Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times
Proceedings of the 2012
International Colloquium on Communication
Eric E. Peterson and Annette Mönnich, Editors
Virginia Tech, 2014 Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 International Colloquium on Communication
Eric E. Peterson, Editor Annette Mönnich, Editor Department of Communication and Journalism Germanistisches Institut University of Maine Ruhr-Universität Bochum 5724 Dunn Hall GB 3/129 Orono, ME 04469-5724 44780 Bochum USA GERMANY
2014
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 3.0 United States License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by- nc-nd/3.0/us/ or send a letter to Creative Commons, 171 Second Street, Suite 300, San Francisco, California, 94105, USA.
Contents
1. An Introduction to Communicator Opportunities 1 and Responsibilities in Volatile Times ERIC E. PETERSON AND ANNETTE MÖNNICH
Contemporary Institutional and Social Struggles
2. Wearing the Trickster Mask in the Contemporary Social Movements 4 of Anonymous and Occupy ELIZABETH C. FINE
3. When Institutional Forgetting is Convenient: Economists and the Great Recession 19 TIMOTHY HEGSTROM
Opportunity and Responsibility in Journalism
4. Argumentieren in „Sendekritiken“–Formen/Funktionen 30 EBERHARD WOLF-LINCKE
5. Member Comments on a Local Newspaper Website: 44 The Challenge of Moral Action in the Mediated Public Sphere ERIC E. PETERSON AND KRISTIN M. LANGELLIER
Cultural Challenges in Volatile Times
6. Media Presentations of Alterity in Terms of Literary Stereotypes 51 and Prejudices: Zigeuner (Gypsy) Representations FRANZISKA KRUMWIEDE
7. Für Verstehen und Missverstehen in der interkulturellen Kommunikation 61 sensibilisieren – Anregungen für ein Training CARMEN SPIEGEL
8. Listening From the Dark Side 2 68 RICHARD D. HALLEY An Introduction to Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times
Eric E. Peterson and Annette Mönnich
([email protected]; [email protected])
The 23rd International Colloquium on Hellmut Geissner, a founder and guiding light of Communication (ICC) was held on July 29 – the Colloquium for more than forty years of its August 3, 2012, in San Francisco, California. history. In his key contribution to the The conference theme focused on the proceedings of the 14th Colloquium, Geissner interwoven opportunities and responsibilities of (1995) claims that responsibility is not an communicators in a time of global volatility. As optional or accidental aspect of communication. the call for papers noted: “financial hazards, Instead, Geissner argues that responsibility is an climate change, political uprising in the Middle essential component of human communication. East and elsewhere, privacy threats, shifting As he concludes, “”there is no human balances of power worldwide, are just a few of perspective other than dialogical ethics that is the global issues that challenge contemporary founded on conversation and responsibility” societies.” Given the volatility of these times, it (20). To reach this conclusion, Geissner traces is important to ask about the responsibilities and the meanings of responsibility from their English opportunities of communicators. The use of the and German uses to their Latin and Greek roots. term “communicators” is understood to The root word “respond” in the English term encompass a broad range of agents ranging “responsibility” is not merely the simple from individual scholars and educators to reciprocity of “saying something in return” but is academic institutions, media organizations, the more profound reciprocity of communicative corporations, and governments. The 23rd accountability understood as “the mutual Colloquium was organized by Gary Selnow willingness to promise in return” (18; emphasis (U.S. Coordinator) and Annette Mönnich in the original). Communication entails both the (European Coordinator) with local arrangements ability to respond (response-ability) and the by Gary Selnow. mutual accountability for that interaction (re- sponse-ability). The concern with communicator opportunities and responsibilities grew out of the The parallel German word “Verantwortung” previous ICC, held in Vienna, Austria, in July suggests a similar ambiguity. Geissner points 2010. That colloquium focused on how new and out that the word “Verantwortung” combines the evolving media forms were changing society in noun “Antwort,” which incorporates the the 21st century. As Elizabeth Fine and Gary meanings of “answer” and “answer-ability,” Selnow, the editors of the 2010 Proceedings, along with a reference to the expected or point out, society was transformed by the finished action as captured by the prefix “ver-“. A introduction of radio, television, and the internet communicator’s responsibility is thus to both over the past 100 years. Whereas the 22nd answer to and to be accountable for one’s own Colloquium focused on the social consequences speech and to the other’s answer (18). In this of these emerging media forms, the 23rd way, the dialogical character of communication Colloquium shifts focus to explore the particular and responsibility is brought forth. As Geissner responsibilities and opportunities that summarizes: “the ability to converse communicators face in such turbulent times. (“Gesprächsfähigkeit”) is the essence of human beings interconnected with the ability to be In taking up the issue of communicator responsible (“Verantwortungsfähigheit”) (19). responsibility in volatile times, Colloquium participants follow the path marked out by
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 1 The contributions in the Proceedings of the of social phenomena is not merely a positing of 23rd International Colloquium on Communication “what exists” but also a complex and ambiguous illustrate the complexity of this dialogic description of both text and context. understanding of responsibility: that is, to render an account of society in volatile times and to be The two essays in the second section, accountable for that account to both society and “Opportunity and Responsibility in Journalism,” to ourselves as participants in an ongoing focus on the possibility of self-reflexive critique dialogue. The essays in this volume have been in production and reception. Eberhard Wolf- organized to crystalize three aspects of a Lincke explores how television journalists dialogic approach to responsibility. The first incorporate critique into their production section, “Contemporary Institutional and Social practices. Little research exists on how Struggles,” focuses on responsibility in the broadcast journalists practice what is commonly sense of providing an account of society in understood as a goal of “journalistic excellence.” volatile times. The second section, “Opportunity Wolf-Lincke carefully analyzes the and Responsibility in Journalism,” focuses on organizational practices of a specific broadcast responsibility in the sense of accountability or organization to review how journalistic practices “answerability” in our own communication can both enact and frustrate the pursuit of such practice such as the production and reception of excellence. His empirical analysis suggests the journalism. The third section, “Cultural importance of critique for responsible Challenges in Volatile Times,” focuses on professional practice. The second essay in this responsibility in the sense of accountability for section, by Eric Peterson and Kristin Langellier, and to the other in the dialogic practices of focuses on the reception of journalism by representation, mis/understanding, and listening. newspaper readers. They examine how online comments made by readers on a local Two essays comprise the first section on newspaper website can contribute to “Contemporary Institutional and Social responsible dialogue in reception. Following the Struggles.” Elizabeth Fine analyzes the use of work of Roger Silverstone on ethics in the the trickster archetype in contemporary mediated public sphere, they use a specific case Anonymous and Occupy social movements. study regarding the deportation of a local Somali These social movements enable ordinary people resident in Lewiston, Maine, to illustrate three to “turn a trick” on oppressive forces of moral obligations: proper distance, responsible corporations and corrupt politicians. Fine draws listening, and truthfulness. on the work of Mikhail Bakhtin to draw out the ambiguous complexities that accompany the The final section, “Cultural Challenges in infusion of the carnivalesque into protest Volatile Times,” explores the responsibilities to strategies and tactics. The turns and re-turns of and for the other that communicators take up in the trickster create opportunities for activists at different forms of dialogue. Franziska the same time that they raise new questions Krumwiede analyzes media representations of about the responsibility of such efforts. the figure of “the Gypsy.” She situates her Whereas Fine analyzes the communication of analysis in the context of the opening in 2012 of the marginalized, Timothy Hegstrom shifts a Berlin memorial to the Sinti and Roma critical attention to the work of economists within persecuted during the Third Reich. Krumwiede the mainstream of policy discussion. In examines the operation of pejorative terms particular, he describes how these established (such as “Zigeuner”) on cultural identity as taken economists “actively forget” principles of fiscal up in legal courts and academic discourse. She policy, and the impact that such organizational traces the emergence of Gypsy stereotypes forgetting had during the Great Recession that from the Middle Ages to contemporary popular began in 2008. Hegstrom points out that “active culture. In the second essay of the section, forgetting” is a selective and strategic operation Carmen Spiegel discusses the operation of wherein some practices are reproduced while understanding and misunderstanding in others are resisted or repressed. In this case, intercultural communication. Her emphasis on the policy recommendations of mainstream communication as interaction suggests that economists constitute a clear conflict of interest scholars attend to misunderstanding as more when their personal financial ties are not made than a failure to understand. She connects this explicit or challenged. Both essays in this emphasis on interaction to specific discourse section illustrate how “giving an account” (Butler) strategies that have implications for how
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 2 practitioners approach communication training. In the last essay, Richard Halley outlines the meanings of listening across a wide range of contexts. He argues that these examples demonstrate both the importance of listening and of “being listened to.” Listening, he reminds us, is not merely the reception of information but also a concern for respecting and honoring the other’s discourse. In this way, Halley returns us to Geissner’s argument about responsibility. To listen to these authors is to participate in their promise of accountability and in the reciprocity of communication. Indeed, the contributions to this volume – and the history of the International Colloquium on Communication in general – illustrates the operation of communication in Geissner’s sense as “the mutual willingness to promise in return.”
References
BUTLER, J. 2005. Giving an Account of Oneself. NY: Fordham University Press. FINE, E. C., & SELNOW, G. W. 2012. An Introduction to the Evolving Media’s Impact on Rhetoric and Society: Critical and Ethical Issues. In E. C. Fine & G. W. Selnow (Eds.), The Evolving Media’s Impact on Rhetoric and Society: Proceedings of the 2010 International Colloquium on Communication (pp. 1-4). Blacksburg, VA: Virginia Tech Digital Library and Archives. http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/ICC/2010/IC C2010Fine.pdf GEISSNER, H. K. 1995. On Responsibility. In J. Lehtonen (Ed.), Critical Perspectives on Communication Research and Pedagogy (pp. 17-29). St. Ingbert: Röhrig Universitätsverlag.
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 3 Wearing the Trickster Mask in the Contemporary Social Movements of Anonymous and Occupy Elizabeth C. Fine ([email protected])
The Guy Fawkes mask from the dystopian they give an account of the creation of the film, V for Vendetta, has become iconic of the earth, or at least the transforming of the contemporary social movements of Anonymous world, and have a hero who is always and Occupy, as it embodies the trickster wandering, who is always hungry, who is not archetype and the potential of ordinary people to guided by normal conceptions of good or evil, take part in movements against such oppressive who is either playing tricks on people or forces as oligarchic corporatism, corrupt having them played on him and who is highly politicians, and police brutality. The trickster sexed (155). archetype is a social role predicated on crossing boundaries and subverting social structures, According to William J. Hynes, trickster using cunning, deception, and ambiguity. figures are often ambiguous and anomalous, Alternately celebrated by those who benefit from existing beyond borders and categories. Adept their actions, and reviled by those who do not, at deception and trickery, tricksters may take the the transgressive speech and actions of trickster form of unconscious numskulls or malicious social activists frequently invite strong critiques spoilers. Sometimes tricksters are caught in their and reprisals from the state. own traps, as the tricks gain momentum and turn back upon the tricksters. Shape shifters and This paper explores the opportunities and border crossers, tricksters can change their responsibilities that the trickster ethos affords gender or their appearance, and cross the contemporary social activists. It examines the borders between the living and the dead, the emergent culture of both the Anonymous and sacred and the profane. Tricksters are adept at Occupy social movements, with a focus on the inverting situations, breaking rules, mocking values that emerge through their discourse, conventions, subverting beliefs. Tinkering with actions, and iconography. After a brief both the sacred and the lewd and finding the background on the trickster and the Anonymous one in the other, tricksters bring new life out of and the Occupy movements, the paper explores both. Tricksters are often associated with opportunities for the trickster in contemporary gustatory, sexual, and scatological images social movements, followed by examples of the (Hynes 1997, 33-45). In his masterful book, trickster ethos in Anonymous and Occupy. Trickster Makes This World, Lewis Hyde argues Finally, it considers if and how social that cultures need trickster heroes to maintain movements with a trickster ethos take their liveliness and durability, as trickster figures responsibility for their actions and the future of function “to uncover and disrupt the very thing their movements. that cultures are based on” (1998:9).
Defining the Trickster The trickster abounds in the carnivalesque, according to both Carl Jung and Mikhail Bakhtin. In mythology and folklore worldwide, trickster Jung traces the Schelmenfigur’s or Trickster’s gods and heroes use deception to create the appearance in Medieval festivals, carnivals, world, change power relations in the world, or tales, and comedies (Jung 1890, c1956, outwit oppressive forces. Anthropologist Paul 1972,196-200), and Bakhtin argues that the Radin’s classic definition of North American carnivalesque, whether in festivals or in Indian trickster myths embodies key literature, provides the space to invert social characteristics of trickster figures found in hierarchies, stimulating creativity and laughter, mythologies throughout the world: change and renewal (Bakhtin 1984, 81).1 The Internet, in its anarchic, open-endedness,
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 4 provides carnivalesque sites where participants social rules who plays cruel games or pranks on can mask their own identities, unmask the people or organizations just for the sake of identities of others, and create transgressive laughs (lulz), to the increasingly ethical persona spaces “where the frustrations, aspirations and of a defender of Internet freedom and social protests about the quality of everyday life of the justice. people can be expressed” (Theall 1999, 159- 160). Theall argues that a certain “‘moral panic’” It is important to foreground the difference pervades contemporary discussion of the between human beings who participate in social Internet, provoking at times a “techno-ethical movements such as Anonymous and Occupy McCarthyism” and such Internet regulatory Wall Street, and the trickster characters in legislation in the US as the CDA (Computer folklore and mythology. Human beings are Decency Act) and COPA (Child Online Privacy multidimensional and take on a variety of social Act) (1999, 154,157). More recent attempts to roles, from the more serious and responsible control the Internet, such as the proposed SOPA roles of parenting or work life, to those of play, (Stop Online Piracy Act) legislation in 2010 have deception, or protest. While members of been met with fierce resistance by Internet Anonymous and Occupy may strategically adopt activists such as Aaron Schwartz (Regalado trickster-like tactics, they may also – and do – 2012), whose suicide in early 2013 has focused choose other modus operandi. new attention on the struggle for freedom of information. Occupations, especially prolonged Background on Anonymous and the Occupy ones, can also evoke the spirit of carnival, as Movements occupiers enter a liminal space outside of their everyday roles and routines. Anonymous defines itself as “a decentralized network of individuals focused on promoting Many contemporary social activists and access to information, free speech, and movements invoke the spirit of carnival and the transparency” (Anonymous Analytics 2012). trickster in their actions. Andrew Robinson Biella Coleman, a Professor at MIT who has points to such activist initiatives as the been studying Anonymous since 2008 writes Clandestine Insurgent Rebel Clown Army, the that: “Anonymous is not a united front, but a Laboratory of the Insurrectionary Imagination, hydra, a rhizome, comprising numerous different Reclaim the Streets, particularly the Carnival networks and working groups that are often at against Capital, as well as the free party odds with one another” (2012). This network had movement (2011) Hactivist groups such as the its start in an image board website called 4chan, Yes Men, with their “Ream Weaver” software, developed in 2003 by a New York City teenager, have made it easy to “culture jam” corporate Christopher Poole. Modeled on the Japanese websites, substituting critical messages that website 2chan, which was devoted to images undermine their messages, while keeping their and discussions of Japanese manga and anime, same website style.2 Earlier manifestations of 4chan quickly developed a number of discussion the trickster ethos in the 20th century can be boards. While 4chan first allowed users to post found in such groups as the Situationists (the using a nickname, by 2004 it introduced a new Notre Dame Affair), the Yippies, and the Merry feature called “Forced_Anon” on a few of its Pranksters. boards, that forced commenters to be anonymous. Since 2008, two social movements that draw on a trickster ethos and tactics have come to the One discussion board in particular, called /b/, fore: Anonymous and Occupy Wall Street (along is a random board that became, according to with the worldwide Occupy movement). Both one user, “‘the beating heart of this site,’” a groups worked together in the fall of 2011, with “free-for-all” in which users rapidly posted any Anonymous providing Internet support to ideas and comments of interest (Olson 2012, Occupy Wall Street. Members of both adopted 26-28). Early actions of Anonymous on 4chan the Guy Fawkes mask to provide anonymity consisted of various pranks and acts of ridicule during their occupations and protests, and both to produce laughs or “lulz.” In 2008, Anonymous are horizontally organized, with non-hierarchical members launched Project Chanology made up leadership structures. Anonymous embodies of cyberattacks, pranks, and demonstrations more of the classic trickster ethos, which ranges against the Church of Scientology to critique its from the crude, lewd, amoral transgressor of ideology and tactics and support anti-
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 5 censorship. When members of Anonymous faction, Anonymous Analytics, formed in 2011, physically demonstrated in front of Scientology uses legal forms of information gathering to churches, many of them wore the Guy Fawkes expose corporate corruption (Fish 2012). In mask in order to retain their anonymity and 2012, Time Magazine included Anonymous in its protect themselves from retaliatory legal actions list of the 100 most influential people of the by Scientology. Following this successful foray world (Gellman 2012). into political activism, Anonymous members supported other causes, such as providing The Occupy Wall Street movement began on Internet aid to Tunisian activists in the Arab September 7, 2011 with an encampment of Spring, and “supporting anti-corruption protesters in Zuccotti Park in the Wall Street movements in Zimbabwe and India, and financial district in New York City. The Canadian providing secure platforms for Iranian citizens to magazine and activist group Adbusters takes criticize their government” (Anonymous credit for the moniker and the idea to occupy Analytics, 2011). Government efforts to stop Wall Street, but antecedent protests in Spain music and film piracy, as well as suppression of called the indignados, as well as the Arab Wikileaks, spurred Anonymous to increased Spring, provided important stimuli and models. political acts, including denial of service attacks United around the slogan, “We are the 99%,” on the websites of cybersecurity firms, PayPal, Occupy Wall Street protested the actions of the Fox News, Amazon, the FBI, the CIA, Scotland 1% that led to the Great Recession and the Yard, and the Vatican, to name but a few. increasing impoverishment of Americans. In its Anonymous members have taken part in “Declaration of the Occupation of New York Internet vigilantism against child pornographers City,” OWS says: “We come to you at a time as well, and a faction called KnightSec used when corporations, which place profit over their hacking skills to uncover evidence of people, self-interest over justice, and oppression participation in or support of a gang rape in over equality, run our governments” Steubenville, Ohio, in 2012, with Occupy (#OccupyWallStreet, September 29, 2011). Steubenville demonstrating in response (Elfling Adhering to the Spanish indignados commitment 2012). When Anonymous hacks into a website, to participatory democracy, OWS adopted the it often takes credit by defacing the homepage spirit of the Puerto del Sol communication with an icon that evokes the olive-branch policies that stressed participatory democracy surrounded global emblem of the United and consensus. The Occupy Wall Street Nations, except that the continents are replaced concept spread to cities and towns throughout by a headless man in a suit with a question mark the U.S. and the world. in place of the head—or in some cases, the Guy Fawkes mask. The arms on the man are behind Following the forced evictions of protesters his back, so that one cannot see what his hands from their Occupy encampments during the are doing. Such iconography suggests the winter of 2011-2012, many have called into international and global reach of Anonymous, its question whether the Occupy movement can leaderless nature, its peaceful intent, its trickster continue without public spaces to inhabit. Others ethos (just who is it and what are those hands have criticized the Occupy movement’s lack of a doing?) and of course, its anonymity. uniform platform and its reluctance to take part Underneath this icon follow its signature words: in electoral politics. Adbusters continues to urge the Occupy movement to resist being coopted We are Anonymous. by mainstream political parties, and numerous We are Legion. Occupy organizations continue meeting We do not forgive. throughout the U.S. and around the world. New We do not forget. tactics include flash-occupations and Expect us. occupations of foreclosed houses, to prevent evictions. In July 2012, a national convention of In the fall of 2011, Anonymous members Occupy Wall Street was held in Philadelphia, helped the fledgling Occupy Wall Street Pennsylvania. movement by providing Internet support and helping to prevent violence through a Tweeting Both Occupy and Anonymous are examples campaign. Not all Anonymous information- of hybrid organizations that bring virtual and real gathering activities involve illegal hacking. One life protests together. As Quinn Norton argues,
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 6 they are “each examples of a new kind of hybrid tactics and seek creative ways to gain public entity, one that breaks the boundaries between attention. “real life” and the internet, creatures of the network embodied as citizens in the real world. The trickster ethos may be coming to the fore As one member of The Pirate Bay explained on in the current economic and environmental IRC, “We prefer afk (away from keyboard) to irl crises because of the increasing tricksterism of (in real life). This is real life” (Norton 2011). global capitalism. Wall Street and large banks, with their “interest rate swaps,” “credit default Opportunities for the Trickster in swaps” and their no-equity, balloon interest Contemporary Social Movements mortgage schemes, make ample use of trickster modus operandi. A young Wall Street employee, In an age in which large multinational Alexis Goldstein, quit her job and joined the corporations exercise enormous power, Internet Occupy Wall Street movement and revealed search engines and social media track users as some of the trickster culture of Wall Street: they move through cyberspace, selling information about their activity, and state Goldstein devised trading software for security systems can routinely screen citizens’ Deutsche Bank and Merrill Lynch. She has email (Sullivan 2012), it has become divulged some of Wall Street’s most closely increasingly difficult for people to maintain their held cultural secrets such as the phrase “rip privacy. As mainstream media have been the client’s face off” which means selling consolidated and owned by a few corporations, some derivative “solution” to a naive client the existence and quality of media coverage of such as a convent of nuns in Europe at a social protests may be contingent on the huge profit to the trader and to Wall Street business interests of corporate owners. As a while convincing the client that it’s the best consequence of an increasing loss of power by deal they ever made. Sometimes they refer citizens, some social movements have adopted to these clients as “muppets” (Lawrence a traditional weapon of the powerless – wit, 2012). coupled with surprise and the shape-shifting, amorphous characteristics of the trickster – to The Obama administration’s involvement in capture attention and gain an audience for their developing the computer virus Stuxnet to use in messages. covert cyberattacks against Iran’s nuclear program is but one example of U.S. covert A website dedicated to providing advice, operations that rely on trickster tactics not unlike strategies, and tools to the Occupy movement those of hacktivists in Anonymous and LulzSec provides an apt rationale for the trickster ethos (Sanger 2012; Naughton 2012). under the name of creative activism: Another opportunity provided by the trickster 18. Reflectantes – creative activism. Usually ethos lies in its amorphous, ambiguous, and the media tries to silence our movement. shape-shifting characteristics. Both Anonymous However, when violent incidents (this is, and the Occupy movements embody this property destruction) arises, they get crazy amorphous “structure” through their horizontal about it, they love to portray activists as organization and “open-source politics” that violent marginals. A way to move forward out make use of the concept of the “hive mind” or of this is creative activism: through the use of collective intelligence. Instead of a hierarchical imagination, theatrics, and art, activists can organization, both movements are based on an break the rules of the game in nonviolent ideal of open and free participation, with each ways, confuse policemen, protect activists participant encouraged to voice his or her ideas. and attract positive media attention In the case of Anonymous, participants suggest (Cronopioelectronico 2012). actions and ideas online on such forums as the image board /b/ on 4chan and on Internet Relay Similarly, the magazine Adbusters, which takes Chats (IRCs). Quick and constant postings of credit for inspiring the initial Occupy Wall Street suggested actions by many participants mean Movement, recommends “culture jamming” and that many suggestions for action never bear other creative techniques. Both Anonymous and fruit. But when ideas resonate with a number of the Occupy movements call for nonviolent viewers, ideas can quickly turn into widespread operations, as in Anonymous’s famous
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 7 “Chanology” operation against the Church of In carving out public spaces, either real or Scientology in 2008, involving thousands of virtual, for participatory discourse that Anons from 42 countries. The Occupy encourages multiple voices, both Occupy and movement is committed to an agora-like Anonymous, like the trickster, have a liminal participatory democracy and ideas are tested status, betwixt and between established, through group assemblies, following elaborate institutional organizations and political procedures to ensure that everyone can speak frameworks. As Victor Turner argues, such or express his or her opinions, and other ideas liminal spaces often give rise to a profound take expression through the many websites that communitas, wherein participants experience support the Occupy movements worldwide. One intense community (Turner 1969, 96). such website, takethesquare.net, makes this claim about the virtues of horizontal Trickster Ethos and Tactics in Anonymous organization: and Occupy 21. We try by all means to remain open, horizontal, confident, fearless. . . . Anonymous Horizontality, too, guarantees that the Before Anonymous took a political turn in movement cannot be “beheaded.” We 2008 with its Chanology Project, it already assembly in public spaces, we share the possessed a distinctive trickster ethos through minutes with everyone in highly visible the goal of many Anons to create and enjoy websites (www.tomalaplaza.net) and yet, we “lulz”—laughs at other people’s expense, frustrate their desire to lead us to self-repress created through online ridicule, such as defacing ourselves, we haven’t changed, for we have someone’s Facebook or website or through nothing to hide. Their Panopticon, their Big embarrassing pranks, like having unwanted Brothers seems not to be working any more pizzas delivered to someone’s house, reserving (Cronopioelectronico 2012). unwanted taxis, or faxing black paper to victims in order to drain their ink cartridges (Olson A fundamental document passed by the 2012:68). Almost any kind of posting is General Assembly at Occupy Wall street on acceptable on 4chan, and the anonymity made it November 10, 2011, articulates a “Statement of easy to avoid self-censorship. Nudity, profanity, Autonomy” that defines OWS as a “people’s gore, and foul language are common. Parmy movement” that is “is party-less, leaderless, by Olson describes 4chan as “a teeming pit of the people and for the people. It is not a depraved images and nasty jokes, yet at the business, a political party, an advertising same time a source of extraordinary, unhindered campaign or a brand. It is not for sale.” Keenly creativity” (32). Users developed the famous aware of the dangers of the movement being LOLcats meme, and many other memes that coopted by other organizations, the “Statement gained popularity throughout the Internet. Users of Autonomy” concludes by saying: also developed a special jargon and communication etiquette. For example, users We acknowledge the existence of call each other fags, with modifying adjectives professional activists who work to make our according to their perceived status and goals world a better place. If you are representing, within the collective (fag is non-pejorative among or being compensated by an independent Anons). A tripfag refers to those who wanted to source while participating in our process, use nicknames and override the forced please disclose your affiliation at the outset. anonymity by typing in “tripcodes” (Olson 2012, Those seeking to capitalize on this 28). Further describing their discourse and movement or undermine it by appropriating nomenclature, Olson says: its message or symbols are not a part of Occupy Wall Street. Racist comments, homophobia, and jokes about disabled people were the norm. It was We stand in solidarity. We are Occupy Wall customary for users to call one another Street “nigger,” “faggot,” or just “fag.” New 4chan users were newfags, old ones oldfags, and (#OccupyWallStreet, Nov. 10, 2012). Brits were britfags, homosexuals were fagfags or gayfags. It was a gritty world yet strangely accepting. It became taboo to
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 8 identify one’s sex, race, or age. Stripping After some Anons “doxed” her, that is, reported 4chan users of their identifying features her real identity, and made intimidating threats made everyone feel more like part of a to her family, Emick retaliated. She devoted collective, and this is what kept many herself to discovering the real identity of Hector coming back (34). Monseguer, aka “Sabu,” one of a small group of Anon hackers who made up a new hacking team called “LulzSec” or Lulz Security, whose goal it The random discussion board /b/ had “two was to hack high-profile corporations such as big no-no’s”: child porn and moralfags, who were Sony and government agencies such as the FBI visitors to /b/ who took issue with some of the and the CIA. (It was Sabu who provided the idea depraved content and tried to change it or, and leadership for helping Tunisian “worse, tried to get /b/ to act on some other kind revolutionaries circumvent government Internet of wrongdoing” (Olson 2012:35). Moralfags censorship.) proved successful in attracting hundreds of Anons to support the Chanology cause, and In a June 17 2011 statement to celebrate its increasingly, moralfags attracted Anons to many 1000th Tweet, LulzSec extolled its own trickster other political actions, such as the Occupy Wall ethos. The image accompanying its statement, Street movement. The Chanology Project had LulzSec’s icon, a cartoon of a winking man marked the beginning of a split of Anonymous in a suit and topcoat, with a monocle, a handle- into two camps—those in it just for the lulz and bar mustache, and holding a wine-glass, riding those interested in activism (Olson 2012:89). on a green chameleon. Such iconography Perhaps the increasing number of moralfags seems to suggest a trickster who is nonchalantly and the political turn to hacktivism suggests a and elegantly in control of a protean force. In developing moral consciousness in Anonymous. the last sentences, LulzSec turned the tables on and ridiculed the reader, for wasting time Certainly the raw language and pornographic reading its statement: images that filled /b/ on 4chan are part of a classic trickster ethos. One /b/ user, known as This is the Internet, where we screw each “William,” who Olson interviewed at length, other over for a jolt of satisfaction. There are reported that his morals “were also becoming peons and lulz lizards; trolls and victims. increasingly ambiguous as he constantly There's losers that post shit they think watched and laughed at gore, rape, racism, and matters, and other losers telling them their abuse”: shit does not matter. In this situation, we are both of these parties, because we're fully Everything was “cash” or “win” (good and aware that every single person that reached acceptable). /b/tards knew the difference this final sentence just wasted a few between right and wrong—they just chose moments of their time. not to recognize either designation on 4chan. Everyone accepted they were there for lulz, and that the act of attaining lulz often meant Thank you, bitches. hurting someone. It was no wonder that a future tagline for Anonymous would be, Emick turned her information over to the FBI, “None of us are as cruel as all of us.” ultimately leading to the arrest of key LulzSec William’s increasing ambivalence over sex members (Olson 2012: 212-17). Just as in and morality was being multiplied on a mass trickster myths where the trickster’s actions scale for others on 4chan and would become backfire, in this case, lulzing Emick ultimately led a basis for the cultlike identity of Anonymous” to Emick having the last lulz on LulzSec. When (Olson 37). Sabu was arrested by the FBI, he cut a deal wherein he became a spy for them, ultimately The anything-goes atmosphere of /b/ and the betraying other LulzSec members, such as trickster goals of creating lulz contributed to Topiary. enmity between some of the Anons. One of the key participants in the Chanology Project, a Due to the anonymity in Anonymous, it is middle-aged housewife named Jennifer Emick, difficult to trust anyone on the site. Several of was a moralfag who ultimately became the Rules of the Internet developed by disillusioned with Anonymous’s hacking projects. Anonymous users capture this distrust:
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 9 1. Do not talk about /b/ and opposition to both groups. As Biella 2. Do NOT talk about /b/ Coleman writes, 27. Always question a person’s sexual preferences without any real reason. What started as a network of trolls has 28. Always question a person’s sexual become, much of the time, a force for good in gender – just in case it’s really a man. the world; what started as a reaction to the 29. In the internet all girls are men and all Church of Scientology has come to kids are undercover FBI agents. encompass free-speech causes from Tunisia 31. You must have pictures to prove your to Zuccotti Park. While Anonymous has not statements. put forward any programmatic plan to topple 32. Lurk more – it’s never enough. institutions or change unjust laws, it has 37. There are NO girls on the internet (Know made evading them seem easy and Your Meme). desirable. To those donning the Guy Fawkes mask associated with Anonymous, this—and The amorphous boundary-crossing trickster not the commercialized, “transparent” social of myth often brings chaos in his wake. The networking of Facebook—is the promise of freedom of expression licensed by anonymity in the Internet, and it entails trading both Anonymous and LulzSec, coupled with the individualism for collectivism (2012). high speed of Internet postings, led to a chaos that became wearing on key players in LulzSec. Topiary (real name Jake Davis) reported to When key operators of Anonymous and LulzSec were arrested, their defenders on the Parmy Olson that: #FreeAnons Anonymous Solidarity Network It was chaos. Every day now the core group argued that the distributed denial of service was spending more time dealing with internal attacks on corporations and organizations were issues, conspiring against trolls like Jester nothing more than a kind of digital sit-in, a way and Backtrace, rotting out snitches, or of expressing free speech on the Internet. The worrying about what Ryan might say to the Anonymous Solidarity Network bills itself as a police (340). cyberliberation group and says this about itself:
In his haste to publish data hacked from the The Anonymous Solidarity Network provides Arizona police department that a hacker outside support for those who are facing prosecution of LulzSec offered them in response to Arizona’s for alleged involvement in "Anonymous" anti-immigration law involving racial profiling by activities. We believe that community acts of police, Topiary let the hacker write the press internet protest are not crimes nor release. Instead of the kind of lighthearted conspiracies and should not be prosecuted rhetoric that characterized Topiary’s press as such. We plan on keeping folks updated releases, this was entitled “Chinga La Migra” with legal developments as well as provide (“Fuck the Immigration Service”), with the words information and resources to other Anons to “Off the pigs” and an image of an AK-47 protect themselves and have a better machine gun made out of keyboard symbols understanding of what we're up against. (Olson 2012: 339). Shortly after this incident, Remember, you cannot arrest an idea, and both Topiary and Tflow, another LulzSec while they may be able to harass and arrest member, decided to resign from LulzSec. a few of us, they can never stop us all. Free em all! (#FreeAnons, 2011). Yet in the midst of the adolescent pranks and sophisticated hacking found among Anons, is Occupy the kind of creative destruction for which trickster figures are known. Publishing their In contrast to the raw, wild, and relatively successful hacks led to better online security uncensored actions in the virtual world of systems and more careful Internet users. Anonymous, the Occupy Movement seems to be Assisting Tunisian and Iranian citizens a tamer trickster, but nevertheless a trickster. Its overcome state Internet censorship helped name and its first prolonged occupations of advance opposition to oppressive regimes. public spaces are inherently transgressive. Attacks on Scientology and later, the Westboro Instead of the typical, occasional public protests Baptist Church, served to build knowledge of that happen in public spaces, Occupy Wall Street set out to indicate its displeasure with the
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 10 current economic and political system in the loan policies and other interactions kept the U.S. by moving into public spaces in semi- bankers unusually busy this Saturday until permanent encampments. Pedro Noel and the cops finally intervened and kicked Santiago Carrion describe these occupied everybody out (Reinhart 2012). spaces as creating “temporary autonomous zones:” The actions taken by the Occupiers in the bank illustrate the disruption of the flow of business as The will to re-appropriate the physical center usual that Noel and Carrion (2011) argue is of the polis — the ancient heart of politics — central to these new global social movements: is deeply related to the impulse to engage with fellow humans, and is irrevocably linked By occupying the traditional channels of with the concept of transparency. The new information exchange (both physical and squares are the place to apprehend reality, a virtual), a resistance is built against the flow piece of land where there is no space for the which normally serves to aid and perpetuate administrative control of information. The the established systems of society. Cyber square has once again returned to its role as occupation is based on the prolonged a place of exchange for individual initiatives, permanence and concentration on strategic art and politics (2011). spots of informative, political, behavioral or
monetary flow (among others). The Occupy movement also exists in cyberspace, as numerous Occupy news In New York on June 6, Occupy activists websites and Facebook pages have become delivered sacks of two million dollars to bribe sites for citizens to exchange stories and Gov. Cuomo to raise the minimum wage. The strategies and organize new actions. Noel and only catch in this publicity stunt was that the Carrion see the occupation of online space, sacks were full of play money coupled with the occupation of public spaces, as (OccupyWallStreet 2012, June 6). Adbusters the birth of a new global civil consciousness: continues its self-made role as an organizer of the Occupy movement by issuing online a series We believe that this process has come to a of Tactical Briefings. In its Tactical Briefing 27, high point in history during the last year, prior to the May 18 G8 meeting at Camp David, serving to create a massive collective Adbusters extols one of the key tactics of the consciousness, now oriented towards trickster – laughter – and calls for a May 18 systemic transformation. Global #laughriot:
In this specific context, we propose the On May 18, the day the G8 leaders meet in term cyber occupying, which is inevitably Camp David, why don’t we, the people of the linked with the new culture of resistance, as world have a #LAUGHRIOT. Let roars of the appropriation of society’s virtual and laughter rise up from towns and cities physical systemics (Noel and Carrion, 2011). everywhere at the spectacle of the world’s leaders trying to crisis manage the economy In the spring of 2012, Occupiers turned to from behind closed doors and razor wire new trickster-like tactics beyond the occupation fences. of public spaces to call attention to their grievances. Reporting on one of the “Summer Laughter is one of the most powerful tactical Disobedience Schools” organized by Occupy weapons of memewar … it signals Wall Street in New York on May 17, Julia supremacy and loss of fear. So let’s pull off Reinhart said that many of the 200 or so the greatest comedy of howling flash mobs, participants broke up into smaller groups to: riotous street parties and hysterical pranks the world has ever seen. May 18 could be a march upon the seven banks in the area that monumental tipping point… an ahahaha! are open on Saturdays, with the goal to shut moment when the people of the world have a them down for at least a little while. Change collective epiphany, and from that point on thrown to the floor and only very slowly being start thinking differently about how the world picked up, serious questions about ethical should be governed (Adbusters Blog, March 12, 2012).
