Dear Teachers,

Welcome to the Tropical Rainforest Classroom Program! The Student Classroom programs are designed to connect teachers and students to science by providing interdisciplinary curriculum resources and fieldtrip programs.

In this packet you will find:

• Pre and post-visit activities to use in your classroom. • Content and logistical information on the student fieldtrip program. • An at-Academy activity for exploring The Rainforests exhibit during the field trip. • Other resources & references to use in your classroom.

The Tropical Rainforest Classroom Program is designed to help bridge classroom curriculum to the museum fieldtrip experience by connecting to the 3rd - 4th grade life sciences and investigation and experimentation standards. Research has shown that when students have some prior learning of a topic before a field trip, they will better be able to incorporate new ideas into their prior knowledge. Therefore, the enclosed materials are intended to prepare you and your students for the field trip experience.

Thank you for choosing to participate in the program. If there is anything that I can do to help you plan your trip or improve the programs that we offer, please don’t hesitate to contact me!

Happy Exploring,

Lindzy Bivings

Manager Enhanced Museum Visits for Students [email protected] (415) 379-5188

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Teacher Resource Guide Tropical Rainforest Field Trip Program

Grades 3-5

Made possible through the generous funding of Arthur and Toni Rembe Rock www.calacademy.org/teachers/rockprogram

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Teacher Resource Guide Tropical Rainforest Program

Contents

Recommended Activity Flow 7 Field Trip Information 9 • Student Program Summary: Tropical Rainforests • Field Trip CA Content Standards • Field Trip Logistics • Exhibit Connections • Classroom Program Background Information Rainforest Locations 16 Flowers Seeking Pollinators 34 Rainforest Necklace Scavenger Hunt 46 “The Future of the Amazon” Conference 52 Correlated California Content Standards 58 Glossary 60 Resources and References 62

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Recommended Activity Flow

For optimal student learning, we recommend using the activities provided in this Teacher Resource Guide in the following order:

Pre-visit activity: Discovering Rainforest Locations In this activity, students will combine information from various world maps in order to create their own maps of tropical rainforest locations, learning the four chief characteristics of tropical rainforests: high temperatures, heavy rainfall, high biodiversity, and nutrient-poor soil.

Pre-visit activity: Flowers Seeking Pollinators In this lesson, students will learn that many plants depend on animals for pollination and many pollinators depend on plants for food. They will also learn that flowers, which have male and female parts, are structures for reproduction that are often adapted to attract specific pollinators.

At-Academy activity: Rainforest Necklace Scavenger Hunt Use this to guide student learning in the California Academy of Sciences’ Rainforests of the World exhibit. This activity will focus students on the connections between the exhibit and the Tropical Rainforests Classroom Program. Students will learn that plants and animals depend on one another for survival and reproduction through processes such as pollination and seed dispersal. Students will also learn that a rainforest has distinct layers, with life specially adapted to each layer.

At-Academy activity: Tropical Rainforests Classroom Program During their field trip, students will participate in a 70-minute classroom program taught by California Academy of Sciences educators. This program highlights issues of sustainable rainforest use, biodiversity, and plant-animal interdependence.

Post-visit activity: “The Future of the Amazon” Conference Now that students have begun to think about sustainable rainforest use, they will consider how complex the issue really is during this activity. Students will work in small groups to represent the perspectives of key interest groups involved in the deforestation of the Amazon Rainforest. Each group will “make its case” at an annual conference held by the Brazilian government.

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Tropical Rainforest Classroom Program GRADE LEVEL 3rd- 5th; California Content Standards for 3rd and 4th grade SUBJECTS Life Sciences DURATION Activity: 70-80 minutes SETTING Classroom at California Academy of Sciences

Students begin their journey into the Costa Rican rainforest by imagining the sensory experience they would have there. Students visualize the setting to a backdrop of recorded rainforest sounds. Students are led through a series of slides and asked to imagine life as residents of the rainforest. They compare their daily lives to the world they’re exploring on-screen. Students are then shown an image of deforestation and informed that their forest, like many others in the world, has been clear-cut. What would it take to regenerate this piece of once forested land? In table groups, students are asked to predict what rainforest regeneration will look like. Deforestation is the beginning of their story and a return to the lush, diverse rainforest is the hopeful end. Each table group is given a piece of poster paper, pencils, and rainforest cards. The cards represent layers of the rainforest (forest floor, understory, canopy) and key players in the plant life cycle. Depending on their prior knowledge of plant reproduction, students may be led through a brief pictorial introduction to the ways in which plant-animal interdependence (namely pollination and seed dispersal) leads to plant reproduction. Students then work together to piece together their predictions on the large “story boards”.

Next, with the help of some theatrical antics, the students “check their predictions” through a lively rainforest regeneration skit. This prop-based activity encourages laughter and cements student learning. Secondarily, it provides excellent photo opportunities for teachers and chaperones! Within minutes, the entire class builds a rainforest representation complete with a forest floor, understory, and canopy. Each layer of the rainforest has all the elements necessary for the life cycle of a seed- bearing plant. Every student participates as either an actor or member of the sound effects crew. The skit culminates in an explanation of biodiversity as a sign of health in rainforest ecosystems.

To further understanding of rainforest regeneration, students view a graphic timeline of the stages of rainforest growth. The conclusion that it can take over 4,000 years to fully re-grow a rainforest comes as a surprise to most students! This naturally raises the question: why are people cutting down so much of the world’s rainforest? Through a facilitated discussion, the class considers the causes of deforestation with the greatest emphasis placed on issues of cattle and crop farming.

As a class, students then brainstorm ways to conserve existing forests and use rainforest resources sustainably. Through this discussion, a list of ideas is generated. Students are encouraged to think critically and either build upon or disagree with others’ ideas. The discussion is meant to be rich enough to show the true nature and complexity of rainforest conservation. Instructors bring up the interests of local farmers, commercial industries, and North American consumers.

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Tropical Rainforest Field Trip Information

Field Trip Content Standards, Logistics & Exhibit Connections

When you arrive at the California Academy of Sciences a guest services staff member will greet your class at the bus or when you walk up. They will check you in and lead your class into the museum.

Where is my program? Once inside the museum, you will need to go to the Classroom on Level 3, near the Naturalist Center to meet the educators of your program at the appointed time.

Which CA Content Standards will my program cover? Grade 3: Life Sciences 3a,d; Grade 4: Life Sciences 3a, c; Investigation and Experimentation 6c. (See pgs. 59-60 for details)

Where else should I go in the Museum? If you have extra time before or after your visit, we highly recommend you spend some time in the exhibits. It is unrealistic to see every exhibit during the field trip and so we recommend choosing a few to go to. The exhibits that connect to the field trip program are listed below. You may come preview the exhibits for free before your field trip. Just show your field trip confirmation at the door.

Rainforests of the World: Step inside a living 4-story rainforest, where dripping water sets the beat for a symphony of croaking frogs and chirping birds. Peer into one of Borneo’s bat caves, meet chameleons from Madagascar, and climb into the tree-tops of Costa Rica to find free-flying birds and butterflies. Finally, descend in a glass elevator into the Amazonian flooded forest, where an acrylic tunnel allows you to walk beneath the catfish and arapaima that swim overhead.

Altered State: Climate Change in California: The Altered State exhibit explores the dangerous effects of climate change on California’s natural habitats and on the planet at large. Measure the impact of everyday decisions on a carbon scale and share ideas for treading more lightly on the planet. This exhibit is supported by Pacific Gas and Electric Company (Lead Sponsor).

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Classroom Program Background Information

Characteristics of Tropical Rainforests Rainforests are characterized by the coexistence of 4 qualities: heavy rainfall, year-round high temperatures, nutrient-poor soil quality, and great biodiversity.

1.) Rainfall: Rainforests lie in the intertropical convergence zone, where intense solar energy produces a convection zone of rising air that loses its moisture through frequent rainstorms. Because of this, rainforests, as denoted by their name, receive heavy rainfall. Most areas receive at least 80 inches of rain per year, and some areas receive over 430. In comparison, San Francisco receives only about 22 inches of rain per year. Some rainforests have “wet” and “dry” seasons; but, even in seasonal forests, the time between rains usually does not allow the leaf litter to dry entirely. Due to the rainfall, constant cloud cover, and transpiration (water loss through leaves), tropical rainforests around the world have high humidity (between 77% and 88%). Deforestation and climate change may be affecting the water cycle in tropical rainforests. Since the 1990’s, several rainforests have experienced severe droughts.

