Review Articles Review Articles Received July 29, 2016; Accepted December 6, 2016 24) Patterson, R., Bowd, C., & Donnelly, M. (1998). The 28) Guan, S. S. (Ed.). (2010). Design Research Methods. cyclopean (stereoscopic) barber pole illusion, Vision New Taipei, Taiwan: Chuan Hwa Book Co. Ltd. (in Research, 38(14), 2119-2125. Chinese) 25) Beutter, B. R., Mulligan, J. B., & Stone, L. S. (1996). The 29) Yang, C.T. (2001). A Study of the Optical Illusion of the Barber Plaid Illusion: Plaid Motion is biased by Packaging Containers' Volume--A Comparison between Elongated Apertures. Vision Research, 36(19), 3061- the Prismatic Bottles and Cylinder Bottles. Journal of 3075. National Taiwan College of Arts, 67, 17-32. (in Chinese) THE ROLE OF CULTURAL IN DEVELOPING 26) Castet, E., Charton, V., & Dufour, A. (1999). The 30) Oyama, T., Imai, S., & Wake, T. (2000). New. Sensory -BASED PRODUCT DESIGN extrinsic/intrinsic classification of two-dimensional Perception Psychology Handbook. Tokyo: Seishin motion signals with barber-pole stimuli. Vision Research. Shobo Ltd. (in Japanese) 39(5), 915–932. 31) Liu, Y. H. (2010). The Research of Preference for ratio Intan PRAMESWARI*, Haruo HIBINO*, Shinichi KOYAMA* 27) Meng, Q. M. & Chang. J. H. (2000). The Study of of geometry shapes (Unpublished master’s thesis).

Psychological Experiments. Taipei, Psychological National Yunlin Univ. of Science and Technology, *Chiba University, 1-33 Yayoi-cho, Inage-ku, Chiba 263-8522, Japan Publishing Co., Ltd. (in Chinese) Yunlin. (in Chinese)

Abstract: Culture is an important aspect to consider when designing a product, both as an inspiration and influence in the cognitive process of design. The cultural backgrounds of users and designers should be taken into account in the context of cognitive processing. Cultural schema refers to culture at the cognitive level, which provides references in the form of while also shaping perspectives. This study explores the role of cultural schema in culture-based product design by attempting to identify the opportunities and constraints posed by culture. Examples were drawn to explain about cultural schema role in designing products based on cultural artifacts that suggest design context interacted with cultural schema in design process that results in different interpretation of design from the same cultural artifact. Keywords: culture, schema, design, opportunities, constraints

1. Introduction design originated (e.g., Japanese design and Scandinavian In recent times, the borders between have design). Such styles can be evident even in designs that are become blurred as a result of globalization, creating a not explicitly inspired by culture. multicultural world [1]. On the other hand, globalization The creative process of design always occurs on the has also produced a new awareness of local culture in an basis of some amount of prior knowledge [5]. The amount effort to preserve cultural values and identity. Given the of prior knowledge referenced in the design process need to express one’s identity—which includes local determines the novelty of the resulting design, whether the identity and its relationship to culture—there has been a design is an imitation, modification, or innovation. Prior revival of culture and tradition [2]. The trend toward knowledge itself is interrelated with the culture to which culture-based design is manifest in the localization and the designer belongs. The retrieval of prior knowledge is a “glocalization” movements. Localization aims to develop a process that involves schema processing. design for the culture it originates from while glocalization The challenge of culture-based product design lies in aims to develop a culture-based design for the global understanding the opportunities and constraints presented market [3]. by culture. Identifying these opportunities and constraints Culture provides rich sources of references, inspiration, is an important part of the creative process, and such and opportunity in developing designs. At the same time, identification can be performed by investigating the culture can also impose constraints on how the design is schema in the context of culture. In turn, the information perceived. Cultural beliefs, values, and social practices will be beneficial to understand the influence posed by frame the way people relate to an object [4]. Different users culture to design development. with different cultural backgrounds can relate differently to Schema refers to the structure of prior knowledge and the perceived function of the same object. On the other the cognitive process of interpreting information hand, the designer’s cultural background also influences [5][6][7][8]. In the context of culture, cultural schema is design development. This is evident in the development of the structure of prior knowledge shared by the population design styles based on the cultural group from which the of a cultural group [9]. The content of schema includes

Journal of the Science of Design Vol. xx No. x 20xx x 10 Journal of the Science of Design Vol. xx No. x 2017

