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______Original Article ______Perspectives ______of and______Zoroastrianism ______on abortion: a ______comparative study______between two pro______-life ancient sisters______

Kiarash Aramesh1*

1.Assistant Professor, The James F. Drane Bioethics Institute, Edinboro University of Pennsylvania, USA; Department of Biology and Health Sciences, College of Science and Health Professions, Edinboro University of Pennsylvania, USA.

Abstract

Hinduism and have strong historical bonds and *Corresponding Author

share similar value-systems. As an instance, both of these Kiarash Aramesh are pro-life. Abortion has been explicitly mentioned in 164 Cooper Hall, 230 Scotland Road, Zoroastrian Holy Scriptures including , Shayast- Edinboro, PA 16444, USA. Nashayast and Arda Viraf Nameh. According to Zoroastrian Tel: +1 (814) 732 2147 Email: [email protected] moral teachings, abortion is for two reasons: killing an innocent and intrinsically person, and the contamination Received: 4 Dec 2018 caused by the dead body (Nashu). In Hinduism, the key Accepted: 3 June 2019 concepts involving moral deliberations on abortion are Ahimsa, Published: 5 August 2019

Karma and . Accordingly, abortion deliberately citation to this article: disrupts the process of reincarnation, and killing an innocent Aramesh K. Perspectives of Hinduism human is not only in contrast with the concept of Ahimsa, and Zoroastrianism on abortion: a but also places a serious karmic burden on its agent. The most comparative study between two pro-life ancient sisters. J Med Hist. 2019; noteworthy similarity between Zoroastrianism and Hinduism is 12: 9. their pro-life approach. The concept of in Zoroastrianism is like the concept of in Hinduism, referring to a superior law of the universe and the bright path of life for the believers. In terms of differences, Zoroastrianism is a boasting a , a , and a Holy book, while Hinduism lacks all these

features. Instead of reincarnation and rebirth, Zoroastrianism, ETHICS AND HISTORYMEDICAL OFMEDICINE of Journal like , in the . Also, in contrast with the concept of , in Zoroastrianism,

Mazda can either punish or forgive sins. Keywords: Zoroastrianism; Hinduism; Abortion; Religious

bioethics; Pro-life

© 2019 Medical Ethics and History of Medicine Research Center, Volume 12 Number 9 August 2019 1 University of Medical Sciences. All rights reserved.

Perspectives of Hinduism and Zoroastrianism on abortion: a comparative …

Introduction comparative study that has assessed the perspectives of these two religious traditions In the history of human , toward abortion. religions have always been major sources of values with huge impacts on the life The aim of this paper is to sketch and decisions of their followers. Originating in compare the perspectives of Zoroastrianism the dawn of human civilization, and Hinduism on abortion in the light of the Zoroastrianism and Hinduism are two unique specifics and characteristics of these ancient traditions/religions that have adopted two religious traditions, their moral a pro-life approach with an emphasis on teachings, and their bioethical approaches. reverence for life. Although these two sister For this purpose, these perspectives must be religions are not compatible in terms of the explained by exploring the main sources of number of followers (see below), their Zoroastrian and Hindu bioethics. These approaches and perspectives are important sources may either pertain to the and influential in the life decisions of theoretical/conceptual teachings of these two countless people and families around the religious traditions, or their practical world. approaches in the real world. By paying attention to the very pro-life nature of these Abortion is one of the first topics that two religious traditions one can clearly see appeared in the texts and scriptures related that despite some major differences in the to medical ethics from the early days of this bases of their moral thoughts, both oppose field in ancient times, and still is one of the abortion except for certain cases under very most debated and divisive issues in the field distinct conditions. of bioethics. Followers of religions always try to resolve issues such as abortion according to their religion and make their Two pro-life traditions and a life own and their families’ life decisions based issue on their religious normative approaches. Zoroastrianism and Hinduism both Zoroastrianism and Hinduism are two originated among after their

MEDICAL ETHICS AND HISTORYMEDICAL OF of Journal ancient inter-related traditions/religions with migration to the and South strong historical bonds that have developed . Although the theory of the Indo- and taken shape in neighboring countries migration has also been the subject of and societies. Studying the similarities and scholarly criticism, the similarities and the differences between these two religious of many common features between

traditions with regard to an important life- the Vedic and texts indicate a related issue shows the divergent paths of strong ancient interconnection (2). While

traditions and religions that have the same these two religious traditions had been (or very similar) origins, but have developed interconnected before and at the time of the in different societies and locations (1). Great Migration, they took separate paths

MEDICINE This paper is the result of a library-based after the settlement of their followers in different geographic areas. Regardless of the