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 11 Still another trickster move of the Occupy • OWS has zero tolerance for drugs or movement builds on the power of social media alcohol anywhere in Liberty Plaza; to activate the hive mind to take part in flash mob actions, such as flash encampments and • Zero tolerance for violence or verbal flash mobs to intervene in the evictions of abuse towards anyone; tenants from foreclosed properties. The latter actions are having wide-spread success in • Zero tolerance for abuse of personal or Spain and increasing success in cities in the public property. U.S. • OWS will at all times have a community Responsibilities of the Trickster Ethos in relations representative on-site, to Social Movements monitor and respond to community concerns and complaints (#OccupyWallStreet 2, 2011). Although there are many examples of the trickster ethos at work in Anonymous and the Likewise, when OWS discovered that some Occupy movements, are movements female occupiers were being sexually harassed, characterized by a trickster ethos capable of they began offering female-only sections in the acting responsibly? What responsibilities do encampment. such movements take to protect participants and the credibility of and support for their Although the Occupy Movement proudly movements? Does the trickster ethos provide an articulates its leaderless, horizontal organization, opportunity for long-lasting social change, or that does not mean that it has not taken care to only for short-term relief? Does the leaderless, construct both internal and external horizontal structure of both Anonymous and communication rules that promote equality, Occupy make them more likely to have their participatory democracy, and prevent discord in reputations tarnished by violent or illegal the group. The website takethesquare.net offers actions? resources to help Occupy movements run General Assemblies and offers a document As hybrid entities that exist in both developed by the Group Dynamics Commission cyberspace and real space, both Anonymous for the Assemblies of the Puerta del Sol Protest and Occupy appeal to the so-called Hive Mind or Camp in Spain as a blueprint for learning how to collective intelligence to build their movements. participate in an Assembly. This document uses Olson’s assessment of the numbers of Anons communication techniques designed to build who took part in past Anonymous operations Collective Thinking, which it defines as a suggests that those actions that are perceived to constructive process in which “two people with have a strong ethical bent attract the most differing ideas work together to build something participants. For example, operations against new.” This dialectical process necessitates Scientology (perceived by many to be an “active listening” rather than “merely be[ing] exploitative cult) and actions against HBGary, preoccupied with preparing our response.” The Inc., a company planning to attack the Internet document also emphasizes transparency, and freedoms of groups like Anonymous and that the disabled and the deaf be Wikileaks, attracted wide participation among accommodated. The Puerto del Sol document Anonymous followers. gives guidelines for oral expression of both moderators and speakers that emphasizes the Occupy Wall Street and other Occupy importance of “positive speech” that is “less movements around the country have taken great aggressive and more conciliatory” and avoiding care to develop policies and communication “negative statements which close the door to tactics to promote nonviolence, regulate their constructive debate.” It also recommends encampments, protect participants, and keep it “inclusive speech” that makes no gender in harmony with neighbors of its actions. For distinctions. The Puerto del Sol document also example, OWS, through its General Assembly, contains suggestions for moderating developed a Good Neighbor Policy in dialogue discussions, determining a speaking order, and with members of the local community that handling decision-making through an orderly included such principles as: process of debate and consensus. It suggests sign language that can be used by participants
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 12 in a Group Assembly to express concerns plaza clear after all the “good protesters” nonverbally: scurried home, making any reoccupation physically impossible. [. . .] Any hopes of 1) APPLAUSE/AGREEMENT: Upraised, a spring offensive leading to a new round open hands moving from side to side. of space reclamations and liberated 2) DISAGREEMENT: Arms folded in zones has come and gone. And with that, cross above the head. Occupy Wall Street and Occupy Oakland 3) “THAT HAS ALREADY BEEN are now dead (Oakland Commune, 2012). SAID”/“GET TO THE POINT”: As if requesting a substitution in sport, Agreeing with this assessment on the revolving upraised hands. importance of space to the movement, Arun 4) “YOUR INTERVENTION IS TAKING Gupta, in his excellent piece, “What Happened UP TOO MUCH TIME”: Crossed arms. to the Occupy Movement,” argues that: Forearms come together and move apart as if they were the hands of a clock so The real stumbling block for the Occupy that palms touch above head. movement is also the reason for its success: 5) “DIFFICULTY HEARING space, or now, the lack thereof. INTERVENTION”: Cupped hands to ears Understanding the significance of political or hand moving up and down as if to space and Occupy's inability to recapture it indicate, “turn the volume up” (Carolina reveals why the movement is having difficulty 2012). re-gaining traction (Gupta 2012).
Chris Francescani, in “Can Occupy Wall Street While many Occupy groups around the Survive,” notes that donations to the New York world have used the Puerto del Sol chapter of the Occupy movement are flagging guidelines as a model, it is important to note and media coverage of it has dropped. He that the general assemblies of Occupy quotes a liberal Harvard University Professor, groups develop their own guidelines, and Theda Skocpol, who says, "Most of the social some of these are posted on the Internet. scientists who are at all like me – unsentimental Occupy Wall Street uses the Internet to leftists – ... think this movement is over." inform participants about their legal rights to Francescani says that Skocpol and others protest in various locations in New York City “wonder whether Occupy will ever really thrive and trains participants in nonviolent behavior without solid footing in the mainstream of (#OccupyWallStreet, 2011, “Legal Fact American political discourse.” In contrast to the Sheet”). Tea Party, the Occupy Movement has not gotten involved in political elections. After the May Day protests of 2012, some declared that the Occupy movement in the But in opposition to Skocpol’s viewpoint, Bill U.S. was virtually dead. Members of the more Dobbs, on the press team of Occupy New York, radical Oakland Commune argued that the likens the “OWS struggle to that of America's police evictions of Occupy camps and the civil rights movement – long and uphill, with failure of Occupiers to hold public space, broad goals to radically alter American society. rendered it impossible to continue general The first step, he said, has been to re-animate assemblies: America's long-dormant spirit of social activism” (Francescani 2012). Also opposing Skocpol’s May 1 confirmed the end of the national negative view of the future of the Occupy Occupy Wall Street movement because it Movement is noted sociologist and social was the best opportunity the movement movement scholar, Francis Fox Piven, who had to reestablish the occupations, and says, yet it couldn’t. Nowhere was this more clear than in Oakland as the sun set after “I don’t know of a movement that unfolds in a day of marches, pickets and clashes. [. . less than a decade. People are impatient, .] The hundreds of riot police backed by and some of them are too quick to pass armored personnel carriers and SWAT judgment. But it’s the beginning, I think, of a teams carrying assault rifles made no great movement. One of a series of secret of their intention to sweep the movements that has episodically changed
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 13 history, which is not the way we tell the story of real democracy and another world” of American history” (Gupta 2012). (Adbusters Blog, April 12, 2012). Adbusters writes, “the Zuccotti model is morphing and Should Occupy continue its trickster-like Occupy is undergoing a period of sustained persona, or should it become a more predictable global tactical innovation. This is all just the social movement that participates in electoral beginning…” (Adbusters n.d.). politics? Helen Barlow argues “Don’t let occupy be occupied;” the movement must resist the What signs are there that Anonymous is pressures to institutionalize, such as assuming greater responsibilities for its actions? incorporating as a 503b non-profit or narrowing it This is a more difficult question to answer to a single-issue orientation. She writes, because of the anonymity that lies at the heart of Anonymous. It is not really an organization, but Since the first days in Zuccotti Park, a culture born of the Internet (Norton 2011; traditionalists have chastised Occupy for Auerbach 2012), or perhaps, as Tim Nafziger refusing to “say what they want.” What that argues, a tactic (2010). usually means is “Support my issue.” However, in the one-page OWS September 29 Declaration, the occupiers spoke as One of the chief drawbacks of anonymity, clearly as the Founding Fathers in saying however, is the lack of trust that lies at its very that what is wrong is not a function of any core. One never can be sure to whom one is single issue. It is systemic and it is the talking, or his or her true identity or motives. obligation of us all to fix it (Barlow 2012). Provocateurs might lead participants into an illegal action or allow them to use a hacking Indeed, the OWS Declaration of September program that has been subverted by 29 outlines a set of grievances that cannot easily government officials, leading them to be be addressed within the framework of the arrested. Emick’s work to “dox” LulzSec, and current capitalist system. In the aftermath of the Sabu’s betrayal of his fellow LulzSec members Citizens United decision by the Supreme Court are signs of the dangers that can lurk in this that allows corporations to funnel unlimited anonymous world. Olson points out that some of amounts of money to political campaigns, it is the seasoned operators within Anonymous did hard to imagine how politicians will do much to not inform new participants that they might be redistribute wealth from the 1% through indicted for using the LOIC (low orbit ion progressive taxation. Barlow writes, “if we cannon) in DDoS attacks (79, 122-129). institutionalize its thinking so that the Occupy spirit succumbs to the politics of the possible, There are signs, however, that the trickster rather than continuing to create new possibility, ethos of Anonymous is maturing and developing we will have missed an opportunity that history principles that will serve to undergird its seldom offers” (2012). Similarly, Slavoj Žižek activism. The site WhyWeProtest.com serves as argues that: “a virtual meeting place” for “diverse activist initiatives.” On its homepage, is a link entitled What one should resist at this stage is “Looking for Anonymous,” which leads to precisely such a quick translation of the Anonymous’s ongoing campaign against energy of the protest into a set of "concrete" Scientology. WhyWeProtest has a Freedom of pragmatic demands. Yes, the protests did Information initiative that outlines a philosophical create a vacuum – a vacuum in the field of basis for the kinds of cyberliberation actions hegemonic ideology, and time is needed to taken by Anonymous activists that is grounded fill this vacuum in in a proper way, since it is in Article 19 of the United Nations Declaration of a pregnant vacuum, an opening for the truly Universal Human Rights: “Everyone has the New (2012). right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and And Adbusters sees the future of Occupy as a regardless of frontiers” (WhyWeProtest, 2012). “battle for the soul of Occupy… a fight to the In their statement endorsing Freedom of finish between the impotent old left and the new Information, it is significant that WhyWeProtest vibrant, horizontal left who launched Occupy describes a range of interpretations that Wall Street from the bottom-up and who dreams
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 14 individuals, such as those in Anonymous, hold backgrounds,” Anon Analytics says that: “All on the subject: information presented in our reports is acquired through legal channels, fact-checked, and vetted The precise meaning of “Freedom of thoroughly before release. This is both for the Information” varies according to the protection of our associates as well as individual. To some, it simply means being groups/individuals who rely on our work” (Anon able to seek out public knowledge on a Analytics, 2011). But in spite of the legal, subject without fear of retribution or technical, and high-brow level of their work, censorship from the government. This view is members of Anon Analytics have not lost their based on the idea that access to accurate, trickster ethos; instead, they have channeled it relevant information informs rational opinions into strictly legal activities: about the world around us. Our members grew up within the Internet To others, Freedom of Information is a call subculture and cesspool that is 4chan. We for greater corporate and governmental have been active in the Anon community transparency. This conviction stems from the over the last several years in some capacity. notion that in order for citizens to participate Some of us eventually grew up and got jobs fully and democratically, those in power must in industry and government but we retained share all kinds of information–whether or not the dark humor that is Anonymous. More it is politic for them to do so. Thus fraud, theft importantly, we retained the skill to source and abuse must be exposed to the public, information and social-engineering and the perpetrators held accountable for capabilities that we honed through our work their actions. with Anonymous. This ability has proved useful in our more high-brow work with Anon Finally, some individuals view Freedom of Analytics (Fish, 2012). Information as a call to rethink current positions on the concept of intellectual Conclusion property, in the interest of a better world. This view favors diminishing legal and corporate In concluding this discussion of the trickster limitations on the use of ideas or creative ethos in the contemporary social movements of work that may inhibit innovation and Anonymous and Occupy, it seems fitting to progress. return to Paul Radin’s observations on the Winnebago Trickster Cycle. Over the course of WhyWeProtest concludes by saying, “For any or time, the trickster Wakdjunkaga develops “some all of these reasons, many Anonymous activists sense of social and moral responsibility” (Radin believe that Freedom of Information is as vital to 143). Like this Winnebago trickster, Occupy and a free society as the universal right to freedom Anonymous have both matured as movements, of expression. WhyWeProtest supports these despite – or perhaps because of – the arrests of activists in their various Freedom of Information some of its members. initiatives” (WhyWeProtest, 2012). When Jake Davis, aka “Topiary,” from Anonymous and LulzSec was arrested, his final Another sign of responsibility within Tweet was, “You can’t arrest an idea” (Olson, Anonymous is the emergence of the 406). Despite the arrests of active Anonymous #FreeAnons Anonymous Solidarity Network, members and claims by the FBI that it had mentioned above, that is raising funds for chopped off the head of LulzSec, authorities arrested Anonymous members and outlining a have failed to stop Anonymous. Olson reports legal defense strategy based on an that in February 2012 alone, other hackers “took interpretation of denial of service attacks as up the cause,” “attacking the websites of the protected free speech, a kind of digital sit-in. CIA, Interpol, Citigroup, and a string of banks in And the new Anonymous faction, Anon Brazil, among other targets” (407). Analytics, focuses on exposing corporate corruption through legal means (see McMillan The amorphous and ambiguous nature of the 2011). Comprised of “analysts, forensic trickster seems to rise naturally from the accountants, statisticians, computer experts, leaderless, horizontal, and fluid structures of and lawyers from various jurisdictions and
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 15 both Anonymous and Occupy. The medium of guide-on-group-dynamics-in-peoples- the Internet, with its carnivalesque and viral assemblies/ qualities, provides an ideal ecology for COLEMAN, G. 2012: “Our Weirdness is Free.” horizontal, leaderless movements. Wearing the Triple Canopy. Issue 15, 01.13. mask of the trickster enables these two http://canopycanopycanopy.com/15/our_weir intertwined social movements to maintain their dness_is_free freedom and to stay nimble and unpredictable. CRONOPIOELECTRONICO. 2012: “Tools, Ideas, They remain open to new opportunities to resist Concepts and Strategies.” #HowToOccupy: oppression while creating a more just society. Grassroots Practices for Global Change. June 14. http://howtocamp.takethesquare.net/2012/06/ 14/tools-ideas-concepts-and-strategies/ Notes: ELFLING, S. 2012: “‘Occupy Steubenville’ Gathers To Support Rape Victim, Call For 1. For more on the association of C.G. Jung Coach’s Job.” Deadspin. December 29. and Mikhail Bakhtin, see Sheppard, 1983, 116- http://deadspin.com/5972005/occupy- 17. steubenville-gathers-to-support-rape-victim- call-for-coachs-job 2. For more on hactivism used on environmental FINE, E. C. 2012: “Rhetorical Strategies of websites, see Fine, 2012. Environmental Cyberactivists.” In E. C. Fine and G. W. Selnow (Eds.) The Evolving Media’s Impact on Rhetoric and Society: References: Critical and Ethical Issues: Proceedings of the 2010 International Colloquium on ADBUSTERS. (n.d.): “Occupy Wall Street: Day Communication (pp. 92-108). 1012.” http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/ICC/2010/in http://www.adbusters.org/campaigns/occupy dex.html wallstreet FISH, I. S. 2012: “Financial (Secret) Services): A ADBUSTERS BLOG. 2012: “Battle for the Soul of Conversation with the mysterious Occupy.” April 12. Anonymous analysts who are exposing fraud http://www.adbusters.org/blogs/adbusters- and corruption in Chinese companies—and blog/jump.html taking them down.” Foreign Policy, April 26. ADBUSTERS BLOG. 2012: “Tactical Briefing #27, http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2012/04 May 18 Global #Laughriot.” March 12. /26/financial_secret_services http://www.adbusters.org/blogs/adbusters- FRANCESCANI, C. 2012: “Insight: Can Occupy blog/laughriot.html Wall Street Survive?” Reuters, June 8. ANONYMOUS ANALYTICS. 2011: “About Us.” http://in.reuters.com/article/2012/06/07/us- http://anonanalytics.com/ usa-occupywallstreet- AUERBACH, D. 2012: “Anonymity as culture: idINBRE85606J20120607 treatise.” Triple Canopy, Issue 15, 02.09. #FREEANONS: ANONYMOUS SOLIDARITY NETWORK. http://canopycanopycanopy.com/15/anonymit 2011: “About.” http://freeanons.org/. y_as_culture__treatise GELLMAN, B. 2012: “The 100 Most Influential BAKHTIN, M. M. 1984: Rabelais and His World. People in the World. Anonymous Hackers. Translated by H. Iswolsky. Bloomington and Time Magazine, April 18. Indianapolis: Indiana University Press http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/ BARLOW, H. 2012: “Don't Let Occupy Be article/0,28804,2111975_2111976_2112122, Occupied: 6 Ways to Fight the Creep to 00.html Institutionalize.” Alternet, January 26. GUPTA, A. 2012: “What Happened to the Occupy http://www.alternet.org/story/153883/don%27 Movement? Aljazeera, June 20. t_let_occupy_be_occupied:_6_ways_to_fight http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/20 _the_creep_to_institutionalize_ 12/05/2012521151225452634.html CAROLINA. 2011: “Quick Guide on Group HYDE, L. 1998: Trickster Makes This World. New Dynamics in People’s Assemblies.” Take the York: North Point Press Square, July 32. HYNES, W.J. 1997: “Mapping the Characteristics http://takethesquare.net/2011/07/31/quick- of Mythic Tricksters: A Heuristic Guide.” In Hynes, W. J. and W. G. Doty, Eds., Mythical
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 16 Trickster Figures: Contours, Contexts, and street-activists-offer-2-million- Criticisms. Birmingham, AL: University of bribe/#comments Alabama Press, 1997. #OCCUPYWALLSTREET. New York City General JUNG, C. G. 1890, c1956, 1972. “On the Assembly. 2011: “Declaration of the Psychology of the Trickster Figure,” Occupation of New York City.” September translated by R.F. C. Hull. In Paul Radin, The 29. Trickster: A Study in American Indian http://www.nycga.net/resources/declaration/ Mythology, New York: Schocken Books #OCCUPYWALLSTREET. New York City General LAWRENCE, J. 2012: “Young Wall Street Traitor Assembly. 2011: “Good Neighbor Policy.” Joins Occupy Wall Street.” San Diego Free October 13. Press, June 19. http://www.nycga.net/resources/declaration/ http://sandiegofreepress.org/2012/06/young- #OCCUPYWALLSTREET. New York City General wall-street-traitor-joins-occupy-wall-street/ Assembly. 2011: “Legal Fact Sheet.” LULZSEC. 2011: “LulzSec Manifesto: ‘We screw http://www.nycga.net/resources/legal-fact- each other over for a jolt of satisfaction.’” Ars sheet/. See also: Technica. http://arstechnica.com/tech- http://www.occupyyourrights.org/ policy/2011/06/lulzsec-heres-why-we-hack- #OCCUPYWALLSTREET. New York City General you-bitches/?comments=1#comments-bar. Assembly. 2011: “Statement of Autonomy.” MCMILLAN, G. 2011: “Hackers Turned November 10. Journalists? Anonymous Launches http://www.nycga.net/resources/statement-of- ‘Analytics’ Site.” Time Magazine, September autonomy/ 28. OLSON, P. 2012: We Are Anonymous. Inside the http://techland.time.com/2011/09/28/hack- Hacker World of LulzSec, Anonymous, and collective-anonymous-tries-journalism-with- the Global Cyber Insurgency. New York. analytics-site/ Little, Brown and Company. NAFZIGER, T. 2010: “Anonymous as a Tactic.” RADIN, P. 1972: The Trickster: A Study in Jesus Radicals, December 18. American Indian Mythology. New York, http://www.jesusradicals.com/anonymous-as- Schocken Books. a-tactic/ REGALADO, A. 2012: “Aaron Swartz Hacks the NAUGHTON, J. 2012: “Stuxnet: the worm that Attention Economy.” MIT Technology turned Obama into a hypocrite.” The Review. February 10. Guardian, June 10 http://www.technologyreview.com/news/4268 KNOW YOUR MEME: ND. “Rules of the Internet – 57/aaron-swartz-hacks-the-attention- Image #30,661.” economy/ http://knowyourmeme.com/photos/30661 REINHART, J. 2012: “Summer Disobedience NOEL, P. AND S. CARRION. 2011: “A New Culture Schools Now in Session.” Occupied Stories: of Resistance: From Wikileaks to the First-person news from the occupy Squares.” ROARMAG.org. November 11. movement. 27 May. http://roarmag.org/2011/11/from-wikileaks-to- http://occupiedstories.com/summer- the-squares-a-new-culture-of-resistance/ disobedience-school-now-in-session.html NORTON, Q. 2011. “WiredCom embeds with ROBINSON, A. 2011: In Theory Bakhtin: Carnival #Occupy and Anonymous.” Threat Level: against Capital, Carnival against Power. 9 Privacy, Crime and Security Online. Wired. September. October 18. http://ceasefiremagazine.co.uk/in-theory- http://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2011/10/qui bakhtin-2/ nn-norton-occupy/ SANGER, D.E. 2012: “Obama Order Sped Up OAKLAND COMMUNE, 2012: “Occupy Oakland is Wave of Cyberattacks Against Iran.” New Dead.” Bay of Rage Anti-Capitalist York Times. June 1. Clearinghouse. 16 May. http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/01/world/mi http://www.bayofrage.com/featured- ddleeast/obama-ordered-wave-of- articles/occupy-oakland-is-dead/ cyberattacks-against- OCCUPYWALLST. 2012: “Occupy Wall Street iran.html?_r=1&pagewanted=all Activists Offer $2 Million Bribe to Gov. SHEPPARD, R.W. 1983: “Tricksters, Carnival, and Cuomo to Raise Minimum Wage.” June 6. the Magical Figures of Dada Poetry.” Forum http://occupywallst.org/article/occupy-wall- for Modern Language Studies, XIX(2) April, 116-125.