Journal of the Science of Design Vol. 1 No. 1 2017 57 various types of knowledge—both abstract and framework of culture-based design process with schema concrete—consisting of information, images, ideas, theory approach. The understanding on culture and scenarios, and so forth. In the context of culture, the cognition in general is imperative to understand the more knowledge structured inside a schema relates to a cultural specific theme of cultural schema. In turn, understanding on group’s way of life. Such knowledge is particular to the how schema works and how it could be applied to design is cultural group and is shared by its members, defining its necessary to understand how cultural schema works and cultural schema. applied in design. This study examines the role of cultural schema in the Examples of application of schema and cultural schema creative process of designing a culture-based product, in product design are discussed to aid the understanding. based on the assumption that cognitive processes, including creative processes, are influenced by culture as a cognitive 4. Schema Theory attribute [10]. The cognition process in designing a product Bartlett defines schema as an organized structure of past involves the activation of various schemata, including knowledge, experiences, and expectations regarding certain cultural schema as prior knowledge that acts as a reference. aspects of the world [6]. In other words, schema refers to The reference of prior knowledge is then identified in terms structures of knowledge that consist of information (objects, of opportunities and constraints to be either encouraged or events, behavior, images, etc.) and the relationships between overcome in the effort to develop a new design. each part, which act as references to interpret new information [7][8]. The content of schema can vary by 2. Objectives individual, depending on the individual’s knowledge and Culture and design, particularly design strategy in experience. Schemata represent knowledge on all levels, developing culture-based and culture-oriented design was from abstract to concrete. The schema concept can be applied widely studied. The studies are mainly focusing on to both abstract concepts (e.g., justice and faith) and very transformation and application of cultural knowledge to concrete things (e.g., visual appearance) [14]. design [4][11][12]. On the other hand, it is apparent that Schema plays an important role in processing the culture possess important role on human cognitive and interaction between old knowledge (old information from a perception [13]. One theory that explains culture in generic schema) and new knowledge (episodic input) to cognitive level is schema theory, specifically cultural make sense of information. It refers to unconscious cognitive schema theory. However, cultural schema and its structures and processes that guide knowledge and skill, a application in design have not widely studied [5]. cognitive shortcut for interpreting and perceiving. The In light of recent development in design field where human mind constantly draws partial inferences from new designs are created with culture as inspiration, the incomplete information by fitting new information (episodic study of cultural schema and its application in design input) into the existing schema (generic schema). The become more relevant. While it could be argued that the cognitive processing of schema is largely unconscious and possession of cultural knowledge is enough to develop a automatic [8]. culture-based design, one should take into account the cognitive process of cultural schema that influence designer’s and user’ perception. It is widely accepted that culture in form of cultural schema is a major force in the process of perceiving and interpreting stimuli, and in turn producing meaning [5]. Therefore, it was hypothesized that since cultural schema shapes perception and guides interpretation, cultural schema posed both opportunity and constraint in production of meaning. Cultural schema is not only consist of cultural knowledge that serves as reference and inspiration in designing a culture-based design, but also the constraints posed by the cultural-specific perception and behavior. This study attempts to explain the role of schema, particularly cultural schema in developing culture-based design by developing framework of identification of the opportunities and constraints that posed by culture. It was hoped that this study be a meaningful contribution in the field of design psychology.

3. Method The method used in this study is literature review.

Literature sources that contribute to this study encompass Figure 1. Schema processing model; adapted from three main topics. The topics are cultural psychology, Brewer and Nakamura [15] cognitive psychology, and design. The topics discussed in this study are how schema work According to Brewer and Nakamura, schema-based and its application in product design, culture and cognition, information processing involves three elements: generic cultural schema and its application in design, and