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causes of this divergence, nowadays there similarities between the two (5). are a of differences between these two - Yashtha: This part of Avesta is mostly religious traditions in addition to their poetic and includes verses of to original similarities. and Amshaspandan (see 1.Zoroastrianism below). Yashtha consists of poems and Zoroastrianism is an ancient Persian religion epics, and does not include moral or that was the official religion of the Persian jurisprudential elements or teachings (5). Empire from 600 BCE to 650 CE (3). - Visparad: Visparad means lords and Estimations on the lifetime of the prophet of leaders. This part of Avesta includes this religion, or Zarathustra cosmological and ontological teachings. (Zartosht in current Persian), vary between It also contains general moral for 8000 and 700 BCE. However, Moubed Dr. people, describing the best behavioral Jahangir Ashidari argues that according to models for men and women (6). historical facts and events, the most realistic - Vandidad: This is the jurisprudential part estimate of the year of his birth may be 1768 of Avesta. It was compiled centuries after BCE (4). the death of Zoroaster and mostly Zoroaster was born in the present-day explains how Zoroastrian thought Province in . He moved to or acted in issuing jurisprudential Khorasan and the city of where he decrees. Vandidad is partly related to declared his prophet hood, and was medical issues such as abortion (5) (see successful in establishing a new religion. below). The king of Balkh was among his followers - : In 400 CE, Moubed at that time (4). Azarbad MehrAspand compiled this part The most prominent source of Zoroastrian of Avesta to teach Zoroastrian to moral thoughts is the religion’s holy book people. At that time, Zoroastrianism was named Avesta (5). Only a small part of the the official religion of the Sassanids, who current Avesta is attributed to Zoroaster were the last dynasty before and ETHICS AND HISTORYMEDICAL OFMEDICINE of Journal himself, as a scripture he brought and left ruled over the Persian Empire for more among his people. This part is named Gatha than 200 years (5). and consists of mystical hymns and no concrete In addition to the Vandidad part of Avesta, jurisprudential or ethical debates (6:155-205). there are other holy scriptures like Arda The other parts of Avesta are as follow: Viraf Nameh and Shayast-Nashayast that are - : This is the oldest and most rich in ethical and jurisprudential teachings. important part of Avesta, and includes These have been compiled in the centuries Gatha. It has been argued that this part of after the lifetime of Zoroaster, mostly during Avesta has been compiled at the same the dominance and prevalence of time as RigVeda (see the section on Zoroastrianism in the Persian Empire, from Hinduism below) and there are linguistic

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Perspectives of Hinduism and Zoroastrianism on abortion: a comparative …

about the 5th century BCE to the 7th century noteworthy that Zoroastrianism in its CE (7). dualistic moral view is more similar to Through the seventh and eighth centuries Abrahamic religions than to Hinduism and CE, Persia gradually joined the Muslim other Asian religions (4). world and the dominance of Zoroastrianism According to the Zoroastrian dualistic view, ended. Nevertheless, the cultural influence Ahura Mazda created all the good in the of this religion has persisted until universe, and created all the evil contemporary times (8). Nowadays, the (8). Human were also the creation of followers of Zoroastrianism mostly live in Ahura Mazda, and are therefore considered Iran, (the ) and Western intrinsically good. However, they have the countries. Estimations of the present ability and autonomy to choose between population of Zoroastrians worldwide differ good, which is in concordance with their between 145,000 and 2.6 million (9). nature, and evil, which is suggested and Beyond the community of its formal encouraged by Ahriman. The former follows believers, the current and historical Asha as the divine rule of existence and are influences of Zoroastrianism on the Iranian called the Ashuns, while the latter who culture and even the Iranian version of Shiite choose evil (Doruj) are named the Dorvands Islam have been significant. It has been (followers of Doruj/evil/lie) (11). argued that the Iranian/Persian culture is a According to the aforementioned beliefs and mixture of three different heritages: The perspective, which consider every unborn Islamic/Shiite religion/culture, the ancient human being as a creature of and a future Persian/Zoroastrian culture, and the impact soldier for Ahura Mazda, Zoroastrianism is a of the Western/modern culture in recent pro-life religion. Some of the newer parts of centuries (10). Avesta explain punishments and difficult Some foundational features of steps for purgation of a person who has Zoroastrianism that are very important in committed abortion (7). understanding the spirit of this religion and Amshaspandan and Asha its bioethical perspectives are as follow:

MEDICAL ETHICS AND HISTORYMEDICAL OF of Journal Before the time of Zoroaster, the Aryans, vs. Dualism including the group that moved to India and Zoroastrianism is a monotheistic religion. are called , used to worship multiple The dualism of Ahura Mazda and Ahriman and . Zoroaster introduced a in the Zoroastrian has been single God named Ahura Mazda, and the

translated into a dualistic view in theological previous Aryan gods were then revived as and moral perspectives (4). Therefore, the various reflections or faculties of that

Zoroastrian is largely based on a single God; these were named the type of dualism that believes in the timeless Amshaspandan, and were inseparable from and everlasting combat between good Ahura Mazda. Amshaspand means “the

MEDICINE (Ahura Mazda/Sepand Minu/Ashuns) and immortal pure” and Amshaspandan is the evil (Ahriman/Angra Minu/Doruj). It is plural form of Amshaspand. This word is