2.) Temperature: Tropical rainforests, found in the equatorial region between the Tropic of Cancer (23°27’N) and the Tropic of Capricorn (23°27’S), have high temperatures throughout the whole year. A typical daytime temperature any time of year in tropical rainforests is 29°C (85°F), although temperatures can be much higher. Because the tropics are in the center of the globe and do not tilt dramatically toward or away from the sun during any season, like temperate regions of the earth do, they receive direct and consistent radiation (~90-degree angle). This steady flow of radiation from the sun produces high temperatures throughout the year. It also provides ample solar energy to power the forest via photosynthesis. In the majority of tropical rainforests, there is at most a 5°C difference in temperature between the seasons.

3.) Soil Composition: It seems logical to assume that an ecosystem with such lush vegetation and high productivity would have very fertile soil; however, rainforests are characterized by nutrient-poor soil. The heavy rains that occur in rainforests wash away organic material from the soil. Fallen leaves and other detritus do not remain on the forest floor long enough to decay and release all of their nutrients. The high diversity of decomposers, such as bacteria, fungi, and insects, coupled with the high humidity and temperatures of tropical rainforests accelerate the decomposition process. Nutrients are found mainly in living plant biomass and in the layer of decomposing litter; there is little nutrient content in the deeper soil, as there is in temperate-zone ecosystems. This suggests that plants are intercepting and taking up nutrients the moment they are released by decomposition. Root biomass is highest where soil quality is poorest, and vice-versa. There is also a "causal" explanation for this correlation; when soil nutrients are high, the tree does not need to spend as much energy in building roots to forage in the soil for new nutrient sources.

4.) Biodiversity: Biodiversity is a measure of the total variety of organisms in nature. Tropical rainforests are areas of extremely high biodiversity and interdependence. In Borneo, scientists have discovered more than 15,000 plant species – 2,500 species of orchids alone. Biologists estimate that tropical rainforests contain about 50% of the world’s terrestrial plant and animal species while encompassing approximately 6% of the world’s land area. Reasons for this biodiversity are uncertain. Some point to high specialization due to the vertical structural complexity in rainforests. This means, difference in habitats between the forest floor, understory, and canopy layers of the rainforest allow greater opportunities for niche roles to be played because all species are not directly competing for the

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same needs and resources. Others point to environmental stability as a possible cause. Since the temperature stays within a narrow window, population sizes can grow (need to adapt less to survive), competition between species can grow, and specialization can grow. The tropical location of rainforests also means that there are fewer natural disturbances (i.e. glaciation is not a threat). Major disturbances interrupt the natural increase in species diversity over time (due to evolution).

The plant life cycle For most plants to reproduce, they go through pollination, create fruits, and disperse seeds. For the students, we describe 4 steps: flower, pollination, fruit, and seed dispersal. In some cases, plants do not need animals for pollination or seed dispersal. In other cases, plants rely on animals for both processes and must attract each animal in a different way.

1.) Pollination: Pollination is the transfer of pollen, from the stamens to the stigma of flowers. Pollen can be carried by insects, other animals, wind, or water. Self pollination refers to the process in which pollen lands on the stigma of its own flower or another flower on the same plant. Cross pollination refers to the process where pollen is transferred to the stigma of a flower on another plant of the same species.

Since ovules within the same plant can have slight genetic differences from one another, self pollination can result in some variation in the offspring. Cross pollination, in which genetic material comes from two parents, results in greater variation and is therefore considered advantageous.

2.) Fertilization: Once the pollen grain reaches the stigma, it receives a chemical signal from the stigma. The pollen then produces a tube, which grows down through the style, into the ovary, and into one of the ovules. This allows the male pollen cell to fuse with the female cell inside the ovule. This process if called fertilization. Afterwards, the ovule develops into a seed.

3.) Formation of the fruit: After fertilization has occurred, the ovule develops into a seed. The seed(s), surrounded by the ovary wall, develop into the fruit. In some plants, other parts of the flower may also help to form the fruit. Many of the seeds formed inside the fruit do not land in a suitable place for germination or do not survive the early stages of growth. Plants produce large numbers of seeds in order to make sure that at least some of the new plants survive.

4.) Seed Dispersal: To avoid overcrowding and reduce competition for light, water, and mineral salts, the seeds must spread away from the parent plant and from each other. Seed-containing fruits disperse in four ways:

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 Animal dispersal. Animals may eat the fruits and drop seeds in other places. The seeds may also pass through the animal’s digestive system and be deposited in the animal’s feces. Some fruits are covered in hooked bristles that cling to an animal’s fur and ensure that the seeds get carried elsewhere.  Wind dispersal. Some seeds are small enough to float in the air. Others have special structures, comparable to wings or parachutes, which keep them airborne for a longer period.  Water dispersal. The seeds of these plants (found in or near water) are buoyant.  Self dispersal. As some fruit ripens, the fruit wall dries and twists until the two halves of the fruit wall are pulled violently apart and the seeds shoot out. Other plants, such as poppies, produce capsules full of small seeds. When the seeds are ripe, small holes develop around the top of the capsule and the seeds get knocked out by wind and passing animals. This process is nicknamed “pepperpot”.

We need rainforests Human populations depend on the rainforest for its many resources and functions. Rainforests are home to several of the world’s oldest cultures. An estimated 50 million tribal people still live within the world’s tropical forests. Their knowledge of medicinal and edible plants, farming practice, and crop protection is an irreplaceable resource.

Local populations are a small percentage of the people, globally, who depend on rainforests. More than one billion people depend on water from tropical forests for drinking and crop irrigation. Rainforests recycle and clean water through a continuous cycle of air movement and rain. Furthermore, tropical forests play a key role in storing carbon, in the form of atmospheric carbon dioxide, in roots, stems, leaves, and branches. Loss of rainforest trees decreases carbon dioxide absorption. It has been estimated that deforestation in rainforests contributes just under 20% of the greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere. Humans also depend on rainforests for hardwoods, food products, and vital medications. Although less than 1% of tropical forest species have been analyzed for medicinal value, 70% of the medicines humans use are found there. 70% of the cancer- fighting plants known to man grow in the rainforest. Lastly, many human industries, from foods to dyes to latex, depend on the resources found in rainforests.

Current threats to rainforests Rainforests are estimated to have once covered 6 million square miles of land worldwide. As a result of deforestation, only 2.6 million square miles remain. Despite great concern, rainforests continue to be destroyed at a pace exceeding 80,000 acres per day. No rainforest in the world is considered “undisturbed by humans”. Main reasons for this include logging (legal and illegal), agriculture (crop and cattle), and expanding urban areas (ribbon development to accommodate demand for shifting tastes toward “rustic” or “treechange” lifestyles). Some of these causes, like illegal logging, are results of deeper societal issues such as poverty, population growth, and heavy foreign debt. In fact, deforestation statistically decreases as a country becomes richer and more industrialized (with exceptions in countries where deforestation is a significantly large part of the national profit). For example, Brazil, which once declared deforestation a national emergency, announced in 2009 that the rate of deforestation has fallen by 46%. Both the immediate and root causes of tropical deforestation must be addressed in order to yield results. Oftentimes, the difficult choices in the matter are those in which the economic interests of local people seem to oppose solutions for environmental concerns. The ultimate goal is to protect valuable areas and use resources sustainably in a way that suits our needs and maintains a healthy balance in the world’s rainforests.

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Conservation Initiatives An effective solution to deforestation would take the interests and needs of both local farmers (mostly rural poor) and industrial/ commercial developers into account. In order to salvage the forested areas of rainforests, the underlying social, economic, and political reasons for deforestation must be addressed. Ideally, this solution would exist alongside efforts to restore and rehabilitate ecosystems. A big question remains on the minds of involved constituents: how do we creatively fund rainforest conservation efforts and sustainable development programs? The following are some funding strategies that are in use or under consideration:

• Eco-Tourism: “Responsible” travel to pristine or fragile areas that strives to be environmentally low impact, educational, and empowering for the local community. Funds from eco-tourism can be used for ecological conservation efforts. Eco-tourism can employ local people as guides and create opportunities for the sales of handicrafts and services. • Bio-Prospecting Fees: Rainforest countries make money by allowing professionals (i.e. scientists, perfume companies) to develop products from their native flora and fauna. Costa Rica has been a pioneer in this area by developing a relationship with the American pharmaceutical company Merck. Under the agreement, Merck can look for plants that have potential pharmaceutical benefits, and they must share proceeds of commercially valuable compounds with Costa Rica. The Costa Rican government has guaranteed to set aside a portion of the profits for conservation efforts. • Carbon Credits: Aim to use market/ financial incentives to reduce deforestation and emissions of greenhouse gases. A carbon credit is a certificate permitting the emission of one ton of carbon. Greenhouse gas emissions are capped, and markets are used to allocate the emissions among the group of regulated sources. Carbon credits can be internationally traded at a market price. This system creates a price for carbon emission so that producers and consumers have incentive to invest in low-greenhouse gas products, technologies and process. • Corporate Sponsorship: Corporations “adopt” a park. The benefit for them is good marketing.