58x JournalJournal o fof the the Science Science of Design of Design Vol. xx Vol. No. 1 x No. 20xx 1 2017 various types of knowledge—both abstract and framework of culture-based design process with schema schema, episodic input, and instantiated schema. Generic specific to the culture an individual lives in. This knowledge concrete—consisting of information, images, ideas, theory approach. The understanding on culture and schema is schema that contains fixed structural content varies across cultures and can influence how people approach scenarios, and so forth. In the context of culture, the cognition in general is imperative to understand the more (knowledge, skills, relations, behavior, etc.) as well as slots matters. Examples can include different cultural values or knowledge structured inside a schema relates to a cultural specific theme of cultural schema. In turn, understanding on to accommodate new information input. The input comes one’s preference for the visual style of American comics or group’s way of life. Such knowledge is particular to the how schema works and how it could be applied to design is from episodic input, which is information collected from the Japanese manga. Expertise level is highly specialized cultural group and is shared by its members, defining its necessary to understand how cultural schema works and environment during exposure to stimuli. The interaction knowledge acquired through extensive learning processes in cultural schema. applied in design. between generic schema and episodic input results in relation to a profession or hobby. Examples of expertise This study examines the role of cultural schema in the Examples of application of schema and cultural schema instantiated schema. Instantiated schema that is repeated is knowledge could include the ability to operate CNC creative process of designing a culture-based product, in product design are discussed to aid the understanding. stored in the long-term memory, eventually becoming machines, use video editing software, etc. The culture and based on the assumption that cognitive processes, including generic schema, which is easier to recall. Without repetition expertise levels in the continuum of knowledge model creative processes, are influenced by culture as a cognitive 4. Schema Theory as reinforcement, however, instantiated schema stored in the include various uses of tools. In the culture level, the tools attribute [10]. The cognition process in designing a product Bartlett defines schema as an organized structure of past short term memory will be discarded. The experience and include those commonly used in daily life; in the expertise involves the activation of various schemata, including knowledge, experiences, and expectations regarding certain knowledge structure of a schema is a reference point for level, the tools are those specific to one’s area of expertise cultural schema as prior knowledge that acts as a reference. aspects of the world [6]. In other words, schema refers to information processing. New information is processed by [17]. However, while the model described in figure 2 is The reference of prior knowledge is then identified in terms structures of knowledge that consist of information (objects, trying to fit it into the existing schema. Information that fits somewhat rigid, schemata itself are dynamic and it is of opportunities and constraints to be either encouraged or events, behavior, images, etc.) and the relationships between the schema is processed faster and enforces the validity of possible a schema could exist across levels. For example, overcome in the effort to develop a new design. each part, which act as references to interpret new the schema, thus strengthening the schema and leading to some sensorimotor schema could also exist in cultural level information [7][8]. The content of schema can vary by better memory [15]. For information that does not fit the if it is related to specific habits and behavior of a cultural 2. Objectives individual, depending on the individual’s knowledge and existing schema, three outcomes are possible: 1) the schema group, not necessarily related to the use of tools as described Culture and design, particularly design strategy in experience. Schemata represent knowledge on all levels, is modified to include the new information, 2) the in the figure. developing culture-based and culture-oriented design was from abstract to concrete. The schema concept can be applied information is modified to fit the schema, or 3) the widely studied. The studies are mainly focusing on to both abstract concepts (e.g., justice and faith) and very information is discarded as nonsensical [16]. 4.1. Application of schema theory in design transformation and application of cultural knowledge to concrete things (e.g., visual appearance) [14]. Hurtienne and Blessing [17] developed a model to The nature of schema theory is broad in its application, design [4][11][12]. On the other hand, it is apparent that Schema plays an important role in processing the describe the hierarchy of knowledge in human minds based from abstract concepts such as faith and justice to more culture possess important role on human cognitive and interaction between old knowledge (old information from a on the frequency of encoding and retrieval of knowledge. concrete ones such as written law. As such, the field of perception [13]. One theory that explains culture in generic schema) and new knowledge (episodic input) to The encoding and retrieval of knowledge are inseparable design also benefits from the application of schema theory. cognitive level is schema theory, specifically cultural make sense of information. It refers to unconscious cognitive from the concept of schema since knowledge itself is the Schema theory in design refer to design based on existing schema theory. However, cultural schema and its structures and processes that guide knowledge and skill, a content of the schema. knowledge, intuition, and automatic responses of the user, application in design have not widely studied [5]. cognitive shortcut for interpreting and perceiving. The which are the schemata itself. The use of schema theory in In light of recent development in design field where human mind constantly draws partial inferences from design enables user to understand and react to the object new designs are created with culture as inspiration, the incomplete information by fitting new information (episodic quickly and accordingly, which contributes to better usability. study of cultural schema and its application in design input) into the existing schema (generic schema). The Several examples of the application of schema theory in become more relevant. While it could be argued that the cognitive processing of schema is largely unconscious and product design are discussed in the next section. possession of cultural knowledge is enough to develop a automatic [8]. 4.1.1. Image schema culture-based design, one should take into account the An example of the application of image schema to cognitive process of cultural schema that influence intuitive design in the sensorimotor level is the schema of designer’s and user’ perception. It is widely accepted that space. One representation of space schema is direction (e.g., culture in form of cultural schema is a major force in the UP and DOWN, LEFT and RIGHT, FRONT and BACK). process of perceiving and interpreting stimuli, and in turn The UP and DOWN/LEFT and RIGHT schema has been producing meaning [5]. Therefore, it was hypothesized that used extensively in designing aspects of products [17] (e.g., since cultural schema shapes perception and guides volume buttons on cellular phones). The familiarity of the interpretation, cultural schema posed both opportunity and schema stems from metaphors related to beliefs that constraint in production of meaning. Cultural schema is not translated into directions. only consist of cultural knowledge that serves as reference Metaphor of UP and DOWN were associated with and inspiration in designing a culture-based design, but also Figure 2. Continuum of knowledge model [17]. spiritual belief where UP refers to high places where believed the constraints posed by the cultural-specific perception and as the residence of Gods, thus the positive association, and behavior. The frequency and ease of encoding and retrieving DOWN refers to below the earth where it was believed the This study attempts to explain the role of schema, knowledge increase from top to bottom in the model (Figure devil resides, thus the negative association (e.g. Semitic particularly cultural schema in developing culture-based 2). Innate knowledge is acquired genetically during the religions where heaven is alluded to reside in the sky; Greek design by developing framework of identification of the prenatal stage of development; this is considered universal culture where Mount Olympus was believed to be residence opportunities and constraints that posed by culture. It was knowledge that is subconsciously processed, such as reflexes of Gods, and below earth was believed to be where hell hoped that this study be a meaningful contribution in the and instinct. Innate knowledge is the most frequently resides; Indonesian native spiritual concept where Gods were field of design psychology. retrieved and encoded type of knowledge. Sensorimotor believed to resides in mountains such as Mount Mahameru;). knowledge is general knowledge acquired during early The metaphor of UP as positive/increase and DOWN as 3. Method childhood and used continuously in interactions with the negative/decrease translates into the directions of the button. The method used in this study is literature review. world. Examples of sensorimotor knowledge include the The iPhone 6 has two volume buttons: an upper button (UP) Literature sources that contribute to this study encompass for increasing volume and a lower button (DOWN) for Figure 1. Schema processing model; adapted from concepts of gravity, speed, and animation, as well as how to three main topics. The topics are cultural psychology, decreasing volume. The positioning and elevated surface of Brewer and Nakamura [15] differentiate faces. Though acquired through learning cognitive psychology, and design. the buttons make it possible to rely on touch to adjust the processes, sensorimotor knowledge is intuitive. Affordances The topics discussed in this study are how schema work According to Brewer and Nakamura, schema-based and image schema theory occupy the sensorimotor level of volume. Directional metaphor was also applied to the digital and its application in product design, culture and cognition, information processing involves three elements: generic the knowledge continuum. Cultural knowledge is knowledge representation of volume adjustment, with LEFT cultural schema and its application in design, and representing negative/decrease and RIGHT representing

Journal of the Science of Design Vol. xx No. x 20xx x x Journal of the Science of Design Vol. xx No. x 20xx Journal of the Science of Design Vol. 1 No. 1 2017 59 positive/increase. The metaphor stems from the belief that fruit-schema activation also triggers affective responses RIGHT considered good that originates from the occurrence (like/dislike) in relation to the fruit, prompting the user to act of right hand as dominant hand in majority of population, accordingly (buy/not buy). thus regarded as the “good” hand that contributes to the 4.1.3. Affordance positive association, and vice versa for the left hand. Affordance appeals to sensorimotor intuition. Affordance in the context of schema theory application refers to perceived affordance [20] rather than real affordance [21]. Real affordance refers to all possible uses of an object independent of the user perception [21]. Perceived affordance involves the process of sense-making by the user [20]. The process of sense-making involves schema activation. Regarding perceived affordance, activated schemata are related to logic and intuition in the context of usability. In the design context, designers should provide signifiers to indicate the affordance of an object [20].

Figure 3. Application of LEFT-RIGHT schema in the iOS user interface [18]

4.1.2. Visual image schema Visual representations of various objects, situations, and ideas are included in the knowledge structure that constructs a schema. The image association concept is widely used in product design. UX designers, for example, employ image Figure 5. Affordance signifier application in a door association in user interface design. Figure 4 shows the user handle [22] interface of an iPhone. The displayed icons correspond to their use. Specifically, the flashlight, clock, calculator, and Figure 6 shows two different approaches to a door handle camera icons correspond to their respective functions: a that appeal to the user’s intuition regarding how to operate source of light, time (show time, alarm, timer, stopwatch), the handle. The door handle acts as signifiers directive on the number calculation, and picture taking. These icons are based door handle’s usability. The flat panel signifies operation by on physical objects that are part of the schema of activities pushing. In contrast, the vertical bar signifies a pulling related to the objects, manifested in graphic representations operation. The acts of pushing and pulling are intuitive in of those objects associated with their functions. Such relation to the signifiers. The flat panel leaves no room for an association activates the schema for understanding the interpretation other than pushing since other operations are functions represented by the icons. physically impossible. Meanwhile, the vertical bar indicates the possibility of operation by gripping and pulling based on the shape and direction of the bar’s protrusion.