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constituted of two parts: Amesha and the bodies of the dead because they Sepanta. Amesha means immortal and believe that this practice contaminates indestructible, and it also specifies the soil. Instead, they leave corpses in everlasting and beneficent entities such as places named dakhma to be eaten by wild the four elements, the sun, and Houm animals and degraded by natural forces (healing plant). Sepanta means generous, (3). Since an aborted fetus is a dead merciful, creator and pure (4). body, abortion is considered to According to Zoroastrian teachings, the contaminate the mother’s body with Amshaspandan are as follow: nashu, which is a great sin (see below for further discussion) (7). - Asha: This is a very important concept in Zoroastrianism and is rather similar to the 2.Hinduism concept of Dharma in Hinduism (4). Claimed to be the oldest living religion in Asha means the eternal law, the world, Hinduism is a huge network of , and the unchanging rules concepts, beliefs and rituals initiated more of the universe and humanity. People than two thousand years ago in ancient who follow Asha and believe in it as the India. Today, Hinduism has about 900 divine rule of existence are the Ashuns, million followers all around the world. Most while others who choose evil (Doruj) are Hindus live in India and Nepal, but they also the Dorvands (11). shape large populations in other Asian countries like Cambodia, Thailand, Burma - Vahumana: Good behavior, character, and Indonesia. In addition, in developed and intent. countries like the and the - Xashtra: God’s city, God’s power, and United Kingdom, Hindus are among sizeable God’s faculty. minorities. - Armeity: Love, devotion, and purity. Spiritual teachings of Hinduism and its sages - Heorutat: Growth, Development, and and spiritual masters have had a great . influence on Western cultures over the

MEDICAL ETHICS AND HISTORYMEDICAL OFMEDICINE of Journal - Amortat: , and recent decades. Hindu in many indestructibility (4). direct and indirect forms has changed the

culture, spirituality and in Western - Nashu: Being clean and pure is very societies. As an example, one can mention important in Zoroastrian teachings and Yoga, which originated in Hindu traditions, rituals (3). Nashu is uncleanliness or a and has become very popular in Western , mainly attributed to dead bodies countries in the past century. (3). Any person contaminated with Nashu should be cleaned through a of It is interesting to explore the origin of the sophisticated rituals including being word “Hindu”. As a huge cultural network, washed with a liquid prepared from Hinduism was born in ancient India, but the cow’s urine (3). Zoroastrians do not bury name “Hindu” was acquired in the medieval

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Perspectives of Hinduism and Zoroastrianism on abortion: a comparative …

centuries to differentiate the religion from the search for Hindu moral principles. others such as Islam (12). As a matter of Although the above-mentioned “family fact, the word “Hindu” comes from Persian resemblance” means that no single unifying literature. Persian geographers coined the essential feature can be found for Hinduism, name “Hindu” for people who lived beyond some major characteristics can be identified, the river Indus (Sindhu) (13). Addition of which are 1) common among most and the suffix “-ism” is a legacy of British branches of Hinduism, and 2) essential and colonialism in the 19th century. representative of the nature and main In ancient India, Hinduism was traditionally directions, teachings, key concepts, and called “Sanatana Dharma”, which connotes values of this tradition. A non-inclusive list the most central concept in this tradition, but of these characteristics is presented below. cannot be fully translated into English. - Unity in the Midst of Plurality However, some have chosen “eternal law” One characteristic of Hinduism is the as an equivalent. existence of numerous forms of supreme It is difficult, if not impossible, to try to find beings, as can be seen in the enormous a set of essentials for all the sects, groups number of . , Shakti, Vishnu, and denominations within the circle of Ganapati, Surya, and Subrahmanya are the Hinduism. One cannot specify a concept, deities worshiped by different sects of , or other element as the common Hinduism, but can be considered as different - or defining - feature of this religion. In manifestations of a single supreme being. fact, features like reverence for Vedas (the This interpretation of the Hindu tradition, ancient Scripture of Hinduism), believing in which makes it similar to monotheistic a system of values named Dharma, and even religions, is compatible with a famous verse belonging to the Indian nation have been of Rigveda: “ is one; sages call it by mentioned as unifying features of Hinduism, different names”; or this verse of Bhagvad but none is common among all Hindus. Gita: “Even those who are devoted to other Therefore, Hinduism can be understood as a gods and worship them in full , even network of inter-related ideas without a they, O Kaunteya, worship none but Me” .

MEDICAL ETHICS AND HISTORYMEDICAL OF of Journal single unifying feature. In fact, instead of This plurality is not confined to the deities. one or a few essential common and all- For instance, Hinduism does not have a

embracing features, one can speak about a single founder, but seems to have been wide network with a series of overlapping created and formed by accumulation of similarities reminiscent of “family teachings and revelations of numerous sages, resemblance” as explicated by Ludwig gurus and spiritual masters in ancient India Wittgenstein for defining other phenomena (15). such as art (14). This characteristic provides Hinduism with Some scholars argue, however, that the an inimitable flexibility and respect for

MEDICINE concept of family resemblance cannot solve plurality and diversity, which (alongside the problem of lack of common features in other qualities like the central concept of