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 17 SULLIVAN, B. 2012: “Is US government reading email without a warrant? It doesn't want to talk about it.” MSNBC, July 6. http://redtape.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/0 7/06/12583821-is-us-government-reading- email-without-a-warrant-it-doesnt-want-to- talk-about-it?lite THEALL, D.F. 1999: “The Carnivalesque, the Internet and Control of Content: satirizing knowledge, power and control.” Continuum: Journal of Media & Cultural Studies 13(2): 153-164. TURNER, V. 1969: The Ritual Process: Structure and Anti-Structure. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. WHYWEPROTEST. 2012: “Freedom of Information.” https://whyweprotest.net/freedom-of- information/ ŽIŽEK, S. 2012: “Occupy Wall Street: What is to be Done Next? The Guardian, April 24. http://www.guardian.co.uk/profile/slavojzizek
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 18 When Institutional Forgetting is Convenient: Economists and the Great Recession Tim Hegstrom
Worldwide economic news gives us every applied to an entire academic discipline, in this reason to suppose that efforts to stem the so- case, economics. Can this type of institutional called “Great Recession” have been largely forgetting explain our current economic plight, ineffective because the effects of the recession and, if so, how is it possible that this information have been with us so long. With respect to the did not get passed on from one generation of USA in particular, an Associated Press release economists to another with sufficient fidelity that of July 20, 2012 indicates that “A raft of it could be effectively used to improve the economic news Thursday sketched a picture of situation? a weakening U.S. economy held back by sluggish home buying and factory production.” The Great Recession (Rugaber and Wiseman 2012). One would hope that there are economic models that would The Great Recession is so named because suggest solutions to the problem. of the devastating consequences of the economic downturn that started in about 2008. As a student in the 1960’s, I was taught that Initially, the stock market lost half its valuation, effective macro-economic policy could shorten the greatest fall since the Great Depression in the pain from inevitable recessions. Prudent which the market plunged 79%. Housing prices fiscal policy dictated that governments needed fell approximately 37%. The recovery from this to spend during economic downturns to recession is the slowest since the Great stimulate the economy and tax during periods of Depression, and since the the Gross Domestic better than expected growth in order to balance Product began to grow again, it has not grown at budgets. Similarly, prudent monetary policy rates that signaled recovery from recent meant that governments should expand the recessions. The loss of GDP is estimated at 9% money supply during recessions and contract it in the USA (Barro 2011). during periods that threatened runaway inflation. More than forty years later I was surprised to The most notable feature of this recession discover Paul Krugman’s assertion that the has been the very high unemployment rates. traditional principles of fiscal policy had been These rates are high internationally. The rate is forgotten, even disparaged, by the current twice as high as what has been considered generation of economists, and was not even to acceptable in the past in the USA where be found in the current textbooks (2012, 197- unemployment rates show no signs of 233). Was it really possible that these scholars improving. “Job growth slowed to 75,000 a had not read and understood Keynes? If he was month from April through June, down from a right that this studied ignorance was prevalent, healthy 226,000 pace in the first three months of how did this happen? An analysis of the quite the year. Unemployment is stuck at 8.2 public disagreements about economic policy percent.” (Rugaber and Wiseman 2012). Being might provide some insight. stuck at 8.2% might seem to be an attractive plight for some countries on the periphery of the In organizational communication studies, the European Community. Consider Spain where concept of “organizational forgetting” is unemployment is running 23.6% and 50% sometimes applied to organizational cases in among young people (Krugman 2012, April 15). which once successful organizations forget the lessons that brought them success in the first Setting aside the horrible personal effects of place. Maybe organizational forgetting can be unemployment ranging from penury to mental
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 19 depression, these high levels of unemployment conservative politicians and policy analysts. A affect all of us financially because they diminish common refrain is that “the government doesn’t the overall economy. Governments are able to create jobs, businesses do.” Some, who are of do less with programs to support the common this persuasion, believe that the economy will good, and the range of goods and services naturally adjust itself quickly and that available to each of us is limited. In the USA, governments should avoid both monetary and the Congressional Budget Office estimate of the fiscal policy. Most macro-economists are “productivity gap,” the amount that the economy convinced otherwise, and many are convinced is reduced by failing to use available human and that fiscal policy is an important tool of other resources, is close to a trillion dollars a government. year (Krugman and Wells 2012). We are also experiencing a disappearing middle class as the Meanwhile, there’s actually a lot of evidence distance between the rich and poor has grown for a broadly Keynesian view of the world. disproportionately in comparison to historic Not, to be fair, for fiscal policy, mainly levels (Stiglitz 2012). because clean fiscal experiments are rare. But there’s huge evidence for sticky prices, The US attempted to stimulate the economy lots of evidence that monetary shocks have in the early months of the Obama administration real effects — and it’s hard to produce a by spending on “shovel ready” projects and by coherent model in which that’s true that an expansionary monetary policy. This met with doesn’t also leave room for fiscal policy. ambivalent results. The attempts of other (Krugman 2011, August 25). nations to improve the economic situation, usually in the form of austere fiscal measures, Krugman is pointing out that prices (and have been largely unsuccessful. The European wages) are “sticky,” that they don’t quickly adjust Community has responded to the higher levels to economic cycles. This refutes the idea that of debt, both public and private, by slashing the free market will respond to changes in government spending and insisting on balanced supply and demand; it is a call for government budgets. This did not solve the problem. intervention. Monetary shocks, which are Recently, the EC countries met to try to remedy sometimes unforeseen and not understood until the situation. Was it successful? Krugman does long afterward, need to be ameliorated or they not think so. can have deep effects on the overall economy for a very long time. Again, these phenomena So what we know even for the US is that the are a call for expansionary monetary and fiscal TARP and QE were perhaps enough to policy during recessions. forestall disaster, but not to produce recovery Sadly, though, fiscal responses that seem — and Europe has the additional problem of designed to promote austerity have been huge needed realignments in implemented instead. Nations throughout competitiveness, which would be much Europe that have turned off the fiscal tap have easier if the ECB announced a dramatic sunk themselves even further. loosening — which it didn’t. (Krugman 2012, June 30). Europe has had several years of experience with harsh austerity programs, and the At the present time, then, most nations’ results are exactly what students of history economies are stagnating. Unemployment told you would happen: such programs push levels are too high, and the world’s economies depressed economies even deeper into are far short of their potential. depression. And because investors look at the state of a nation’s economy when Fiscal Policy assessing its ability to repay debt, austerity programs haven’t even worked as a way to As intimated above, governments have been reduce borrowing costs. (Krugman 2012, criticized for their haphazard use of fiscal policy. April 15). Krugman argues that fiscal austerity is a poor idea in the current situation, and that that should The justification for the imposition of fiscal be common knowledge (2012, 96-437). There is austerity is the belief that troubled economies a resistance to fiscal policy among many resulted from profligate spending. The only European country in which this seems to be an
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 20 apt explanation is Greece. Spain is suffering a that it was not enough should be pretty severe depression now, but it had a balanced apparent from what I just said: It is trying to budget when its economic difficulties began. offset the deficiency in aggregate demand The housing bubble burst. This was all due to and it is just too small. (Quoted in Krugman the extension of credit to Spanish banks from 2012, p. 253). northern Europe. Money was loaned without careful oversight or regulation. So, the problem Today unemployment is close to the level was a familiar one, and similar to the situation in Krugman predicted it would be, and, also as the USA prior to the 1930’s: too much leverage predicted, the policy argument is now about from private, rather than public, debt (PBS 2012, whether the Obama program results prove that June 19). fiscal stimulus does not work or whether it was too small to work. Those in the latter camp think As in the USA, Europe has doled out its fiscal the economy would be in even worse shape and monetary stimuli sparingly. On the verge of without the stimulus. Krugman points to his a severe financial panic in the fall of 2011, the record as a prognosticator. European Central Bank offered credit in exchange for the bonds of several European Portes quotes a three-year-old piece from nations. This solved the problem temporarily Niall Ferguson I mercifully missed, ridiculing (Krugman 2012, April 15). A year later with me as the “man from Econ 101” who several European countries on the brink of believed, foolishly, that huge government economic collapse, the ECB seems poised to deficits could fail to raise interest rates in a dole out a little more help. ECB President Mario depressed economy. Indeed, that is what Draghi said that the bank would do “whatever it Econ 101 said – and it has been completely takes to preserve the euro.” Stock markets in right. Basic IS-LM macro also said that under the US and London rose significantly, a fact that these conditions printing lots of money would was attributed to Draghi’s promise that the ECB not be inflationary, and that cutting would act (Gogoi 2012). government spending sharply would cause the economy to shrink. All of this has come In the USA, the Obama administration initially true. (Krugman 2012, June 26). pushed through a spending stimulus package. The spending plan for “shovel ready” projects seemed huge to many analysts. The stimulus He further argues that an entire generation of bill was called the American Recovery and economists has not read Keynes and Reinvestment Act and amounted to $787B in contemporaries and has not understood the spending and tax cuts. At the time, Krugman macro-economic lessons he gleaned from the predicted that it was too small to do the job. Great Depression of the 1930’s.
I see the following scenario: a weak stimulus Forgetting Keynes plan, perhaps even weaker than what we’re Macroeconomics was invented by Keynes talking about now, is crafted to win those and his contemporaries following the Great extra GOP votes. The plan limits the rise in Depression. Subsequently, tools for coping unemployment, but things are still pretty bad, with economic downturns have been modified with the rate peaking at something like 9 and refined. Compared to the economic percent and coming down only slowly. And problems of the 1930s, and the 19th century for then Mitch McConnell says “See, that matter, subsequent 20th century recessions government spending doesn’t work.” Let’s were dispatched fairly readily. Perhaps because hope I’ve got this wrong (Krugman 2009, of this relative success, many economists seem January 6). to have become overconfident. Consider this Krugman was not alone. Another Nobel quotation from a basic textbook in the 1980s: laureate, Joseph Stiglitz wrote: On the question of whether it could happen again, there is agreement that it could not, I think there is a broad consensus but not except, of course, in the event of truly universal among economists that the perverse policies. But these are less likely stimulus package that was passed was badly now than they were then. For one thing, we designed and not enough. I know it is not have history to help us avoid its repetition. universal but let me try to explain. First of all
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 21 Taxes would not again be raised in the professor, John Cochrane. He said that the idea middle of a depression, nor would attempts that a stimulus would work is a “fairy tale.” be made to balance the budget (Dornbusch and Fischer 1987, 425). “It’s not part of what anybody has taught graduate students since the 1960s,” Here’s a comment from Nobel laureate John Cochrane said. “They are fairy tales that Lucas: have been proved false. It is very comforting in times of stress to go back to the fairy tales Macroeconomics was born as a distinct field we heard as children but it doesn’t make in the 1940s, as a part of the intellectual them less false.” response to the Great Depression. The term then referred to the body of knowledge and expertise that we hoped would prevent the To borrow money to pay for the spending, recurrence of that economic disaster. My the government will issue bonds, which thesis in this lecture is that macroeconomics means investors will be buying U.S. in this original sense has succeeded: Its Treasuries instead of investing in equities or central problem of depression-prevention has products, negating the stimulative effect, been solved, for all practical purposes, and Cochrane said. It also will do nothing to has in fact been solved for many decades. unlock frozen credit, he said. (Staley & (Lucas, 2003). McKee 2009).
Four years in to the Great Recession, it is Given this stance, it is not surprising that tempting to suggest that these heroes of there would be resistance to the Obama economics were brought low by their own stimulus package. In a forum following a 2009 hubris, but that is only part of the story. The two address to the Council on Foreign Relations quotations predicting the end of depressions are John Lucas dismissed the Moody’s estimated based on two different sets of premises. Note multiplier for the stimulus spending of 1.5 for that the earlier one from the Dornbusch and every dollar spent. He said he thought Christina Fischer textbook said that no one would try to Romer must have come up with that because it balance budgets during an economic downtown, was her first day on the job and she had to have and yet that is exactly what governments world- something ready for Monday morning. He called wide have insisted on doing. The second it “schlock economics.” (The State of Economics quotation is coming from a more modern 2009). perspective. The Economist magazine reporters at the It seems that the field of economics changed time provided an interesting account of the dramatically in the past thirty years. The disputes about the stimulus package (The State monetarist school of the University of Chicago of Economics 2009). They quote Krugman as business and economics faculties came into disparaging recent work in macro-economics as ascendancy. The monetarists, led by Nobel applied to the current situation. Krugman said it laureate, Milton Friedman, held that the role of is “spectacularly useless at best, and positively government in matters economic should be harmful at worst.” In concurrence, the limited to that part of monetary policy involved in Economist cites Buiter of the London School of maintaining an adequate money supply. The Economics. Great Depression was blamed on government for not fulfilling this one role. In this scheme, Mr Buiter, who helped set interest rates at there is no need for fiscal policy because free the Bank of England from 1997 to 2000, markets were efficient and would respond with believes the latest academic theories had a optimal results. Therefore, taxing and spending profound influence there. He now thinks this should be kept to a minimum. influence was baleful. On his blog, Mr Buiter argues that a training in modern macroeconomics was a “severe handicap” at Here is the monetarist position on spending the onset of the financial crisis, when the to stimulate the economy as summed up in an central bank had to “switch gears” from interview of University of Chicago finance preserving price stability to safeguarding financial stability.
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 22 The article goes on to report that Krugman it. Even with such policies, the peripheral and those economists who agree with him are nations would face years of hard times. But inclined to cite Keynes and Minsky and others at least there would be some hope of who lived through and studied the depression. recovery. (Krugman 2012, April 15). Those who disagree with this position believe that these texts are antiquated and that recent Krugman concludes that economic policy scholarship has made them obsolete. Krugman experts seem to have forgotten the lessons describes this as a failure, the “dark age of learned from the Great Depression. The economics.” (The state of economics 2009). evidence is clear that important economists disagree about what those lessons were, and For Krugman, the key condition that the they all seem to be busy putting their stamp on monetarists and others have missed in their what they think should be remembered. analysis of the current situation is that interest rates are approaching a zero lower bound. They Institutional Forgetting cannot go much lower than zero. So, the Federal Reserve Board’s chief monetarist tool to What Krugman has observed with respect to expand the economy is effectively hamstrung. the economics profession seems very close to They cannot get interest rates any lower. In what organizational communication scholars previous recessions they could always increase have called “institutional or organizational the money supply. Now they have to use fiscal forgetting.” In his 1993 book analyzing the policy; government has to spend to stimulate the space shuttle Challenger disaster, Tompkins economy. describes “a kind of “organizational forgetting or institutional memory loss. By forgetting, I mean a gradual process in which successful, proven To those who argue that the market will lose practices and procedures are not actively confidence in government bonds if they spend promoted or monitored.” (11) . In addition to his too much money, Krugman says that we have genius as an engineer, Werner Von Braun was no evidence that this becomes a problem under apparently an ingenious manager and was able most circumstances. No one can say where the to articulate his management theories. Tompkins line is that cannot be crossed in terms of describes effective communication practices government borrowing to stimulate the implemented by Von Braun including on-site economy. “penetration” of contractors by NASA representatives; “Monday Notes” in which he If we look at countries that issue their own provided marginalia to reports written each currency and borrow in their currency, it’s Friday by subordinates two levels below him and hard to find any evidence that there’s ever a “automatic responsibility” in which employees red line. It turns out that Britain, when take on all problems that fall within their areas of Keynes was writing, had a debt level expertise, even if not directly assigned to them, substantially above what we have now. and communicate upwardly about the status of Japan keeps not having a debt crisis. But problems they cannot solve. These concepts even if you’re worried about it, what do you were unique to NASA’s Huntsville operation. propose we do? Fiscal contraction, right now, Tompkins became aware of them in work he did is almost certainly self-defeating. (Klein there in the 1960’s and 70’s. To test his 2012). hypothesis of organizational forgetting, he went back to interview key employees after the And what should Europe do? Challenger exploded. He found that these practices had disappeared. (1993, 171-177). The Continent needs more expansionary monetary policies, in the form of a willingness Unlike previous anthropological work that — an announced willingness — on the part held that that which was functional was of the European Central Bank to accept remembered and that which is not is soon somewhat higher inflation; it needs more forgotten, Tompkins noted that the practices expansionary fiscal policies, in the form of forgotten by NASA Huntsville’s top managers budgets in Germany that offset austerity in were critical to its early success and their status Spain and other troubled nations around the as “forgotten” is a possible explanation for Continent’s periphery, rather than reinforcing subsequent failures and disasters. The
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 23 forgetting was selective. For example, weekly routines change. Interestingly, NASA’s mishaps notes from subordinates continued, probably and problems are suggested as examples of the because of routinization, but the Monday “politics of forgetting” or “strategic forgetting.” feedback, characteristic of the Von Braun era, (2011, 308-9; Nissley and Casey 2002). The had disappeared. Penetration was curtailed due organizationally powerful often decide what the to personnel cutbacks and was replaced with organization should remember both in terms of contract monitoring. Management styles had what is archived and through decisions about shifted, and the upward communication of how practices and routines will be altered. problems resulted in “killing the messenger.” A big reduction in force at Huntsville constituted a Organizational Forgetting and shock to the system that began the process of Communication Studies organizational forgetting. Turnover reduced the number of managers who remembered the With their emphasis on ongoing interaction culture and the communication practices of the as central to organizational memory, Casey and earlier organization. Olivera (2011) have placed the construct clearly within the purview of communication scholars. Interestingly, the concept of organizational The idea that memory is constructed in these forgetting has developed a rich literature in the interactions also suggests that it would be fruitful larger interdisciplinary literature of organizational to view organizational memory through the lens studies. About the same time that Tompkins of the social constructivist. To say that was writing about NASA, Walsh and Ungson organizational memory is reproduced in (1991) published a seminal essay on communication transactions emphasizes the fact organizational memory. Six years later a British that all communication is constructed and re- management consultant, Arnold Kransdorff, constructed. In a sense this viewpoint begs the published a book entitled Organizational question of memory loss. If we can say that Amnesia (1998), a term that Tompkins had used memory is constructed, how can we say that with respect to NASA. there is a loss of memory? Our construction may be that current practices are based on The concept of organizational forgetting was constructs that differ markedly from previous investigated by others. Walsh and Ungson constructions, indeed written constructions of (1991) had described organizational memory as the “correct” procedures may have been placed stored in “bins” that could vary in scope from in the organizational archives, but constructed individuals to structures to external archives. differently in the process of reading and Martin de Holan and Phillips (2004) worked on discussing. constructs related to “organizational forgetting,” and described it in terms similar to those used It may be more parsimonious to apply the by previous work on organizational memory. much older information theory view of Whereas Tompkins (1992) did not consider communication. Simply put, organizational organizational forgetting as potentially positive, memory is going to deteriorate, or lose fidelity, these authors argued that it could be either as it is passed from one person to another. A positive or negative. necessary remedy is to build sufficient redundancy into the system that the information Casey and Olivera (2011) hope to unify the we are trying to retain can hold up against both concepts of organizational memory and channel noise and entropy. The trade-off, forgetting, and suggest that future research however, is with efficiency. It takes time and explore some of the reasons for organizational energy (and usually money) to build in forgetting such as the passage of time and redundancy, whether we are talking about mere power relationships in the organization. They repetition in a single medium, the use of multiple suggest that rather than conceiving of media (Hsia 1968a, 1968b), elaboration through organizational memory as stored in retention explanatory detail and examples, creating a bins, that it could be thought of as being relevance set (Brissey 1961), or by some other continually constructed through human means. interactions (307). Like Tompkins, organizational memory is related to ever- Interestingly, the earliest work on memory in changing organizational routines, and the psychology relied on the serial reproduction of possibility of organizational forgetting, as those information through chains of communicators
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 24 (Bartlett 1932). In this way, they were able to textbooks. These models do not become part of study the process of the erosion of information the exercises that students and professors as reproduced from one person to another. Of discuss. These opportunities for redundancy course, this method, which has been used in are missed, and the system becomes less thousands of communication classrooms as a predictable, seemingly more entropic and demonstration of problems associated with confusing. Here is Krugman’s account of information fidelity, exposes the perils of relying changing fashions in economic thinking. on the memories of each person in the chain. What seems remarkable eighty years later is Time was when Keynesians were highly that memory loss initially was implicitly a skeptical about the effectiveness of monetary problem of communication rather than a matter policy under any circumstances; evidence, of the neuro-physiology of brain mechanisms. including, but not only, Friedman and Schwartz, persuaded the school otherwise. One can go back earlier, of course, to the The idea of the natural rate, that there was third century, by which time memoria had been no long-run tradeoff between inflation and established as one of the five canons of rhetoric. unemployment, was very much disliked by It was deemed essential that the speaker people like Jim Tobin, but accepted by nearly remember the speech while delivering it, and everyone after the experience of the 1970s. aids to that end were suggested by the handbooks of the time. By the mid-twentieth century, Redding (1966, 66-67; see also Pace More recently the revisions have tended to 1977, Davis & O’Connor 1977, Haney 1964, go in the other direction, with a revival of the Campbell 1958) had suggested that the study of concept of the liquidity trap in the light of serial reproduction through various “relay points” Japan’s experience, and a renewed in the organization was one of a dozen fruitful acceptance, again based on evidence, that areas of research that had the potential of wages are downwardly rigid – and hence that providing an in-depth understanding of the the natural rate hypothesis breaks down at relatively new sub-field of organizational low inflation. And there’s a widespread communication. The study of memory seems to acceptance that we were paying too little have always been tied to communication attention to debt and the financial sector. studies, and concerns about organizational (Krugman 2012, June 30). memory are no exception. Organizational forgetting, in part, may be attributed to the All of this is abetted by the factors similar to problems of information fidelity in serial those observed by Tompkins at NASA. First, reproduction. over the years, more senior economists may be replaced by younger economists who have not Institutional Forgetting and Economic Policy learned the old models. Personnel changes result in organizational forgetting. Secondly, The similarities between cases of changes in leadership and reductions in budget organizational forgetting, such as Tompkins’s might fuel organizational forgetting as happened analysis of NASA, and what has happened in at NASA. It seems reasonable to suggest that the economics profession, make a strong case the voices of leadership within the economics that something akin to organizational forgetting profession could have a similar effect, and that is at work with the economists, at least in the pecuniary motives may come into play. USA. In fact, the topic of leadership suggests In the first place, the failure to read Keynes influence and power which those who have might constitute a serial reproduction problem. thought about organizational forgetting suggest If the professors are not reading Keynes, it are contributing factors. There is evidence that seems likely that the students are not reading the “politics of forgetting” or “strategic forgetting” him either. They see writings of fifty years ago was operative within the economics profession. as archaic and suppose that modern theories For one thing, it is in the interest of those with encompass the old. The old models, such as wealth to avoid inflation, increased taxes, and that which would predict fiscal difficulties when government spending that can lead to either the interest rate approached a zero lower bound, inflation or taxes. To the extent that money can were not included in many of the recent buy influence, models that favor solutions other
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 25 than fiscal policy might come to be preferred. There is a well-financed incentive for There is some evidence that that has happened. scholars to take up the side of the wealthy that We will look first to the choices made by the comes from sources like the Koch and Olin Obama administration about how to respond to Foundations which are dedicated to promoting the economic crisis already evident when they economic theories favored by the politically took office. conservative. Krugman refers to this possibility in the abstract. Their solutions seemed to favor Wall Street, and the stimulus was inadequate to stem the A touchier subject is the extent to which the difficult problem of unemployment, which would vested interest of the 1 percent, or better yet have been more of a concern to those without the 0.1 percent, has colored the discussion much influence. This seems to have happened among academic economists. But surely because President Obama took the advice of that influence must have been there: if Wall Street appointees like Timothy Geithner nothing else, the preferences of university over others who had no close ties to the banking donors, the availability of fellowships and world. Bush’s TARP program was implemented lucrative consulting contracts, and so on by Obama without extracting any costs from the must have encouraged the profession not banks which had precipitated the crash with just to turn away from Keynesian ideas but to careless lending practices, and the stimulus forget much that had been learned in the package was trimmed down even before it came 1930s and 1940s. (Krugman 2012, 208). to negotiations with the Republican leadership. (Scheiber 2012). The Koch foundation has been accused of trying to buy particular “free enterprise” One who gave good advice to the President orientations by its contributions to economics was the aforementioned Chair of the Council of departments at several universities. (Lee 2011, Economic Advisors and UC Berkeley Economics Wilce 2011). The problem of money influencing Professor, Christina Romer. She advocated a academic economic advice is serious enough much larger stimulus package. Her voice did that some scholars have put out a call for a not prevail. Although the size of the stimulus professional code of ethics. Carrick-Hagenbarth was trimmed before it left the White House, the and Epstein (2012) investigated those who were Republicans insisted on trimming it even further. the most outspoken in favor of austerity. The authors were interested in whether economists The proposal to change regulation of publicly revealed who their benefactors were. derivatives trading put forward by the Obama administration had been written by the banking While one cannot be sure these payments industry, which crafted a proposal without teeth. affect views on financial theory and The bankers, such as those at Goldman Sachs, regulation, they certainly create a conflict of were paid in full for their speculative trades interest. Perhaps these connections help which had brought down AIG. The government explain why few mainstream economists did not extract ownership requirements for warned about the oncoming financial crisis. money that was fronted to pay for losses in Perhaps they help explain why support speculation. The taxpayers simply loaned the among many of these economists for strict bailout money to the banks on favorable terms. financial regulation has been relatively weak. (Scheiber 2012, Krugman and Wells 2012). And perhaps they help us understand some of the pressures that have led so many So, those with wealth and influence took care economists to propose austerity as a solution of themselves and their cronies in the bank to the economic crisis they failed to warn bailouts, but they resisted either mortgage help about. Yet, as we show here, these or sufficient stimulus to help the unemployed. economists almost never reveal their This suggests that forgetting how to deal with financial associations when they make public the crisis benefitted those with influence in the pronouncements on issues such as financial Obama administration. regulation.
To some extent, the same charge may be Ideology plus conflicts of interest among laid to those who resist fiscal measures and are academic financial economists play a joint, from within the economics profession itself. powerful, yet hard-to-disentangle role in this
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 26 widespread lunge toward crisis and austerity. was—there’s no other way to say it—the sheer (p. 44). ignorance they displayed” (Krugman 2012, 229). Krugman re-emphasizes the idea that the other Under circumstances in which professional side was “refusing even to teach alternative economists have no code of ethics and do not views” (Krugman 2012, June 30). reveal who their paymasters are before taking positions to influence policy, institutional This level of deprecation in the dispute forgetting may be convenient. signals that the participants believe there is much at stake here. In the background is the Remembering, Re-constructing, and question of how organizational memory will be Recriminating constructed.