5. The Cognition of Culture and Cultural Schemata Culture and cognition are interdependent. While cognitive psychology focuses on individual minds and behaviors, individuals belong to groups/populations. As such, a large part of an individual’s cognitive activity is directed toward other individuals of the same group/population as they interact. Individual cognitive Figure 4. Example of image association in packaging activity manifests in such forms as conversation, media design [19]. messages, and material culture [8]. Thus, cognitive activity

is the main factor in the formation of sociality and culture Figure 5 shows packaging designs for fruit-flavored [16]. On the other hand, phenomena occurring in drinks that use image association. The shape, color, and groups/populations influence the development and graphic design of the packaging represent fruits that are application of individual cognition. Culture is constantly associated with the flavor of the drink inside. The fruit modified through cognitive processes of its cultural group schema content includes the shape, color, and flavor of the members, while its members absorb culture through fruit. Designing the packaging based on the visual learning and enculturation process. In other words, culture appearance of the fruit activates the fruit schema and gives is the effect and manifestation of human cognitive ability. information —based on previous knowledge regarding the Contemporary human societies culturally frame every represented fruit—about the drink’s flavor. For the user, aspect of human life, especially cognitive activity. Thus,

60x JournalJournal o fof the the Science Science of Design of Design Vol. xx Vol. No. 1 x No. 20xx 1 2017 positive/increase. The metaphor stems from the belief that fruit-schema activation also triggers affective responses cognitive ability and activity are undoubtedly related to to cultural schema. RIGHT considered good that originates from the occurrence (like/dislike) in relation to the fruit, prompting the user to act human psychological states [16][23][24]. Cultural variation Cultural schema refers to thematized, widely shared of right hand as dominant hand in majority of population, accordingly (buy/not buy). is the effect of similarities in the biological element of schemata, and it is the smallest unit of culture that can be thus regarded as the “good” hand that contributes to the 4.1.3. Affordance humans—especially their cognitive abilities, which analyzed [8]. Furthermore, cultural schemata are defined as positive association, and vice versa for the left hand. Affordance appeals to sensorimotor intuition. Affordance evolved differently as a result of different historical and patterns of basic schemata that construct the meaning in the context of schema theory application refers to ecological conditions [16]. Across populations, there are system of a cultural group [27]. In principle, cultural perceived affordance [20] rather than real affordance [21]. differences in social, political, and economic circumstances, schema and individual schema do not differ, except that Real affordance refers to all possible uses of an object which create variation in the content of human minds cultural schemata are shared by certain groups instead of independent of the user perception [21]. Perceived (theories, values, beliefs) [24]. individuals [9]. Cultural schema contributes to cultural bias, affordance involves the process of sense-making by the user Culture is the sum of mental representations, their stereotypes, and prejudice due to its shared characteristics. [20]. The process of sense-making involves schema public expressions, and resultant behaviors in certain At the individual level, culture is shaped by the activation. Regarding perceived affordance, activated contexts, which are always in continuous interaction with internalization of social activity through learning processes. schemata are related to logic and intuition in the context of each other [5]. Culture encompasses mental, behavioral, Arguably, internalization and learning processes occur usability. In the design context, designers should provide and physical realms [5][25][26], which can be further through repeated experience and exposure to cultural signifiers to indicate the affordance of an object [20]. described in terms of three levels of the spatial dimensions elements (e.g., social environment, objects, language, of culture: the inner level, which consists of values, beliefs, beliefs, values). Repeated experience forms a generic preferences, and other psychological attributes; the structure in an individual’s mind [15] and becomes a intermediate level, which consists of behaviors, activities, subconscious knowledge schema through frequent encoding and languages; and the outer level, which consists of and retrieval processes [17]. Culture as cognitive attribute objects, materials, and artifacts [25][26]. The intermediate in an individual’s mind is schemata consisting of various and outer levels express the inner level in the physical images, behaviors, and information acquired through Figure 3. Application of LEFT-RIGHT schema in the world. One’s behavior (intermediate level) is the expression sociocultural interaction and environments. In turn, the iOS user interface [18] of values, norms, beliefs, etc., that are internalized at the cultural schemata guide the individual perception and inner level. Various tools and artifacts (outer level) are behavior. 4.1.2. Visual image schema created to facilitate human needs (inner level) and activities The “sharedness” of schema is the defining Visual representations of various objects, situations, and (intermediate level). Since the levels are dynamic and characteristic that categorizes a schema as cultural schema ideas are included in the knowledge structure that constructs influence each other, the relationships among them are [28]. Though not all schemata in one’s cognition are a schema. The image association concept is widely used in reciprocal. cultural, a large part are. In terms of sharedness, schemata product design. UX designers, for example, employ image Figure 5. Affordance signifier application in a door could be recognized by three categories: a universal schema association in user interface design. Figure 4 shows the user handle [22] is shared across the human population, consisting of innate interface of an iPhone. The displayed icons correspond to knowledge (see Figure 2) [17] that develops regardless of their use. Specifically, the flashlight, clock, calculator, and Figure 6 shows two different approaches to a door handle culture and experience. Thus, universal schema is the most camera icons correspond to their respective functions: a that appeal to the user’s intuition regarding how to operate widely shared. Meanwhile, cultural schema is subject to source of light, time (show time, alarm, timer, stopwatch), the handle. The door handle acts as signifiers directive on the culture-specific experiences and is thus shared specifically number calculation, and picture taking. These icons are based door handle’s usability. The flat panel signifies operation by among the members of a cultural group. Individual schema on physical objects that are part of the schema of activities pushing. In contrast, the vertical bar signifies a pulling is subject to individual experiences and is thus more related to the objects, manifested in graphic representations operation. The acts of pushing and pulling are intuitive in detailed and personalized. Conversely, individual schema is of those objects associated with their functions. Such relation to the signifiers. The flat panel leaves no room for an highly variable while cultural schema is more general, and association activates the schema for understanding the interpretation other than pushing since other operations are universal schema has low variability. functions represented by the icons. physically impossible. Meanwhile, the vertical bar indicates Shore [29] classifies cultural schema into two the possibility of operation by gripping and pulling based on categories: externalized schema, which is the public the shape and direction of the bar’s protrusion. representation of schema in the form of cultural artifacts,