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non-violence, Ahimsa) were very important while a bad action certainly bring about in the history of this religion and that of bad consequences, which, again, can take India. For example, one can mention the place in the current or subsequent lives of historical acceptance of Jewish and the human agent. This continuous cycle of Zoroastrian immigrants whose lands had action, reaction, birth, death and rebirth is been invaded by Romans and Muslim called Samsara. This cycle is not endless. respectively. Another case in point is the One can break the cycle of Samsara by good specifics of the democracy founded by deeds that lead to salvation and getting out Mahatma Gandhi in this huge subcontinent of the cycle. This salvation, called Muksha with such a unique variety in cultures, (or Nirvana in and ), is the religions, and ways of life. ultimate goal of life. Therefore, the final - The Concept of Dharma purpose of Hindu ethics is salvation that is manifested in breaking the cycle of Samsara Dharma holds the human community and and entering the eternal salvation, sometimes the entire world together. As explained named Muksha (15). above, this concept is very similar to the concept of Asha in Zoroastrianism. In There are serious controversies among Hinduism, Dharma illuminates humans’ scholars on the existence of a Hindu responsibilities and way of life. As Bioethics. Like other ancient , mentioned above, in the ancient Indian the had its own subcontinent, the followers of Hinduism medicine and healing tradition called called their religion/tradition Sanatana Ayurveda (the science of life), which was a Dharma in which the word Sanatana means sort of humoral medicine (16). The existence eternal (15). Also, in Zoroastrianism, the of this medicine and its rich literature, mixed people who are true followers of Zoroaster with Hindu teachings and thoughts about are called Ashun. Therefore, it seems that humanity and morality, led some scholars to attributing followers to the eternal law is a try to derive from it a kind of Hindu common concept in both Zoroastrianism and biomedical ethics. For example, the ancient

Hinduism. Hindu stories about gods with human bodies ETHICS AND HISTORYMEDICAL OFMEDICINE of Journal and animal heads were used to conclude the - Concepts of Karma, Samsara, and permissibility of Xenotransplantation in Reincarnation Hindu bioethics (13). Karma is one of the most important concepts Some scholars, however, do not agree with in Hindu ethics and morality. This concept this method of constructing Hindu bioethics denotes that a law of cause and effect rules (17). They argue that the mere existence of the world of human deeds, both mentally these traditional schools of medicine in the and physically. Each action produces its own mostly Hindu ancient Indian subcontinent reaction in the world. Accordingly, a good does not imply that their literature mirrors action has a good reaction for the human Hindu bioethics (13). agent in his/her current life or next lives,

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Perspectives of Hinduism and Zoroastrianism on abortion: a comparative …

The key point in this regard is that there is show a very historically obvious fact: that no consensus among Hindus on all of the the impossibility of attributing a set of concepts and principles attributed to this common and all-encompassing principles religion. This vast diversity, as mentioned and values to Hindu morality and applied above, is one of the most important ethics does not mean it is impossible to characteristics of Hinduism. This speak about Hindu bioethics. Three main characteristic reflects itself in Hindu ethics, categories of sources can be used to applied ethics, and bioethics (13). delineate the content of Hindu bioethics, The main question is, how can all these sects including its values, principles, teachings, and branches of Hinduism agree upon a set and judgments. These categories are as of principles for applied ethics, since they follow: cover such a diverse variety of beliefs but 1- Every system or set of values, moral have no common feature (such as a prophet principles and ethical deliberations that finds or a holy book, as is the case with its roots in the Hindu religion/tradition can , Islam, or Buddhism)? be considered and named Hindu ethics, Therefore, the existence of a Hindu bioethics regardless of how many Hindu sects and with a distinct set of principles has been a groups it is shared among. When it comes to subject of controversy and debate. Two value-judgments about medicine, healthcare kinds of efforts, however, have been made to and life sciences, these principles definitely solve this problem: shape Hindu bioethics. By the same token, 1. Some scholars have pointed out common we can reach a set of principles, concepts concepts, like Karma, as the core and and values that are not all-encompassing and unifying concept of Hinduism and Hindu unifying, but still characterize this very ethics. By doing so, however, they have brand of religious bioethics. broadened the scope of Hinduism in a way 2- Ayurveda and other branches of Indian that even Buddhism and Jainism can be traditional medicine have been used as a rich considered some sort of Hinduism. It is source of Hindu reflections on Human life, obvious that this is too wide-ranging to serve death, suffering and so on. Ayurvedic

MEDICAL ETHICS AND HISTORYMEDICAL OF of Journal the purpose (17). classical texts like Caraka Samhita and 2. Some other scholars have tried to choose Sustuta Samhita are among the sources of

just one or group within the wide Hindu reflections about human body and self spectrum of Hinduism, and described Hindu that have major implications for bioethics ethics based only on the values and beliefs (16). of that sect or group. They have been 3- Deliberations and reflections of Hindu successful in finding a set of principles, but scholars on different sorts of bioethical the results cannot be called “Hindu issues provide another main source for Bioethics” as they are too narrow in range delineation Hindu bioethics. Hindu scholars, MEDICINE (13). sages and spiritual masters have discussed The aforementioned endeavors, however, issues like abortion, futile treatment, organ