Conservation biologists and non-profit organizations are also playing a role in conservation efforts. Successes of re-forestation are varied. One particularly impressive success story is that of Willie Smits in Samboja Lestari, a clear-cut area of Borneo. He and his organization have managed to restore the area both ecologically and economically for its local people. His philosophy is that in order to protect a forest, the local people need to benefit and be integrated in the effort. For more information, see the “references” section.

Sustainability Case Study: Shade-Grown Coffee The shade-grown coffee movement is a new attempt to bring back an old system. Coffee, a shade- tolerant shrub, has traditionally been grown beneath canopies of forest trees, among fruit trees and other plants. This method keeps the forest available to a wide variety of migratory birds (i.e. Baltimore orioles, warblers, vireos) and year-round bird residents (parrots, toucans, trogons, woodcreepers). With the exception of the common bush tanager, few birds eat coffee berries. Several nectarivorous birds actually seem to prefer traditional coffee farms to natural forests. Over the past several years, these habitats have disappeared in favor of monoculture coffee farms, which are high yielding, but have a dangerous environmental impact. These modernized or “full sun” coffee plantations provide little habitat for wildlife. Evidence has shown that the diversity of migratory birds drops dramatically

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Tropical Rainforest Field Trip Information when coffee is converted from shade to sun. Coffee is currently the world’s second largest legal export crop, next to oil. It is the third largest import in the U.S.

Two-thirds of the world’s coffee is now grown in Latin America and the Caribbean. Although coffee evolved as an understory shrub in East Africa, its cultivation (in shade grown farms) has remained nearly unchanged for over a century. This traditional method is virtually self-sustaining. Little or no pesticide, fungicide, irrigation, or fertilizer is necessary. In fact, growing coffee in the shade discourages weed growth, may reduce pathogen infection, and helps increase the number of pollinators (creates better fruit set).

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Discovering Rainforest Locations GRADE LEVEL 4th-8th; California Content Standards for 4th, 5th and 6th SUBJECTS Investigation and Experimentation, Life Sciences, History-Social Science DURATION Activity: 60 minutes SETTING Classroom

Objectives

In this lesson, students will 1. Practice reading and interpreting various types of world maps. 2. Learn the locations of tropical rainforests. 3. Discuss connections between living and non-living components of an ecosystem.

Correlated CA Content Standards: (for details, see pgs. 59-60)

• K-5: Historical & Social Science Analysis Skills- Chronological and Spatial Skills 4 • Grade 4: Life Sciences 3a, Investigation and Experimentation 6c • Grade 5: Investigation and Experimentation 6h • Grade 6: Life Sciences 5e

Materials

 Blank world maps (one per student)  World temperature maps (one per group of students)  World precipitation maps (one per group of students)  World soil maps (one per group of students)  World biodiversity maps (one per group of students)  Colored pencils (each student needs four different colors)  Tropical rainforest maps on transparencies (one per group of students)

Activity

Introduction  Ask students what they have learned about tropical rainforests.  Make sure to review or introduce the four factors for this activity (rainfall, temperature, soil composition and biodiversity).  Tell students they are now going to use what they have learned about tropical rainforests to discover the locations of tropical rainforests around the world.

Procedure 1. Divide the students up into groups of 4. 2. Hand out a blank world map to each student. 3. Hand out at least 4 different colored pencils to each student.

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4. Hand out a set of world data maps (rainfall, temperature, biodiversity and soil) to each group, placing one world data map in front of each student. 5. Do not hand out the tropical rainforest maps on transparencies yet. They are used only at the end of the activity. 6. Tell students to choose one color for each of the four data maps. 7. Tell students to create a map legend on their blank map. For example:

LEGEND Green = Biodiversity Blue = Precipitation Red = Temperature Brown = Soil Composition

8. Tell students that they will start gathering data from the map in front of them, but that each of them will have a chance to work with each of the four world data maps. 9. Tell students to use the colored pencil they have designated for the particular map in front of them. They will look at the map in front of them and find the areas that have the same characteristics as rainforests. Then, they will circle the areas on their blank maps that have rainforest characteristics.

• For biodiversity- circle areas of HIGH biodiversity • For rainfall- circle areas of HIGH rainfall • For temperature- circle areas of HIGH temperature • For soil composition- circle areas of nutrient-POOR, weathered soils

10. Give students a few minutes for each map. Then have them rotate the maps around. Rotate every few minutes until each student has been able to work with each map. 11. Once all students have worked with each of the world data maps, tell them to use a pencil and to color in the areas that they think are tropical rainforests according to the data they have compiled (i.e. color areas that have all four of the characteristics you have discussed because tropical rainforests have these four characteristics). Emphasize that their coloring should be based on their data, not on where they think/know tropical rainforests are located. 12. Once the students have completed their maps, hand out one tropical rainforest map transparency to each group. Ask students to take turns placing the transparency on top of their map to see how close they were to locating the world’s tropical rainforests.

Wrap-Up Discuss the following questions:

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 Are your maps a close fit with the actual rainforest locations?  Why might the fit not be perfect?  What is an explanation for areas on the map that are tropical rainforest, but that do not have all four of these factors? (Tropical rainforests are similar ecosystems, but they are spread throughout the globe and have small differences that make them unique. Our maps might not perfectly match with the real locations of tropical rainforests because some rainforests don’t have all four of these characteristics. A few rainforests might have different soils that are newer and haven’t been weathered as much. Or, a few rainforests might have a little less biodiversity. A few rainforests might also receive less rainfall than the average rainforest.)  What is an explanation for areas that have some of these four factors, but are not tropical rainforests? (Tropical rainforests are not identified with only one characteristic. They usually have this specific combination of characteristics. Other ecosystems may have some of the same characteristics as tropical rainforests. For example, what are the areas with high rainfall that are not tropical rainforests? Those are temperate rainforests like in the Pacific Northwest of U.S., Chile, and New Zealand. What are the areas that have really high temperatures, but are not tropical rainforests? Many of those are desert regions.)

Extension

Discuss cause-and-effect relationships:  Which of the four factors (rainfall, temperature, biodiversity and soil) caused the rainforests to develop? (In general, you can think of rainfall as a factor that contributed to the formation of rainforests. Water is often a scarce resource for plants and animals and the abundance of rain in the tropical regions allowed these dense tropical forests to evolve. Temperature is another abiotic factor that helped create these large forests. Because the tropics have consistently warm temperatures the whole year, many plants are able to stay active and photosynthesize without going into a dormant phase.)  Which of these factors were caused by the rainforest? (The specific nutrient-poor soils of the rainforest did not exist before the rainforest. Rather, the wetness and the rapid decomposition that occurs within the rainforest have caused these soils to become nutrient-depleted. Similarly, biodiversity did not cause the rainforest ecosystem to develop. Rather, it is within the environment of the rainforests, some of the oldest ecosystems on the planet, that a lot of evolution has occurred to produce this great diversity of life.)

Teacher Background

By using data rich maps to identify where in the world there is high rainfall, high temperatures, nutrient-poor soil and high biodiversity, students will discover where tropical rainforests thrive. Through this activity, students will understand that abiotic factors such as temperature and precipitation help determine what types of ecosystems exist in a given area.

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Rainfall: The word “rainforest” clearly denotes the fact that these are the some of the world’s wettest ecosystems. Tropical rainforests around the world have high humidity, about 88% during the wet season and about 77% in the dry season. Although the exact amount of rainfall varies for different years and different rainforests, generally rainforests receive very high rainfall each year. For example, South America’s tropical rainforests receive between 200 and 300 centimeters (80 and 120 inches) of rain in a typical year. In comparison, San Francisco receives only about 56 centimeters (22 inches) of rain per year. Despite relatively consistent rain in these ecosystems, there are distinct dry seasons in some rainforests. Tropical rainforests’ wet and dry seasons vary in their timing, duration and severity around the globe.