Figure 6. Three levels of the spatial dimension of culture and internalized schema, which refers to cognitive 5. The Cognition of Culture and Cultural Schemata [25] representations of externalized schema. These two Culture and cognition are interdependent. While categories constantly interact with and modify each other. cognitive psychology focuses on individual minds and 5.1. Cultural Schema This concept is similar to the spatial dimension of culture behaviors, individuals belong to groups/populations. As From the overview of culture as cognitive attribute, it theory proposed by Siu [25] and Ardila [26] (see Figure 2). such, a large part of an individual’s cognitive activity is could be inferred that culture in cognitive level exists as However, in Shore’s classification of cultural schema, directed toward other individuals of the same structures of schemata that resides in inner level of the intermediate-level variables are included as externalized group/population as they interact. Individual cognitive schema since they express internalized schema. In the Figure 4. Example of image association in packaging spatial dimension of culture [25]. Referring to the spatial activity manifests in such forms as conversation, media context of cultural schema and its role in design, the spatial design [19]. dimension of culture, attributes that resides in intermediate messages, and material culture [8]. Thus, cognitive activity dimension of culture theory is more appropriate in level and outer level are representations and expressions of is the main factor in the formation of sociality and culture consideration of the three levels of design features: visceral, Figure 5 shows packaging designs for fruit-flavored cultural schema. [16]. On the other hand, phenomena occurring in behavioral, and reflective [30]. drinks that use image association. The shape, color, and Schema theory functions as a bridge between theories of groups/populations influence the development and Cultural schema should not be confused with cultural graphic design of the packaging represent fruits that are culture and psychology [16]. Culture itself is interdependent application of individual cognition. Culture is constantly knowledge. Cultural knowledge is a part of cultural schema associated with the flavor of the drink inside. The fruit with schema since schema formation results from cognitive modified through cognitive processes of its cultural group that also includes culture-specific perception. The activation schema content includes the shape, color, and flavor of the activity involving interactions with physical and social members, while its members absorb culture through of cultural schema is interdependent with the context of the fruit. Designing the packaging based on the visual environments in the culture one belongs to. On a larger learning and enculturation process. In other words, culture stimuli [31]. The nature of schema is largely unconscious appearance of the fruit activates the fruit schema and gives scale, above individual schema, there is cultural schema, is the effect and manifestation of human cognitive ability. [6] and therefore difficult to investigate. However, information —based on previous knowledge regarding the which works at the social or cultural level. Some Contemporary human societies culturally frame every investigation can be attempted via schema activation in represented fruit—about the drink’s flavor. For the user, similarities across populations in a society can be attributed aspect of human life, especially cognitive activity. Thus, response to stimuli corresponding to the three levels of the

Journal of the Science of Design Vol. xx No. x 20xx x x Journal of the Science of Design Vol. xx No. x 20xx Journal of the Science of Design Vol. 1 No. 1 2017 61 spatial dimension of culture (inner, intermediate, and outer; cultural knowledge in creating the cultural artifact by see Figure 6) [25]. activating the appropriate schema. Cultural artifact According to the discussion, it could be inferred that production is practiced by designers and involves design and cultural schema possess several characteristics unique creative processes [5]. However, it is important to note that in compared to the individual schema: cultural schema is the process of developing new design based on cultural specific to a cultural group and shared among the members artifact, interpretation also plays a role in deciphering of those cultural group. However, since environment plays attributes of cultural artifact that applicable to the production an important role in shaping culture, it is possible that of new design. Thus, in context of developing design based similar schemata could form in different cultural groups due on cultural artifact the process of interpretation and to similarities in environment. production are not mutually exclusive, rather it is a chain of 5.2. Cultural schema in the product design context process. Cognitive process between different cultures can vary in a. Examples: production of cultural artifact the procedures the mind uses to solve an otherwise typical Siu [25] provides examples of how culture affects the problem. The existence of artifacts with various designs is design of objects and materials based on the spatial theory of one result of cognitive activity attempting to solve problems. culture (Figure 6). Siu uses the example of Chinese eating For example, seating facilities ranging from short stools to culture and its manifestation in objects surrounding the dining chairs were created to solve problems related to eating activity. As a culture that holds the family in high human activity. A short stool enables the user to be more regard, the activity of families having meals together is an comfortable in an activity requiring the user to squat for a important part of daily life (inner level). The importance of prolonged time. Meanwhile, a dining chair enables the user having meals together increases on special occasions such as to be more comfortable during extended meals. Theoretically, festival days and new-year celebrations. The importance of meals are not necessarily extended periods, but some togetherness manifests in the act of sharing meals placed in cultures perceive mealtime as a time to socialize (e.g., the center of the table (intermediate level, behavior). In turn, European culture); thus, the meal experience needs to be the culture of sharing meals placed in the center of the table pleasant and comfortable. One effort toward making the manifests in the round design of dinner tables (outer level, meal experience pleasant and comfortable was the design of objects). Round tables with rotating centers—which make it dining chairs with added features, such as cushioned seats easier for family members to share meals—are also popular and backrests. [25]. Through its system of representation, culture is The production of round dining table with rotating center fundamental in the production and reception of meaning [5]. was a result of schema activation in terms of “eating” Representation manifests in both tangible and intangible schema of Chinese culture that involves a structure consisted ways. Tangible representations of culture are the physical of “togetherness” and “behavior of sharing meals”. Such objects or tools that aid human life. In the context of product designs differ, for example, from the preferences of design, products that contain embedded cultural content are European cultures, which tend to favor rectangular tables. considered cultural artifacts. Cultural artifacts are part of the Other examples can be drawn regarding the use dining room outer level of culture (see Figure 6) [25]. Cultural artifacts chairs in Chinese and European cultures, and the absence of are inseparable from the cognitive process of activating chairs in Japanese and Korean cultures [32]. cultural schema in their production and interpretation.