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transplantation, contraception and mercy and death is not the opposite of life, but is killing. What they have written, taught or the opposite of birth. This characteristic told are a rich source for studying Hindu makes Hinduism different from Abrahamic bioethics. Also, one can induct methods of religions in which the will of God Hindu bioethics by observing the ways in determines the consequences of good or bad which Hindus have approached the above deeds, rather than a natural rule like Karma issues and reached judgments and (14). In Hinduism, the ultimate purpose of conclusions about them. human beings is liberation from the circle of In their bioethical deliberations, Hindu birth, death and rebirth, instead of entering scholars appeal to Hindu concepts like as is the case in Abrahamic religions Karma, Dharma (as described above), (15). Ahimsa (non-violence) and respect for life Obviously, none of the aforementioned and nature. They also appeal to classic texts features is unique to and common among all and scriptures of the religion/tradition from the sects of Hinduism. Altogether, however, the oldest existing ones, namely Vedas, to these features are the different surfaces of an other essential ones like Upanishadha or underlying spirit: the spirit of Hinduism, Bhagvad Gita. One example of such which is the spirit of the Indian references to classical scripture is described subcontinent. This spirit has been the source above on the issue of Xenotransplantation of inspiration for successive generations of (17). sages, gurus and spiritual masters. Hindu Bioethics should be seen as a lived The reverence for life and a strong tradition . From ancient “Vedic healers” to of non-violence (Ahimsa) has shaped the modern healthcare professionals, numerous perspectives of Hindu bioethicists towards generations of physicians and clinical key bioethical issues like abortion, practitioners in the Indian subcontinent have euthanasia and brain death (15). sought the values and principles governing ethics also exists in some Hindu their practice in one of the oldest and richest ethical teachings. This approach to ethics

MEDICAL ETHICS AND HISTORYMEDICAL OFMEDICINE of Journal religions and traditions in the world, that is, focuses mainly on the moral agent instead of Hinduism. The spirit of the subcontinent the act itself or its consequences. shaped and determined the nature of this Accordingly, going through a process of value system throughout its long history. self-purification results in achieving a moral This Indian spirit is what gives the Hindu character that always chooses to perform the bioethics a sort of unity in the midst of such ethically right deeds (18). vast and wide diversity. At the end, the practical results of this type Hinduism has its own perspective on of are somehow different from fundamental aspects of human life. those of its counterparts in the West or the According to this perspective, the moral Middle East. This is rooted in the energy is preserved in the form of Karma, spirit of Hinduism and the Indian

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Perspectives of Hinduism and Zoroastrianism on abortion: a comparative …

subcontinent, and has a great impact on the The importance of the issue of moral character of the virtuous person. abortion In sum, one can conclude that despite the Abortion is the intentional termination of the diversity, which is one of the main life of an unborn human embryo or fetus. characteristics of Hinduism, it is possible to This act is forbidden and considered as delineate some major concepts that shape the inherently evil in all major religious infrastructures of morality in this traditions of the world. In the modern era, religion/tradition. In the same way, one can however, the situation has changed. Many sketch the principal values and directions of factors contributed to bringing abortion to Hindu bioethics. In addition, the present the top tier of the most heated ethical study has pointed out three main sources for debates among the general public and bioethical endeavors within the Hindu scholars, and making some moral and tradition/religion: religious thinkers and authorities rethink and - Value-judgments and moral reconsider the absolute evilness of abortion, deliberations rooted in and performed at least its indirect forms. The issue of within the Hindu tradition population growth in a number of societies has caused some policy-makers to see - Textbooks and the heritage of ancient abortion as a means for population control Hindu medicine, including Ayurveda and prevention of unwanted and unplanned - Reflections and deliberations made by births. Hindu scholars on bioethical issues The largest Hindu population in the world that have accumulated throughout a lives in the Indian subcontinent, the long history, including the modern era birthplace of Hinduism (12). In addition, Hindu bioethics can be sought and learned Hinduism reflects the very spirit of the as the lived of Hindus subcontinent. Therefore, when speaking on traditional and modern issues that are of about abortion in Hinduism, it is important biomedical nature. These experiences, which to take a look at the of its have been accumulated collectively geographical setting. According to the MEDICAL ETHICS AND HISTORYMEDICAL OF of Journal throughout the Indian subcontinent and have Indian law, abortion is permitted until the produced a huge body of literature, are the twentieth week of pregnancy, only for very nature and unifying umbrella that cover medical and a very limited number of social a long history of ethical and moral reasons.

endeavors of a vast array of sects, branches One of the social reasons for a massive and groups within the old religion/tradition number of abortions in India is the gender of

of Hinduism. the fetus. When prenatal sex determination by ultrasound became available, many families killed their unborn daughters to get

MEDICINE rid of the social and economic burdens of having a daughter and sometimes hoping to