Temperature: Tropical rainforests, found in the equatorial region between the Tropic of Cancer (23°27’N) and the Tropic of Capricorn (23°27’S), have high temperatures throughout the whole year. A typical daytime temperature any time of year in tropical rainforests is 29°C (85°F), although temperatures can be much higher. Because the tropics are in the center of the globe and do not tilt dramatically toward or away from the sun during any season, like temperate regions of the earth do, they receive direct and consistent radiation. This steady flow of radiation from the sun produces high temperatures throughout the year. In the majority of tropical rainforests, there is at most a 5°C difference in temperature between the seasons.

Soil Composition: Because of the tremendous amount and diversity of foliage in tropical rainforests, many people think that rainforest soils are rich with nutrients. In fact, rainforest soils are nutrient-poor. The heavy rains that occur in rainforests wash away organic material from the soil. Fallen leaves and other detritus that are swept away do not remain on the forest floor long enough to decay and release all of their nutrients. The large amount of rain also means that any nutrients already released into the soil via decomposition are not stored in the soil for long. Rainwater seeps into the ground and leaches nutrients from the soil. Another reason that nutrients are not stored in the soil for long is the extremely rapid rate of decomposition found in rainforest ecosystems. The high diversity of decomposers, such as bacteria, fungi, and insects, coupled with the high humidity and temperatures of tropical rainforests accelerate the decomposition process. The nutrients released by decomposition are quickly taken up by plants, instead of being stored in the soil.

Biodiversity: Biodiversity is a measure of the total variety of organisms in nature. It can be described at many scales including ecosystem biodiversity, species biodiversity, and genetic biodiversity. Species biodiversity is the easiest to comprehend and is the scale on which we focus this activity. Species diversity varies greatly from place to place around the globe. Tropical rainforests are areas of extremely high biodiversity as compared with other ecosystems. In Borneo, scientists have discovered more than 15,000 plant species – 2,500 species of orchids alone. Biologists estimate that tropical rainforests contain about 50% of the world’s terrestrial plant and animal species while encompassing approximately 6% of the world’s land area. This land area and its associated biodiversity are rapidly decreasing as rainforests are being destroyed.

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Flowers Seeking Pollinators GRADE LEVEL 3rd-7th; California Content Standards for 3rd, 4th, 6th and 7th SUBJECTS Life Sciences, Visual Arts Preparation: 10 minutes Activity: 60-90 minutes (based on prior DURATION knowledge) SETTING Classroom

Objectives

In this lesson, students will 1. Learn that many plants depend on animals for pollination and many pollinators depend on plants for food. 2. Learn that flowers, which have male and female parts, are structures for reproduction. 3. Flowers are adapted to attract specific pollinators.

Correlated CA Content Standards: (for details, see pgs. 59-60)

• Grade 3: Life Sciences 3a • Grade 4: Life Sciences 3a, Visual and Performing Arts 1.1, 1.5 • Grade 6: Ecology (Life Sciences) 5c • Grade 7: Structure and Function in Living Things (Life Sciences) 5f

Materials

 Various art supplies for making flowers, for example: - construction paper - colored cellophane or tissue paper - portion cups - pipe cleaners - string - hole punchers - tape, glue, or staplers - crayons or markers - scissors  2-sided Flowers Seeking Pollinators worksheet (print 1 per student)  Flower Diagram (print 1 per pair or small group)  Flowers Seeking Pollinators: Answer Key (print 1 for teacher)  Optional: materials for pollination demo or role play (real flowers, sticky dots, etc.)

Activity

Preparation 1. Print and copy Pollinator Worksheets (1 per student). 2. Print 1 Pollinator Answer Key for yourself.

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3. Print and copy Flower Diagram (1 per pair or small group). 4. Depending on student seating arrangement, divide art supplies among student tables or place the art supplies in one central location.

Introduction to Pollination (time spent will vary based on prior knowledge) 1. Ask students questions such as, “What are your favorite flowers?” “Why do plants have flowers?” “Are plants trying to win a beauty contest?” 2. For reproduction! Hand out the Flower Diagrams. Flowers have both male and female parts. Pollination is achieved when the pollen from the male part, the stamen, is transferred to the female part, the stigma. This can happen between the male and female parts of one flower (self-pollination) or between separate flowers of the same species (cross-pollination). Flowers can’t do it themselves. What in the natural world can help move the pollen? Animals, wind, or water! 3. Why do pollinators (i.e. birds, insects, bats) visit flowers? Most feed on the nectar (a sugar-rich liquid) of a flower. The nectaries are usually located deep in the middle of a flower so that pollinators have to brush against the anthers (male, pollen-containing tips of stamens) and the stigma to get to the nectar. Some pollinators, like bees, need pollen in addition to nectar. Some pollinating insects (i.e. some flies) are attracted to flowers by scent but gain no reward when they visit. The insects try to leave quickly but the flowers may have traps to slow the insects down. 4. It may be useful to ask a few students to role-play the pollination process. Teachers may also choose to bring some flowers into class and ask students to “hand-pollinate” them.

Pollinator Worksheet 5. Flowers have evolved to attract pollinators in many different ways. Color, shape, and smell are the dominant strategies. 6. Hand out the Pollinator worksheet. Refer students to the side entitled “Flowers Seeking Pollinators”. 7. Go over the information as a class. Highlight that some flowers and pollinators are specialists and others are generalists. For example, certain orchids can only be pollinated by certain insects (specialists) while other flowers can be pollinated by several different birds and insects (generalists). 8. Instruct students to complete the back of the worksheet (Flower-Pollinator Matching) individually or in small groups.

Make a Flower Activity 9. Students now use art supplies to make their own flowers. Each student’s flower should be adapted to attract at least one type of pollinator. Students may want to create flowers that attract multiple pollinators, as well. Students should be prepared to share about their flowers. They should consider whether the flower will have an odor and whether it will be open at all times of day/ night.

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10. Once students have had a chance to construct their flower, have them place them on a table with a label that describes where the flower is found (i.e. at the top of a tree, near the ground, etc), and what it smells like. 11. Then, assign a specific type of pollinator to each person, giving them an associated colored marker (i.e. black for bats, red for butterflies, yellow for bees, etc.). The class then can swarm around, looking for appropriate flowers, and marking a dot on the paper label next to the flowers they are attracted to. Emphasize that students can only go to the flowers that they think will attract the animal they are representing. 12. As a teacher, observe the students, if there are any flowers that people seem confused by, or any pollinators that are confused, have your class pause to discuss them.

Wrap-Up 13. Students present their flowers to the class. 14. Highlight that these evolutionary changes do not happen overnight. It takes hundreds and thousands of years for these adaptations to take shape. 15. Ask students how the pollinators may be adapted to the flowers.

Variation 16. For a group that needs more teacher facilitation, rather than have students label the flowers with markers (step 11), you can have the class guess which pollinator the flower was intended for during the student presentations (step 13). 17. You may choose to extend this lesson and delve more deeply into flower anatomy at the beginning. Flower dissections work well for this. 18. If students are advanced, you can extend the lesson through an exploration of co- evolution. Challenge students to research pollinators and find out the ways in which the pollinators themselves are adapted to certain flowers.

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Teacher Background

The plant life cycle (for flowering plants) For most plants to reproduce, they go through pollination, create fruits, and disperse seeds. For the students, it is useful to describe the process in four steps: flower, pollination, fruit, and seed dispersal. In some cases, plants do not need animals for pollination or seed dispersal. In other cases, plants rely on animals for both processes and must attract each animal in a different way.

1.) Pollination: Pollination is the transfer of pollen, from the stamens to the stigma of flowers. Pollen can be carried by insects, other animals, wind, or water. Self- pollination refers to the process in which pollen lands on the stigma of its own flower or another flower on the same plant. Cross-pollination refers to the process where pollen is transferred to the stigma of a flower on another plant of the same species.

Since ovules within the same plant can be slightly different, genetically, from one another, self pollination can result in some variation in the offspring. Cross-pollination, in which genetic material comes from two parents, results in greater variation and is therefore considered advantageous.

2.) Fertilization: Once the pollen grain reaches a compatible stigma, it receives a chemical signal from the stigma. The pollen then produces a tube, which grows down through the style, into the ovary, and into one of the ovules. This allows the male pollen cell to fuse with the female cell inside the ovule. This process if called fertilization. Afterwards, the ovule develops into a seed.

http://www.saps.org

3.) Formation of the fruit: After fertilization has occurred, the ovule develops into a seed. The seed(s), surrounded by the ovary wall, develop into the fruit. In some plants, other parts of the flower may also help to form the fruit. Many of the seeds formed inside the fruit do not land in a suitable place for germination or do not survive the early stages of growth. Plants produce large numbers of seeds in order to make sure that at least some of the new plants survive.