Figure 8. Zaisu: legless chairs resulting from Japanese floor-sitting culture [33]

Figure 7. Cognitive process of the interpretation and Floor-sitting culture is prevalent in Japanese and Korean production of cultural artifacts [5] culture [32]. The sitting schema for Japan and Korea differs from other cultures in that sitting in formal setting does not Figure 7 illustrate the cognitive process of interpretation necessarily require a chair. A chair in this context is legged and production of cultural artifacts. Interpretation and tool that supports human weight in the act of sitting. However, production of cultural artifact involve activation of schema as this culture does not stop the production of a cultural artifact interaction of cognition (thinking) and cultural knowledge. that facilitates more comfortable floor-sitting behavior in the The interpretation of cultural artifacts involves a process of form of zaisu (Figure 8). Zaisu is an interpretation of a chair analysis and understanding by the user. The interpretation in the context of floor-sitting behavior in Japanese culture, process refers to prior knowledge in the form of cultural manifested as a legless seat with back support [34]. knowledge that activates schemata related to the cultural As a comparison, Indonesia have similar floor-sitting artifact. The cultural artifact production process also refers to culture “lesehan” that does not produced artifact similar to

62x JournalJournal o fof the the Science Science of Design of Design Vol. xx Vol. No. 1 x No. 20xx 1 2017 spatial dimension of culture (inner, intermediate, and outer; cultural knowledge in creating the cultural artifact by zaisu. Thus it could be inferred that the production of zaisu is in the form of information resulting from the activation of see Figure 6) [25]. activating the appropriate schema. Cultural artifact culture specific to Japanese and Korean culture. However, schemata in the interpretation process as generic schema According to the discussion, it could be inferred that production is practiced by designers and involves design and zaisu was widely adopted in Indonesia due to the similarity of and new information in the form of design problems results cultural schema possess several characteristics unique creative processes [5]. However, it is important to note that in the sitting culture. The adaptation of zaisu is not exclusive to in instantiated schema in the form of information of compared to the individual schema: cultural schema is the process of developing new design based on cultural cultures with similar sitting culture, but widely adapted in opportunities and constraints which would be applied to specific to a cultural group and shared among the members artifact, interpretation also plays a role in deciphering interior design due to the popularity of Japanese aesthetics. develop new design. of those cultural group. However, since environment plays attributes of cultural artifact that applicable to the production an important role in shaping culture, it is possible that of new design. Thus, in context of developing design based similar schemata could form in different cultural groups due on cultural artifact the process of interpretation and to similarities in environment. production are not mutually exclusive, rather it is a chain of 5.2. Cultural schema in the product design context process. Cognitive process between different cultures can vary in a. Examples: production of cultural artifact the procedures the mind uses to solve an otherwise typical Siu [25] provides examples of how culture affects the problem. The existence of artifacts with various designs is design of objects and materials based on the spatial theory of one result of cognitive activity attempting to solve problems. culture (Figure 6). Siu uses the example of Chinese eating For example, seating facilities ranging from short stools to culture and its manifestation in objects surrounding the dining chairs were created to solve problems related to eating activity. As a culture that holds the family in high human activity. A short stool enables the user to be more regard, the activity of families having meals together is an Figure 9. Kobokan: a handwashing bowl [35] comfortable in an activity requiring the user to squat for a important part of daily life (inner level). The importance of prolonged time. Meanwhile, a dining chair enables the user having meals together increases on special occasions such as b. Example: interpretation of cultural artifact to be more comfortable during extended meals. Theoretically, festival days and new-year celebrations. The importance of Figure 9 shows a small bowl. Small bowls are generally meals are not necessarily extended periods, but some togetherness manifests in the act of sharing meals placed in perceived as containers for liquids such as soup. However, cultures perceive mealtime as a time to socialize (e.g., the center of the table (intermediate level, behavior). In turn, in Indonesian culture, such a bowl activates a European culture); thus, the meal experience needs to be the culture of sharing meals placed in the center of the table culture-specific schema where the bowl’s perceived Figure 10. Design process using a cultural artifact as a pleasant and comfortable. One effort toward making the manifests in the round design of dinner tables (outer level, function is to wash one’s hands before eating (kobokan). reference. meal experience pleasant and comfortable was the design of objects). Round tables with rotating centers—which make it There are widely reported anecdotes about people dining chairs with added features, such as cushioned seats easier for family members to share meals—are also popular unfamiliar with Indonesian culture drinking the water in a The examples discussed in this chapter is the and backrests. [25]. kobokan. This cultural schema stems from the Indonesian interpretation of a cultural artifact that is pincuk that Through its system of representation, culture is The production of round dining table with rotating center cultural practice of eating with one’s hands. In this example, resulted in inspiration to design new products. Pincuk is a fundamental in the production and reception of meaning [5]. was a result of schema activation in terms of “eating” an eating habit specific to Indonesia is a cultural schema food container made from banana leaves that widely used in Representation manifests in both tangible and intangible schema of Chinese culture that involves a structure consisted whose content includes using a small bowl as a Indonesia. The wide and flat banana leaves is folded to ways. Tangible representations of culture are the physical of “togetherness” and “behavior of sharing meals”. Such handwashing tool. Cultures with the eating habit that utilize form conical shape and held together by wooden or bamboo objects or tools that aid human life. In the context of product designs differ, for example, from the preferences of tools such as spoon, fork, knife and chopstick have no stick. Pincuk is used primarily as container in street foods design, products that contain embedded cultural content are European cultures, which tend to favor rectangular tables. schema of handwashing bowl. In turn, Indonesians due the cheap material (banana leaves) and its conical shape considered cultural artifacts. Cultural artifacts are part of the Other examples can be drawn regarding the use dining room adopting tools in dining, but the use of handwashing bowl that provides easiness of use to be takeaway food container. outer level of culture (see Figure 6) [25]. Cultural artifacts chairs in Chinese and European cultures, and the absence of persist as cultural schema that activated in interpretation The attributes of pincuk was identified according to the are inseparable from the cognitive process of activating chairs in Japanese and Korean cultures [32]. process when users are faced with a small bowl with clear three levels of design: visceral (visual attractiveness), cultural schema in their production and interpretation. water along with a meal. It could be inferred that the use of behavioral (usability and experience) and reflective (image a small bowl can vary depending on the user’s perception. and symbol) [30]. In visceral level, the visual attributes of In this case, the differing variable of perception is culture pincuk are identified as shape (conical), texture (raised since culture influences how humans perceive the world parallel lines of banana leaves), and color (green of banana and make inferences. leaves). In behavioral level, the attributes are identified as 5.3. Cultural artifact as a reference in the design process the usability (held in palm of hand) and experience Cultural artifacts also serve as references in designing (take-away eating experience). Reflective level attributes culture-based products. Using a cultural artifact as a are the image (cheap, due to association in street food) and reference involves processes of both interpretation and symbol (sustainability due to the use of banana leaves, a production as illustrated in figure 7. Cultural schema as sustainable material). Figure 8. Zaisu: legless chairs resulting from Japanese prior knowledge acts as a point of reference in the product floor-sitting culture [33] design process[5]. The process of designing a product with a cultural Figure 7. Cognitive process of the interpretation and Floor-sitting culture is prevalent in Japanese and Korean artifact as a reference first involves interpretation through production of cultural artifacts [5] culture [32]. The sitting schema for Japan and Korea differs the activation of schemata. The result is that information from other cultures in that sitting in formal setting does not about the cultural artifact regarding its visual, behavioral, Figure 7 illustrate the cognitive process of interpretation necessarily require a chair. A chair in this context is legged and symbolic value is referenced in the production of a new and production of cultural artifacts. Interpretation and tool that supports human weight in the act of sitting. However, cultural artifact. The interpretation process provides production of cultural artifact involve activation of schema as this culture does not stop the production of a cultural artifact information regarding the constraints and opportunities interaction of cognition (thinking) and cultural knowledge. that facilitates more comfortable floor-sitting behavior in the posed by culture in relation to the artifact. In the process of The interpretation of cultural artifacts involves a process of form of zaisu (Figure 8). Zaisu is an interpretation of a chair producing a cultural artifact, the information resulting from Figure 11. Pincuk: traditional Indonesian food container analysis and understanding by the user. The interpretation in the context of floor-sitting behavior in Japanese culture, the interpretation process undergoes transformation, [36] process refers to prior knowledge in the form of cultural manifested as a legless seat with back support [34]. elaboration, and rejection [5]. Corresponding to the process knowledge that activates schemata related to the cultural As a comparison, Indonesia have similar floor-sitting shown in Figure 2, the interaction between cultural schema artifact. The cultural artifact production process also refers to culture “lesehan” that does not produced artifact similar to Cultural schema plays a part in these identification