The participants in the economic policy Conclusion debates, at least in the USA, seem to be aware that they are participating in the construction of The Great Recession is still very much with institutional memory. The way that memory is us, in terms of the productivity gap and formed, the way history is written, is being intolerable levels of unemployment. As there is contested. Krugman, as a key participant in a profound disagreement about whether these debates, sees it this way: government should attempt to remedy the situation through fiscal policy, there is an implicit What bothers me, and should bother you, dispute about what economic theory should be about much of this debate is that it pretty remembered and what should be forgotten. clearly is not in good faith. Too many Many economists believe that if standard economists and commentators on economics economic tools had been applied, the problem are clearly playing for a political team; too could have been solved by now. It appears that many others are clearly playing professional some of these tools, and the important models reputation games. Their off-the-cuff reactions that support their use, have been forgotten, to policy issues were wrong and foolish, and I particularly by a new generation of economists. think they know in their hearts that they messed up; but instead of trying to remedy Theories of institutional and organizational the fault, they’re trying to defend the property forgetting seem to apply here. The old models values of their intellectual capital. (Krugman are often not taught anymore, are not 2012, March 8) reproduced with fidelity and sufficient redundancy from one generation of scholars to “They were wrong and foolish.” It is clear the next. They are ignored in many textbooks that in the age of web-blogs there are few rules and graduate seminars. Those who retired from of engagement. In another place Krugman the profession, who knew the old models, were accuses Barro of intellectual laziness (Krugman replaced by those who were not as familiar with 2011, September 12). Name-calling and labeling them. Whether forgetting these particular are the order of the day. macroeconomic models is positive or negative depends upon ones scholarly viewpoint. Those This applies to both sides in the quarrel. who saw the forgetting in positive terms, put Recall that John Cochrane called the idea that them aside, sometimes with ridicule, contempt, spending could stimulate the economy a “fairy and invective. In recent years this has been met tale” that we do not teach graduate students any by the same type of contemptuous response longer. Robert Lucas belittled Christina Romer from the other side. Forgetting seems to be as being on her first day on the job and coming encouraged by those with access to power and up with “schlock” economics. Apparently in money who stand to lose if application of the old 1980 Lucas was approving the belittling of models results in inflation, government Keynesian ideas being presented in seminars, regulation, or a reduction in bond income. saying that students would “whisper and giggle” Economists, whose theories are beneficial to the if someone brought up these ideas. Krugman wealthy, rarely reveal the source of their says that “anyone who invoked Keynes, was consulting income when they make public policy banned from many classrooms and professional pronouncements. journals (Krugman 2012, 208). Krugman responds by saying, “What was striking and disheartening about these barriers to action
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Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 29 Argumentieren in „Sendekritiken“– Formen/Funktionen 1
Eberhard Wolf-Lincke
Keypoints? Möglichkeiten und Bedingungen ihres kommunikativen Zusammenhangs und die • Wie verständigen sich Redakteure in Sendekritik bietet wiederum mehr oder weniger ihrem Arbeitsalltag auf Konzepte ihres stark Möglichkeiten für Anschlüsse. beruflichen Handelns? Ich hoffe, in diesen Kritiken Muster zu • Welche kommunikativen Verfahren finden, und Annahmen zu Konzepten des verwenden sie dafür? Handelns der Beteiligten bilden zu können, die • Lassen sich aus diesen sich dann als nützlich erweisen für mein Kommunikationen Annahmen zu pädagogisches Handeln. diesen Konzepten gewinnen? Ein Beispiel Interesse Wovon ich rede – ein Beispiel – dazu ein 3 Ich arbeite in der Aus- und Weiterbildung TV Beitrag über die Bank Wegelin Der von JournalistInnen und fühle mich dem Ziel Beitrag ist knapp 2 Jahre alt. (Text im 4 verpflichtet, „Gesprächsfähigkeiten“2 zu Anhang) . Zu diesem Beitrag gibt es eine entwickeln und zu fördern, also Sendekritik: Wahlmöglichkeiten des Handelns zu erhöhen. Ich gehe davon aus, in meiner Arbeit Richtig, dass die TS nochmals bemüht war, intentional handelnden Personen zu begegnen etwas zu Wegelin zu machen. Richtig auch, Als Ausbildner bin ich Teil des Unternehmens dass wir Professor Jansen als Person für das ich aus- und weiterbilde. Meine eingeordnet und seine persönlichen Interventionen als Ausbildner berühren immer Beziehungen transparent gemacht haben. auch Konzepte des Handelns. Trotzdem hat man ein ungutes Gefühl am Schluss. Der Bund und die Finma haben Auf solche Konzepte des Handelns "zu wenig gemacht". Ja was hätte der Bund beziehen sich Redakteure in denn machen sollen ? Wegelin erlauben, Kommunikationen, in denen sie ihre Kundendaten herauszugeben - das wäre Handlungen begründen – nehme ich an. wohl das Ende jeder Privatbank gewesen. "Aus Schweizer Sicht keine Im täglichen Ablauf der Arbeit der Rechtsverletzung" - wie wenn der Redakteure gibt es in dem Betrieb, in dem ich Bankenprofessor von der Debatte um arbeite, sogenannte „Sendekritiken“. Diese unversteuerte Gelder auf Schweizer Kritiken beziehen sich jeweils auf eine Bankkonten noch nichts gehört hätte. Man „Sendung“ – also das Produkt bzw. das stellt ihm richtigerweise die Frage nach der berufliche Handeln der Beteiligten. Ich Verantwortung der Bank Wegelin, er aber verstehe sie als eine Anschlusshandlung, mit weicht aus. Und sieht den Finanzplatz der über das Produkt Urteile unterschiedlicher Schweiz in Gefahr. Die Diskussion um die Art gefällt werden. Es besteht eine Chance, Weissgeld-Strategie sollte doch allen klar dass diese Urteile begründet werden. machen - die Annahme, respektive die aktive Akquisition von unversteuerten Allerdings sollen hier nicht aus solchen Geldern, ist eine High-Risk-Politik. Begründungen Konzepte abgeleitet werden und es soll nicht von der Anschlusshandlung - später mehr zu diesem Beispiel. auf die Handlung zurückgeschlossen werden. Sondern ich nehme an, dass die Sendekritik Die Sendekritik ist Teil des kommunikativen eine Form ist, wie die Beteiligten das „Produkt Zusammenhangs in dem die Beteiligten den – die Sendung“ nutzen. Die Sendekritik nutzt Beitrag hergestellt haben. Ich habe deshalb im dann mehr oder weniger stark die Folgenden die Rollenbezeichnungen
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 30 verwendet, die die Beteiligten in der schriftlich intern zugänglich und sie wird Organisation übernommen haben. „Rolle“ ausserdem mündlich in der Redaktionssitzung bezieht sich auf die Aufgabe – das was sie tun: besprochen. Sie ist also sowohl ftf als av-t Beiträge machen / Sendungen produzieren / Kommunikation und schliesst an ftf und av-t Redaktionen leiten …. Die Sendekritik ist Kommunikationen an.5
Kommunikationen
av - t ftf
Produkt/Sendung
performen/ aufzeichnen
herstellen (der Sendung..
Anschlusshandlungen
Insgesamt habe ich aus 846 Sendekritiken • Ihre Handlungen und die Verwendung ihrer eine Stichprobe von 18 Sendekritiken Mittel reflektieren können verwendet. Mit den Stichproben sollten • Alternativen zu ihren Handlungen einfache und erste Annahmen zu Konzepten aufdecken können möglich werden und das Ganze einigermassen • Sich auf Begründungen für ihre unaufwändig sein. Handlungen beziehen und sie offenlegen können. Die Idee Die Kritiken schaffen so gesehen einen Ich nehme also an, dass sich die Beteiligten Problemzusammenhang. Sie gehen von einer auf Konzepte stützten, wenn sie kommunikativ gemeinsamen Aufgabe aus – der „Sendung“ – 7 handeln. Konzepte gebrauche ich im Sinne sie problematisieren die jeweils aktualisierte eines - kognitiven - Modells, das nicht- Sendung und „bestreiten“ den sprachliche multimodale Unterscheidungen Geltungsanspruch der für diese Sendung unterschiedlicher Art umfasst und das gestützt verwendeten Lösungen – sie begründen ihre ist auf Erfahrungen – auf der Leibhaftigkeit Position und ermöglichen eine gemeinsame des in / mit der Welt seins. andere Lösung oder bestätigen die gefundene:
Ich nehme weiter an, dass die Beteiligten ein intuitives Verständnis von Kritik8 ver- wenden im Sinne von: so wie du das getan hast geht es, aber muss das so sein wie du es getan hast - es geht auch anders. Es ist dann zu vermuten, dass die Beteiligten mit ihren Sendekritiken:
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 31
Gemeinsam: Aufgabe: eine Sendung „TS“
Problemsicht: die jeweilige Sendung als Lösung der Aufgabe
Strittiges: die Lösung = aktuelle Sendung „TS“
Thesen: TS behaupten TS / Teile davon bestreiten
Begründen mit: TS Herstellung …. Sendekritik enthält die Begründungen
Gemeinsam: Konsens/ Lösung
Gestaltung der gemeinsamen Aufgabe „TS –Sendung“
Alle „Bausteine“ in diesem angenommenen • Wer kritisiert wen für wen Problemzusammenhang sind funktional • Worauf beziehen sich die Kritiken (Fokus): 9 konstruiert und interpretiert. o Die Sendung, die Beiträge und ihre Elemente, die Herstellung, die Ich nehme weiter an, dass die Sendekritik Realisierung kommunikative Handlung im Zusammenhang • Was wird kritisiert (Fokus): der Herstellung des Kritisierten – der o Auswahl der Ereignisse, Auswahl der „Sendung“ – ist. Den Rahmen dieses Sachverhalte /Inhalte/Aspekte, Zusammenhangs bildet die Organisation mit Bearbeiten der Inhalte, Auswahl der ihren Unterscheidungen, Leistungen und Mittel…. Einbettungen. Komponenten dieses • Wie ist die Kritik aufgebaut? Zusammenhangs sind die Beteiligten und ihre Handlungen, die Mittel und Formen die sie Die gebildeten Muster sind „prototypisch“, verwenden, der Prozess in dem sie das heisst eine Menge Einheiten mit einer Veränderungen erzielen, das was in diesen Summe von Merkmalen enthält häufig / Prozessen für sie „Inhalte“ werden. weniger häufig diese Merkmale. Das gebildete Muster enthält die häufigsten Merkmale - ist Ein Muster ein „Prototyp“ – dieser „Prototyp“ muss also in dieser Form in den Proben nicht vorkommen. Mit diesen Annahmen habe ich zunächst folgende Fragen für die Sendekritiken verwendet und jeweils Muster gebildet:
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 32 Ergebnis
1) wer kritisiert wen für wen
wer kritisiert
für wen wen
„Redaktion / Mitarbeiter“ Linienvertreter überwiegend die „Beiträge“ ohne Autoren zu nennen
diejenigen die „on air“ sind wen nicht:
die Produzenten die weiteren Beteiligten
2) worauf bezieht sich die Kritik. Die Kritik
bezieht sich überwiegend auf wenig auf
den einzelnen Beitrag Beitragssorten Teile des Beitrags den Sendungsverlauf / Einzelne Sendungselemente die Dramaturgie der Sendung die Herstellung die technische Realisation externe Koppelungen
3) was wird kritisiert: kritisiert wird überwiegend wenig
Mittel / Form der Darstellung Selektion der „Ereignisse“ / Sachverhalte Bearbeitung / Zugang zu den Ereignissen/Sachverhalten Zielvorgabe der Sendung
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 33 4) Wie ist die Kritik aufgebaut: der „prototypische“ Aufbau der Kritik
Die Sendung … (orientieren) positive Bewertung Eine gute Sendung (op) an sich Begründung ……………. Einschränkung auch wenn sie Teile der Sendung über die "Abstimmungsstrecke" negative Bewertung doch etwas gar Begründung von Pflichtstoff geprägt war der Beitrag …(orientieren) (die Schalte zu den Korrespondenten) (positive) Bewertung ( Beitrag für Beitrag) Sehr gut Teile des Beitrags die Reaktion der Korrespondenten auf die Herabstufung der Kreditwürdigkeit Begründung ihre Ausführungen haben auch im Nachhinein gestimmt Einschränkung
Aber
Begründung Die Meldung war zum Zeitpunkt unserer Sendung noch nicht bestätigt + / oder Alternativen insofern wäre es zwingend gewesen, wenigstens die Quellen der Nachricht zu nennen! In solchen Situationen Bewertung wäre es auch gut, in der Abmoderation noch einmal auf die Nachrichtenlage hinzuweisen.
Der Aufbau enthält eine Bewertung. Sofern die vorliegenden Fall / im prototypischen Aufbau Bewertung begründet ist, stützt sie sich auf stützt sie sich auf einen asymmetrischen einen Vergleich, eine Differenz und Vergleich und implizite Massstäbe für die Einschätzungen dieser Differenz. Im Einschätzungen:
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 34 5) Die Begründungen in der Kritik
Problem: eine „TS“ Sendung realisieren
Strittig:
Lösung: die aktuelle Sendung „TS“
Thesen: TS behaupten das worauf sich die „Kritik“ bezieht bestreiten
Begründen: Herstellung TS / Teile davon
bestreiten bestätigen Vergleichen: TS - soll /nicht/ entsprechen
TS soll sein TS ist TS –soll? Tertium comp.? Art des Vergleichs? TS soll nicht entsprechen TS entsprechen
Differenz: ? Teile der Sendung Bewerten: Kriterien/ Massstab? ?Tadeln ?Loben
Anschlusshandlungen
Teile aktuelle Sendung TS reproduzieren
Soweit ein erstes Ergebnis. zu ergänzen, das nicht Bedachte ins Gespräch zu bringen, zu verwerfen, zu verändern und Zwischenstand sich jeweils in ihren Begründungen auf unterstellte gemeinsame Konzepte zu stützen. Ich war davon ausgegangen, dass die Sendekritik eine Anschlusshandlung der Das gefundene Muster scheint mir Anlass, Beteiligten ist, eine Form wie sie ihr „Produkt“ zu diskutieren, ob hier stark folgende nutzen. Und als Anschlusshandlung bietet sie Funktionen der Kritik fokussiert sind: die Möglichkeit, zu reflektieren, zu bestätigen,
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 35 • Die Linie etabliert sich als Linie nimmt kein Blatt vor den Mund. Er übt • „Kritisiert“ werden nicht „Linien“ - massive Kritik an den Bundesbehörden verantwortliche (Produzenten) sondern „Beiträge“ (und damit indirekt die Akteure) Zur Einordnung kurz der Kontext zum • Formen der Beispiele werden als „ so Zeitpunkt des Beitrags – ohne jeden Anspruch machen wir das“ etabliert – die Sendung ist auf Vollständigkeit – so schrieb die NZZ am so und das was sie durch ihre Tradition 28.1. 2012 zum Fall Wegelin von: behauptet • Die Akteure können / modellieren das ..“der Zerschlagung der Bank Wegelin – der positive Beispiel/ seine Form ab. Steuerstreit zwingt zum Verkauf – die Bank strauchelt über den Streit – die Teilhaber Das Kritikmuster vermeidet: sind in die Bredouille gebracht worden –
eine Rumpfbank soll die Stellen von über • Zielvorgaben (inhaltlicher Art) 700 Mitarbeitern erhalten – eine • Kriterien für Bewertungen existenzielle Bedrohung - • Adressaten anzusprechen und richtet sich (Geschäftsführender Teilhaber Hummler) stattdessen an „texte“ ( Produkte) zwinge zu schmerzlichem Vorgehen – unter • Selektionen – sowohl bei den Ereignissen, höchstem Druck ..(er)müsse sein als auch bei den Sachverhalten/Inhalten Lebenswerk aufgeben –ist ins Visier und Bearbeitungen - in den Blick zu geraten, weil die Bank Gelder versteckt nehmen - stattdessen betrifft sie die Form haben soll – Hummler als der Umsetzung, die ist aber bereits Teil der Mitverschwörer… 12 Abnahme der Beiträge
• Verständlichkeit im Sinne Kontext- / Soviel kurz zum synchronen „Kon“text. Die Vorwissen bezogenes Verstehen zu Problemsichten von NZZ und SRF Beitrag thematisieren ähneln einander: … ins Visier geraten … der • die Herstellung zu thematisieren, statt - Druck zwinge das Lebenswerk aufzugeben – die Kapitulation.13 Es wäre sicherlich dessen wird das Produkt kritisiert. 10 lohnenswert, den Kontext weiter auszuführen und mit einem nun fast 2 jährigen Abstand Die Abweichung vom Muster den Veränderungen in den Problemsichten nachzugehen14. Aber was hat die Sendekritik Angenommen dieses Muster der Kritik ist zu dem Beitrag zu sagen, wie weicht sie vom alltäglich, stützt sich auf den Rahmen der gängigen typischen Muster ab. Organisation und erhält sie und stützt sich auf die Verlässlichkeit unhinterfragter Problem- Damit zurück zum Aufbau der Sendekritik zusammenhänge und Begründungen und des Beitrags zum Fall „Wegelin“. Der Aufbau geteilter Bewertungen und akzeptierter entspricht zunächst dem gängigen Muster: Lösungen, dann liegt es nahe, nach – beurteilen und positiv bewerten Abweichungen von diesem Muster zu – begründen schauen; und zu schauen, was die – einschränken. Abweichungen ausmacht und wie die Beteiligten in solchen Fällen kommunizieren.11 Die Sendekritik unterscheidet nicht Anlass /Ereignis (…was zu Wegelin machen…) und Damit sind wir wieder bei dem Beispiel vom Selektion des Themas: welcher Frage geht der Anfang, dem Fall „Wegelin“ und der Beitrag nach und das obwohl die Sendekritik. Zur Erinnerung: die Anmoderation Anmoderation dazu Anhaltspunkte liefert. Hier fasst den Beitrag zusammen und etabliert eine bezieht sich die Sendekritik auf einen Aspekt Problemsicht: der Bearbeitung eines Elements des Beitrags (…einordnen und transparent machen): Dass die St. Galler Traditionsbank Wegelin Richtig, unter dem Druck der USA kapituliert und dass die TS nochmals bemüht war, grosse Teile an die Raiffeisenbank verkauft etwas zu Wegelin zu machen. hat wirft noch immer viele Fragen auf. Nun Richtig auch, spricht der Freund von Wegelinchef Konrad dass wir Professor Jansen als Person Hummler, der Bankenexperte Martin eingeordnet und seine persönlichen Janssen gegenüber der Tagesschau über Beziehungen transparent gemacht die Ereignisse der letzten Tage. Und dieser haben.
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 36 Die erste starke Abweichung vom Muster: Der Die mit der 2ten Frage unterstellte Prämisse – Kritiker äussert ein nicht benanntes aber hier wird argumentiert – soll als Prämisse bewertetes „Erleben“ – Gefühl, das er beim fraglich bleiben. Man kann den Kritiker schlecht nach einer Begründung von „ich habe Anschauen des Beitrags hatte, ein Gefühl etwa ein Gefühl“ fragen. Immerhin könnte man ihn der Art: es ging mir schlecht am Ende des fragen, warum er es als „ungut“ bewertet. Beitrags. Also bleibe ich bei den Fragen 1) und Frage Trotzdem 2) ist reduziert auf die Aspekte deren hat man ein ungutes Gefühl am Schluss. Begründungen bestritten werden können. Beide Fragen werden wieder reduziert Im Weiteren bezieht sich der Kritiker jeweils beantwortet. Der Fokus ist jeweils: auf einzelne Aeusserungen des im Beitrag Wo sind signifikante Unterschiede zum dargestellten Akteurs, er zitiert ihn und gängigen Aufbau der Sendekritiken? schliesst jeweils an das Zitat an. Begründungen rekonstruieren geschieht in Begründungen rekonstruieren der Regel durch umstellen, ergänzen, reduzieren, unterschiedliche Kontextbezüge Meine Fragen an diese Form der herstellen usw. und ist immer stark Sendekritik lauteten wieder: interpretativ und insgesamt umfangreich. Da 1) Welche Kommunikationssituation es hier darum geht, Annahmen zu unterstellten schafft der Kritiker? gemeinsamen Konzepten in den 2) wie sind seine Argumentationen Begründungen zu treffen, ist die aufgebaut – wenn man annimmt, dass Rekonstruktion der Begründungen jeweils er argumentiert? reduziert und fokussiert auf:
Der Kritiker im Rahmen seiner Kommunikationen
?Welche Kommunikationssituation schafft er 3) Welche Möglichkeiten / Alternativen nimmt er an 7) Welche Mittel wählt er 4) Welchen Problemzusammenhang fokussiert der Kritiker 1) Was bestreitet er 2) Auf welche geteilten Sichten stützt er seine Aussagen 5) Welche Verfahren verwendet er, um Schlussfolgerungen zu ziehen 6) Welchen Anspruch auf Gültigkeit /Reichweite haben seine Aussagen?
und „Bausteine“ seines Argumentierens
1.Welchen Problemzusammenhang fokussiert von unversteuerten Geldern, ist eine High- der Kritiker Risk-Politik.
Der Kritiker bezieht sich im Folgenden nicht Die Rekonstruktion ist der Problemsicht ist mehr auf das Ereignis – oder ein spekulativ – interessant ist, dass die möglicherweise gewähltes Thema, oder die Beteiligten vermutlich unterschiedliche Bearbeitung des Themas, sondern auf Problemsichten haben, ohne das zu Aeusserungen eines Akteurs im Beitrag. thematisieren: Welche Problemsicht er dabei wählt ist schwer rekonstruierbar. Die Kritik endet mit: Kritiker: Was tun mit Leuten die noch nicht begriffen haben, unversteuerte Gelder Die Diskussion um die Weissgeld-Strategie aquirieren = high risk Politik? sollte doch allen klar machen - die Autor: „Hätte Wegelin gerettet werden Annahme, respektive die aktive Akquisition können?“
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 37 Produzent: „was ist vom Verhalten von Bund high risk Politik / Aquisition von und der Bank Wegelin zu halten?“ unversteuerten Geldern / Weissgeldstrategie … Verwendet man statt der Fragen, die impliziten Thesen / Prämissen der Fragen kommt man Er verwendet nicht den Sprachgebrauch zu: derjenigen die den Beitrag realisiert haben: Kritiker: Wegelin hat versagt Autor + Produzent: Der Bund hat versagt (Einstellungen / Quote / off Text des Autors etc…) 2.Was bestreitet der Kritiker Verweist aber gleichzeitig darauf, dass er Teil Bestritten wird der GA der Aussage des im des „Systems“ ist: Beitrag zitierten Akteurs: etwas zu Wegelin zu machen. der Bund hat zu wenig gemacht …( ja was dass wir Professor Jansen als Person hätte er denn machen sollen ) eingeordnet und seine persönlichen Beziehungen transparent gemacht haben. Man kann aber auch annehmen, dass der GA der Aussage des Autors bestritten wird: 5. Auf welche geteilten Sichten stützt sich der Die Kritik am Verhalten der Kritiker Bundesbehörden gegenüber der Bank Wegelin macht vor allem eines deutlich: Reduziert man einzelne Aussagen und geht Nicht nur mit dem Ausland gibt es bezüglich davon aus, dass sie vom Kritiker als geteilte Bankenplatz noch einiges zu regeln, Meinungen / Sichten unterstellt werden, findet sondern auch in der Schweiz selbst. …( Die man Aussagen der Art: Diskussion um die Weissgeld-Strategie sollte doch allen klar machen – Am Ende hat man ein ungutes Gefühl… Finanzplatz Schweiz in Gefahr… 3. Welche Kommunikationssituation schafft der Die Diskussion sollte doch allen Kritiker klarmachen… High risk Politik…. Nach dem typischen Anfang Das wäre das Ende jeder Privatbank…
Richtig haben wir etwas gemacht… Im Kontext und ihrer jeweiligen Verwendung in der Kommunikation aktivieren diese Aussagen: zitiert der Kritiker den Akteur aus dem Beitrag Gefühle – Bewertungen - gemeinsames Der Bund und die Finma haben "zu wenig Wissen – Handlungs“logiken“ – Selektionen gemacht". - Teilnahme und Teilhabe an Zusammen – hängen. Und schliesst mit einem „ja“ an. Diese argumentativen Stützen lasen sich als kulturelle „Storymuster“ interpretieren?15 Ja was hätte der Bund denn machen sollen? eingebettet in – gemeinsames - Handeln:
Dieses „ja“ lässt sich als Dialogpartikel so machen wir das / so machen wir das verstehen. Der Kritiker schliesst also sowohl nicht. an die Adressaten seiner Kritik an, als auch an den Akteur im Beitrag und fährt fort mit 6. Welche Verfahren verwendet er, um Schlussfolgerungen zu ziehen Wegelin erlauben, Kundendaten herauszugeben… Die Art der Schlussfolgerungen soll nur grob skizziert werden, soweit sie aus meiner Und wird so selber zum Akteur in dem Sicht für die Frage nach „Konzepten“ des Berichteten, übernimmt eine Rolle und eine Handelns aufschlussreich sein kann. räumlich zeitliche Ausrichtung. Interessant scheint mir, dass der Kritiker sich im Dialog direkt auf Akteure aus dem Beitrag 4. Welche Mittel wählt der Kritiker bezieht. Damit konstruiert er eine ftf Analogie zur Darstellung im Beitrag, nutzt diese Der Kritiker verfügt offensichtlich über den Analogie und bestreitet die Glaubwürdigkeit Sprachgebrauch der Akteure im Bericht des Akteurs (wie wenn er nichts gehört hätte) und die Kompetenz (sollte doch allen
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 38 klarmachen). Im übrigen verwendet der Kritiker unterschiedliche Schlussverfahren (kausale - die aktuelle Kommunikationssituation wenn-dann Verbindungen / Syllogismen) einschliesslich ihres organisationalen Rahmens und ihrer Komponenten, 7.Unterstellt der Kritiker den Beteiligten - die räumliche und zeitliche Selektionen / die Möglichkeit zu Selektionen. Ausrichtung / Orientierung, - angenommene Alternativen, Der Kritiker geht davon aus, dass die - die Wahl der Mittel, unterschiedlichen Akteure jeweils Lösungen - geteiltes Wissen - Problemsichten und wählen können – alle Selektionen sind Handlungsmuster einschliesslich ihrer Selektionen aus dem Zusammenhang „wir Bewertungen und emotionalen wissen was von der Kapitulation der Bank Unterscheidungen Wegelin zu halten sein sollte“: - der Prozess.
Die Akteure im Beitrag Sofern man annimmt, dass sich die Beteiligten mit diesem Verhalten auf unterstellte Wie wenn er nichts gehört hätte // was Gemeinsamkeiten ihres Handelns stützen, und hätte der Bund denn tun sollen mit diesem Hintergrund dann spezifische Handlungsmuster wählen und fokussieren – der Produzent lassen sich diese Aspekte als „Konzepte“ des richtig was zu machen Handelns modellieren. Soweit bestätigen – nicht weiter erstaunlich – die grob umrissenen der Autor Ergebnisse die Annahmen. richtig einzuordnen und nachzufragen
der Kritiker Ich möchte deswegen hier die – wie ich wählt eine Alternative zum gängigen meine - Besonderheiten der beiden gefunden Muster der Sendekritiken. ( ist aber in Muster in den Sendekritiken hervorheben: der Szene des Berichteten der Meinung, dass keine Alternative nützlich/ Das erste Muster (SK 1) verwendet im überlebenssichernd ist wesentlichen einen asymmetrischen Vergleich, fokussiert in der Kritik die Formen der Beiträge und richtet sich überwiegend nicht an Akteure/Beitragsmacher sondern an
„Texte“. Diese Form der Kritik scheint mir gut Diskussion geeignet sicherzustellen, welche Formen das „Label“ ausmachen, sie erhält diese Formen, Am Anfang waren die Fragen: schliesst aus / ein wer nicht „mitmachen“ darf und scheint mir besonders gut dafür geeignet, • Wie verständigen sich Redakteure auf dass die Beteiligten Beispiele abmodellieren. Konzepte ihres beruflichen Handelns? • Welche kommunikativen Verfahren Die Abweichung von diesem Muster (SK verwenden sie dafür? 2), schliesst dialogisch an die Akteure im • Lassen sich aus diesen Kommunikationen Beitrag an. Das stützt sich – denke ich - auf Annahmen zu diesen Konzepten eine Analogie von ftf - avt Kommunikationen. gewinnen? die Analogie stützt sich – behaupte ich – auf eine formale Aehnlichkeit der Versteht man die Sendekritiken als Kommunikationen. Diese Analogie ist die Basis Anschlusshandlung, mit der die Beteiligten das dafür, dass der Kritiker Akteur im Kritisierten „Produkt nutzen, und sich auf seine werden kann. Für seine Begründungen performance und seine Herstellung“ beziehen verwendet er dann die Verbindung der Person können und erfüllt dies Anschlusshandlung die und ihrer Handlungen, ihre „Glaubwürdigkeit“ Bedingungen und Möglichkeiten ihrer und „Kompetenz“ und stützt sich auf Kommunikationen, lässt sich sagen, dass die unterstelltes gemeinsames Wissen, Kritiker – im gängigen Muster und den Handlungsmuster, Wertungen (einschliesslich Abweichungen davon - einen Zusammenhang Emotionen) und Handlungsnormen und ein als gemeinsam unterstellen der folgende gemeinsames intuitives (erfahrungsgestütztes) emotionale, kognitive, „leib“haft basierte Verständnis einer Unterscheidung von Unterscheidungen trifft und Relationen bildet: Sachverhalt/Inhalten – Ereignis.