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have baby boys in the next possible killing an innocent and intrinsically good pregnancies. person, and the contamination caused by the The selective abortion of female fetuses has dead body (Nashu) (7). increased in India over the past few decades. On the other hand, as described above, the The 2011 census showed 7.1 million fewer main sources of Hindu bioethics, which are girls than boys aged younger than seven, its concepts and traditions, shape its which showed an increase compared to the 6 approaches to ethical issues at the margins million in 2001 and 4.2 million in 1991. The of life, including abortion. When it comes to sex ratio in this age group is now 915 girls to the abortion debate, the principal concepts 1,000 boys, the lowest since such records involving moral deliberations are Ahimsa, began to appear in India in 1961. Parents Karma, and reincarnation. Accordingly, have little problem with their first child abortion deliberately disrupts the process of being a girl, but want their second to be a reincarnation and kills an innocent human boy. In these families, the gender ratio for being; therefore, it is in contrast with the second births has fallen from 906 girls per concept of Ahimsa and imposes serious 1,000 boys in 1990 to 836 in 2005, implying karmic burdens on its agent. In addition, in that an estimated 3.1 to 6 million female major resources of Hinduism, abortion has fetuses have been aborted in the past decade. been strongly condemned, which confirms It has even been claimed that approximately the pro-life approach of this eight million female fetuses may have been religion/tradition towards abortion. aborted in the past decade, which has been According to Hindu bioethics, abortion is called a “national shame”. allowed only in cases where it is necessary for saving the life of the mother. The perspective of Hinduism is a very pro-life Similarities one, emphasizing Ahimsa and its intrinsic Abortion has been explicitly mentioned in reverence for life. the Zoroastrian Holy Scriptures including It should be mentioned that in addition to the

Avesta, Shayast-Nashayast and Arda Viraf similarities explained below, there are others ETHICS AND HISTORYMEDICAL OFMEDICINE of Journal Nameh. In addition to regarding abortion as in minor aspects such as rituals. For evil and forbidding it, these books prescribe

example, considering the cow as a sacred some brutal punishments for women who animal and using its urine for cleaning the commit abortion in the afterlife (7). body after abortion is common practice in In addition to condemning abortion in the both traditions/religions. Holy Scriptures, Zoroastrianism provides Dharma vs. Asha moral reasoning, according to its own The concept of Asha in Zoroastrianism is system of beliefs, for regarding abortion as similar to the concept of Dharma in evil. According to the Zoroastrian moral Hinduism. Both Asha and Dharma refer to a teachings, abortion is evil for two reasons: superior law of the universe and the bright

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Perspectives of Hinduism and Zoroastrianism on abortion: a comparative …

path of life, which should be adopted by the delineating Hindu bioethics. believers. In their bioethical deliberations, Hindu In the Indian subcontinent, before their scholars appeal to Hindu concepts like historical encounter with other religions and Karma, Dharma (as described above), traditions, the followers of Hinduism called Ahimsa (non-violence) and respect for life their religion/tradition Sanatana Dharma. and nature. They also appeal to the classic The word Sanatana means eternal (15). texts and scriptures of the religion/tradition Also, in Zoroastrianism, the true followers from the oldest existing ones, namely Vedas, of Zoroaster are called Ashun. Therefore, it to other essential ones such as Upanishadha seems that attributing followers to the or Bhagvad Gita. (19) eternal law is a common concept between Abortion is mentioned in early Vedic Zoroastrianism and Hinduism. scriptures. For example, in Brahmanas, the The approaches of these two religions to second major body of Vedic literature, moral issues like abortion are consistent with abortion is considered a crime (19: 22-23), this ontological view of the universe. The and the same approach is adopted by entire universe is created and ruled in Upanishads (19). Other classical scriptures accordance with Dharma/Asha, and all the of Hinduism have also expressed their people should follow these eternal rules. opposition to abortion in several ways, for Morality ultimately means consistency and instance by comparing abortion with killing accordance with these higher entities. In a , considering abortion a sin worse both religions, abortion is a violation of the than killing one’s parents, and threatening higher and sacred law of the Universe and the mother to lose her . existence. Therefore, abortion, like murder, In the modern world, Hindu sages and robbery and other kinds of immoral scholars have continued to condemn behaviors, is wrong and unacceptable. abortion. As Mahatma Gandhi once wrote, Reverence for life "It seems to me clear as daylight that The most noteworthy similarity between abortion is a crime.” It can be argued that the Zoroastrianism and Hinduism is their pro- traditional concepts of reverence for life and

MEDICAL ETHICS AND HISTORYMEDICAL OF of Journal life approaches. In both religions/traditions, non-violence (Ahimsa) have been most abortion is considered murder and is influential on the perspectives of Hindu forbidden. bioethicists towards key bioethical issues such as abortion, euthanasia and brain death

Ayurveda and other branches of Indian (15). As explained above in this paper, traditional medicine have been used as a rich Ahimsa is a core concept in the approach of

source of Hindu reflections on Human life, Hinduism to the issue of abortion. As death, suffering and so on (15). mentioned above, Ahimsa is based on the Deliberations and reflections of Hindu sacredness of all creatures as manifestations

MEDICINE scholars on different sorts of bioethical of the Supreme Being. issues provide another main source for The reverence and love granted to all

