms in Nigeria: in distribution of farm inputs or in the allocation of progress, problems and propects. At: government subsidised credit. Corruption in http://siteresources.woorldbank.org/EXTAR agricultural sector strangles economic development D/reources/3336681- through poor execution of agro-industrial projects. 1236436879081/58933116054/mabogunje.p Short-run approaches to overcome corruption in df agriculture include political will to prosecute all Munyae, M. M. and Gwen N. L. (1998). known cases of corruption in agriculture and tough Interrogating our past: colonialism and penalties/rules with vigorous enforcement. Long- corruption in Sub-Saharan Africa, African run approach to prevent corruption in agriculture is Journal of Political Science, Vol. 3 No.2, 15- through agricultural extension education approach. 28 There is need for a renewed focus on agriculture to Nwakoby, C. N. O. (2007) Impact of the NEPAD rid it of corruption and inefficiency. There is dire Programme in the Nigerian Economy: need to stump out corruption in our agricultural Journal of the Management Sciences , Vol. sector and serve our poor rural farming vii, No 2, Amazing Grace: Enugu. communities better. Osoba, S. O. (1996). Corruption in Nigeria: historical perspectives, Review of African REFERENCES Political Economy, 69:371-386 Banfield, Edward (1958). The Moral Basis of a Peterman, A., Quisumbing, A., Behman, J. and Backward Society (Chicago: Free Press) Nkonya, E. (2010). Understanding Gender Brima, (2009). The Negative Effects of Corruption Differences in Agricultural Productivity in Uganda on Developing Nations: A Perspective on and Nigeria IFPRI Discussion Sierra Leone‘s Effort to (Centre for Paper 01003 IFPRI Poverty, Health and Nutrition Accountability and Rule of Law œ CARL, Division Sierra Leone) http://carl- Robb, G. (1992). White-collar Crime in Modern sl.org/home/articles/125-the-negative- England, London: Cambridge University effects-of-corruption-on-developing- nations- Press a-perspective-on-sierra-leones-effort-to Rodney, F. (2002). Corruption and Agricultural Colclough, C. and S. McCarthy (1980). The Sector. Sectoral Perspective on Corruption. Political Economy of Botswana: A Study of MSI (USAID, DCCH/DG) Growth and Distribution, New York: Oxford Sen. A. (2000). Social Exclusion: Concept, University Press Application and Scrutiny. Social Dike, V. E. (2008). Corruption in Nigeria: a new Development papers No. 1. Office of paradigm for effective control. Africa Environment and Social Development, Economic Analysis Asian Development Bank www.AfricaEconomicAnalysis.org Sen, Amartya (1999). Development as Freedom (New York: Anchor Books), p.275

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Tlou, T. and Campbell, A. (1984). History of World Bank (1997). Helping Countries Combat Botswana, Gaborone: Macmillan Botswana Corruption - The Role of the World Bank: Publishing Company Poverty Reduction and Economic United Nations (1990). Practical Measures Against Management Corruption, New York: United Nations (www1.worldbank.org/publicsector/anticorr World Bank (1989). Nigeria - Strategy for upt/corruptn/corrptn.pdf file) agricultural growth. Washington, DC: World World Values Study Group (1994). World Values Bank. Survey Code Book, ICPSR 6160 (Ann http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/1 Arbor, Mich., August) 989/12/739210/nigeria-strategy-agricultural- growth