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4.) Seed Dispersal: To avoid overcrowding and reduce competition for light, water and mineral salts, the seeds must spread away from the parent plant and from each other. Seed-containing fruits disperse in four ways:

 Animal dispersal. Animals may eat the fruits and drop seeds in other places. The seeds may also pass through the animal’s digestive system and be deposited in the animal’s feces. Some fruits are covered in hooked bristles that cling to an animal’s fur (or your socks) and ensure that the seeds get carried elsewhere.

 Wind dispersal. Some seeds are small enough to float in the air. Others have special structures, comparable to wings or parachutes, which keep them airborne for a longer period.

 Water dispersal. The seeds of these plants (found in or near water) are buoyant.

 Self dispersal. As some fruit ripens, the fruit wall dries and twists until the two halves of the fruit wall are pulled violently apart and the seeds shoot out. Other plants, such as the poppies, produce capsules full of small seeds. When the seeds are ripe, small holes develop around the top of the capsule and the seeds get knocked out by wind and passing animals. This process is nicknamed “pepperpot.”

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Pollinator Syndrome Traits Table (retrieved from http://www.fs.fed.us/)

This pollinator syndrome trait table can help you identify the flower traits associated with certain pollinators. These are general trends and cannot be applied strictly to all flowers.

Pollinator

Flower Trait Bats Bees Beetles Birds Butterflies Flies Moths Wind

Pale and dull Dull green, Bright Scarlet, to dark brown Dull white, Bright, Pale and dull brown, or white, Dull white orange, or purple; Color green or including red red, purple, colorless; yellow, or green red or flecked with purple and purple pink or white petals absent or blue, or UV white translucent reduced patches

Nectar guides (patterns on Absent Present Absent Absent Present Absent Absent Absent petals guiding pollinators to the nectar)

Strong None to Strong sweet; musty; Fresh, mild, strongly Faint but Odor None Putrid emitted at None emitted at pleasant fruity or fresh night night fetid

Abundant; Sometimes Ample; Ample; Ample; Usually Usually Nectar somewhat present; deeply deeply deeply None present absent hidden not hidden hidden hidden hidden

Limited; Abundant; Modest in Pollen Ample often sticky Ample Modest Limited Limited small, smooth, amount and scented and not sticky

Large Regular; Shallow; funnel like; Narrow tube Shallow; bowl have Large Regular; Regular: small Flower cups, with spur; funnel like or shaped – landing bowl-like, tubular and stigmas Shape strong wide landing complex and closed platform; Magnolia without a lip exerted perch pad trap-like during day tubular support

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Rainforest Necklace Scavenger Hunt GRADE LEVEL 3rd-6th; with Correlated CA Content Standards for 3rd, 4th, and 6th SUBJECTS Life Sciences DURATION Preparation: 5 minutes Activity: 30 minutes SETTING Rainforest Bolla Exhibit at California Academy of Sciences

Objectives

Through this scavenger hunt, students will 4. Learn that plants and animals depend on one another for survival and reproduction. 5. Learn that animals can aid a plant’s reproduction through pollination and seed dispersal. 6. Learn that a rainforest has distinct layers, with life specially adapted to each layer.

Correlated CA Content Standards: (for details, see pgs. 59-60)

• Grade 3: Life Sciences 3a • Grade 4: Life Sciences 3a • Grade 6: Life Sciences 5c

Materials

 Rainforest Scavenger Hunt Necklace (1 per student)  Rainforest Scavenger Hunt Answer Key (1 for teacher; included in this document)  Scissors  Yarn (~38” piece per student)  Hole Puncher

Activity

Preparation 5. Print and copy a Rainforest Scavenger Hunt Necklace (2-sided) for each student. 6. Cut along all dotted lines; this will create 6 foldable tabs on each side of the necklace. 7. Hole-punch the brown circle underneath the words “forest floor”. 8. String a piece of yarn (~38”) through the hole to create a necklace. 9. You may wish to laminate these if you want to use them in subsequent years.

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Before the Scavenger Hunt 1. Depending on students’ prior knowledge of a flowering plant’s life cycle, you may want to review the following concepts: the functions of a flower, pollinator, fruit, and seed disperser. You may also want to review the concept of adaptations. 2. Assign students a partner to travel with through the exhibit. 3. Tell students they will start from the bottom of the page (forest floor) because that is where they will enter the exhibit. Once they find one of the plants or animals pictured on the page, they may fold back that tab and discuss the question with their partner. 4. Some of the answers will be featured prominently on graphics within the exhibit. Other answers will require the students to reason. 5. We made this scavenger hunt a “necklace” because it can be hung around the neck and does not require a pen or pencil. The California Academy of Sciences strongly discourages the use of pencils and loose papers inside the Rainforest Bolla Exhibit. Several pencils have been found in the aquarium below. 6. To make sure students take the hunt seriously, let them know that the class will be discussing their answers afterwards. Either at the museum or back in class, use the Rainforest Necklace Scavenger Hunt Answer Key below to discuss each question.

Wrap-Up: Discussion Questions

After students have had a chance to explore the rainforest and complete the scavenger hunt, discuss these questions:  Which plants depend on animals?  Which animals depend on plants?  What do they depend on each other for?  Which animals are pollinators? Which are seed dispersers?  What are some adaptations (structures or behaviors that help an organism survive in its habitat) the plants and animals have?

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Rainforest Necklace Scavenger Hunt Answer Key

Forest Floor Pitcher plant: This plant attracts insects with its color, sugary nectar, and sweet scent. How will it use the insects it traps?

Pitcher plants are carnivorous. They feed on the trapped insects!

Tree with flowers on its branches: Do you like chocolate? This is the tree it comes from! Its flowers and fruit grow right on its woody branches which support its large and heavy fruit. How does having fruit that is easily seen help this tree reproduce?

Attention: The Theobroma (cacao tree) may not be flowering during your field trip! This may be a good point to bring up with students. Plants are not always in flower. This is a cauliflorous plant, which means the flowers and fruit grow right on the trunk and woody branches of the plant, rather than from new growth and shoots. The large fruit can be more easily spotted by potential seed dispersers. Cauliflory also makes the flowers and fruit more accessible for pollinators and seed dispersers that do not live in the canopy of the forest or do not fly.

Leaf-cutter ants: These busy ants cut leaves and eat the fungus that grows on them. This fungus also helps break the leaves down into soil. How do the ants help surrounding plants?

By enabling the growth of fungus, and thus encouraging decomposition, leaf-cutter ants help create new, nutritious soil for surrounding plants.

Borneo river toad: Why do you think this forest-floor creature is a dark green-brown color?

Its coloring helps it blend in with the surrounding plants and ground. This provides protection from predators. This adaptation is called “camouflage”.

Understory Pointy spines on a peach palm tree: How do you think the long, stiff spines on the trunk of this tree help it survive?

The long, sharp spines protect the tree from small herbivorous animals. The animals cannot climb over the spines to eat the tree’s leaves.

Bromeliad: This plant’s leaves form a cup that catches rainwater and provides habitat for animals. What type of animal might use this tree-top pool? Hint: There’s one on this page.

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Poison dart frog (or other tree frog).

Gecko: This gecko helps plants reproduce by pollinating them and spreading their seeds. What parts of the plants do you think this gecko eats?

This gecko drinks nectar from flowers and eats the plant’s fruit. They are omnivorous and also eat insects.

Macaw: Macaws mostly eat the fruits of plants. How does this help plants reproduce?

Macaws play the role of seed dispersers in the rainforest. Due to their messy eating habits, they drop seeds from the plants they eat. Given the right conditions, some of these seeds may develop into new plants.

Canopy A butterfly-pollinated flower: Flowers have different colors, shapes, and smells to attract different pollinators. What do you think attracted the butterfly to the flower you found?

This depends on which flower each student noticed being visited by a pollinator. Butterflies are attracted to bright colors and feed on nectar. The nectar guides, or patterns on a flower’s petals point out the path to the nectar. Butterfly-pollinated flowers often grow in clusters which allow butterflies to perch on nearby flowers while feeding. The flowers may also have wide landing-pad-like petals for this reason.

Red leaves on a green plant: Scientists can’t agree on why new leaves on some tropical plants are red. How do you think the color red might protect young leaves from herbivores or the sun?