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manifestations of life results from the very Zoroastrianism and Hinduism ban abortion concept of Ahimsa, which has made the except for cases in which mothers’ lives are Hindu religion/tradition a strongly prolife endangered, the bioethical bases of this ban one. This pro-life attitude has found its way in these two religions are different from each from Hinduism to other Asian religious other. In Zoroastrianism, the ban is based on traditions (18, 20). abortion being the same as killing an In Zoroastrianism, abortion is regarded as innocent person, and the contamination killing an innocent and intrinsically good caused by the dead body. But in Hinduism, it person. Concepts like Ahimsa do not exist in is based on the law of Karma and depriving Zoroastrianism, but reverence for human life a person from one cycle of his or her rebirth. does. As explained above, morality in However, regardless of the theoretical bases Zoroastrianism is based on a polarized and theological justifications, both religions account of the Universe as the everlasting give priority to the lives of the mothers over battleground of , that is, Ahura the lives of their unborn children. Mazda and Ahriman (4). Since the human The recognized exceptions raise a question being is intrinsically good and has been about the moral status and personhood of the created by Ahura Mazda, killing an unborn embryo. Although not mentioned directly in embryo or fetus is a violation against the the original manuscripts, it seems that both forces of Ahura Mazda and a contribution to these religions regard a moral status for the the forces of Ahriman. Therefore, abortion is human embryo from the very first stages of considered a major sin. Accordingly, it is not life. This attitude is similar to the surprising that he Holy Scripture of perspective of the that Zoroastrianism equates abortion with murder believes in recognition of personhood from and rules punishments for persons who the time of conception. However, a minority commit it. Also, in other parts of Avesta, of Hindus believe that incarnation takes there are revelations describing brutal place in the 7th month of pregnancy (21). punishments for such people in the afterlife Also, it has been shown that the majority of

(7). Zoroastrians are not against sperm and egg ETHICS AND HISTORYMEDICAL OFMEDICINE of Journal Exceptions for the ban donation that necessitates in Vitro Fertilization (22). This position makes When it comes to abortion, in addition to Zoroastrianism different from classical adopting a pro-life approach, both religions Catholicism or other recent pro-life recognize some exceptions for their ban on movements (23). abortion. In both traditions/religions abortion is permitted when the life of the mother is in danger. Therefore, both give Differences priority to the mother’s life over the life of A comparative study will not be complete her unborn child. without describing the differences between As a matter of fact, although both the subjects of comparison. Although

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Perspectives of Hinduism and Zoroastrianism on abortion: a comparative …

Zoroastrianism and Hinduism are ancient similar and interrelated traditions/religions. sister religions that originated among the However, considering the familiar same group of people (Aryans) after the resemblance that ties the members of this Great Migration, their followers settled in group to each other, one can consider two different neighbor countries: Persia and Hinduism a unique, vast tradition reflecting India. Living in separate contexts and the spirit of the Indian subcontinent. conditions naturally has had its Afterlife vs. reincarnation consequences. As mentioned above, One of the most important differences Zoroastrianism is more similar to Abrahamic pertains to the concepts of rebirth and religions than to Dharmic ones in many reincarnation. Unlike Hinduism, ways. The main differences between these Zoroastrianism does not believe in two religious traditions in terms of their reincarnation and rebirth, but believes in the perspectives on abortion are described afterlife, like Abrahamic religions. below. Therefore, in Zoroastrianism, abortion is not Unity vs. diversity considered as depriving a person of a cycle One of the main differences between of human life, but as denying him or her the Zoroastrianism and Hinduism is in the very only chance of birth and enjoying life on fact that Zoroastrianism is a religion with a earth. God, a prophet, a Holy book, and in long Karma vs. omnipotent God periods of its history, a single hierarchical order of . Hinduism, however, lacks In Hinduism, killing a living creature, all these features. There is no single god, including a fetus, is regarded as interfering prophet, holy book or system of clergies in its spiritual evolution. Such interference shared among all the groups, sects and places Karmic burdens on its agent. communities who call themselves Hindu. Therefore, according to the of Therefore, in order to find the normative Karma, the agent(s) of such a crime will positions of Zoroastrianism, for example definitely encounter it’s just their perspective on abortion, one can rely punishment/retaliation in their current or

MEDICAL ETHICS AND HISTORYMEDICAL OF of Journal on a single defined set of resources. In next lives. Hinduism, however, each expressed As an example of how the concept of Karma viewpoint only belongs to a number of works with regard to abortion, it has been believers and does not reflect the viewpoint said that abortion is a kind of punishment for

of all religions/traditions. Considering this meat-eaters. The fetus was a meat eater in difference between these two religions is his or her previous life, while the mother

important for reading and understanding all was a cow in her previous life, now taking the scholarly works that have been published revenge according to the rules of nature. in this regard. According to this belief, meat-eaters and

MEDICINE In other words, Zoroastrianism is a typical other people who kill live entities cannot religion, while Hinduism is a mixture of escape the retribution set by the laws of