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 39
Avt-kommunikationen ftf- kommunikationen /Produkt / Konstrukt
Formale Aehnlichkeit
Teilnahme
Diese Form der Kritik scheint zu des unterstellten Gemeinsamen – sie erfordert ermöglichen, dass der Adressat seine Teilnahme und Teilhabe. Welche Form der Orientierungen und Ausrichtungen überprüft Distanz möglich bleibt, bleibt offen.16 und eigene Positionen… entwickelt innerhalb
ADORNO, T. 1969. (internet Zugriff: 3.8. 2013) Kritik. www.zeit.de Lernen? BARTHES, R. 1967. Kritik und Wahrheit. FFm. BOLIK, S. & SCHANZE,H. (Hrsg). 2001. Nimmt man schliesslich an, dass die Medienwertung. Beteiligten in der Organisation mit diesen BUTLER, J. (Zugriff: 3.8.2013) Was ist Kritik? Sendekritiken lernen, Muster zu bilden, Ein Essay über Foucaults Tugend. Uebers. scheinen die beiden Formen lernen von Jürgen Brenner. Internet: unterschiedlich zu ermöglichen: eipcp.net/transversal/0806/butler/de FOUCAULT, M. 1992. Was ist Kritik. Bln. stärker prozedurales GAMSON, W. 1992. Talking politics. Cambridge GAMSON, W. A. 1988. "The 1987 Distinguished Lecture: A Constructionist Approach to stärker explizites Lernen. Mass Media and Public Opinion." Symbolic Interaction, 11(2), 161-174 In diesen Zusammenhängen Gesprächs - GEISSNER, H. 1995. Ueber dialogische Ethik. fähigkeiten zu fördern und zu entwickeln, In: the international society forthe history of beginnt aus meiner Sicht bei den Fähigkeiten, rhetoric. Rhetorica, 13(4). zu unterscheiden, Relationen und Typen zu HABERMAS, J. 1991. Erläuterungen zur bilden und diese Operationen selbst wieder Diskursethik. FFm. auszudifferenzieren, so dass sie sich im HABERMAS, J. 1995. Theorie des Handeln als tragfähig erweisen. Das beginnt kommunikativen Handelns, Bd 1&2. FFm. im vorliegenden Fall bei der Unterscheidung ftf HORKHEIMER, M. 1937. Traditionelle und und av-t Kommunikationen. kritische Theorie. JÄGER, S. 2011. Diskurs und Wissen. Das erfordert Teilnahme und Teilhabe Theoretische und methodische Aspekte ebenso wie Distanz und auch die Möglichkeit einer Kritischen Diskursund zum Abbruch von Kommunikationen - um noch Dispositivanalyse. In R. Keller u.a. (Hrsg.), mal den Bogen zu den Bedingungen und Handbuch Sozialwissenschaftliche Möglichkeiten von Kritik zu schlagen. Diskursanalyse 1. Wiesbaden S 91 - 125 JAEGGI, R. & WESCHE, T. 2009. Was ist Kritik. Literatur: Ffm.
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 40 KIENPOINTNER, M. 1992. Alltagslogik. Struktur und Funktion von Argumentationsmustern. 0.12 Stgt. Jansen KINDT, W. 1988. Zur Logik von Der Bund hat aus Angst würde ich sagen Alltagsargumentationen. Koblenz versagt, wenn man sich hingestellt hätte und KNOBLAUCH, H. 2000. Topik und Soziologie. die Bank nicht einfach geopfert hätte, dann In Schirren & Ueding (Hrsg), Topik und hätte man - davon bin ich überzeugt - diese Rhetorik (S 651-667). Tü Bank retten können und man könnte auch KOPPERSCHMIDT, J. 1989. Methodik der noch andere Banken retten. Wegelin wäre ein Argumentationsanalyse. Stgt. ganz einfaches Modell gewesen, wo der Bund LAKOFF, G. 1994. Women, Fire and hätte üben können , den Schaden an Dangerous Things. Chicago University grösseren Banken abzuwenden. Press. 0.32 PAVLENKO, A. 1999. Bilingualism, Language Von Bundesseite wollte heute niemand and Cognition 2. Dort: New approaches to Stellung zu den Vorwürfen nehmen. Tatsache concepts in bilingual memory. S 209-230. aber ist: Die Banken waren seit dem Fall UBS PERELMAN, C. 1980. Das Reich der Rhetorik. vorgewarnt. Rhetorik und Argumentation. Mü 0.41 SCHWEPPENHÄUSER, G. 2010. Kritische Gredig: Theorie. Stgt. Im Fall UBS hat der Bund geholfen, nachher TOULMIN, S. 1975. Der Gebrauch von hat man aber klar gesagt, jetzt helfen wir nicht Argumenten. Kronberg mehr. Die Bank WEgelin hat aber trotzdem mit WENGELER,M. 2003. Topos und Diskurs. dem - sagen wir sehr heiklen US Begründung einer Kundengeschäft - weitergemacht - warum argumentationsanalytischen Methode und das? ihrer Anwendung auf den 0.54 Migrationsdiskurs. Tübingen Jansen WALDENFELS , B. 1991. Spiele der Wahrheit. Das ist aus heutiger Sicht schwierig zu sagen, Michel Foucaults Denken. FFm warum man das gemacht hat. Seinerzeit hat man geglaubt, dass das denkbar und machbar wäre. Aus schweizer Sicht wurde ja kein Recht 1 Überarbeitete Fassung des Vortrags am ICC verletzt und man hat gedacht, dass sei noch 2012 San Francisco möglich. In den letzten 1 , 2 Jahren hat man dann gesehen , dass das nicht mehr möglich 2 Geissner,H: Sprechwissenschaft. ST Ingbert ist , aber da war es schon zu spät. Man musste 2 Jahre zu schauen, wie sich die 3 29.1. 2012 TS HA SRF – einziger Beitrag in Schlinge um, den Hals einfach zugezogen hat. dieser Sendung zum Ereignis in der Wegelin 1.17 Bank So oder so: Martin Janssen glaubt , dass für andere Schweizer Banken, die ebenfalls ins 4 TS 29.1. HA Visier der US-Steuerbehörden geraten sind, *** wegelin aftermath + sc st die Situation jetzt erst recht schwierig WEGELIN AFTERMATH / Autoren: Gredig/ geworden ist. Leuthold/ Kozelka. (Text): 1.30 ANMODERATION Jansen Dass die St. Galler Traditionsbank Wegelin Man muss davon ausgehen, dass die Banken unter dem Druck der USA kapituliert und gefährdet sind. Die USA werden sicher nicht grosse Teile an die Raiffeisenbank verkauft hat Zurückhaltung üben, jetzt wo sie gemerkt wirft noch immer viele Fragen auf. Nun spricht haben, dass nur Schwatzen reicht, damit die der Freund von Wegelinchef Konrad Hummler, Banken in der Schweiz an die Wand gefahren der Bankenexperte Martin Janssen gegenüber werden müssen. der Tagesschau über die Ereignisse der 1.41 letzten Tage. Und dieser nimmt kein Blatt vor Die Kritik am Verhalten der Bundesbehörden den Mund. Er übt massive Kritik an den gegenüber der Bank Wegelin macht vor allem Bundesbehörden eines deutlich: Nicht nur mit dem Ausland gibt BEITRAG es bezüglich Bankenplatz noch eines zu 0.01 regeln, sondern auch in der Schweiz selbst. Martin Janssen ist enttäuscht. Enttäuscht, weil die Behörden der Bank Wegelin nicht geholfen 5 Zur Problematik schriftlich-mündlich in der hätten, nachdem diese vor dem Verkauf an die Argumentation siehe auch Hermann, Markus Raiffeisen-Bank um Hilfe ersucht hatte. u.a.; Schlüssel-kompetenz Argumentation;
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 41 Paderborn 2011, S 19 „...die Unterscheidung zwischen schriftlicher oder mündlicher Form 9 (siehe: Kopperschmidt / Toulmin / Geissner / … ist … für Fragen der Argumentation Kienpointner / Wengeler /Mayring /Aristoteles / weitgehend belanglos“ und auch Grundler, Quintilian) Die Diskussionen über Elke; Kompetent argumentieren, ein Argumentationen in Kommunikationen haben gesprächsanalytisches Modell Tübingen 2009 eine lange Tradition und sind entsprechend S 78: „…Argumentations-kompetenz ist eine vielfältig. Ich bin davon ausgegangen, dass Spielart der Gesprächskompetenz hier Begründungen durch Plausibilität gestützt …[Spezifizierungen abzutrennen wird der werden und Geltungsansprüche ausgehandelt Komplexität des Gegenstands nicht gerecht]. werden. Mit „Plausibilität“ ist die Annahme Anders in: Bayer, Klaus; 1999 Opladen, verbunden, dass Person und Handlung Argument und Argumentation Grundlage der verbunden sind, dass ein Kontextbezug Argumentationsanalyse. Er verweist darauf, hergestellt ist, dass die Beteiligten dass die Analyse die verschriftlichte oder Geltungsansprüche einlösen können und dass aufgenommene Version braucht – da die sie Wahlmöglichkeiten und entsprechend Analyse als Verfahren umstellen, ergänzen, Erwartungen haben. Da die „Gegenstände“ der weglassen, ersetzen und komplexere Argumentationen Teil des journalistischen Operationen der Verknüpfung und Berufsrollenverständnisses sind, ist hier semantische und pragmatische zwischen Ereignis und Sachverhalt Interpretationen erfordert. Für die Mündlichkeit unterschieden. und das Hörverstehen stellt das ein Problem einer „Hermeneutik des Gesprochenen“ 10 Dieses Ergebnis liesse sich so verstehen, (Geissner) dar. Das lässt plausibel scheinen, dass die typischen Sendekritiken stark die Art dass geschriebene und leseverstandene Texte Vermittlung problematisieren, weniger bis gar und gesprochene und hörverstandene Beiträge nicht die „strategische „ Verantwortung der unterschiedliche Bedingungen und Berichterstattung und das selbstreflexive Möglichkeiten der Argumentationsanalyse mit Potential der Sendekritiken. sich bringen. 11 Habermas, Theorie des kommunikativen 6 Sendekritiken der TS HA von SRF 2011 - Handelns S. 525: „Wenn Gesellschaften ihre 2012. bestandssichernden Aufgaben nicht mehr aus den Ressourcen präkommunikativ unterstellter 7 Der Begriff „Konzept“ wird unterschiedlich Handlungsorientierungen befriedigen können gebraucht. Hier stützt sich der Gebrauch auf und wenn sie weiter die notwendige Lakoff 1994 – mit der Einschränkung, dass Handlungskoordination auch nicht durch „concept“ im Original auch als „Begriff“ oder akommunikative Sanktionsmittel bzw. durch „Gedanke / Auffassung“ übersetzt werden Steigerung ihrer Kontrollkapazität erzwingen kann. Der Gebrauch „Konzept“ stützt sich können, dann hängt ihre Ueberlebenschance weiter auf Pavlenko 1999, S. 212: concept as a davon ab, ob es ihnen gelingt, strukturell „non linguistic multimodal information, which Kommunikationsprozesse zu ermöglichen, und includes imaginary schemas, motor zu institutionalisieren, in denen sich programms, and auditory, tactile and kooperationsfördernde Einverständnisse und somatisensory representations, based on Motivlagen bilden und stabilisieren können, die experimential world experience“ . Letztlich ist Handlungskoordination auf der Grundlage mit Konzept ein Modell kognitiver einer Motivation durch Gründe zulassen.“ Repräsentationen bei der Planung und Steuerung kommunikativen Handelns 12 NZZ online 28.1. 2012 (Auszug): entworfen. Das geht über die Prototypen Zerschlagung der Bank Wegelin (Rosch) und Kategorien oder Steuerstreit zwingt zum Verkauf grosser Familienähnlichkeiten (Wittgenstein) hinaus. Teile des Geschäfts an die Raiffeisen- Das Modell versucht, wenn ich das richtig Gruppe sehe, das Problem „ Bedeutung / Inhalt“ als Die Bank Wegelin, die älteste Privatbank der mentale Repräsentation zu beschreiben. Schweiz, verkauft nahezu ihr gesamtes Geschäft an Raiffeisen. Als Rumpfbank behält 8 Siehe dazu auch: Jaeggi, Rahel; Wesche, sie lediglich das Geschäft mit toxischen US- Tilo: Was ist Kritik. Ffm 2009 /Foucault, Michel: Kunden. Was ist Kritik. Bln. 1992 /Schweppenhäuser, Ermes Gallarotti, Michael Ferber Gerhard: Kritische Theorie. Stgt 2010 /Butler, Mit der 1741 gegründeten St. Galler Privatbank Judith: Was ist Kritik? / Barthes, Roland; Kritik Wegelin strauchelt die älteste Bank der und Wahrheit 1967. Schweiz über den Steuerstreit mit den USA.
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 42 Die Teilhaber der Bank um Konrad Hummler Werkzeuge mit denen die Beteiligten und Otto Bruderer haben sich dazu reagieren. durchgerungen, den Grossteil der Kunden und Mitarbeiter ihrer Bank in die neu gegründete 15 Zusammen mit dem Kontext (siehe oben Notenstein Privatbank zu übertragen, die den NZZ Artikel und die darin verwendeten wiederum vollständig von der Raiffeisen- „Metaphern“) ist das eine Fundgrube für Gruppe übernommen wird. Nicht in die neue verwendete „Story“muster: es geht etwas zu Bank übertragen wird das Geschäft mit Ende – möglicherweise ein Widerspruch zu amerikanischen Offshore-Kunden, das einem starken kulturellen Storymuster: wir Wegelin in die Bredouille gebracht hat. Die leben in stabilen Verhältnissen. Und: wir Rumpfbank bleibt vorerst als eine Art Hülle riskieren hier nicht mehr, unsere Besonderheit bestehen, um noch bestehende aufrechtzuerhalten. Und: möglicherweise ein amerikanischer Kunden «endgültig Widerspruch zu einem starken kulturellen abzuarbeiten» und sämtliche Auseinander- storymuster: Held ist bei uns, wer uns gegen setzungen mit den US-Strafverfolgungs- Einflüsse von aussen verteidigt. behörden zu führen. Durch die Überführung der nicht problembehafteten Teile von Wegelin 16 Es scheint so, dass diese Abweichung von in die Notenstein sollen die Stellen von 700 der typischen Sendekritik stärker die beiden Mitarbeitern an 13 Standorten in der Schweiz Aspekte der gesellschaftlich /politischen erhalten werden. Der Kaufpreis wurde nicht Verantwortung und der Handlungsaufforderung bekanntgegeben. durch die Berichterstattung unterstützt. Existenzielle Bedrohung Die ungeheuer schwierige und existenzbedrohende Lage, in welche die rechtliche Auseinandersetzung mit den US- Behörden die Teilhaber gebracht habe, zwinge diese zu diesem «ausserordentlich schmerzlichen Vorgehen», teilte Hummler, geschäftsführender Teilhaber der Bank Wegelin, in einem Communiqué mit. Damit gäben sie ihr Lebenswerk auf. Der Verkauf unter höchstem Druck an Raiffeisen bedeute eine grosse Erleichterung für alle Verantwortungsträger. Die Bank Wegelin ist im Steuerstreit mit den USA zusammen mit zehn anderen Banken ins Visier der US-Behörden geraten, weil sie amerikanischen Kunden dabei geholfen haben soll, Gelder im Volumen von 1,2 Mrd. $ vor dem US-Fiskus zu verstecken. Der Konflikt spitzte sich Anfang Jahr zu, als zunächst drei Wegelin-Banker in New York angeklagt wurden und der mittlerweile beurlaubte Wegelin-Teilhaber Christian Hafner ohne Namensnennung in der Anklageschrift als «Mitverschwörer» bezeichnet wurde.
13 (Jäger; Diskurs und Wissen S. 98) „Diskurse üben Macht aus, da sie Wissen transportieren, das kollektives und individuelles Bewusstsein speist. Dieses zustande kommende Wissen ist die Grundlage für individuelles und kollektives Handeln und die Gestaltung von Wirklichkeit“. Vergleiche dazu Waldenfels, Bernd: Spiele der Wahrheit. Michel Foucaults Denken. FFm 1991
14 Vergl. dazu Gamson 1988 und das value added modell: konkurrierende Diskurse – die Verbreitung in den „Medien“ als kulturelle
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 43 Member Comments on a Local Newspaper Website: The Challenge of Moral Action in the Mediated Public Sphere
Eric E. Peterson and Kristin M. Langellier
([email protected], [email protected])
In a time of globalization and technological the U.S. and are citizens, while he and his wife change, there are renewed calls for and oldest child are not), the difference between consideration of what constitutes moral action by refugees and asylum-seekers, comments from communicators in the mediated public sphere. community members on the popularity of the The “comments” section found on most local café, and reflections by the owner on his newspaper websites is one example of how the situation and future plans. There are 25 reader mediated public sphere can serve as a kind of comments following the online story; all but one “communication commons” for a community. posted in the first two days of its publication. In The often volatile and vociferous nature of such addition, the news story was picked up and comments illustrates the challenge for moral posted under Washuk’s byline to the Bangor discourse posed by online interaction. Roger Daily News website, bangordailynews.com, Silverstone (2007) describes three obligations where it drew 146 comments in the first two for communicators in a mediated public sphere. days of its publication. The communicator, he argues, is responsible to construct a proper distance which does not Proper Distance reduce the other to a spectacle and that recognizes the other in oneself as well as in the The first moral obligation for stranger. Second, communication involves the communicators is to construct what Silverstone responsibility to listen and welcome the stranger calls “proper distance.” Silverstone (2007) takes – what he describes as a freedom to be heard a phenomenological orientation to the concept of which complements a freedom to express. distance by defining it as that which “separates Third, moral discourse obliges the communicator one being from another in the face-to-face to be truthful. encounter” (118). At first glance, newspapers appear to be an obvious illustration of the way in In this essay, we discuss each of these three which mass media are understood to transcend responsibilities for communicators and then distance and bring the events of the world within illustrate them by analyzing a recent case of view. By reading the newspaper, we learn reader comments posted to a local newspaper about actions, events, and people outside our website hosted by the Lewiston Sun Journal, immediate situation and local community. The sunjournal.com, regarding the deportation of a Internet surpasses broadcast media in this area, local Somali resident. In the news story, as common argument would have it, because it “Lewiston Cafe Closing Due to Owner’s Pending reduces barriers of access and physical Deportation,” staff writer Bonnie Washuk (2012) distances between individuals, communities, reports on the upcoming closure of a popular and societies. Lewiston restaurant, Three One Café. The owner of the café, Mahamed Mahamud, faces However, Merleau-Ponty (1964) reminds us deportation because he was not granted asylum that the lived-experience of distance is not and his temporary work permits are no longer unique to newspapers and mass media, but being renewed. The news story describes inherent in the operation of perception. As Mahamud and his family and their citizenship Merleau-Ponty comments, “the taste for news status (the two youngest children were born in items is the desire to see, and to see is to make
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 44 out a whole world similar to our own in the gathering.” He opens his column by describing wrinkle of a face” (311). Our vision, whether in the well-known Norman Rockwell painting, making out the wrinkle in a friend’s face across “Freedom of Speech” (published in The the kitchen table or a wrinkle in diplomatic Saturday Evening Post issue of February 20, relations around the world, both renders us 1943), which depicts “a man wearing a flannel present and keeps us distant. In order to see shirt and a worn jacket standing among a group something, in other words, we cannot be of seated adults.” Rhoades continues: “It is a positioned too close to or too distant from it; in classic New England town meeting, the purest such situations the subject of our interest will not form of democracy, one man, one voice, one come into focus and eludes our sight. Merleau- vote, citizens debating other citizens.” The Ponty summarizes the operation in this way: online comment section, from this perspective, “Seeing is that strange way of rendering enlarges the possibilities for democracy by ourselves present while keeping our distance creating, as stated in the subheading for the and, without participating, transforming others column: “a bold, new electronic community.” into visible things. He who sees believes himself invisible: for him his acts remain in the The metaphor of a “town meeting” or flattering entourage of his intentions, and he “community gathering” implies a specific social deprives others of this alibi, reducing them to a context with particular communication relations. few words, a few gestures” (311). When These meetings and gatherings take place in readers look at strangers and events in news familiar settings, typically in public buildings, with items, they join with the efforts of reporters and a shared history of use and care by community editors to bring something into view, to make a members. There are formal and informal rules collection of facts into a story, and to understand regarding who can speak at these events, on what happened. The simplicity of the news item what subjects, in what order, for how long, how masks the complexity of its operation in making frequently, and so on. If a participant fails to something visible. As a consequence, abide by these rules, then a host or meeting Silverstone argues, news reports most often chair will intervene, such as when a town official result in “an absence of context, an reminds a speaker to limit their time or to restrict overdependence on the immediate, a collusive their comments to the issue at hand. The real oversimplification of the complexity of the event” name requirement for commenting on the Sun (120). Silverstone focuses on the importance of Journal website can be seen as moving toward context as a key component in constituting a the regulatory rule of speaker identification proper distance that is at the heart of our found at community meetings and gatherings relations with others. whether practiced formally (such as the requirement for speakers to identify themselves What kind of context is created in the online and their place of residence at a town meeting) comment section that follows a news story? or informally (such as a participant at a Traditionally, newspapers in the U.S. have community gathering who asks her neighbor to described themselves as part of “the identify someone she does not recognize). marketplace of ideas” that stimulates public dialogue at the heart of democratic process. But in other ways, the online comment The letters to the editor section of newspapers section of the Sun Journal website can be seen are a key part of this claim to foster an open as moving away from the proper distance and public forum that serves the ideal of a obligations of hospitality found in a town meeting deliberative democracy. With the move to the or community gathering. For example, in the Internet, where there are few limitations on the statement of the Sun Journal’s “Commenting number of reader letters that can be published, Policy,” Web Editor Patti Reaves (2012) asks newspapers celebrate online comments as commenters to “keep your conversation furthering the democratic ideals of free speech respectful and on topic,” a discourse expectation and free assembly. For example, in a column that is shared by town meetings and community introducing the new requirement that as of gatherings. However, after listing problematic February 1, 2011, all online comments must be types of discourse that commenters should accompanied by real names, Sun Journal avoid (such as libelous, abusive, vulgar, racist, Executive Editor Rex Rhoades (2010) claims and threatening statements), she concludes by “both our website and print newspaper are, in stating “because we cannot and do not monitor fact, like a town meeting or community every comment, we rely on other members of
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 45 our community to speak up when a user violates (one of which was removed as “flagged for this policy.” Thus, unlike the prototypical town review”), Alyce Ornella posts the following meeting and community gathering, the online comment: “Seriously BDN, seriously? Are your comment section has no host. This lack of a moderators on coffee break?” This thread of human moderator leads Silverstone to conclude comments illustrates the problem of institutional that the Internet, despite its language of home- hosting as well as Silverstone’s concern for the pages and hosting, substitutes the technological second obligation of responsible listening. for the human and “fundamentally undercuts the humanity of the relationship of self and other, Responsible Listening without which hospitality in any of its forms cannot be considered as effective” (142). The second obligation, responsible listening, Silverstone takes up Derrida’s argument on emerges from Silverstone’s conception of ethics when he states “there can be no hospitality. For Silverstone, “welcoming the hospitality without a home, a place of welcome other in one’s space, with or without any and in it someone who welcomes” (142). expectation of reciprocity, is a particular and irreducible component of what it means to be Silverstone is making two interrelated points human. Hospitality is the mark of the interface about proper distance here; for action to be we have with the stranger. [. . .] Hospitality then moral, as well as just, requires 1) that action be becomes intertwined with the requirement not about the person and not relegated to an just to let the other speak but the requirement institution (the newspaper) or a collective (such that the stranger should be heard” (139). as other newspaper readers) and 2) that action Freedom of speech, therefore, must be cannot be regulated by procedural rationality accompanied by responsible listening (Geissner, alone (such as cultural expectations for 1995). As Silverstone clarifies, rights-based dispassionate debate, reason, and civil approaches “protect the individual’s rights to discussion). Moral action, Silverman argues, express an opinion but not necessarily to cannot be communicate. They do not require an audience, do not address the conditions under which displaced onto the institution, onto someone who speaks can be heard. This is the procedure, into regulation [for] then the nub of the issue. The rights to self-expression, connection between person and person vital though they are, do not need to take into becomes disturbed and attenuated, and it account the social context which may or may not loses its force. This is the argument behind make them possible; they are only concerned my sense that the internet cannot in an with not violating someone else’s similar right to uncompromised way be a host. [. . .] In each freedom to communication” (156). Following case this is not just a matter of the Silverman’s argument, we can ask two kinds of inevitability of loss, the impossibility of questions about the nature of the social context perfection, but the intervention of technology for online comments: first, what is the nature of and procedural rationality into the process, the audience and, second, how well or and its capacity to undermine what it protests responsibly does the audience participate? it is protecting. And above all, it is the problem of distance and distancing: the Existing research on letters to the editor in material distance of spatial separation and print newspapers suggests that the letter writers the political distancing of procedural themselves are not characteristic of newspaper rationality. (151) readers as a whole. Wahl-Jorgensen (2004) summarizes this research by characterizing the An example of how this displacement fails to views of citizens who submit letters as “both constitute moral action is illustrated by a pithy more extreme and more strongly held than those exchange in a comment “thread” that takes of the population as a whole.” As a result, she place on bangordailynews.com following a concludes that “the letters section, far from “guest” post (March 14, 2012) that states, “There being a microcosm of a diverse society, and a will be some culture shock for sure… Pirates forum for the voiceless, appears to be could use a few strong hands… As michelle dominated by groups with relatively narrow obama once said Somalia is right next door to range of interests” (91). Unfortunately, there is Obama’s home country, Kenya.. (-;”[sic]. After little research on the audience for online two more posts in a similar vein in the thread comments. However, what evidence there is
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 46 would suggest that this asymmetry of ‘disagreed’ or ‘strongly disagreed’ that the online participation extends to the Internet as well. The comments promoted civil, thoughtful discussion” so-called “1% rule” of Internet participation, for (75). This research is consistent with the results example, suggests that most people are readers of interviews Wahl-Jorgensen (2004) conducted (or “lurkers” in Internet terms) and not part of the with newspaper editors in the San Francisco 1% that create content. To put this issue in area about their print editions: “When you ask context, 15 writers posted the 25 online editors, the problem of securing a diverse and comments to the Sun Journal story and of those, polite discursive environment is one of their 40% were posted by two writers. Contrast that worst headaches.” She continues, “the main number with the overall readership of the Sun problem editors face is simply that of getting Journal: the newspaper reported a print everyone who wants to argue to speak their circulation of 31,162 in 2011 and an average of opinions politely and respectfully” (93). 650,000 (non-unique) visitors to the website each month (by comparison, Rhoades (2010), in describing the problem siteanalytics.compete.com reports a monthly with anonymous comments on sunjournal.com, average of 167,245 unique visitors for the last points out that “some comments have been year, as of June 2012). factually incorrect, reckless and mean-spirited.” However, even the move to require commenters Despite the Sun Journal claim that “the to identify themselves does not eliminate advent of the Web has given us powerful new problems with so-called mean-spirited ways to connect people and allow anyone to comments. Consider these two comments from become an active part of every discussion” “verified users” of sunjournal.com. The first (Rhoades, 2010), few readers participate. The comment is from Gary Savard (March 14, 2012), lack of participation suggests there are multiple who builds on an earlier post by another constraints that keep audiences from becoming commenter and goes on to state that “Our office active contributors. Some of these constraints used to be in the Dube Travel building next door are particularly salient for immigrant groups such to Mahamud’s establishment, and he is a as Somali Americans living in Lewiston: these personable, apparently self-supporting man. He include, for example, access to computers and gets bounced out of the Country, while we keep the Internet, the discursive competence and our doors open to folks that are only here cultural capital needed to participate, adequate because we are stupid enough to support them.” time to read and respond to newspaper stories, A similar sentiment is expressed by Brian Allen the amount of effort with respect to perceived Small (May 30, 2012): “If he was here collecting benefits, and fears of retaliation by extremist benefits every bleeding heart organization would members of the majority population. Reader spring into action to help him This is the end (2005) describes the ethical situation in blunt result of what happens when a man wants to terms: “the ‘New England town meeting’ editors work and pay bills Hows that Hope and Change claim to provide their letters forums is a myth, working out for you all?” [sic] and in reality the forums have become places where only those comfortable enough to sign While a detailed content analysis of these their names may stand up and be heard and comments is beyond the scope of this essay where the voiceless can only watch in silence” (but see Atkin & Richardson, 2007, for an (74). example of such work), they do provide support for Wahl-Jorgensen’s (2001) conclusion that the The second question on the quality of letters section is not so much a site for dialogue participation – do online comments demonstrate or debate about public issues but, instead, responsible listening? – is equally complex and privileges “an exhibitionist mode of interaction, troublesome. Again, there is little existing as a site for individual display” (312). Hlavach research that describes how readers experience and Freivogel (2011) concur that such discourse and understand online comments. What functions divisively “to build isolation and research does exist tends to focus on journalists disunity, creating a sense of ‘me/us’ versus and contributing readers (the active 1%) but it ‘them’” (30). The justification for this suggests that most people do not view online exhibitionist mode of discourse comes not in the comments as civil and thoughtful discussion. In normative claim of contributing to the health of a survey of reporters, Santana (2011) points out the public discourse. Instead, Wahl-Jorgensen that “most (64.8 percent) reporters either (2002) locates the justification as primarily