Three possible reasons: (1) The presence of the red pigment may be to protect the developing chlorophyll (green pigment) inside the new leaves from too much light, or damaging light; (2) Red pigments may contain fungicides and other poisons; (3) Many herbivores prefer soft, fresh growth to the older, tougher leaves. The bright red may protect new growth by serving as a warning that the new leaves are toxic or distasteful.

A bird in the trees: If you were a bird in a rainforest canopy, why might you hang out in a tree?

Several birds in the rainforest are adapted to live in trees. They find food (fruit, insects), avoid predators, and build nests for their offspring high in canopy trees.

Poison dart frog: Frogs need water in which to lay their eggs. How does this frog use pools of water up in trees? Hint: Think of the plants you have found so far.

These frogs find pools of water collected in epiphytic bromeliads. If a plant is epiphytic, it means it grows on another plant. The bromeliad the students were directed to find grows on a high branch of a tree.

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“The Future of the Amazon” Conference GRADE LEVEL 4th -8th; California Content Standards for 3rd, 5th, & 6th - 8th SUBJECTS Life Sciences, History-Social Sciences DURATION Preparation: 10 minutes Activity: 60-80 minutes SETTING Classroom

Objectives In this lesson, students will 1. Learn the complexity of sustainable rainforest use and conservation. 2. Understand that different interest groups depend on the world’s rainforests for a variety of reasons. 3. Learn that economic and environmental interests can sometimes be pitted against one another.

Correlated CA Content Standards: (for details, see pgs. 59-60)

• Grade 3: History-Social Sciences 3.5 (1-3) • Grade 5: Life Sciences 2f • Grade 6-8: History-Social Sciences: Chronological and Spatial Thinking 3; Research, Evidence, and Point of View 1-2; Historical Interpretation 1, 2, & 6.

Materials - Amazon Conference PowerPoint Slideshow (standard & advanced versions available) - Projector (Note: this activity can be facilitated without the use of the PowerPoint and projector) - Amazon Conference Information Packet (one per small group) - Amazon Conference Interest Group Blurbs (1 set per classroom) - Pencils - Notebooks/ Paper

Activity

Preparation 1. Choose between the standard and advanced versions of the Amazon Conference Slideshow. The standard version is recommended for elementary students and the advanced version is recommended for middle school. 2. Set up a projector (or other method) with which to broadcast the slideshow. 3. Print a copy of the Amazon Conference Information Packet* for each small group. 4. Print a copy of the Amazon Conference Interest Group Blurbs* and cut each blurb out. (*Note: there are standard and advanced versions of the packet and blurbs)

“The Future of the Amazon Rainforest” Conference 5. Set the scene. Inform students that they have all been chosen as participants in this year’s “Future of the Amazon Rainforest” Conference. The Brazilian government holds this annual conference to hear peoples’ opinions before making policy decisions affecting the Amazon rainforest.

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6. Divide the class into small groups. Each small group will represent one of the interest groups at the conference. The standard version PowerPoint has four interest groups: Native Amazonians, Cattle Ranchers, Environmental Groups, and Hamburger Chain Bosses. The advanced version PowerPoint has two additional groups: Settler Farmers and Soybean Farmers. As representatives of each interest group, students will encourage government action that supports their wants and needs. 7. Pass out the Amazon Conference Information Packets to each group. Students can use this for reference while watching the slideshow. 8. Show the Amazon Conference Slideshow. Answer any questions students may have. (Note: The activity can be facilitated without the PowerPoint. Simply have students look at the Amazon Conference Information Packet while introducing concepts.) 9. Hand out an Amazon Conference Interest Group Blurb to each group. Give each group time to discuss how they will present their “case” at the conference. 10. Once each group has presented, have students re-group and come up with “rebuttals” to the other groups’ arguments. 11. At this point, the activity will take the shape of a town hall-style debate. Allow students to continue making rebuttals until you feel the class has reached a good stopping point. 12. If you would rather the conversation be solution-oriented, you can ask students to come up with concessions they will make rather than rebuttals to each other’s arguments. 13. To prevent students from coming up with overly simplistic solutions to the problem, it may be beneficial for the teacher to pose as the government representative who is holding the conference. This way, the teacher can play “devil’s advocate” or guide students in a productive direction whenever it is needed.

Wrap-Up 14. Lead a large-group debrief. Ask students: Was it difficult or easy to come to agreements between the interest groups? In what ways was this conference realistic or not realistic? Do you think governments usually worry more about environmental or economic interests? Why? What are your personal opinions on the issue? What other interest groups may be involved in this debate? How do we, as American consumers, affect this issue? (Choosing to buy or not buy unsustainably grown rainforest beef!) Extensions 15. Have students write personal reflections or recommendations on the experience of the conference or the issue of sustainable rainforest use. 16. Use the conference as a launching pad for a research project about rainforest destruction.

Background for Teachers

The Amazon Basin The Amazon Basin boasts the greatest concentration of biodiversity on Earth. Spanning 2.5 million square miles, it is larger than any other tropical rainforest. In addition to its many species of flora, fauna, algae and fungi, the Amazon is home to 33 million people from six different countries. People within the Amazon make their living by using the rainforest’s resources. Indigenous groups have lived there for hundreds of years, and more recently, farmers, miners, ranchers, and loggers have come to depend heavily on the land, as well. Companies, investors, and consumers all over the world depend

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economically on Amazonian resources. Most importantly, life on the planet depends heavily on the Amazon for its role in the carbon cycle, namely CO₂ absorption.

Tropical Deforestation Scientists often refer to rainforests as “carbon sinks” because of the great quantity of CO₂ they absorb. The largest carbon sink in the world today is the Amazon Basin Rainforest Ecosystem (ABRE). However, deforestation is changing the ABRE’s capabilities. Though the precise numbers are debated, at least 80,000 acres of forest disappear from the earth daily. At least another 80,000 acres of forest are degraded daily. Deforestation itself releases carbon dioxide into the air and reduces the number of trees available for carbon dioxide absorption. This helps enable the greenhouse effect, in which solar radiation that bounces off the earth’s surface is absorbed by greenhouse gases (water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone) and re-radiated. An increase in greenhouse gases, mainly carbon dioxide, has led to global increases in temperature (a.k.a. global climate change, climate change).

Deforestation also moves several species to extinction and leads to flooding and topsoil erosion (most nutrients are in the topsoil). Though it has lessened since 2005, Brazil leads the world in tropical deforestation rates.

Causes of Deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon

Brazil has struggled with poverty and a large national debt for most of its history. Vast deforestation is the result of many intersecting economic interests. The foremost causes of this deforestation include clearing for cattle pasture, subsistence agriculture plots for formerly landless settlers (gifted to them by the Brazilian government), infrastructure improvements (road and highway construction), commercial agriculture (mostly soybean farms), and logging (legal and illegal). In addition, fires intended to ‘slash and burn’ land for agricultural use, often escape the projected areas. Much of the extraction of rainforest resources is done to accommodate the demands of developed countries in Europe and the U.S.

Competition for Amazonian land has led to violent conflict between large landowners, poor settlers, and indigenous groups. Large portions of land that were once the territory of indigenous people, used for hunting, farming, and all their sustenance, are now the property of large corporations, landowners, small scale farmers (settlers), speculators, and the government. Needless to say, it is a lot more difficult for indigenous Amazonians to support themselves without the land. There is a process available for indigenous Amazonians to become legal owners of their land, but it is deeply flawed. In

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addition, once the land is officially theirs, this ownership is not strongly enforced. Oftentimes competing parties illegally encroach upon indigenous land and cause severe degradation.

Potential Solutions

Use technology to restore cleared land for agricultural use. Most nutrients in a rainforest are stored in its plants and biomass, not in the soil. When an area is slash-and-burned, the idea is to use the ash to restore the soil with nutrients. However, this nutrient-rich soil is quite temporary, as it is washed away quickly by rain. Supplemental fertilizer is costly and difficult to access for many Amazonian farmers, especially for settlers practicing subsistence agriculture. Ancient societies in the Amazon used charcoal and animal bones to enrich the nutrient poor soil. There is even evidence that this mixture absorbs carbon dioxide. If farmers are able to re-use the cleared land, there will be less need to clear more forested areas.

Rehabilitate threatened species and ecosystems that are nearing extinction. Replanting and rehabilitating “secondary forests” on cleared land can lower atmospheric greenhouse gases and sustain native forest wildlife.