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Karma; thus, in their next lives, they will the punishment or forgiveness of bad deeds have to undergo the misfortune, and may be do not occur as a result of a natural law, but recurrently aborted. is attributed to Ahura Mazda, who can either It is obvious that the karmic maleficence of punish or forgive the sinner (4). As a matter abortion is in close relation to reincarnation. of fact, belief in an omnipotent God is not This very belief that a human embryo is consistent with the concept of Karma, essentially a human person underlines the because accepting the inviolability of this karmic effect attributed to abortion in concept as a natural law ties the hands of Hinduism (19). The concept of Caraka God. (Caraka’s theory of ) shows how In Zoroastrianism, like Abrahamic religions, the karmic burden/heritage of past lives is the omnipotent God defines what is good transferred to the unborn fetus (19). and what is evil, and punishes or forgives Therefore, killing the unborn child disrupts anyone He wants. Therefore, He is the one this process of transferring the Karma and who can establish the immorality of abortion imposes karmic burdens on its agent who, by and offer punishment or forgiveness. his/her act of abortion, has deprived the unborn baby of one of his or her chances to pursue salvation in a human life. Conclusion Cleanliness, on the other hand, is a very Zoroastrianism and Hinduism are similar to major concept and an emphasized duty for each other in adopting strong pro-life believers in Zoroastrianism. One of the most approaches to issues like abortion. Although offensive contaminants that can affect the with different theoretical bases, both these cleanliness of the human body is a corpse. religious traditions ban abortion and allow it Accordingly, there are specific rituals only if the life of the mother is threatened by in Zoroastrianism to prevent contamination continuation of the pregnancy. Also, they are of the soil, fire and living bodies by a fundamentally different in the conceptual corpse. According to Zoroastrian teachings, and theological bases of their moral abortion exposes the body of the mother to approaches. ETHICS AND HISTORYMEDICAL OFMEDICINE of Journal contamination caused by the dead body of Zoroastrianism provides moral reasoning for

the aborted fetus. Therefore, in addition to regarding abortion as evil according to its abortion being forbidden, there is a multi- own system of beliefs. On the other hand, in step ritual for purgation of the body of the Hindu bioethics, the principal concepts mother, including washing her womb with a involving moral deliberations on abortion liquid made from cow urine (7). are Ahimsa, Karma, and reincarnation. The concept of Karma, as it exists in Accordingly, abortion as deliberately Hinduism, has no place in Zoroastrianism. disrupting the process of reincarnation and Based on Zoroastrian teachings, Ahura killing an innocent human being is in Mazda can punish or forgive sins. Therefore, contrast with the concept of Ahimsa and

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Perspectives of Hinduism and Zoroastrianism on abortion: a comparative …

brings serious karmic consequences for its clergies. Hinduism, however, lacks all these agent. Hindu bioethics condemns abortion features. and allows it only in cases where abortion is Another important difference between necessary for saving the life of the mother. Zoroastrianism and Hinduism is related to The concept of Asha in Zoroastrianism is the concepts of rebirth and reincarnation. similar to the concept of Dharma in Like Abrahamic religions, Zoroastrianism Hinduism. Both these concepts refer to a believes in the afterlife. Therefore, in superior law of the universe and the bright Zoroastrianism, abortion is not considered as path of life. The most noteworthy similarity depriving a person of a cycle of human life, between Zoroastrianism and Hinduism, but it is considered as depriving a person of however, is their pro-life approach. his or her only chance to be born and enjoy The perspectives of Hindu bioethicists on life on earth. key bioethical issues such as abortion has In Hinduism, killing a living creature, been shaped by a strong tradition of non- including a fetus, is regarded as interfering violence (Ahimsa) and an immense in its spiritual evolution, and places Karmic reverence for life. Ahimsa is a core concept burdens on its agent. Therefore, according in the approach of Hinduism to the issue of to the natural law of Karma, the agent(s) of abortion and is based on the sacredness of all such a crime will definitely encounter just creatures as manifestations of the Supreme punishment/retaliation in their current or Being. In Zoroastrianism, abortion is next lives. regarded as killing an innocent and The concept of Karma, as advocated by intrinsically good person. Since the human Hinduism, has no place in Zoroastrianism. In being is essentially good and has been Zoroastrianism, punishment and forgiveness created by Ahura Mazda, killing an unborn of bad deeds are not the result of a natural child is a violation against the forces of law, but are administered by Ahura Mazda, Ahura Mazda and a facilitator to the forces who can either punish or forgive the sinner. of Ahriman, hence a major sin. Therefore, In sum, one can conclude that both these religions have adopted a pro-life

MEDICAL ETHICS AND HISTORYMEDICAL OF of Journal Zoroastrianism is similar to Abrahamic approach toward the abortion debate. religions in its approach to abortion, and this In both traditions/religions abortion is is what makes it different from its Dharmic permitted when the life of the mother is in sister, Hinduism. Although both these danger. Therefore, both give priority to the ancient sister religions have adopted pro-life

mother’s life over the life of her unborn approaches, they are very different in many child. aspects and features. Analyzing the

One of the main differences between historical course and reasons for the Zoroastrianism and Hinduism is in the fact emergence of these differences can be a that Zoroastrianism is a religion with a God, subject for further studies in the future.

MEDICINE a prophet, a Holy book, and in long periods of its history a single hierarchical order of

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Acknowledgements Conflict of Interests The author of this article would like to None to declare. No funding has been extend his appreciation to Dr. Joris Gielen received for this study. for his invaluable guiding comments. Also, This manuscript has not been submitted to special thanks go to the reviewers of the and is not under review for publication Journal of Medical Ethics and History of elsewhere. Medicine for their helpful insights.

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