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 47 economic. That is, the letters to the editor Silverstone’s discussion of proper distance. section in print newspapers – and, we would Reader comments often call for more add, in online comments – enact “the twin information. For example, in the discussion of strategies of enhancing credibility in the eyes of the sunjournal.com story, Mike Lachance (March readers and increasing circulation” (129). 15, 2012) adds the following caveat to his Online comments, in other words, do not agreement with another post on immigration demonstrate a moral commitment on the part of policy: “it would still be good to know the details newspaper organizations to public discourse. though; the article is lacking in substance in this Rather, they provide a way to profess a “sincere area.” This type of discussion suggests one way interest” in the opinions of its readers by in which online comments can be seen as allowing them space for commentary and, at the contributing to improvements in practice of same time, to use these online comments as a reporting and editing by making explicit the “hook” to encourage readers to visit the site and problems of comprehension and interpretation thereby increase site traffic and its among actual readers. Santana (2011) attractiveness to advertisers. describes this impact on journalistic practice: “Reporters speak of how readers have Truthfulness essentially made them work harder and be more accountable. From seeking out more sources The third obligation of moral discourse and facts to heeding word choice and sentence concerns the production of truth. Silverstone construction, reporters are changing the way describes the obligation in this way: they do their jobs. Just over half of the reporters who responded said the forums have prompted The production of truth is a matter of both them to change something” (77). accuracy and sincerity. It involves a commitment to make sense of the world, and There are a range of established notwithstanding the cultural variation procedures and practices among journalists to between what that might mean, as well as address the problem of distinguishing truth from cultural differences between what truth itself falsehood in news stories. However, as the might mean as well as might be, this making above quote from Silverstone suggests, these sense is a common, perhaps universal, practices and procedures do not necessarily component of truth telling. [. . . .] And when it carry over to the online comment section where comes to the internet the challenge is the readers may assert rumor and second-hand familiar one of how to distinguish truth from accounts as self-evident truths. The extent of falsehood, to separate sincere and accurate this problem is demonstrated by the large reporting from gossip, and how to break free number of posts made to a 2007 incident from the solipsism of the private involving Somali American students at the conversation. (159-160) Lewiston Middle School. Judith Meyer, the Managing Editor of the Sun Journal, took the The focus on truth telling has been a central unusual step of posting a column to address the concern for practicing journalists and problem of circulation of “rumors and myths” in associations of professional journalists. For the online comments following the news story. most part, this concern has focused on issues Meyer (2007, April 29) describes the problem in such as representation, objectivity, fairness, and this way: “the preference of a small, but vocal, accuracy of reporting. While most participants in group of people to latch onto fiction instead of online comment sections do not have training in relying on fact has been a constant frustration journalism, their discourse does show evidence for city officials, educators, business owners and of a concern for truth telling. For example, in the others in the Twin Cities” [of Lewiston/Auburn]. comments following Washuk’s article on She goes on to list and refute a series of sunjournal.com, readers raise questions about unfounded assertions or “myths” taken from the meaning of specific terms used in the news these comments. These myths include claims story (such as asylum, undocumented, refugee, that Somali immigrants get free food, free cars, and immigrant), legal process, public policy on free drivers’ education, special welfare immigration, and social support programs. Such treatment, extra school funding and housing, to discussions can be seen as attempts to correct name just a few. Another example of an attempt the problem of an absent or abbreviated context to address the problem of truth telling is found that typifies news reports, as described by on Catholic Charities of Maine website where
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 48 Ahmed, Besteman and Osman list “The Top Ten is not pretty to look at.” If such websites are to Myths About Somalis and Why They Are become a new form of “communication Wrong.” The obligation to be truthful, commons” in the mediated public sphere, then Silverstone cautions, is not an assertion that they need to take up the obligations of moral there is a single, simple, or unambiguous truth, discourse. Communicators, to summarize but rather a commitment to truthfulness in our Silverstone’s argument, are responsible to accounts of the world. construct a proper distance for perceiving the other in oneself as well as the stranger, to listen To say that the circulation of rumor and and welcome the stranger, and to be truthful. “myth” is fiction, as Meyer’s column does, mistakes and misstates the problem of the obligation to be truthful. The obligation to be References truthful cannot be resolved by opposing fact and fiction – although these “fact-checking” efforts AHMED, I., BESTEMAN, C., & OSMAN, R. (n.d.). are to be strongly commended. What readers The top ten myths about Somalis and why are attempting to do by circulating these they are wrong. Catholic Charities Maine, “fictions” in their comments – whether well- Refugee and Immigration Service. intentioned or not – is to situate the news story http://www.ccmaine.org/docs/158.TheTopTe in a larger context. They are not acting as nMythsAboutSomaliswRISedit.pdf “citizen journalists” but as interpreters of the ATKIN, A., & RICHARDSON, J. E. (2007). Arguing news story. If asked, it is likely that they would about Muslims: (Un)Reasonable claim to be speaking a larger truth. Indeed, as argumentation in letters to the editor. Text & Merleau-Ponty (1964) reminds us by contrasting Talk, 27, 1-25. the truth of the novel (“fiction”) with the truth of GEISSNER, H. K. (1995). On responsibility. In J. news items (“facts”), “The novel gives us the Lehtonen (Ed.), Critical perspectives on context. The news item on the contrary strikes communication research and pedagogy (pp. us because it is life’s invasion of those who were 17-29). St. Ingbert: Röhrig unaware of it. The news item calls things by Universitätsverlag. their name; the novel names them only through MERLEAU-PONTY, M. (1964). On news items. what the characters perceive” (313). Signs (R. C. McLeary, Trans.) (pp. 311-313). Commenters to online news stories, therefore, Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press. are less like journalists and more like the MEYER, J. (2007, April 29). Fiction vs. fact. Sun characters of a novel in that their discourse Journal. approaches “truth” through what they perceive. http://www.sunjournal.com/node/76264 Merleau-Ponty concludes that “the novel is truer, REAVES, P. (n.d.). Commenting policy. Sun because it gives a totality, and because a lie can Journal. www.sunjournal.com/policy be created from details which are all true. The RHOADES, R. (2010, December 22). Sun news item is truer because it wounds us and is Journal changes rules for online not pretty to look at” (313). The effort to commenting. Sun Journal. separate sincere and accurate reporting from www.sunjournal.com/commenting/story/9561 rumor in online comment sections cannot be 49 resolved by classifying it as true or not. Instead, READER, B. (2005). An ethical “blind spot”: the challenge to articulate the truth of both facts Problems of anonymous letters to the editor. and fictions is an ongoing and continuous Journal of Mass Media Ethics, 20, 62-76. responsibility to establish both the details and SANTANA, A. D. (2011). Online readers’ the context. Meyer is right to challenge the comments represent new opinion pipeline. perceptions of reader comments – but not only Newspaper Research Journal, 32(3), 66-81. because they are “false” as news, but also SILVERSTONE, R. (2007). Media and morality: because such willful blindness to the “facts” On the rise of the mediapolis. Cambridge about Somali immigrants in Lewiston and Malden, MA: Polity. demonstrates the failure of a sincere and WAHL-JORGENSEN, K. (2001). Letters to the accurate understanding of the context. editor as a forum for public deliberation: Modes of publicity and democratic debate. At present, the comment section found Critical Studies in Media Communication, 18, in an online newspaper is often ugly because – 303-320. to use Merleau-Ponty’s words, “it wounds us and
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 49 WAHL-JORGENSEN, K. (2002). The normative- economic justification for public discourse: Letters to the editor as a “wide open” forum. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 79, 121-133. WAHL-JORGENSEN, K. (2004). A “legitimate beef” or “raw meat”? Civility, multiculturalism, and letters to the editor. The Communication Review, 7, 89-104. WAHL-JORGENSEN, K. (2007). Journalists and the public: Newsroom culture, letters to the editor, and democracy. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton. WASHUK, B. (2012, March 14). Lewiston cafe closing due to owner’s pending deportation. Sun Journal. www.sunjournal.com/news/city/2012/03/14/le wiston-cafe-closing-due-owners-pending- deportati/1166547 [Republished in Bangor Daily News. http://bangordailynews.com/2012/03/14/news /lewiston-auburn/lewiston-cafe-closing-due- to-owners-pending-deportation/]
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 50 Media Presentations of Alterity in Terms of Literary Stereotypes and Prejudices: Zigeuner (Gypsy) Representations Franziska Krumwiede
On 25th of October 2012 the “Memorial to the In several European countries the present murdered Sinti and Roma persecuted during the image of “Sinti and Roma” is based on a history Third Reich” opened. The history stands of marginalization, institutional exclusion and exemplarily for the difficult range of interests prejudices. Despite that research people still concerning “Sinti and Roma” in Germany. This suffer from a lack of institutional power to protect opening act is so important because it took more the members of this minority by law. Bogdal than 60 years after the persecution and mass points out that the sustainability of the intellectual killing after World War II to build a memorial for construct of Europe might depend on intercultural “Sinti and Roma” in the Capitol of Germany, concepts that arrange equal living conditions for Berlin. This memorial stands near the “Memorial “Sinti and Roma” (2011, 10). To give an example to the Murdered Jews of Europe” which opened why this thesis weighs a lot, let us look at what is in 2005. The German Bundestag had decided on happening to Roma people in the European 25th of June 1999 – after eleven years of public cultural capital Košice where I have just been. debate – to build this memorial near the About 6000 Roma live in a Ghetto in Košice’s Brandenburg Gate. The memorial is stage win of Lunik IX. The Roma are concentrated there the civil rights movement of the 1979 “Sinti and without having public access to electricity, water Roma”. First post-war associations to put forward supply or heating. Image 1 shows two state “Sinti and Roma” interests have founded in the owned houses for Roma with a gap in the middle 1950s. Since then they have attempted to where a third building was pulled down due to represent material claims of the “Sinti and statist reasons as officials from the city depict it. Roma“. Though, it must be mentioned that there are
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 51 several Roma activists, social workers and even connected to discrimination against “Sinti and politicians who try to put forward concepts to Roma” as Bogdal pointed out recently (2013, 17). support better living conditions for Roma. The correct term for discrimination against “Sinti Unfortunately those projects were not included and Roma” is antiziganism. This term is a result into the Cultural Capital Concept but the activist of Gronemeyer’s, Münzel’s and Streck’s research will keep on trying. One effort they could achieve project called “Tsiganologie” during the 1980s was the privatization of houses to offer low rents, (Zimmermann 2007, 337). It is a disputed term water, electricity and heat supply. Image 2 shows because of the underlying pejorative term the buildings with those low-threshold flats. “Zigeuner” (341). Nevertheless in 1995 it had been translated into “antigypsyism” by Ian Hancock and furthermore been chosen as terminus technicus for the discrimination against “Sinti and Roma” including racial, ethnical, religious reasons (Zimmerman 2007, 339; cf. Zentralrat Deutscher Sinti und Roma 1985). An antiziganistic case in point of high actuality is given by Balcanu, who writes about the situation of “Sinti and Roma” in Romania: A country where
during Ceausescu’s era the Roma minority did not have the right to exist and where calling someone a tzigan is worse than insulting someone’s mother being a ‘gypsy’ cannot be easy. As a European country belonging to the European Union, Romania has to ensure equal chances for all its citizens, no matter what ethnic group they belong to. Reality is far from the written rules – some Romanians are more equal than others. Discrimination against the Roma minority goes beyond Romanian borders. Italy, France and other EU countries reject the difference of a people that does not have the same notions of social life. (Balcanu 2008, 67)
Building on Bogdal’s quantitatively justified Moreover there is an internet platform called observation that stereotypes and prejudices Antiziganism Watchblog (antizig.blogsport.de) against “Sinti and Roma” have been traded which informs about actual discrimination against through Middle Ages until know my analysis aims “Sinti and Roma” in Europe. Indeed the occurring to show their prevalence in contemporary media. question is how can such discrimination exist in different countries at the same time in varying About Interacts of “Zigeuner” Stereotypes degrees? with Antiziganism “Zigeuner” – What’s in a Word? Prejudices and stereotypes have been researched by many scholars of different To show the long lasting history of sciences. Social sciences examined the antigypsyism I have a closer look at the terms connection between stylistic-linguistic used in that context: The terminological variety stereotypes and socially based prejudices (Elliott concerning the definition of “Zigeuner” or “Gypsy” & Pelzer 1978, 7). The analysis of stereotypes in or “Sinti and Roma” in Europe typifies the popular media has extensively been researched historical and social dimensions behind those during the last 30 years (Kostka & Schmidt 2009, words. I use quotation marks for all those terms. 42f.). Although the research in the field of literary My reason for this is that I want to show that each stereotypes has a long tradition this field of word is a categorization to put forward certain research is still up to date. Nowadays means. With regard to Nazi persecution and stereotypes of “Zigeuner” are most closely mass killings there is a lot of research about the
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 52 complicated mutual accountability between court of justice accepted the so called 1943’s labeling by scientific surveys and racist policy in Ausschwitzerlass of Heinrich Himmler as Europe (Willems 1997; Cottaar, Lucassen, & beginning of genocide out of racial reasons but Willems 1992). The term “Zigeuner” is to a high ignored the Festsetzungserlass and the degree linked to the “Sinti and Roma” genocide Grenzzonenverordnung from 1940 (Döring 1959, during World War II when about 500 000 so 418). Those restrictions forbade so called called “Zigeuner” were annihilated. The Zigeunern to stray around in their certain way of substitution of the pejoratively used term living. While the German federal high court “Zigeuner” by the term “Sinti and Roma” can argued that this nomadic way of living was the therefore be interpreted as achievement of the reason for genocide and therefore a criminal “Sinti and Roma” civil rights’ movement of the danger outgoing from “Zigeunern,” Döring 1980s (Rose 1987, 82). showed that actually it had been racial reasons (1959, 424f.). He argues that the nomadic way of All language communities have the right to living was supposed to be a genetic matter. So refer to themselves by the name used in their the restriction and deportation of “Zigeuner” had own language. Any translation into other been because of racial reasons. From today’s languages must avoid ambiguous or point of view it seems far paradox that reparation pejorative denominations. (Art. 33 UDLR payments for genocide were measured by the 1998; cf. Harnisch 2011, 28) question whether people were annihilated because of behavior or racial reasons and the “Gypsy” initiatives, organizations and high court’s decision from 1956 has to be spokesmen intended to “claim financial and moral criticized as inacceptable (Stengel 2004, 58f.). In compensation for acknowledgement of their order to represent material claims and persecution during the Nazi regime” (Willems & compensation payments for the victims of the Lucassen 2000, 252). The problem was that Holocaust (Porrajmos) the civil rights movement reparation payments had been denied for needed to emphasize an “identity of all “Gypsy”- sexually abused women as well as for “Zigeuner” groups” (Willems 1997, 3). “Gypsy” intellectuals because courts had still been arguing in the Nazi- like Ian Hancock and political leaders use medial jargon: communicators like the internet to show that Gypsies are a people or “even a nation” (Willems So wurden regelmäßig & Lucassen 2000, 257). The Romani scholar and Entschädigungsansprüche von Frauen political advocate Ian Hancock emphasizes that abgelehnt, die wegen sexueller Beziehungen the Romani language originates from an Indian mit Kriegsgefangenen oder Zwangsarbeitern language. in Konzentrationslagern verbracht worden waren. Aber auch Opfer rassischer Often referred to collectively by the generic Verfolgung litten unter solchen Auslegungen. term “Roma”, Roma and Sinti and other Manche Gerichte griffen bei der Ablehnung groups share common cultural, linguistic, and der Entschädigungsansprüche von Sinti und ethnic ties, and constitute the largest ethnic Roma auf die Argumentation der Verfolger minority in Europe. Because of the centuries- zurück, indem sie deren Maßnahmen mit old societal prejudice, intolerance, and polizeilichen und militärischen pervasive discrimination that they continue to Sicherheitserfordernissen rechtfertigten. face, they experience problems in accessing Wiederholt traten dabei ehemalige rights and services in most areas of life and nationalsozialistische Rasseforscher als are poorly represented in the public and Gutachter auf. Gleichzeitig schoben die political life of their societies” (osce.org 2012) Gerichte den Zeitpunkt, von dem an eine kollektive Verfolgung der »Zigeuner« Though, it is still disputed that a closed group angenommen wurde, immer weiter hinaus. of “Sinti and Roma” is fictionally constructed (Goschler 2005, 194) because of the geographical and cultural differences between “Sinti” and “Roma” (Bogdal The German federal high court of justice 2011, 15; Eder-Jordan 1999, 51). disclaimed racial reasons for the genocide of “Zigeuner” in 1956. As consequence victims did In short, […] we do not know with precision not have the right to claim for compensation the historical reasons for the Roma diaspora, payments. Though, the German federal high and for their nomadic lifestyle. Harassment
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 53 certainly figures into these reasons, but we do “favorable treatment and their pose as pilgrims” not know do what extent it mingles with reasons for the Gypsies’ “westward migration” human agency, or choice. (Malvinni 2004, 65) (82). Later “attitudes towards Gypsies […] began to harden” (87) and Gypsies “had become Willems and Lucassen (2000, 252) criticize unwelcome” (88). Chronicles are sources for the the “umbrella concept Gypsies” using the “deterioration in public attitudes towards example of Cohen (1997). He has introduced four Gypsies”. They were blamed for “suspicion of “features” of the diaspora concept: “an often espionage” and for “their failure to succor the traumatic dispersal from an original homeland; Holy Family on the flight into Egypt” (85). the collective memory of an escape from an homeland; be it mythologized or not; an ethnic “Gypsy” Stereotypes from the Middle Age consciousness that spreads across group members in several countries and over a long Uerlings’ survey concludes that the exclusion period of time; a troubled relationship with the of “Sinti and Roma” is a result of mixing “host” society; and the possibility of a distinctive semantics and practice (Uerlings 2007, 87). creative, enriching life in tolerant host societies” Researchers are focused on the tripartite (Willems and Lucassen 2000, 253; cf. Cohen classification of three main stereotypes that could 1997, 180). They point out that these features do have led to exclusion: (1) religious, (2) not fit suitably to the term “Gypsies” except the sociographic and (3) ethnic stereotypes (Uerlings point of the difficult relationship between the 2007; Zimmermann 2007b; Willems & Lucassen minority and major society. In terms of labeling 2000). an ethnic identity Willems and Lucassen are certainly right to expose that Cohen’s diaspora Bodgal showed that religious stereotypes concept leaves sociologists “empty-handed” (ibid. have been traded as legends evolved from the 2000, 268). Furthermore the order of the term Bible and became “(hi)story” (2011, 37f.). Up until “Sinti and Roma” set the German “Sinti” not only the 20th Century legends which originated from literally in the first place (Zimmermann 2007, 23). the Middle Ages have been passed on. The English term “Gypsy” refers to the so called “Great Trick”, how Fraser (1995, 60) calls the For something like half their history, there are “status as Christian pilgrim” which granted the few written records we can usefully turn to in travelers free access and protection (80): The following the Gypsies’ trail. Then, once “Great Trick” was that “some Gypsy groups historical references do begin to accumulate, identified themselves as penitants from “Little they invariably come from outsiders, and may Egypt”” during the Turkish conquest (Malvinni have been written in ignorance, prejudice and 2004, 64). Besides some theories say this is why incomprehension. (Fraser 1995, 10) they were called “Egyptans” which is short today’s “Gypsies”. According to sources from the 15th century, in 1417 “Gypsies came as a new phenomenon to The emphasis on “Little Egypt” when the Europe west of the Balkans” (Fraser 1995, 61). Gypsies were explaining their origins to the The words “Cigan”, “Cygan”, “Chickan”, startled westerner possibly indicates that the “Czyganychyn”, “cigány” or “cingari” appear in early bands had recent connections with the early sources like chronicles, myths, legends, Peloponnese. They were not the only mandates, “municipal accounts”, “imperial letters refugees from those parts. Though many of of protection” and other documents by law the nobles stayed behind and embraced (Fraser 1995, 60 and 87; Bodgal 2011, 39 and Islam, the advance of the Turks into Europe 61). did set others, together with numbers of the priests and people, fleeing in search of a safe Travelling out of Egypt to show solidarity with haven and, eventually, wandering west und Jesus’ fate is a practical legend for people subsisting on charity. (Fraser 1995, 82) travelling with their family.
The documents tell that in the early years of It is probable that the church also made its their appearance the charity was granted to contribution to this stigmatizing process, as them, because those people were seen as was the case with the social ostracism of “needy people” (Fraser 1995, 68) and were Jews in Europe. In the wake of the theological treated favorably (82). Fraser sees in this stigma that the Jews were the killers of Christ,
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 54 a series of prejudices subsequently “Gypsies” may steal five Sous a day without developed, varying in function to suit changing being punished (Bogdal 2011, 37f.). We can social circumstances. [S]ome myth or other observe at least three major resulting or causal was continually being concocted about other stereotypes: First, “travelling with a family while undesirable groups, with or without any basis using tents or caravans” (Willems & Lucassen in reality, in order to identify these people as a 2000, 254); second, “Gypsies” as beggars or source of social decay who deserved to be even thieves and third, self-determined women. driven out of Christian society so that they The motif of travelling is linked to the linguistically then could be subjected to persecution researched origin of the “Gypsies” in India. The including the appropriation of their property leader of this theory is Heinrich Moritz Gottlieb their freedom and even their lives. […] The Grellmann of Göttingen University (1783) who ongoing stigmatizing of Gypsies as heathens published Die Zigeuner: ein historischer in West Europe (in combination with their Vergleich über die Lebensart und Verfassung, foreign origin and – in part – mobile way of Sitten und Schicksahle dieses Volkes in Europa, life) conforms admirably with the pattern of nebst ihrem Ursprunge/ translated into English in persecution just sketched, where victims were 1787: Dissertation on the Gypsies in 1783. So regarded as religious deviants. (Willems 1997, the religious stereotypes are closely combined 7) with ethnic stereotypes. As Grellman’s research of language proved the language of “Gypsies” Indeed the image of being a member of the Romanes has a wide range of similarities with folk who denied access and shelter for Maria and Indian Sanskrit. That “linguistic evidence as it Joseph must have influenced the collective was then understood” led to a generally memory of both, the “Gyspies” and the major acceptance of India as the origin of “Gypsies” society. I guess that the decreasing of religious (Fraser 1992, 195). Already in these early years stereotypes can be interpreted as an example for of research we recognize a dangerous mutual how volatility can abolish simplistic stereotypes: accountability between science and real life The question is whether (a) the development politics: from national to global or (b) the deterioration of the church’s image has been the power to draw For those who subscribe the ethnographic back those religious stereotypes. In my opinion viewpoint, it is assumed that the “Gypsies” the religious stereotypes were allocated to the constitute a single people with a number of sociographic and ethnic stereotypes. Bogdal says specific characteristics of their own. In other that legend-like embroidery of biblical happenings words, Gypsy studies are dominated by a can be interpreted as early forms of popular primordial standpoint that interprets their fiction. Therefore “Gypsies” became: ethnic identity as, in essence, an incontestable given. (Willems 1997, 4) • descandants of Kain. • bodyguards of King Pharao, which stopped Indeed there is a case given that shows behind at the opening Red Sea. catastrophic impacts of Grellmann’s study: • forgers of Jesus cross‘ pins. • those who denied night’s lodging to the Holy He [Grellmann] extended the currency of Family on their flight to Egypt. (Uerlings 2007, various bits of scandal-mongering, such as 95; Fraser 1995, 85) unrestrained depravity among Gypsy women, and accusations of cannibalism. On the latter, For instance let us have a look at Imagerie he gave considerable exposure to lurid Pellerin1. The Imagerie Pellerin, which is titled comments in Hungarian and German with “Les Cinq sous de Bohemiens”, is an newspapers on recent proceedings in undated French sheet of pictures from late 19th or Hungary (Hont county, now part of Slovakia) early 20th century combines the connection to the involving over 150 Gypsies, 41 of whom, after Holy family and the social situation of “Gypsies”: confessions extracted under torture, were A “Gypsy” woman who is barefoot meets the also executed by a variety of means (beheading, barefoot Maria and Joseph – being barefoot is hanging, breaking on the wheel, quartering) since ancient time a symbol for divinity. The Holy for crimes said to include cannibalism. (Fraser Family is running away from Herodes’ soldiers. 1992, 195) The “Gypsy”-woman hides the little Jesus child and rescues his life. As reward God allows, that
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 55 Sources for ethnic stereotypes are less stigmatization of “Gypsies” in Europe is ad lib passed on in literature than in modern sources translated by “Europe invents the Zigeuner” like websites: “Gypsy” intellectuals and political (2011). Bogdal’s main thesis is that there is no leaders use the internet as communicator. Their “Zigeuner”, one is created as “Zigeuner” (cf. intention is to show that “Gypsies” are a people Uerlings 2007, 88). Hagen (2009) and Bogdal or “even a nation” (Willems & Lucassen 2000, (2011) point out that literary works enable both, 257). The “work of politically motivated scholars the establishment and exposure of images and who indentify” an ethnic group “easily leads to the stereotypes in terms of continuity and creation of new myths” (Willems & Lucassen interruption. 2000, 269). In order to represent material claims and compensation payments for the victims of Die natürliche Inszenierung fremder the Holocaust (Porrajmos) there are interests in Innenwelten ist gewiss einer der Gründe für emphasizing an “identity of all “Gypsy”-groups” die anthropologische und kulturelle (Willems 1997, These interests might be again Bedeutung der Fiktion. Der Leser kann aus motivated by Cohen’s diaspora concept (1997): sich heraustreten, nicht nur ein fremdes Some representatives of the International Leben führen, sondern auch in eine fremde Romani Union wish to represent a Romani Subjektivität schlüpfen, fremde people internationally and wish to accept Weltwahrnehmungen und Lebensentwürfe collective reparations similar to those paid to tentativ durchspielen. Kein Gespräch und kein Israel. By the way Willems and Lucassen point psychologisches Dokument kann so viel out that the United Nations do not recognize any Alterität gewähren. Erst das Eintauchen in die other way “to plea for the human rights of Innenwelt des fiktiven Anderen gibt dem minorities” (267). Menschen die Möglichkeit, sich eine Vorstellung von seiner eigenen Identität zu Furthermore, historical research has shown machen. (Schmid 2008, 36) that a sustained categorization over time can strongly stimulate ethnic group feelings. In this context Hagen (2009) analyzed how (Willems & Lucassen 2000, 254) alterity is constructed in popular media like film, opera and literature using the example of Gypsy To sum it up one can say that there has characters in works of Jean Potocki, Victor Hugo, always been a close relationship between Antonio García Gutiérrez, Giuseppe Verdi, pseudo-scientific or even scientific research Prosper Mérimée, Georges Bizet, George Sand, about “Gypsies” and real life politics. The vicious Jules Verne etc. A German enzyclopedia of circle of fiction and real politics leads to literature supplies us with the definition of alterity exclusion: Myths served as “pretext[s] for as otherness due to spatial, temporal, cultural or intolerance” (Fraser, 1995, 85). The “work of historical distance. According to the article politically motivated scholars who indentify” an becoming aware about the impacts of alterity ethnic group unfortunately “easily leads to the would help to understand the others (von Wilpert creation of new myths” (Willems & Lucassen 2001, 20). Kostka and Schmidt (2009) give a 2000, 269). So, history of Gypsies is until the similar but more detailed definition of alterity in a years after World War II a history of alterity. The handbook for methods in German language and image of Gypsies during the European history is literature studies. Their field of research is the so drawn by the major society. There is no called Alteritätsforschung or documentation by the Gypsies themselves. Interkulturalitätsforschung (2009, 34) which examines the interaction between self-attribution In the following I examine the connection and attribution of others. They define alterity as between media stereotypes and the invention of opposite of identity and show that in terms of the “Gypsies” referring to Bogdal’s thesis. In the literature self-discovery is influenced by cultural, following I show that literature has been a major social, spatial, lingual, temporal and poetical medium to pass on stereotypes for centuries. differences respectively similarities (34 and 50). In terms of cultural alterity they point out that the Literary Representations of “Zigeuner” in paradigm shift concerning the German term for Contemporary Popular Media culture was fundamental for a research on that field. Bachmann-Medick (2010) has summed up Literary stereotypes of “Zigeuner” are very the interpretive, performative, reflexive, literary, well researched: The title of Bogdal’s book about postcolonial, translational, spatial and iconic turn
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 56 as cultural turns (Turk 2003). She considers the (Engelbert 2008, http://ebp.arthur- singular turns as categories which offer methods engelbert.de/?page_id=10) for literary studies and develops Clifford Geertz’s culture as text theory. Her aim is to promote the Those double featured “Zigeuner” images opening of the culture as text theory for different from the European Middle Ages are still kind of readings and interpretations (Bachmann represented in modern media like newspapers, Medick 2004, 316). Instead of culture-specific magazines, TV channels, web sites etc. At the meanings a new attention should be drawn on same time the images corroborate the yearning cultural and formative action models, action for spatial and physical transgression. A repertoire and perception settings. According to proliferation of exotic fantasies of wild physicality her literature was a revealing medium for that and disorganization is observable in terms of new kind of analysis (313). Carmen or Esmeralda figures (Hagen 2009, 15).