Expand and protect nature reserves, both as national parks and “indigenous reserves”, which may actually protect the rainforest best. Once these expansions are put into place, steady surveillance and enforcement of the protected areas and indigenous land would be necessary.

Combat economic “cost” of conservation with eco-tourism. This means “responsible” travel to protected areas. The eco-tourism industry strives to be environmentally low impact and small scale (as an alternative to mass tourism). Its purpose is to educate the traveler; provide funds for ecological conservation; directly benefit the economic and political empowerment of local communities (especially Indigenous communities); and foster respect for different cultures. Eco-tourism can provide jobs for local people.

Reform Amazon landowner policies or fund more policy enforcement. Currently, Brazilian law states that any Amazon landowner must leave 80% of his/her land forested. This law is neither followed nor enforced. Nearly 80% of all logging in the Brazilian Amazon is illegal. To protect the land, the government will need to put more money into law enforcement. An off-shoot of this concept deals specifically with settler farm land. Since the 1960’s, the government has given plots of Amazon land to landless peasants. Once these settlers clear and use a plot of land for agriculture, they leave and clear more land. The government could encourage sustainable land use by instituting a land- leasing deposit, given back to the settlers in a quantity contingent on the quality of the land returned to the government. Later, the percent of their deposit return could function as a credit score, governing future farming rights in the state.

Encourage and reward sustainable agricultural practices. To get farmers in the Amazon to adopt sustainable farming practices (use natural resources while leaving enough for future generations), these practices would have to be accessible and profitable. A first step would be educating Amazon farmers (especially settlers) about alternative farming methods. The next step would be figuring out ways to make these changes profitable. One piece of this plan is spreading awareness to global consumers. There are already a few companies that make “rainforest-friendly” products. An example that is indirectly related to this is the dolphin-safe tuna labeling plan of the early 1990’s. Consumers were informed of the killing of many dolphins as a by-product of tuna fishing. Activism and awareness

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spread quickly in the United States, and “dolphin-safe” labels on tuna cans became quite common. Eventually, the US Congress passed a law allowing only the sale of “dolphin-safe” tuna in the country.

Another idea involved a certification process for “rainforest-friendly” ranches and farms. This certification could be cashed in for freer access to global markets or other profitable perks. A larger- scale idea that uses market incentives for environmental gain is carbon trading, or “carbon credits”. This approach caps the greenhouse gas emissions allowed per year, then uses markets to trade “carbon credits”, or permits that each represent the right to emit one ton of carbon dioxide.

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Correlated California State Content Standards

Correlated California State Content Standards

Grades Kindergarten through Five Historical and Social Sciences Analysis Skills: Chronological and Spatial Thinking. 4. Students use map and globe skills to determine the absolute locations of places and interpret information available through a map's or globe's legend, scale, and symbolic representations.

Grade Three History-Social Sciences 3.5 Students demonstrate basic economic reasoning skills and an understanding of the economy of the local region. 1. Describe the ways in which local producers have used and are using natural resources, human resources, and capital resources to produce goods and services in the past and the present. 2. Understand that some goods are made locally, some elsewhere in the United States, and some abroad. 3. Understand that individual economic choices involve trade-offs and the evaluation of benefits and costs.

Life Sciences 3. Adaptations in physical structure or behavior may improve an organism’s chance for survival. As a basis for understanding this concept: a. Students know plants and animals have structures that serve different functions in growth, survival, and reproduction. d. Students know when the environment changes, some plants and animals survive and reproduce; others die or move to new locations.

Grade Four Life Sciences 3. Living organisms depend on one another and on their environment for survival. As a basis for understanding this concept: a. Students know ecosystems can be characterized by their living and nonliving components. c. Students know many plants depend on animals for pollination and seed dispersal, and animals depend on plants for food and shelter.

Visual and Performing Arts 1.1 Perceive and describe contrast and emphasis in works of art and in the environment. 1.5 Describe and analyze the elements of art (e.g., color, shape/form, line, texture, space, and value), emphasizing form, as they are used in works of art and found in the environment.

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Investigation and Experimentation 6c. Formulate and justify predictions based on cause-and-effect relationships.

Grade Five Investigation and Experimentation 6h. Draw conclusions from scientific evidence and indicate whether further information is needed to support a specific conclusion.

Life Sciences

2f. Students know plants use carbon dioxide (CO2) and energy from sunlight to build molecules of sugar and release oxygen.

Grade Six Ecology (Life Sciences) 5c. Students know populations of organisms can be categorized by the functions they serve in an ecosystem. 5e. Students know the number and types of organisms an ecosystem can support depends on the resources available and on abiotic factors, such as qualities of light and water, a range of temperatures, and soil composition.

Grade Seven Structure and Function in Living Systems (Life Sciences) 5f. Students know the structures and processes by which flowering plants generate pollen, ovules, seeds, and fruit.

Grade Six through Eight History-Social Sciences Chronological and Spatial Thinking 3. Students use a variety of maps and documents to identify physical and cultural features of neighborhoods, cities, states, and countries to explain the historical migration of people, expansion and disintegration of empires, and the growth of economic systems.

Research, Evidence, and Point of View 1. Students frame questions that can be answered by historical study and research. 2. Students distinguish fact from opinion in historical narratives and stories.

Historical Interpretation 1. Students explain the central issues and problems from the past, placing people and events in a matrix of time and place. 2. Students understand and distinguish cause, effect, sequence, and correlation in historical events, including the long- and short-term causal relations. 6. Students interpret basic indicators of economic performance and conduct cost- benefit analyses of economic and political issue.

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Rainforest Curriculum Glossary

Rainforest Curriculum Glossary

 Abiotic: not associated with or derived from living organisms.  Adaptation: a living organism’s physical/behavioral features that aid it in surviving within a specific habitat.  Agriculture: the practice and/ or business of cultivating soil, producing crops, and raising livestock; farming.  Angiosperm: flowering plants (pines, ferns, and mosses are not angiosperms).  Biodiversity: the number, variety, and genetic variation of different organisms found within a specified geographic region.  Canopy Layer: the layer of a tropical rainforest with the majority of the largest trees (30-45 m tall). This layer is formed by an almost continuous cover of foliage formed by adjacent treetops. The densest areas of biodiversity are found in the forest canopy.

 Carbon dioxide (CO2): a chemical compound composed of two oxygen atoms bonded on either side of a carbon atom. While naturally occurring in our atmosphere, carbon dioxide is also the by-product of the combustion of fossil fuels, emitted from car engines, coal power plants, and other producers of exhaust. Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas.  Cattle: any of various chiefly domesticated mammals of the genus Bos, including cows, steers, bulls, and oxen, often raised for meat and dairy products.  Clear-cutting: a controversial forestry/ logging practice in which most of all trees in a harvest area are cut down.  Climate change: any long-term, significant change to the climate of an area. Currently, the term is used to refer to human-induced changes in the planet’s climate caused by increasing the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere primarily through the burning of fossil fuels. This phenomenon is also known as global warming.  Conference: a meeting (of committees or individuals) for consultation, discussion, or exchange of views.  Conservation: the protection, preservation, management, or restoration of natural environments and the ecological communities that inhabit them.  Crop: any agricultural product that is grown and harvested.  Deforestation: the removal of a forest or stand of trees for non-forest uses (such as agriculture or urban use).  Desertification: the transformation of arable or habitable land to desert; desertification is caused by change in climate and human activity.  Emergent Layer: the very top layer of a tropical rainforest which contains a small number of very large trees (reaching 45-80 m tall) called emergents, which grow above the general canopy. Eagles, butterflies, bats, and certain monkeys inhabit this layer.  Flower: the reproductive structure found in flowering plants (angiosperms).  Forest Floor: the bottom-most layer of a tropical rainforest, which receives only 2% of sunlight. Life forms in this layer are adapted to low light. It also contains decaying plant and animal matter, which disappears quickly due to warm, humid conditions. Many forms of fungi grow here to help decay the animal and plant waste.