Journal of the Science of Design Vol. xx No. x 20xx x x Journal of the Science of Design Vol. xx No. x 20xx Journal of the Science of Design Vol. 1 No. 1 2017 63 particularly in perception of banana leaves as material. laminated bamboo [37]. Banana leaves is ubiquitous in Indonesia and traditionally used in various food packaging. The abundance of banana leaves contributes to its low price, thus banana leaves is widely used in the presentation of street food. The association with street food impacts the image of banana leaves as cheap, thus correlates with the cheap image of pincuk. The perception of banana leaves as cheap is not necessarily shared by the member of other cultures, for example Western cultures where banana plants are scarce, thus banana leaves is perceived as exotic.

Figure 12. Tableware inspired by pincuk produced by Jenggala[37]

Figure 14. Interpretation process of pincuk as cultural artifact

Figure 14 illustrates the process of interpretation of pincuk in two context that resulted in two different product outcomes. These two different product outcomes showed the schema processing involved in the production process, where cultural schema interacts with new information in the form of a design problem. The tableware shown in Figure 13 was created by Jenggala [37], a renowned Bali-based company that markets its products globally. It can be Figure 13. Tableware inspired by pincuk as part of inferred that in designing a product that could be marketed laminated bamboo exploration experiment [38] globally, the cultural schema-specific usability of pincuk was considered a constraint; thus, the shape was modified The attributes of pincuk that was identified in reflective, for more general usability. The tableware shown in Figure behavioral, and reflective levels are the source of 13, however, experimented with using laminated bamboo as inspiration in designing new product as described in the material, while also promoting the traditional usability of following examples. In visceral level, Figure 12 shows a pincuk as part of a cultural conservation effort [38]. These tableware set that identified the pincuk aesthetic as an two examples suggest that despite using the same cultural opportunity for design application in the production process artifact for reference (generic schema), new information in (elaboration) in form of color and texture that mimics the form of design problems and intention (episodic input) banana leaves; In behavioral level, pincuk usability, resulting in different perceived opportunities and however, was considered a constraint (rejection). The constraints (instantiated schema), which in turn can affect usability of pincuk where pincuk was to be held in palm of the design production process, thus resulting in different hand is rejected, thus the conical shape was modified to product designs or new cultural artifacts. accommodate more conventional setting where the bowls is placed in table surface. In reflective level, the symbolic 6. Identifying Opportunities and Constraints in the value of sustainability was retained by using ceramic Cultural Schema material, which is also considered sustainable, while Cultural schema reinforces stereotypes and prejudice, rejecting the image of cheapness by using ceramics instead and can hinder organic thinking [31]. While an banana leaves that associated with cheap street food, thus understanding of cultural schema is beneficial for designing elevating the product image (transformation). While the culture-based products by providing information about how color and texture of banana leaves was considered an users interpret artifacts, references in terms of behavior, opportunity, the association of cheapness in actual banana visual preferences, symbolic values, etc., are also beneficial leaves was considered a constraint. In contrast, Figure 13 for identifying constraints posed by cultural schema. shows a tableware set that identified pincuk’s usability as an As illustrated by the different perceived functions of the opportunity—aside from its aesthetic (conical shape) and small Indonesian bowl (kobokan; Figure 9), cultural schema symbolic value (sustainability)—by using sustainable can pose a constraint in terms of how to perceive affordance.