Hagen concludes that in terms of literature, Der Carmen-Mythos ist in besonderer Weise film, opera and popular media it was often difficult geeignet, die Figur der Zigeunerin in to distinguish between cultural features and unterschiedlichen medialen Ausformungen, cultural attributions by others. According to her in von der Novelle über die Oper, bis zum Film Non-“Romani” art there are more projected und neueren Performances zu untersuchen. stereotypes of how Gypsy culture is seen by (Hagen 2009, 106) others than certain kinds of shibboleth of “Sinti and Roma” culture (Hagen 2009, 217). As I In contrast to Esmaralda, the character of mentioned above the problem concerning Carmen is deconstructed in later adaptation “Zigeuner” stereotypes is that negative as well as (Hagen 2009, 86). Esmaralda’s character seems positive stereotypes influenced the everyday life to stay specified on stereotypes. The oldest of “Gypsies”. So, the outstanding phenomenon character between Carmen and Esmaralda in about the persecution of “Gypsies” is that they movies is played by Marlene Dietrich in “Golden are discriminated against and embraced at the Earrings” from 1947: Bogdal criticizes Marlene same time: For example the gypsy music is a big Dietrich for playing a role that is full of part of European dance and party culture: Since stereotypes. several years the so-called Balkan Party capture of dance floors all over Europe (Engelbert 2008). Erschreckend, was Marlene Dietrich, der man keinerlei rassistische Vorurteile unterstellen Simply to live and to enjoy living is an art kann und die sich als Antifaschistin which is less and less feasible, although the verstanden hat, als authentisches Aussehen commercialization of life offers everything und Verhalten von Zigeunern betrachtet. Die desirable: at present the music and the arts of eigentlich belanglose Episode zeigt the Gypsies, Sinti and Roma embody a life schlaglichtartig, wie die die Vorstellung von affirming perspective, connected for example den zivilisationsfernen, jegliche Hygiene with the innovative tendencies of hybrid missachtenden Zigeunern in das kulturelle music. A vital culture has sprung up on the Gedächtnis eingebrannt ist. (Bogdal 2011, periphery and has moved into urban centers. 428) Balkan Beats is such a cultural phenomenon. Fleeing from the first civil war after the To tell the truth I liked the movie because of its foundation of the European community an story. In the contrary, seeing the connection urbane music mix has developed among between social exclusion and stereotypes I must immigrants above all in Berlin, the geographic say that the movie won’t exposure stereotypes. crossing point of cultures, popularized through To the background of genocide reality and fiction DJ Shantel from Frankfurt and RJ Robert are linked too far. Soko from Berlin. Of course the problems of migration can’t be solved through this, but Vor dem Hintergrund der perhaps they can be made more conscious2. Massenvernichtungen, die deutlich erwähnt A cultural dismantling of barriers has a huge werden, erscheint die abenteuerliche und power, which is noticeable from the first tones romantische Flucht- und Liebesgeschichte als in Balkan Beats. The borders of cultural problematische, ja unangemessene belonging are fluid and find their frame in the Situationsbeschreibung, auch wenn es sich European Balkan Project: A style to live by. dabei um ein Loblied auf die Solidarität der
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 57 Verfolgten und ihren Überlebenswillen to counter prevailing attitudes of hatred and handelt. (Bogdal 2011, 427) discrimination against them by sharing their life experiences with the gadjes, the non- Recently the wilderness of “Gypsy” women Gypsies […]. This seems to me to mark a has been for a British TV show called “My Big Fat fascinating historical turning point in Rom Gypsy Wedding” of Channel 4. In this TV show culture. Since the 1980s, we have witnessed stereotypes like young girls as sex symbols or a growing number of autobiographies written were depicted without reflecting consequences by Romanies themselves. Given that the for the people concerned (www.theguardian Romanies have relied primarily on oral 2012). One more example for mixing reality with traditions to pass on historical information and fiction comes from the far right-winged Swiss cultural knowledge, and that illiteracy among newspaper Die Weltwoche: The headline of the them is still very high in most countries where article warns The Roma Are Coming: Raids on they reside, this sudden shift to the public Switzerland. The subtitle is called Family non-Gypsy realm and to the printed word is Business of Crime. In the photograph one can striking indeed. […] This new literature by see a little child with a gun which is directed into Romanies challenges traditional dualistic the camera (fr-online, 2012). The child’s skin is images of Gypsies as either asocial criminals looking dark and the face seems to be a little or as a romantically idealized people close to dirty. While looking at the background of the child nature. (Grobbel 1999, 1) one can’t determine the exact location where the photo has been taken but the headline suggests In my doctoral thesis I use methods from that it has been taken in Switzerland. Actually the literature sciences to do the literature of “Sinti photo has been taken on a toxic trash dump near and Roma” justice. a reception camp in Kosovo. The child holds a plastic gun which he has found in the dump. It is not clear whether the child is a “Gypsy”, References Albanian, Serb, Bosnian or member of any other group. It can be presumed that not every reader ARNOLD, H. 1965. Die Zigeuner. Herkunft und of Die Weltwoche would have been astonished Leben des Stämme im deutschen that this child was a “Gypsy”. Maybe many Sprachgebiet, Olten: Walter Verlag AG. readers would have felt that their image of a ASSÉO, H. 1994. Les Tsiganes. Une destinée “Gypsy” is exactly met by the photography. What européenne, Paris: Gallimard. kind of stereotypes can be found in that picture? BACHMANN-MEDICK, D. 2004. „Textualität in den The subtitle says that “Gypsies” abuse their Kultur- und Literaturwissenschaften. children to commit a crime. We find the Grenzen und Herausforderungen.“ In D. stereotype that “Gypsies” are not civilized. Bachmann-Medick (Ed.), Kultur als Text (pp. 298-338), Weinheim & Basel: Beltz. Bachmann-Medick explains stereotypes by BALCANU, A. 2008. Romany Issue(s): The Images the fact that each society might contain and of Romanian Gypsies at Home and Abroad. reflect its counterpart (2004, 26). Communication Cultures in Transit, 4, 64-82. in volatile times also means that the power and BOGDAL, K. M. 2011. Europa erfindet die influence of literature had been transformed into Zigeuner. Eine Geschichte von Faszination new popular media. Stereotypes which lead to und Verachtung, Frankfurt am Main: prejudices and exclusion can be found in Suhrkamp. magazines, newspapers and especially in the BOGDAL, K. M. 2013. Europa erfindet die world wide web. Especially the negative images Zigeuner. Die dunkle Seite der Moderne. of a discriminated minority like “Sinti and Roma” iz3w, 334, 17-20. implicate the question for responsibility of popular COHEN, R. 1997. Global Diasporas. An media. In my doctoral thesis I am going to Introduction. London: UCL. analyze the contemporary literature of “Sinti and COTTAAR, A., LUCASSEN, L. & WILLEMS, W. 1992. Roma” to support the inclusion of “Sinti and Justice or injustice? A survey of government Roma” as equal writers into Germany’s literary policy towards Gypsies and Caravan Dwellers scene. The following thesis underlies my project: in Western Europe in the Nineteenth and Twentieth centuries. Immigrants and Recently an increasing number of Romanies Minorities 11, 42-66. have started to represent themselves in public
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 58 DÖRING, H.-J. 1959. Die Motive der Zigeuner- Guţu, & H. Uerlings (Ed.), Fremde Arme – Deportation vom Mai 1940. arme Fremde. „Zigeuner“ in Literaturen Vierteljahreshefte für Zeitgeschichte, 7, Mittel- und Osteuropas (pp. 84-117), 418-448. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. EDER-JORDAN, B. 1999. Die Morgendämmerung Universal Declaration of Linguistic Rights. 1998. der Worte. Themen und Bilder in der Lyrik Ed. by the Follow-up Committee of the der Roma. In D. W. HALWACHS & F. MENZ, International PEN-Committee for Translation (ED.), Sprache der Roma. Perspektiven der and Linguistic Rights, Barcelona. Romani-Forschung in Österreich im VON WILPERT, GERO. 2001. Sachwörterbuch der interdisziplinären und internationalen Literatur, Stuttgart: Alfred Körner. Kontext (pp. 35-51). Klagenfurt: Drava WILLEMS, W., & LUCASSEN, L. 2000. Gypsies in Verlag. the Diaspora? The Pitfalls of a Biblical ELLIOT, J. & PELZER, J. 1978. Stationen der Concept. Histoire Sociale, 33 (66), 251-269. Vorurteilskritik. In J. ELLIOT, J. PELZER, & C. WILLEMS, WIM (1997). In Search of the True POORE (Ed.), Stereotyp und Vorurteil in der Gypsy. From Enlightenment to Final Literatur (p. 7-33), (LiLi, Beiheft 9). Solution, London: Routledge. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Zentralrat Deutscher Sinti und Roma (Ed.) 1985. ENGELBERT, A. 2008. Normalkultur. Würzburg: Minderheitenschutz für Sinti und Roma im Königshausen & Neumann. Rahmen des Europarates, der KSZE und FRASER, A. 1995. The Gypsies, Oxford and der UNO/ Minotity protection for Sinti and Cambridge: Blackwell. Roma, Heidelberg: Zentralrat Deutscher GOSCHLER, C. 2005. Schuld und Schulden. Die Sinti und Roma. Politik der Wiedergutmachung für NS- ZIMMERMANN, M. 2007. Antiziganismus – ein Verfolgte seit 1945, Göttingen: Wallstein. Pendant zum Antisemitismus? GROBBEL, M. 1999. Performance in Gypsy Überlegungen zu einem bundesdeutschen Autobiographies from Austria and Germany. Neologismus. In K. M. Bogdal, K. Holz, & M. Glossen, 7, 1-7. N. Lorenz (Ed.), Literarischer HAGEN, K. von. 2009. Inszenierte Alterität. Antisemitismus nach Auschwitz (pp. 337- Zigeunerfiguren in Literatur, Oper und Film. 346), Stuttgart: Metzler. München: Fink. ZIMMERMANN, M. 2007b. Zigeunerpolitik und HARNISCH, R. 2011. Eigennamen als Grund und Zigeunerdiskurse im Europa des 20. Mittel von Stigmatisierung und Jahrhundert. Eine Einführung. In M. Diskriminierung. Der Deutschunterricht, 6, Zimmermann (Ed.), Zwischen Erziehung und 28-42. Vernichtung. Zigeunerpolitik und KOSTKA, A. & SCHMIDT, S. 2009. Zigeunerforschung im Europa des 20. Alteritätsforschung/ Jahrhunderts (pp. 13-70), Stuttgart: Metzler. Interkulturalitätsforschung. In J. Schneider (Ed.), Methodengeschichte der Germanistik Internet sources (pp. 33-70). Berlin: deGruyter. Antiziganismus-Watchblog: http:// MALVINNI, D. 2004. The Gypsy Caravan. From antizig.blogsport.de Real Roma to Imaginery Gypsies in Western Asphalt Tango [The leading voice of gypsy music Music and Film, New York & London: in Germany]: http://www.asphalt-tango.de/ Routledge. European Balkan Project: http://ebp.arthur- ROSE, R. 1987. Bürgerrechte für Sinti und Roma. engelbert.de/?page_id=57 Das Buch zum Rassismus in Deutschland, fr-online: http://www.fr-online.de/politik/vorwurf- Heidelberg: Zentralrat Deutscher Sinti und der-volksverhetzung-rassismus-skandal-um- Roma. schweizer-weltwoche- SCHMID, W. 2008. Elemente der Narratologie, ,1472596,14794982.html Berlin: de Gruyter. The Guardian: http://static.guim.co.uk/sys- STENGEL, K. 2004. Tradierte Feindbilder. Die images/Media/Pix/pic Entschädigung der Sinti und Roma in den Hancock, Ian F. "ROMA [GYPSIES]," Handbook fünfziger Jahren, Frankfurt am Main: Fritz of Texas, published by the Texas State Bauer Institut. Historical Association. UERLINGS, H. 2007. Stigma Zigeuner. Formen http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/a der Stigmatisierung der ‚Zigeuner‘ im rticles/pxrfh deutschsprachigen Raum. In I.-K. Patrut, G.
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 59 Imagerie Pellerin: Les Cinq Sous Des http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b6938697j Bohémiens: Série aux armes d'Epinal. N° /f1.zoom 22, Histoires & scènes humoristiques, OSCE: http://www.osce.org/odihr/roma contes moraux, merveilleux. Les cinq sous Photography of Balkan Beats Musicians: des bohémiens : [estampe] http://rennkuckuck.de/php/eventspics/fanfar e5_10×15_300.jpg
1 Série aux armes d'Epinal. N° 22, Histoires & scènes humoristiques, contes moraux, merveilleux. Les cinq sous des bohémiens : [estampe] http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b6938697j/f1.zoom
2 My emphasis.
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 60 Für Verstehen und Missverstehen in der interkulturellen Kommunikation sensibilisieren – Anregungen für ein Training
Carmen Spiegel
Nach der Darlegung des wissenschaftlichen interkultureller Kommunikation eine Hintergrunds, der diesem Beitrag zugrunde Kommunikation, bei welcher sich mindestens liegt, und der Bestimmung einiger zentraler zwei Gesprächsbeteiligte mit Termini werde ich auf eine analytische unterschiedlichem kulturellen Hintergrund Betrachtung von Kommunikation eingehen und miteinander zu verständigen versuchen. daraus abgeleitet die Anforderungen beschreiben, welche die Gesprächsbeteiligten Ein Modell der Interaktion, das die in der Kommunikation bedienen müssen. Im verschiedenen, in der Kommunikation Anschluss werden Verstehen und relevanten Ebenen integriert, kann Verständigungsprobleme beschrieben und die beschreiben, was wir tun, wenn wir miteinander Spezifika der interkulturellen Kommunikation kommunizieren. Und wenn man den Blick auf behandelt. Entlang dem Modell der die Multimodalität des Sprechens richtet, auf Management-Ebenen, welche die das Körpersprachliche, das Parasprachliche Anforderungen der Gesprächsbeteiligten und das Verbalisierte, kann man auch systematisch erfassen, werden Desiderata und beschreiben, wie jemand kommuniziert. Anforderungen der interkulturellen Kommunikation für interkulturelle Betrachtet man Kommunikation, so spielen Kommunikationstrainings formuliert. verschiedene Aspekte eine zentrale Rolle, bzw. beeinflussen die Kommunikation: Kommunikation als Interaktion − Da ist zunächst einmal die Grundlage des Ansatzes sind zentrale Kommunikationssituation, in welcher die Gedanken und Konzepte der Kommunikation stattfindet, mit ihren Gesprächsanalyse in der Tradition von Harvey jeweiligen Rahmenbedingungen. Sacks, Harold Garfinkel und John Gumperz, die Kommunikative Situationen können je nach in Deutschland rezipiert und in der Typ unterschiedliche Funktionen haben; Gesprächslinguistik weiterentwickelt wurden, dies gilt insbesondere für institutionelle so z. B. von Werner Kallmeyer, Inken Keim, Situationen: Die Schule hat die Funktion der Reinhard Fiehler (2014) und zahlreichen Wissensvermittlung, das Gericht hat die anderen. In diesem Sinn sind Gespräche als Funktion, Recht zu sprechen etc. Wie diese interaktionale, gemeinsam ausgehandelte Funktionen – und Ziele – konkreter soziale Handlungen zu verstehen. Aufgrund der aussehen, wie sie inhaltlich bestimmt Sequenzialität sprachlicher Handlungen werden und wie sie umgesetzt werden, ist können die Gesprächsbeteiligten in einem und kulturspezifisch. durch einen Folgeturn signalisieren, wie sie den − Mit dem jeweiligen Situationstyp sind auch zuvor geäußerten Beitrag verstanden bzw. ganz bestimmte Rollen verbunden, welche interpretiert haben und die die Beteiligten einnehmen und welche sie Vorgängersprecher/-innen haben so die auf der Basis ihrer Situations- und Möglichkeit zu überprüfen, ob sie richtig Rollendefinition und -interpretation verstanden wurden. entsprechend bedienen. Komplementär dazu erwarten die Gesprächsbeteiligten Ein Ziel dieses Beitrags ist es, das auch die Rollenübernahme und Verstehen und die verschiedenen Weisen von Rollenausführung vom Gegenüber: So Verständigungsproblemen zu beschreiben, die erwarten die Lehrenden im Kontext Schule in der interkulturellen Kommunikation auftreten ganz bestimmte Rollen und Handlungen von können. Dabei verstehe ich unter den anderen Beteiligten, den Schüler/-
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 61 innen, in der Regel komplementär zur verhandeln, klären, informieren etc.). Die eigenen Rolle. Auch die Rollendefinitionen Sprech- und Gesprächshandlungen der und –interpretationen sind kulturspezifisch: Beteiligten werden beschrieben. so finden sich unterschiedliche − Ebene der Sachverhaltsdarstellung: Vorstellungen über die Aufgaben und das Worüber reden die Gesprächsbeteiligten im Handeln von Personen in Leitungsrollen Gespräch? Es geht um die Inhalte von oder von Lehr-/Lernrollen, zumindest Gesprächen. Solche Aktivitäten wie besagen das die Kulturdimensionen von Erzählen, Berichten spielen eine Rolle. Hofstede (2009) oder die Kulturstandards − Ebene der Modalität: Wie sprechen sie von Thomas et al. (2003). miteinander? Auf Alfred Schütz zurück- − Auch die Gesprächsbeteiligten als greifend, der drei Grundmodalitäten Individuen beeinflussen die Kommunikation. beschrieben hat (Scherz, Ernst, Traum) Sie haben unterschiedliche Biographien und kann man im Gespräch zwei individuelle kommunikative Erfahrungen Grundmodalitäten (scherzhaft, ernsthaft) und sie haben individuelle Stile entwickelt, und verschiedene Varianten davon um kommunikative Aufgaben zu bewältigen. unterscheiden: ironisch, zynisch, ärgerlich, Entsprechend entwickeln sie auch traurig etc. individuelle Interpretationen über die − Ebene der Beziehungskonstitution: Wie kommunikativen Situationen, deren (höflich) gehen die Gesprächsbeteiligten Anforderungen und den dazu gehörigen miteinander um? Hier spielen Phänomene kommunikativen Rollen. wie Selbstbild, Fremdbild, wechselseitige − Fokussiert man das Sprechen, die Partnerhypothesen, wechselseitige Performance, so gilt es, die Multimodalität Imagebehandlungen, Höflichkeit etc. eine von Gesprochenem, die Formulierungen, Rolle. das Parasprachliche und das Körpersprachliche in den Blick zu nehmen. Es gilt, das Zusammenspiel dieser Ebenen in Gerade in der interkulturellen den Blick zu nehmen, denn sie gemeinsam Kommunikation kann die Art und Weise, wie machen erst ‘Kommunikation’ aus. Sie etwas parasprachlich und körpersprachlich erlauben zu beschreiben, was in einer vermittelt wird, zu Missverständnissen und Kommunikationssituation geschieht; dies gilt inkompatiblen Interpretationen führen, wie auch für interkulturelle Kommunikations- Gumperz (1982) gezeigt hat. situationen.
Mit Blick auf die interkulturelle Kommunikation Die kommunikativen Anforderungen lässt sich sagen, dass das kommunikative Verhalten der Beteiligten durch individuelle, Vollzieht man einen Perspektivwechsel – kulturelle und situative Faktoren beeinflusst weg von Kallmeyers Perspektive des wird. Wissenschaftlers, der diese Ordnungsebenen analysiert, hin zu den Gesprächsteilnehmer/- Werner Kallmeyer hat in zahlreichen innen, die diese Ebenen in der Kommunikation Aufsätzen Gespräche analysiert und dabei managen müssen, so lassen sich verschiedene verschiedene Aspekte von Kommunikation kommunikative Anforderungen beschreiben, beschrieben, die zugleich analytische welche die Gesprächsbeteiligten bedienen Dimensionen von Kommunikation oder auch müssen, wenn sie erfolgreich, d. h. im Sinne Ordnungsebenen, wie er sie nennt, darstellen; der Verständigung, miteinander diese Ebenen lassen sich für jedes Gespräch kommunizieren (vgl. auch Spiegel 2013). beschreiben, allerdings sind sie, je nach dem, in welcher Gesprächssituation und in welcher Danach ergeben sich für die Gesprächsphase sich die Gesprächs- Gesprächsbeteiligten folgende Anforderungen beteiligten befinden, für die lokale Interaktion in in einem Gespräch, wobei diese je nach unterschiedlicher Gewichtung relevant. Gesprächssituation, Zweck der Kommunikation und Gesprächsteilnehmer/-innen situations- − Ebene der Gesprächsorganisation: Wie und kontextspezifisch variieren: organisieren Sprecherinnen und Sprecher die ‘technische’ Ebene des Gesprächs? Hier Das Gesprächsmanagement: Die werden Phänomene wie Beginn und Gesprächsbeteiligten müssen die ‚technische’ Beendigung eines Gesprächs, Sprecher- Seite des Gesprächs organisieren, ein wechselorganisation etc. betrachtet. Gespräch gemeinsam beginnen, durchführen − Ebene der Handlungsschemata: Was tun und beenden, Themen- und Sprecherwechsel die Gesprächsbeteiligten? (beraten, aushandeln und durchführen.
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 62 - die linguistische Dimension: das ist das Das Handlungsmanagement: Sie müssen Verbale mit seiner syntaktischen Struktur die sprachlichen Handlungen gemeinsam und seiner lexikalisch-stilistischen Auswahl. aushandeln und durchführen und sich bei der Im Kontext der interkulturellen Wahl der sprachlichen Handlungen am Zweck Kommunikation sind es – neben der Kommunikation oder der jeweiligen Wortschatz- und Syntaxproblemen – die Gesprächsphase orientieren, so z. B. sich beim Idiome und Redewendungen mit ihren Smalltalk kennenlernen, sich informieren und Implikationen, die Verstehensprobleme und beraten, Wissen und Inhalte vermitteln und Missverständnisse produzieren können, überprüfen etc. gerade auch dann, wenn die Gesprächsbeteiligten sich gemeinsam einer Das Beziehungsmanagement: Die lingua franca, einer Verkehrssprache Gesprächsbeteiligten müssen ihre Beziehung bedienen müssen, die für beide nicht die zu ihren Gesprächspartner/-inne/-n im Muttersprache ist. Gespräch aushandeln und bestätigen, höflich - die phonetische Dimension: damit ist das miteinander umgehen, die entsprechende Parasprachliche, die Prosodie mit ihrer Distanz wahren, den angemessenen Ton Dynamik, Rhythmik, den Tonhöhen und treffen usw. Lautstärken gemeint. Neben Sinn entstellenden Betonungsverschiebungen – Das Modalitätsmanagement: Sie müssen man denke im Deutschen an die sich ins ein Gespräch oder eine Gesprächsphase als in Gegenteil verschiebende Bedeutung bei erster Linie ernsthafte oder scherzhafte unterschiedlicher Betonung des Verbs einschätzen und entsprechend agieren, also ‚umfahren’ – können Gesprächsbeteiligte einen eher ernsten Umgang im institutionellen aus verschiedenen Kulturen Intonationen Kontext oder einen eher heiteren, lockeren unterschiedlich interpretieren. So konnte Umgang miteinander in informellen Phasen Gumperz (1982) nachweisen, dass sich die realisieren. unterschiedlichen Einschätzungen von Höflichkeit zwischen indischen und Das Inhaltsmanagement: Die englischen Gesprächsbeteiligten auf Gesprächsbeteiligten wählen mit Blick auf die verschiedene Betonungen von Fragen und Situation und das Gegenüber ihre Themen und deren jeweiligen Typisierungen Inhalte und deren Art der Darstellung bzw. den zurückführen ließen: Der am Ende sprachlichen Stil aus. Sie strukturieren und abfallende Tonfall bei Fragen von indischen portionieren ihr Thema und gestalten es Sprecher/-innen wurde von den Engländer/- multimodal, d. h. sprachlich-stilistisch, innen als unhöflich typisiert. intonatorisch und gestisch-mimisch. - die körpersprachliche Dimension: Gestik, Mimik, Blickkontakt und Proxemik steuern All diese Ebenen müssen die die Bedeutung des Gesagten auf Gesprächsbeteiligten in einem Gespräch Sprecherseite und sie verdeutlichen das managen. Dabei ergibt sich in der Verstehen der Zuhörenden – zeitgleich zum interkulturellen Kommunikation das Problem, Redebeitrag. Während die Kulturspezifik dass die Einschätzungen und Erwartungen der von Gesten und von Territorien – die Gesprächsteilnehmer/-innen, die sie beim körperliche Distanz/Nähe zu den Kommunikationsmanagement zugrunde legen Gesprächspartner/-innen – immer wieder und die die Wahl des kommunikativen erwähnt wird, fehlen doch häufig Hinweise Handelns bestimmen, nicht immer mit zu spezifischen Verhaltensweisen. So ist denjenigen der anderen Gesprächs- vielen nicht bekannt, dass Blickkontakt in teilnehmer/-inne/-n aus anderen Kulturen einigen Kulturen als Respektlosigkeit vergleichbar sind: Sie können inkompatibel sein interpretiert wird, Körperkontakt gerade oder aber vom Gegenüber als ‚nicht passend’ zwischen den Geschlechtern bereits beim eingestuft werden. Händeschütteln tabu sein kann oder das Kopfnicken in manchen Regionen eine Wie oben bereits erwähnt, kann man nicht Verneinung bedeutet und nicht, wie in vielen nur beschreiben, was die Gesprächsbeteiligten Kulturräumen, eine Bejahung. in einem Gespräch tun, sondern auch wie sie etwas tun bzw. wie die Beteiligten (miteinander) Verständigung und Missverständnisse kommunizieren, indem man deren Performance in den Blick nimmt; diese kann Das Verstehen wird als Konstruktion der man unterteilen in: jeweiligen Gesprächspartner/-innen begriffen. Das Zusammenwirken von Erwartungen
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 63 bezüglich der Situationsinterpretation, von Folgeaktivitäten sind nicht kompatibel mit dem, Partnerhypothesen und von der Interpretation was verstanden wurde. des multimodal Gesprochenen lassen den Zuhörenden Verstehenshypothesen bilden. 4. Mit dem Sinn, den ich dem Verstandenen Der Zuhörende verifiziert, differenziert oder zulegen kann, bin ich nicht einverstanden. Diese revidiert (vgl. Spiegel 2009) die Art von Verständigungsproblemen beruht auf Verstehenshypothesen durch den weiteren Interessensdiskrepanzen, denen unterschiedliche Gesprächsverlauf. Insofern ist Verständigung, Weltanschauungen, Überzeugungen oder Werte das heißt die Vorstellung, dass man sich zugrunde liegen. gemeinsam versteht, gleichfalls eine Konstruktion, die als wechselseitige Annahme So lässt sich nach Fiehler (1998: 12) und Unterstellung anzusehen ist. zusammenfassend sagen, dass sich Verständigungsprobleme und gestörte Nach Fiehler (1998, 12) sind Probleme und Kommunikation zurückführen lassen auf Störungen als Folgen (S. 12) zu beschreiben, kommunikativ-sprachliche Aspekte im engeren die sich ergeben, wenn Sinn, auf unterschiedliche Erwartungen und unterschiedliches Wissen sowie auf Unterschiede - unterschiedliche Regeln bzw. Konventionen in den Anschauungen, Werten und Interessen der nicht beachtet werden, Gesprächsbeteiligten - der Adressatenzuschnitt (recipient design) der Äußerungen unzureichend ist, Interkulturelle Kommunikation - die essentielle Vagheit von Kommunikation von Produzentenseite oder Rezipienten- Die von Fiehler beschriebenen seite, so durch unzureichende oder falsche Verständigungsprobleme lassen sich alle auch Ergänzungs- und Inferenzleistungen, nicht auf die interkulturelle Kommunikation hinreichend berücksichtigt wird übertragen.
Fiehler hat die verschiedenen Wie oben bereits beschrieben, verstehe ich Verständigungsprobleme (1998: 11) als vier unter interkultureller Kommunikation eine zentrale Formen, dargestellt aus der Kommunikation von mindestens zwei Hörerperspektive, beschrieben: Gesprächsbeteiligten mit unterschiedlichen kulturellen Hintergründen. Diese 1. Ich verstehe nicht, was der andere sagt. unterschiedlichen Hintergründe haben zur Nach Kindt (1998) handelt es sich hier um Folge, dass die Gesprächsbeteiligten mit Blick Sprachverstehensprobleme. Trotz der Absicht zur auf die Management-Ebenen und mit Blick auf Kommunikation kann den Äußerungen nicht die verschiedenen Realisierungsebenen von hinreichend Bedeutung zugeschrieben werden. Kommunikation (sprachlich, parasprachlich, Das kann verschiedene Ursachen haben: Lärm, körpersprachlich) kulturspezifische räumliche Distanz, Formulierungsprobleme, Erwartungen haben können darüber, was in der Hörprobleme, verschiedene sprachliche Kommunikation zu realisieren ist und wie es zu Kompetenzen. realisieren ist.