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Rainforest Curriculum Glossary

 Fruit: the seed-containing part of a flowering plant that derives from specific tissues of the flower, mainly one or more ovaries.  Nature Reserve: an area of land that is protected and managed in order to preserve a particular type of habitat and its plants and wildlife, which are often rare or endangered. A nature reserve may sometimes be open to the public (e.g. park).  Nectar: a sweet liquid secreted by flowers as an attractant and reward for pollinators.  Pollen: a powder-like substance in a flower (or cone) that is made up of grains. Each grain functions as a capsule for carrying the male gametes (sperm cells) of the plant; during pollination, pollen is moved from the stamen of a flower to the stigma of a flower.  Pollination: a necessary step in the reproduction of flowering plants; the process by which pollen is transferred from the male stamen to the female stigma, thereby enabling fertilization and sexual reproduction.  Pollinator: an animal (e.g. insect, bat) that involuntarily transfers a flower’s pollen from male reproductive organs to female reproductive organs.  Seed Disperser: An animal or abiotic factor (i.e. wind) that moves seeds away from the parent plant and helps expand that plant’s population distribution.  Slash and Burn Agriculture: a method of agriculture used in the tropics in which forest vegetation is felled and burned, the land is cropped for a few years, then the forest is allowed to re-grow.  Soil: the top layer of the earth's surface, consisting of rock and mineral particles mixed with organic matter.  Stigma: the pollen-receiving tip of a flower’s pistil (female part).  Stamen: the male pollen-producing reproductive organ of a flower.  Sustainability: The use of resources at a rate which will meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs.  Temperate Rainforest: Coniferous or broadleaf forests that occur in the temperate zone and receive high and evenly distributed rainfall. Unlike tropical rainforests, temperate rainforests have less complex ecology and seasonal variation.  Tropical Rainforest: An eco-system found roughly within 28° north or south of the equator characterized by high temperatures, heavy rainfall, great biodiversity, and poor soil quality.  Tropic of Cancer: the parallel of latitude 23°27' north of the equator, the northern boundary of the Torrid Zone, and the most northerly latitude at which the sun can shine directly overhead  Tropic of Capricorn: the parallel of latitude 23°27' south of the equator, the southern boundary of the Torrid Zone, and the most southerly latitude at which the sun can shine directly overhead  Understory: The layer of a tropical rainforest that lies between the canopy and the forest floor. It is home to many birds, snakes, lizards, and predators such as jaguars, boa constrictors, and leopards. This layer is characterized by large leaves, abundant insect life, and seedlings that will grow to the canopy level. 5% of the sunlight reaches the understory

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References and Resources

References

Books and Web Resources Barthlott, W., Mutke, J., Rafiqpoor, M. D., Kier, G. and Kreft, H. (2005): Global centres vascular plant diversity. Nova Acta Leopoldina, 92, 61-83.

Butler, R. (2011). Mongabay.com Website. Retrieved June 10, 2011 from http://rainforests.mongabay.com/

Carter, J. S. Coevolution and Pollination. (2005) Retrieved June 1, 2011 from http://biology.clc.uc.edu/courses/bio303/coevolution.htm

City and County of San Francisco. Fun Facts and Statistics. Retrieved from http://www.sfgov.org/site/visitor_index.asp?id=7717 on December 17, 2007.

Coffee and Conservation. (2010). What is Shade Grown Coffee. Retrieved June 1, 2011 from http://www.coffeehabitat.com/2006/02/what_is_shade_g/

Forsyth, A., & Miyata, K. (1984). Tropical nature: Life and death in the rain forests of Central and South America. New York: Touchstone.

Hanlon, M. A Bees-Eye View: How Insects See Flowers Very Differently To Us. (2007). Daily Mail Online. Retrieved June 1, 2011 from http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article- 473897/A-bee-eye-view-How-insects-flowers-differentlt-us.html

Kling (2011) University of Michigan Global Change Lecture Notes. Retrieved June 2, 2011 from www.globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange1/current/lectures/kling/rainforest/ rainforest.html

Koning, R. Pollination Adaptations. (1994). Plant Physiology Website. Retrieved June 1, 2011 from http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-online/ibc99/koning/pollenadapt.html

Kricher, J.C. (1997). A Neotropical Companion: An introduction to the animals, plants, and ecosystems of the new world tropics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Mittermeier, R.A., Gil, P.R., Hoffman, M., et al. (2004). Hotspots Revisited. Mexico City,Mexico: Cemex. (Note: more than 2000 species of orchids from Mittermeier et al (2004), changed to 2500 species at CAS/Steinhart request, 3/23/07.)

Mutke, J. and Barthlott, W. (2005): Patterns of vascular plant diversity at continental to global scales. Biologiske Skrifter, 55, 521-537.

Prance, G.T., & Lovejoy, T.E. (Eds.). (1985). Key environments: Amazonia. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Teacher and Student Services, 2011 62

References and Resources

Primack, R., & Corlett, R. (2005). Tropical Rain Forests: An ecological and biogeographical comparison. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.

Project Amazonia. (2006). Project Amazonia Website. Retrieved June 10, 2011 from http://web.mit.edu/12.000/www/m2006/final/site_index.html

Rorslett, B. Flowers in Ultraviolet. (2006). Retrieved June 1, 2011 from http://www.naturfotograf.com/UV_flowers_list.html

Samboja Lodge. (2009). About BOS Foundation. Retrieved June 2, 2011 from http://www.sambojalodge.com/AboutBOSFoundation/

Salvesen, D. (1996). The Grind Over Sun Coffee. Zoogoer. Retrieved June 1, 2011 from http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Publications/ZooGoer/1996/4/suncoffee.cfm

Science and Plants for Schools. (2011). Retrieved June 1, 2011 from http://www.saps.org.uk/primary/teaching-resources

Smits, W. (2009). Willie Smits Restores a Rainforest. TED: Ideas Worth Spreading. Retrieved June 2, 2011 from http://www.ted.com/talks/willie_smits_restores_a_rainforest.html

Union of Concerned Scientists. (2010). The Plus Side: Promoting Sustainable Carbon Sequestration in Tropical Forests. Retrieved June 1, 2011 from http://www.ucsusa.org/ global_warming/solutions/ forest_ solutions/sustainable-carbon-sequestration-tropical- forests.html

United Nations Environment Programme and Amazon Cooperation Treaty Organization. (2009). Environment Outlook in Amazonia: Geo Amazonia. Retrieved June 1, 2011 from http://www.unep.org/pdf/GEOAMAZONIA.pdf

United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Soil Education. Retrieved October 30, 2007 from http://soils.usda.gov/education/.

US Forest Service. Pollinator Syndromes. (2010). Retrieved June 1, 2011 from http://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/pollinators/syndromes.shtml#traits

In-House References Wildy, Dr. E. (2009) California Academy of Sciences Lecture, Rainforest Class 1

California Academy of Sciences Rainforest Docent Guide

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References and Resources

Conference Activity Adapted From: Teacher’s Curriculum Institute. “Summary of Rainforest Conference Interest Groups”. Student Handout 5D- Latin America. Retrieved June 10, 2011 from https://files.pbworks.com/download/ XT7bD9TCqI/alishajonker/34952574/Summary%20of%20Interest%20Groups%20 and%20Timeline.pdf Bangkok Patana School. “Groups Interested in the Rainforest”. Retrieved on June 10, 2011 from http://www.patana.ac.th/UploadCentre/Staff/SERI/interest_groups.pptx

Resources for Educators

Books Collins, M. (ed.) The Last Rainforests: A World Conservation Atlas. Oxford University Press: New York, 1990. Dalton, S., Bernard, G. & Mitchell, A. Vanishing Paradise: The Tropical Rainforest. The Overlook Press: New York, 1990. Forsyth, A., Fogden, M. & Fogden, P. Nature of the Rainforest: Costa Rica and Beyond. Cornell University Press: Ithaca, 2008. Marent, T. Rainforest. DK Publishing: UK, 2010. Terbourgh, J. Diversity and the Tropical Rain Forest. Scientific American Library: New York, 1992.

Web Resources http://www.mongabay.com/home.htm http://ran.org/ http://passporttoknowledge.com/rainforest/main.html

Science Journals Biotropica Journal of Tropical Ecology

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References and Resources

Resources for Students

Books Osborne, W. & Osborne, M.P. Magic Tree House Research Guide: Rainforests. Random House: New York, 2001. Lewis, S. The Rainforest Book: How You Can Save the World’s Rainforests. Living Planet Press: Venice, CA, 1990. The Cousteau Society. An Adventure in the Amazon. Simon & Schuster: New York, 1992.

Books in Spanish- Libros en Español Fundación Cousteau. Los Secretos de la Amazonia. CESMA: Madrid, 1991. Willow, D., Jacques, L. Dentro de la Selva Tropical. Charlesbridge: MA, 1993.

Web Resources http://kids.mongabay.com/ http://www.mbgnet.net/sets/rforest/index.htm http://rainforest-alliance.org/kids

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