64x JournalJournal o fof the the Science Science of Design of Design Vol. xx Vol. No. 1 x No. 20xx 1 2017 particularly in perception of banana leaves as material. laminated bamboo [37]. The same constraint is not limited to affordance. As shown transformation and rejection, has the same mechanism as Banana leaves is ubiquitous in Indonesia and traditionally in Figure 2, sensorimotor and cultural knowledge exist on the model in Figure 1. used in various food packaging. The abundance of banana different levels. According to the model, affordance exists In the framework, cultural schema acts as generic leaves contributes to its low price, thus banana leaves is on the sensorimotor level. However, it was argued that schema while episodic input represents stimuli related to widely used in the presentation of street food. The affordance is subject to culture [20]. Schemata within the the design process. The interaction between cultural schema association with street food impacts the image of banana continuum of knowledge can influence each other across and stimuli activates schemata that result in instantiated leaves as cheap, thus correlates with the cheap image of levels. schema in the form of opportunities and constraints. pincuk. The perception of banana leaves as cheap is not In designing a culture-based product, the two aspects of Instantiated schema is dependent on the interaction between necessarily shared by the member of other cultures, for cognitive processing (interpretation and production) in generic schema and episodic input. Thus, the opportunities example Western cultures where banana plants are scarce, schema activation regarding the cultural artifact are and constraints posed by cultural schema are subject to the thus banana leaves is perceived as exotic. inseparable. The processing involved in interpretation and context of the design process, even though the cultural production activates schemata that give insight into the schema itself is constant. opportunities and constraints posed by the cultural schema. The framework illustrated in figure 15 resulted in Opportunities and constraints are perceived differently in instantiated schema in form of information of opportunities the context of new information in the form of the design and constraints posed by cultural schema. These problem and the design intention. information is to be applied to design process which involve synthesis and appropriaton[5] of the information to produce new design features (Figure 10). The identification of opportunities and constraints posed by cultural schema in context of the design problem and intention could provide Figure 12. Tableware inspired by pincuk produced by more insight on designing new design that effective, Jenggala[37] efficient and incited satisfaction on its user.

7. Conclusion Figure 14. Interpretation process of pincuk as cultural Culture encompasses the cognitive, behavioral, and artifact physical realms. By definition, cultural schema resides in the cognitive realm but is expressed through behaviors and Figure 14 illustrates the process of interpretation of material objects and artifacts. In turn, interaction with the pincuk in two context that resulted in two different product world—including social behavior and material outcomes. These two different product outcomes showed interaction—modifies cultural schema. Opportunities and the schema processing involved in the production process, constraints posed by culture are investigated by activating where cultural schema interacts with new information in the cultural schema through exposure to stimuli. Identifying form of a design problem. The tableware shown in Figure opportunities and constraints is vital for transforming 13 was created by Jenggala [37], a renowned Bali-based Figure 15. Identification framework for culture into design. Information regarding opportunities company that markets its products globally. It can be opportunities and constraints. should be applied in design while constraints should be Figure 13. Tableware inspired by pincuk as part of inferred that in designing a product that could be marketed overcome. laminated bamboo exploration experiment [38] globally, the cultural schema-specific usability of pincuk Figure 7 shows the design process using a cultural This study attempted to explain the cognitive processes was considered a constraint; thus, the shape was modified artifact as a reference, where the artifact is interpreted and involved in designing a culture-based product by examining The attributes of pincuk that was identified in reflective, for more general usability. The tableware shown in Figure the resulting information is used as a basis for designing a the interpretation and production of cultural artifacts. Based behavioral, and reflective levels are the source of 13, however, experimented with using laminated bamboo as new artifact. However, culture encompasses not only on the interpretation and production of a cultural artifact inspiration in designing new product as described in the material, while also promoting the traditional usability of artifacts (outer level) but also behavior, language, and through the activation of schema, a framework was following examples. In visceral level, Figure 12 shows a pincuk as part of a cultural conservation effort [38]. These tradition (intermediate level), as well as values, beliefs, and constructed in an attempt to identifying the opportunities tableware set that identified the pincuk aesthetic as an two examples suggest that despite using the same cultural preferences (inner level) (Figure 6) [25]. These three levels and constraints posed by culture. The framework was opportunity for design application in the production process artifact for reference (generic schema), new information in contain cultural schemata that are potential sources of constructed in accordance with schema processing using (elaboration) in form of color and texture that mimics the form of design problems and intention (episodic input) inspiration for culture-based design. Therefore, a more three variables: generic schema, episodic input, and banana leaves; In behavioral level, pincuk usability, resulting in different perceived opportunities and generalized framework for identifying opportunities and instantiated schema. Future studies should test the ease and however, was considered a constraint (rejection). The constraints (instantiated schema), which in turn can affect constraints based on schema processing theory is needed to efficacy of identifying the opportunities and constraints usability of pincuk where pincuk was to be held in palm of the design production process, thus resulting in different accommodate references other than cultural artifacts. Such posed by cultural schema by conducting experiments based hand is rejected, thus the conical shape was modified to product designs or new cultural artifacts. a framework is developed based on the three-variables on the framework. accommodate more conventional setting where the bowls is model of schema processing (i.e., generic schema, episodic placed in table surface. In reflective level, the symbolic 6. Identifying Opportunities and Constraints in the input, and instantiated schema) and the cognitive processes References value of sustainability was retained by using ceramic Cultural Schema involved [15]. 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