2. Das, was ich verstanden habe, macht für Dies gilt insbesondere für die Hotspots mich keinen Sinn. Kindt nennt diesen Typ (Heringer 2007), Situationen mit Sachverstehensprobleme. Dabei gelingt zwar die unterschiedlichen Vorstellungen und/oder Bedeutungszuordnung, aber die Äußerung bleibt Routinen auf Seiten der Gesprächsbeteiligten, trotzdem unverständlich. Ursachen hierfür können so z. B. bezüglich Höflichkeit oder den Umgang fehlende Wissensbestände sein. Oder aber die mit dem anderen Geschlecht betreffend. Der Beteiligten gehen, trotz der Absicht zur Begriff Hotspot wurde von Heringer eingeführt, Verständigung, von unterschiedlichen er geht auf den Terminus Rich Points von Perspektiven aus, oder aber die Perspektiven Michael Agar (1994) zurück. Typische Hotspots lassen sich nicht aufeinander beziehen. sind Begrüßungen (Wer grüßt wen wie?), Fragen (Was darf man wann wie fragen?), 3. Das, was ich verstanden habe, ist nicht das, Entschuldigungen (Wann entschuldigt man was der andere gesagt oder gemeint hat. Das ist sich wie mit welcher Formulierung?) u. a. das klassische Missverständnis. Etwas macht zunächst Sinn, stellt sich aber im weiteren Verlauf Kulturelle Unterschiede können im Hinblick nicht als das heraus, was der Partner oder die auf die Situationsdefinition und die Funktionen Partnerin gesagt oder gemeint hat. Die einzelner Gesprächsphasen bestehen. Man denke nur an die unterschiedlichen
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 64 Herangehensweisen an Geschäfts- Trainings mit Blick auf die Management- verhandlungen, bei denen Westeuropäer/- Ebenen mit den folgenden Aspekten innen und Oriental/-inn/-en den Wechsel auseinandersetzen: zwischen informeller Begrüßungs- und Aufwärmphase und institutioneller Auf der Ebene des Gesprächs- Verhandlungsphase unterschiedlich lang management: Wie beginnt und wie beendet ansetzen. Aber auch die Rollen der man Gespräche? Wie verlaufen die Gesprächsbeteiligten können unterschiedlich Sprecherwechsel? Gibt es exklusive definiert und damit auch mit verschiedenen Rederechte, die eventuell hierarchiebedingt Erwartungen verbunden sein: Welche Aufgabe sind? Wie lange sind die Pausen, die Gaps, haben Gastgeber/-innen? Wie haben sich zwischen zwei Redebeiträgen in Relation zur Schülerinnen und Schüler gegenüber eigenen Kultur? Für Europa gilt ein Nord-Süd- Lehrenden zu verhalten? Wie drücken sich Gefälle: So sind die Gaps in Finnland deutlich Hierarchieunterschiede in der Kommunikation länger, während im Süden Europas ein aus? Wie wirkt sich Gender in der Interaktion, gleichzeitiges Sprechen nicht ungewöhnlich ist. z. B. zwischen Lateinamerikaner/-innen und Mitteleuropäer/-innen aus? Sowohl Auf der Ebene des Beziehungs- Gesprächsroutinen – das sind sprachlich management gilt es, die jeweilige soziale durchgeführte, relativ stabile Handlungs- Distanz oder Nähe zu berücksichtigen und die abläufe wie Entschuldigungsrituale oder hierfür relevanten sprachlichen Marker zu Essensbestellungen – als auch die Art der kennen sowie die adäquate Form der Handlung selbst kann kulturspezifisch Adressierung zu wählen; gerade für das unterschiedlich erwartbar sein: Anstelle eines Deutsche scheinen die Anwendungen des Dankes – wie in westlichen Ländern üblich – Duzens, Siezens und seine Mischformen für folgt in Japan als Reaktion auf ein Geschenk Nicht-Deutsche Probleme zu bereiten. eine Entschuldigung. Bezüglich des Modalitätsmanagement wäre Wenn man bedenkt, dass die Wahl der es wichtig zu wissen, in welchen Situationen jeweils realisierten, sprachlichen Handlung wem gegenüber welche Art von Scherz abhängig ist von der Situationsinterpretation, angebracht/unangebracht ist oder aber eine der Einschätzung des Gegenübers und seiner ernste Gesprächssituation als ernste Erwartungen, den situativen Rollen, den durchzuhalten ist, damit die Seriosität gewahrt präsupponierten kulturellen Stereotypen etc., bleibt. wird deutlich, wie krisenhaft interkulturelle Kommunikation sein kann, zumal Individuen Auf die Relevanz der erwarteten miteinander agieren, mit je eigenen sprachlichen Handlungen wurde bereits im Erfahrungen und Interaktionsstilen. Zusammenhang mit dem Schenken in Japan hingewiesen, aber auch die verbalisierten Anforderungen für interkulturelle Inhalte, die Wahl des Zeitpunkts und die Art der Kommunikationstrainings Formulierungen werden nicht immer als passend wahrgenommen: So empfinden Eine interkulturelle Gesprächskompetenz Mitteleuropäer viele Fragen, die Asiat/-inn/-en zeichnet sich dadurch aus, dass die bereits zu Beginn einer Kennlern-Situation Gesprächsbeteiligten die Anforderungen auf formulieren, als zu direkt und indiskret. Jede den Managementebenen des Gesprächs auch Kultur hat eine Reihe von Tabu-Themen, die in den Hotspots der interkulturellen aber kulturspezifisch differieren. Kommunikation erfolgreich bewältigen können. Notwendig hierfür ist – neben der Schaut man auf die Performance des kommunikativen Sensibilität bezüglich der Sprechens, so finden sich auch hier zahlreiche Management-Ebenen – das Wissen darüber, Quellen für Missverständnisse, insbesondere was in der jeweiligen Kultur situativ und damit dann, wenn die Gesprächsbeteiligten die auch kommunikativ erwartbar ist und wie die Kommunikationssprache nur unzureichend einzelnen sprachlichen Handlungen mit Blick beherrschen. Da ist es hilfreich, mit den auf die Performance realisiert werden. Strategien vertraut zu sein, die Didaktische Hinweise zu Kommunikations- Fremdsprachensprecher/-innen bei Sprach- trainings aus gesprächsanalytischer problemen verwenden können. Diese Perspektive finden sich u. a. in Spiegel 2009b. Strategien bestehen in der Simulation von Verstehen, denn zu häufiges Nicht-Verstehen Konkret heißt das, dass sich die kann Beziehungsstörungen verursachen und Teilnehmer/-innen von interkulturellen ist gesichtsbedrohend. Auch werden Themen
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 65 und Aussagen, für die der Wortschatz nicht zumindest ein Stück weit – handhabbar ausreicht, einfach vermieden. Zugleich gemacht werden kann unterlaufen ihnen wiederholt Fehler bei der - und für die Kulturspezifik auch auf der Sprachverwendung, so bei den sogenannten Ebene der Performance. ‚falschen Freunden’. Das sind Ausdrücke, die in der anderen Sprache gleich oder ähnlich Konkret heißt dies, auf Hotspots klingen, aber Unterschiedliches bedeuten, so z. hinzuweisen, diese mit Hilfe von Videos und B. become (dt. werden) und bekommen (engl. Transkripten zu analysieren und sich so der get). Phraseologismen können, so als wörtliche Makrostruktur (dem Zustandekommen Übersetzungen, nicht nur in der fremden kritischer Störungen insgesamt) und der Sprache unverständlich sein; es gibt auch Mikrostruktur (die einzelnen Turns, die innerhalb von Sprachgrenzen, aber über Performance im einzelnen, die Reaktionen der Nationalgrenzen hinweg für andere Beteiligten) bezüglich des Zustandekommens unverständliche Phrasen: So ist der in kritischer Kommunikationssituationen bewusst Deutschland geläufige Phraseologismus ‚die zu werden. Daneben können typische Kuh vom Eis holen’ (das bedeutet: ein Problem Situationen, Routinen und alternative Weisen lösen) in der Schweiz ungebräuchlich und des kommunikativen Handelns und Reaktionen unverständlich. reflektiert werden.
Unterschiedliche Interpretationen von Als eine Trainingsplattform bietet sich die Intonationskonturen, der Satzmelodie, hat ja virtuelle Welt Second Life an; dort hat man die bereits Gumperz (1982) nachweisen können Möglichkeit, mit Avataren aus aller Welt zu und auf die mögliche Kulturspezifik von Gesten, kommunizieren. Da Englisch in Second Life als Blick und Körperhaltungen wurde bereits weiter lingua franca verwendet wird, kann man auch oben eingegangen. Englisch als Fremdsprache trainieren, schriftlich im Chat und mündlich im Voice-Chat. Im Prinzip gilt, dass man in der interkulturellen Kommunikation stets auf Ein paar Allgemeinplätze und -sätze können Unterschiede bezüglich Erwartungen und daran erinnern, dass Verstehen in der Handlungen sowie auf die Relativität von Kommunikation keine Selbstverständlichkeit Werten und Normen in verschiedenen Kulturen ist: gefasst sein muss. Insofern geht es in interkulturellen Trainings darum, neben der - Missverständnisse sind jederzeit möglich – Vermittlung kulturspezifischen Wissens auch in der ganz alltäglichen kommunikativ zu sensibilisieren Kommunikation. - Es gibt prinzipiell die Strategie des ‚wait and - für Verstehensprobleme; Fragen können see’ und damit die Strategie, Verstehens- helfen: Kann ich die Wörter verstehen oder und Verständnisfragen zu vermeiden – bis den Sinn? Bin ich imstande, die folgenden es zu spät ist. Beiträge zu verstehen? - Auch ein versierter Gesprächsteilnehmer - für die Strategien von Fremdsprachen- oder eine versierte Gesprächsteilnehmerin Lerner/-innen, die die Ursache von versteht nicht immer alles. Missverständnissen, von unerwarteten - 100%iges Verstehen in jeder Situation Handlungen oder Reaktionen sein können existiert nicht. oder die den Anschein erwecken, die Sprachfähigkeit des Gegenübers sei deutlich größer als das tatsächlich der Fall ist: Verstehen ist meist anspruchsvoller als sprechen, denn bei letzterem kann ich meine Äußerungen meinem Sprachvermögen anpassen. - für die Diskrepanz zwischen eigener Erwartung und dem (sprachlichen) Handeln des Gegenübers als Hinweis auf auch kulturell unterschiedlich Erwartbares. - für die verschiedenen Management- Ebenen des Gesprächs, die einerseits die Komplexität von Kommunikation verdeutlichen, aber andererseits zeigen, wie Kommunikation strukturiert und –
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 66 Literatur SPIEGEL, C. 2009a. Zuhören im Gespräch. In: Krelle, Michael/Spiegel, Carmen (Hg.): AGAR, M. 1994. Language Shock. Sprechen und Kommunizieren. Understanding the Culture of Baltmannsweiler, Schneider Verlag Communication. New York, Morrow Hohengehren, 189-203 FIEHLER, R. 1998/2002. Hg.: SPIEGEL, C. 2009b. Ein didaktischer Leitfaden Verständigungsprobleme und gestörte für Kommunikationstrainings aus der Kommunikation. Radolfzell, Verlag für Gesprächsforschung. In: Meer, Gesprächsforschung. www.verlag- Dorothee/Spiegel, Carmen: gespraechsforschung.de/2002/probleme/pr Kommunikationstrainings im Beruf. obleme.pdf Erfahrungen mit gesprächsanalytisch FIEHLER, R. 1998/2002. fundierten Fortbildungskonzepten im Beruf. Verständigungsprobleme und gestörte Radolfzell, Verlag für Gesprächsforschung, Kommunikation. In: ders. (Hg.): 7-28. www.verlag- Verständigungsprobleme und gestörte gespraechsforschung.de/2009/meer.htm Kommunikation. Radolfzell, 7-15. SPIEGEL, C. 2013. Die FIEHLER, R. 2014. Von der Mündlichkeit zur ausbildungsvorbereitende Förderung von Modalität ... und darüber hinaus. In: Gesprächskompetenzen an Realschulen. Grundler, Elke/Spiegel, Carmen (Hg.) In: Efing, Christian (Hg.) Konzeptionen des Mündlichen – Ausbildungsvorbereitung im wissenschaftliche Perspektiven und Deutschunterricht der Sekundastufe I. didaktische Konsequenzen. Hep Verlag Frankfurt, Lang Verlag, 299-318 Bern, 16 Seiten. THOMAS, A., KINAST, E.-U., & SCHROLL-MACHL, GUMPERZ, J. 1982. Discourse strategies. S. 2003. (Hg.): Handbuch Interkulturelle Cambridge University Press. Kommunikation und Kooperation. 2 Bände. HERINGER, J. 2007. Interkulturelle Bd 1: Grundlagen und Praxisfelder; Bd 2: Kommunikation. Tübingen, Francke Verlag. Länder, Kulturen und Interkulturelle HOFSTEDE, G. & HOFSTEDE, J. G. 2009. Berufstätigkeit. Göttingen, Vandenhoeck & Lokales Denken, globales Handeln. Ruprecht München, Beck bei DTV Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag. KIM, O.-S. 2000. Kommunikationsstrategien mit Beispielen von koreanischen DaF- Lernern. In: Bucher, Stefan (Hg.): Fehler und Lernerstrategien. Frankfurt, Lang Verlag. KINDT, W. 1998/2002. Konzeptuelle Grundlagen einer Theorie der Verständigungsprobleme. In: Fiehler, Reinhard (1998/2002) (Hg.): Verständigungsprobleme und gestörte Kommunikation. Radolfzell, Verlag für Gesprächsforschung, 17-43. www.verlag- gespraechsforschung.de/2002/probleme/pr obleme.pdf LÜSEBRINK (2005) Interkulturelle Kommunikation. Stuttgart/Weimar, Metzler Verlag. SPIEGEL, C. 1995/2011. Streit. Eine linguistische Untersuchung verbaler Interaktionen in alltäglichen Zusammenhängen. Radolfzell, Verlag für Gesprächsforschung, www.verlag- gespraechsforschung.de/2011/pdf SPIEGEL, C. 2006. Unterricht als Interaktion. Radolfzell, Verlag für Gesprächsforschung. www.verlag- gespraechsforschung.de/2006/pdf/unterrich t.pdf
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 67 Listening from the Dark Side 2
Richard D. Halley, Ph.D.
I have been very involved in the listening, 1) what we gather for possible contributions that quality listening can make selection, 2) how we select what we become to the positive development of communities, aware of, 3) how we organize what we here I try to parse out some of the listeners select, 4) how we assign meaning to what that also listen well but not for such we organize, 5) how we decide whether our honourable purposes. I will touch on those assigned meanings are accurate, and 6) who develop a language to sell a concept how or whether we should respond. that might otherwise be seen as counter to the public good; look at a difficult listening The second thread explores how environment where some are working for the listening and our values contribute to the general good and others are focused on development of community and the third their own concerns to the exclusion of the explores how to help others explore their good for others; and then look at a variety of own listening. categories of people who generally listen well in order to manipulate those they are When focusing on the contribution listening to. listening makes to community building, I have theorized that it is important for listeners to honor each other, respect each An interesting web search result that other, have positive intentions toward each prompts me to wonder just who is other, and for really deep listening to love interested in knowing how to listen: each other in order for the seeds of community to develop and flourish. These On December 12, 2012, when the term elements seem essential to me in order for “listening” was entered into Google Trends, the flow of open and honest information to th the US was only the 10 country in the list of take place so that trust and belief in the those that found that term searched for from value of the community can become part of sites in their countries. And there were the experience of those participating. (Halley seven cites ahead of any U.S. city. Number 1997) eight was Chicago. These are the countries and cities where the search term was However, I have found myself thinking entered based on IP addresses. The top about some people who seem to me to country was the Philippines. The top know a great deal about many of the others language was Tagalog. The top city was that they deal with but do not have Hanoi, Viet Nam. Clearly others are more honorable intentions for the interactions they interested in this term than those in the USA, have with these others. At the very least where there are actually some courses they have selfish intentions and at the worst taught in the subject of listening. So I found they have intentions of somehow hurting or myself wondering just what their interest in at least defrauding the people they are listening really was. I wondered if all their interacting with. listening intensions were honorable. So one question became “are there a set Most of my professional life has focused of values or a set of perspectives that these on listening in one way or another. This has folks need to have in order to listen well?” so taken three threads. The first explores the that they have the information they need to cognitive processes associated with hurt or defraud those they are interacting
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 68 with? Could there be a way in which they thinking of those attempting to find a honored, or respected their interactants? language for making a political issue sound Would it be possible to suggest that they good to those who would be hurt by it if they loved these people? I tend to reject this last really understood its implications. idea, but I think the others might need looking in to, perhaps with slightly adjusted For example, Public Education in the definitions. I am also inclined to think that USA at the national level: trying to convince some effective listeners may have a folks that their positions are “data driven,” negative intent toward the speaker but a when that “data” is highly suspect both for its positive intent toward the society in general. design and for how it is collected and analyzed. What language do they use to “Honored” also seemed a bit out of line convince folks that their policies are for this discussion, but “respect” has some appropriate? Special education students possibilities. I am thinking if there is no can be denied special help because the respect, then these not so nice listeners Elementary and Secondary Education Act is might underestimate the skill or cunning of interpreted to mean there can only be a their interactants. Such underestimations small percentage of the population that might lead them to interpret what they hear needs such help in any one school district in ways that undermine their purpose. for the scores to remain exempt from the adequate yearly progress required of the Another possibility for a perspective to district, regardless of historic or economic help us understand might be found in factors known to exist. So if your school is another conclusion I have reached. It is heavily populated with a disadvantaged critical for a listener to genuinely want to minority there will be a large number of understand the other person from that children who are denied help because the person’s point of view. And finally, once the numbers will exceed the percentage of the desire to genuinely understand is in place student body that can be given help. the listener must help the speaker get to a Additionally this percentage is based only on place where the speaker really wants to be the number of students who attend the heard by the listener if the speaker was not school from those eligible, not counting already in that mental position. (Halley 2008) those students who select to attend a charter or private school. Ironically, this is I do think that this last set of perspectives called “no child left behind” might give us some insight into how these (http://www.ed.gov/esea). listeners become effective. In all likelihood they will be more than able to get to a And then the school is punished position where they genuinely want to financially because they cannot get their understand even though they may want to children up to arbitrary standards set on understand for less than honorable standardized tests that these children purposes. The other perspective where they cannot read, because they did not get the must help the speaker get to a place where special help that they needed to get better at the speaker really wants to be heard by the reading. listener may be a bit more problematic. However, I do not think it is outside the Another way to look at this one would be scope of what these individuals might be listening to voters to figure out what to claim capable of. in order to get their votes, but not to help them get their concerns met. At least one of So who might these listeners listening the people working in this area calls himself from the dark side be? I have tried to make a great listener. I believe many voters thus a suggestive list. vote against their own personal interests. Perhaps Peter Hart 1) Those who listen for information to use (http://www.hartresearch.com), but certainly in manipulating public perceptions of issues: Frank Luntz (2008) and Carl Rove These might be people running focus groups (http://www.rove.com) are famous for finding with less than honorable intentions for what a language to sell a political idea that is they learn from the focus group. I am contrary to a particular group’s self-interest
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 69 in a way that they will believe its to misunderstanding implementation will be good for them. I am (http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/time thinking about policies that affect the poor or stopics/organizations/n/news_of_the_world/i disadvantaged couched in the language of ndex.html). patriotism or personal freedom. In the USA we have convinced the poor to fight wars 3) The classic stereotype of a used car that were designed to make some folks rich salesman or even the closer at a high since the Indian wars and the Mexican war. volume dealership: Many of them listen And a person who will never be able to own hard for the issues that will trigger an eager his/her own business may not really benefit desire to buy. If the sales person learns of from a policy that reduces taxes on such an issue while listening to the buyer businesses and thus makes supporting and is able to move the conversation in a benefit programs impossible. We have had way that triggers that issue then there is an the estate tax turned into the death tax. We increased chance of a sale. Car sales have had tax cuts turned into tax relief and closers are infamous for shifting the focus of global warming turned in to climate change. the discussion to offset any buying We have seen the confederate square in the resistance and they do that based on the Georgia state flag turned into a reason to trigger issues identified, through listening, defeat several democrats who were worried during the sales interview. (Newnez, about it’s implications for race relations, just personal interview, 1985) to name a few that have had significant effects at the ballot box. These folks clearly want to understand. It is necessary for their success. However, I think we can easily conclude that these again their interpretations might be tainted folks want the information they are listening by their desire to sell. They might then get a to. Can we think of them as respecting or sale that ethically should have somehow honoring these same people? Perhaps they been different. are because these are not necessarily the people they are trying to misdirect in their 4) A con artist who is trying to bilk thinking. Luntz can easily think of his focus someone out of part of his or her fortune: If group people as trying to help him the stories we hear about such events are understand and so his focus group people true, these people listen very carefully to the might even be seen as wanting to be heard. wants and desires of their marks and try to provide believable, but false, answers or 2) British Tabloids wire-tapping private options for fulfilling those desires. If they are citizens so that they can publish a hurtful to be believed or trusted by their marks, they story about someone in order to sell papers: must be able to understand them very well. It would seem that these folks might well have a genuine curiosity about what they Perhaps a variant on this type of person might hear. So their energy level as they is the Ponzi scheme specialist. This person listen is likely to be beneficial to their has to identify those individuals who are listening. However, It may be that listening eager to make a lot of easy money and well may not really be what they do. I am convince the mark that they are trustworthy guessing that there will be biases that and competent to deliver the goods. facilitate misinterpretation of some of what they hear. Of course, some of what they These folks would seem to want to hear will be of interest to the community at understand at least enough to learn how to large and so the effort must seem ingratiate themselves to their mark. They worthwhile to these listeners. certainly do not have the best interests of the person they are listening to in mind. I I am not so sure these folks want to would also think it unlikely that they would understand so much as they want to hear respect or honor their mark in any way, something that they can use to create a unless they need to see them as a worthy headline. Perhaps, their interpretations of opponent in order to be careful enough to what they are hearing then could be colored get the understanding correct. If the con by the wish for a big headline and thus lead artist does not respect his mark, it would
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 70 seem to me that he might underestimate the it over with or getting more than is fair from mark’s savviness and misread some of the the solution. In order for this approach to information. succeed at getting a participant to agree to modify their position, a mediator has to listen 5) Passive-aggressive persons who are well enough to determine when the looking for zingers: In many families siblings participant might be vulnerable to such a seem to get something out of goading each suggestion. If done too early in the process other. In order to do that effectively surely I would assume that the participant would they have to have listened well enough to view the mediator as in the camp of the each other in order to figure out what other participant and resist changing the comments will have the most impact. original position (Decker, personal interview, However, passive-aggressive persons 2012). usually get several shots at listening well enough to figure out how best to design their The real concern is that some mediators zingers. So perhaps they are not are focused on getting to a settlement or necessarily really good listeners. agreement to the exclusion of helping each participant understand the position of the And finally a few that might not easily others in the conflict. Such a focus is likely come to mind: to concentrate the energy of the mediator on finding anything that might get that 6) Mediators who listen so as to find settlement. Selective attention will then act ways to help participants view their situation to increase the probability that the full inside the current legal structure rather than meaning of participant messages will be supporting their original point of view: (See missed in favor of noticing settlement criteria Brigg 2007, 35-36). (Halley 2008) The result can be a settlement that does not account for all of the concerns Brigg hints at the suggestion “that of all parties involved. ‘listening techniques’ employed by mediators and professional helpers A story told in an interview with a long throughout the western world can be time mediation trainer, with extensive legal contrived and hence that genuineness and and judicial experience might help even susceptibility can be a pretense (sic) or demonstrate the potential here. This story deception.” (2007) was told as an example of how finally really listening to a participant in a mediation To be sure Brigg does not suggest that completely changed the direction of the this is good or quality mediation practice, settlement this mediator thought they should just that it sometimes happens. be working toward (Berlin, private interview, 2012). I have participated in mediation training and some of the examples during my The example was a divorce mediation. training included the mediator suggesting The wife in this case was claiming what a court outcome would be if a responsibility for purchasing a ranch for resolution were not reached. There are $15,000,000.00 while they were dating several problems with this approach. One before getting married. The husband was might be that the mediator cannot know in a claiming that she was only able to do so particular case what a court would decide. because he had taught her how to do it. He But the effect might be to encourage that was a professor of real estate at a local participant to waver on what they want to get college when they met and she was in one out of the mediation. Another might be that if of his classes. The ranch was in the wife’s this suggestion is made in front of both name. The wife was offering $1,000,000.00 parties it might give one party motivation to to the husband to get him to go away and remain stubborn in the process and insist on they were at an impasse. After a long and a solution that is mostly beneficial to him or drawn out session which included the herself. In either case I believe that the mediator encouraging the husband to take focus of the participants is taken off of the deal, the mediator was in a private looking for solutions and focused on getting session with the husband and ready to call
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 71 an impasse and send them back to court, but in desperation he turned to the husband Interviews indicate that officers often pay and asked if the husband could think of a great deal of attention to non-verbal anything that would get them to a solution. behaviors in such interviews. It could be that The husband said he was sure he did. He this focus might lead them to incorrect then said that if the wife would agree to go assessments. Research by Vrig (2008) to three different mental health counseling indicates that listeners who concentrate on sessions that he would pay for, he would what is being said are better at detecting lies agree to the divorce. The mediator said, than those who concentrate on non-verbal “and then you will take the $1,000,000.00 behaviors. He also cites several others and sign off on the agreement?” And the whose research supports this position. I husband said, “No, forget the $1,000,000.00. think it interesting that many people teaching The only requirement is the counseling communication tend to suggest that it is the sessions.” After a stunned silence, the non-verbal behavior that is most important in mediator checked with him again and then detecting a lie and that this position may not took the proposal to the wife. She agreed be completely accurate (Anderson et. al. and they got their divorce. So, staying 1999, Feeley and Young 2000, Vrig and focused on getting the husband to agree to Mann 2001, and Porter et.al. 2007 all cited the $1,000,000.00 was keeping them from in Vrig, 2008). getting an agreement. Listening to what was really important to him produced an Officers probably listen reasonably well, agreement. however, since they are legally permitted to lie during these interviews in order to press This example illustrates the need for the suspect to reveal something that will get mediators to stay open to hearing alternative them convicted, it is possible that many points of view. It was offered in contrast to times such manipulation produces less than the following. As a young lawyer this complete information and perhaps not mediator had convinced a judge to award always even accurate information from the his client $900.00 a month in alimony and suspect. child support. And his colleagues had patted him on the back for a job well done. 8) Listening done to develop a comic However, the husband in the case only (ironic?) approach to an issue. Should we earned $1500.00 per month. The result was think of Jon Stewart and Stephen Colbert as that the husband skipped town and the wife people listening from the dark side at least never received any of that support. This part of the time? How else would they experience changed his view of the process locate the missteps of those they discuss on and helped him to learn to listen until there their programs? They have to listen was a fair solution available that both parties effectively in order to determine when some could agree to and live with (Berlin, private public message can be interpreted interview, 2012). differently than was probably intended by the speaker. They are certainly not 7) Law enforcement officers trying to respecting or honoring those they listen to determine when a suspect is lying: The because the aim is to embarrass in order to officer certainly does not have positive produce the joke or the laugh. intentions toward the suspect. In fact s/he is listening precisely to catch the person in a 9) Perhaps some communities are dark, lie and thus develop a legal case against the the oft mentioned honor among thieves. It suspect. Such an orientation might bias the would seem that such individuals must listen officer’s listening in a way that misinterprets well at least some of the time in order to what is said. However, the officer could maintain their communities. have very positive intentions toward the society in general since convicting Conclusion perpetrators would be seen as a positive value. One might also think of lawyers I have come to the conclusion that many conducting deposition interviews might fall people listen rather effectively even though into the same category. they do not listen with the values I find so
Communicator Opportunities and Responsibilities in Volatile Times: Proceedings of the 2012 ICC 72 very important. I still believe that if one is interested in a positive relationship those values are very important. However, it would seem that those values are not all necessary for those who would want to defraud us in some way.
References
BRIGG, M. 2010. Governance and susceptibility in conflict resolution: Possibilities beyond control. Social and Legal Studies, 16, 27-47 CATT-OLIASON, J., HALLEY, R. D. & PURDY, M. 2012, March. Panel Discussion Focused on Listening with negative intent, International Listening Association convention, Bremerton, WA. COBEN, J. 2010. Interview, “Disclosing ‘Trickster’ Activity in a Mediation.” http://www.mediate.com/articles/singerdv d09.cfm HALLEY, R. D., 1997. And Then I Was Surprised by What You Said: The Impact of Love and Listening on Community. Columbia, MO: Kaia Publishing. (Available at smashwords.com) HALLEY, R. D. 2008. Listening: Models and Procedures. Columbia, MO: Kaia Publishing. (Available at smashwords.com) LUNTZ F. 2008. Words that Work: It’s Not What You Say, It’s What People Hear. Hyperion. PURDY, M. 2012, March. “Listening in the Shadows: Executing a Will.” International Listening Association convention Bremerton, WA. RUSHKOFF D. 2004. The Persuaders. PBS documentary, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/ shows/persuaders/ SINGER, L. 2011. Interview about mediation being a process of manipulation. http://www.mediate.com/articles/singerdv d09.cfm VRIJ, A. 2008. Nonverbal dominance versus verbal accuracy in lie detection: A plea to change police practice. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 35, 1323-1336. VRIJ, A. 2008. Detecting Lies and Deceit: Pitfalls and Opportunities. Wiley.
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