The Journal of the International Society for Frontier Missiology

Int’l Journal of Frontier Missiology Peripheral Vision

103 From the Editor’s Desk Brad Gill The Discipline of a Lateral Gaze 105 Articles

105 A Hindu “Path of Jesus”: A Case Study of Modern Roman Catholic Contextualization H. L. Richard A tell-it-like-it-is assessment of a modern movement 117 Navigating the Constraints of the Ummah: A Comparison of Christ Movements in Iran and Bangladesh Christian J. Anderson Like comparing apples and oranges 127 More than a Prophet: John the Baptist and the Question “Is Muhammad among the Prophets?” George Bristow It’s all about the story

135 Cognitive Science and Theological Education in Technologically Developing Countries David R. Dunaetz Facing the fallout of globalization

144 Book Reviews 144 Traditional Ritual as Christian Worship: Dangerous Syncretism or Necessary Hybridity?

148 In Others’ Words 148 Boko Haram Terror: Thousands Killed, Millions Flee Boko Haram and Secularization: Is There a Connection? Nepal Reported to Have Fastest Annual Growth Rate of Christian Conversions in Asia American Pastor Released from Prison to House Arrest in Turkey Are Unreached People Groups Passé? Further Reading for Different Takes on UPG Controversy c3July–September5 2018:3

The Discipline of a Lateral Gaze July–September 2018 Volume 35:3

was walking with Todd Johnson through his Center for the Study of Global Editor Christianity (CSGC) when he handed me their new regional study of North Brad Gill Africa and Western Asia.1 As I leafed through its pages, I found myself back Consulting Editors Rick Brown, Rory Clark, Darrell Dorr, Iin the Arab streets and towns where I had served so long ago. But this volume Gavriel Gefen, Herbert Hoefer, provided a perspective that I had struggled to obtain during those years in North R. W. Lewis, H. L. Richard Africa—an aerial sweep of that predominantly Muslim geo-political world. Copy Editing and Layout Elizabeth Gill, Marjorie Clark One particular memory stands out. I had been feeling a dull marathoner’s ache Secretary from some long months of ministry in my Muslim mountain community when Lois Carey I got hold of a piece of fiction. Needing a little mental escape, I plunged into the Publisher Frontier Mission Fellowship tale of a renegade intelligence officer skulking around the streets of Southeast 2018 ISFM Executive Committee Asia. I don’t remember the plot, but I’ll never forget a principle vividly illustrated Len Barlotti, Larry Caldwell, Dave Datema, in the story’s denouement. Ultimately, it was a tale of two kinds of knowledge: Darrell Dorr, Brad Gill, Steve Hawthorne, the first embodied by the street-level, cultural savvy of a covert operative; the David Lewis, R. W. Lewis, Greg Parsons second, by an older woman down in the basement of the home office, combing Web Site diligently through mountains of data from that region of the world. The resolu- www.ijfm.org tion of the case required both kinds of knowledge. That story left an indelible impression on how I view the missiological task. Editorial Correspondence 1605 E. Elizabeth Street The 12,000 volumes at the CSGC represent a librarian’s organization of global mis- Pasadena, CA 91104 sion. Subjects are shelved categorically and predictably in an overall kaleidoscope of (734) 765-0368, [email protected] World Christianity. More than once I wanted to park and pull a title. The files were Subscriptions buried in the back offices, where the vital data for the World Christian Encyclopedia One year (four issues) $18.00 is compiled. I couldn’t help but recall the elderly lady pouring over intelligence data Two years (eight issues) $34.00 Three years (twelve issues) $48.00 in that spy thriller. The lesson was transferable: a more comprehensive knowledge is Single copies $5.00, multiple copies $4.00 a vital complement to the skill and savvy of a field worker. Payment must be enclosed with orders. The articles in this issue ofIJFM may fit those same categories. But they also Please supply us with current address and change of address when necessary. demonstrate a discipline of mind we might label “peripheral vision.” Strategic Send all subscription correspondence to: phenomena for our study and reflection might be close at hand, but run parallel IJFM to our mission, thus failing to intersect with it. As a result, they remain un- 1605 E Elizabeth St #1032 Pasadena, CA 91104 related, unincluded, and unused. Our peripheral vision fails us. Tel: (626) 398-2249 It was Edward de Bono who introduced the idea of lateral thinking a few decades Fax: (626) 398-2263 Email: [email protected] ago, a kind of logic that disrupts the more traditional vertical thought process.

Lateral thinking moves across subject matter, like my roaming of those volumes at IJFM (ISSN #2161-3354) was established the CSGC. But that kind of thinking requires a more deliberate exercise, a kind of in 1984 by the International Student Leaders Coalition for Frontier Missions, an Editorial continued on p. 104 outgrowth of the student-level meeting of Edinburgh ‘80. The views expressed in IJFM are those of the various authors and not necessarily those COPYRIGHT ©2018 International Student of the journal’s editors, the International Society for Frontier Missiology, or the society’s Leaders Coalition for Frontier Missions. executive committee. PRINTED in the USA 104 From the Editor’s Desk, Who We Are discipline that challenges the logic of a insights of cognitive science to help us demographers have been wrestling with library. It tests our categories by pressing face the impact of technology on learn- definitions of unreached peoples. In toward the margins, examining what ing and theological education in the October, key leaders of mission mobi- tends to be ignored on the periphery. It Majority World (p. 135). lization agencies will hold a summit will search beyond any denominational around the theme “Clarifying the Some have recently suggested that status quo and welcome the ambiguity Frontier Mission Task.” Presentations, frontier missiology suffers from tunnel of apparent incompatibilities. When it case studies, and formal responses will vision. Lee and Park in the recent comes to missiology, lateral thinking also seek to involve feedback and parti- Missiology 2 claim that the unreached promises to loosen up the matter-of- cipation from all participants. To register people’s emphasis (UPG) over the past factness of locked down paradigms. It for the October 12–14 gathering, which four decades is myopic and naïve given creates new vantage points and a broader will be held at the Graduate Institute of 21st century global conditions (p. 148). canvas for missiological reflection. Linguistics/GIAL, Dallas, Texas, go to Globalization, they say, calls for a more emsweb.org (see back cover). These articles do just that. H. L. progressive anthropology, one that sees Richard looked afield and discovered beyond the antiquated notion of people In Him, a recent Roman Catholic movement groups. We will be addressing some of among the peoples of India. His these concerns this fall at ISFM 2018. interaction with Fr. Jose Panadan offers As an initial response we invite you to Brad Gill valuable lessons on the dynamics of the troll our archives (ijfm.org) and benefit Senior Editor, IJFM gospel in a Hindu religious world (p. from our journal’s lateral thinking across Endnotes 105). Christian Anderson looks side- various disciplines, perspectives, and ways and compares two movements 1 Kenneth R. Ross, Mariz Tadros, global realities. We believe you’ll find in the distinct socio-religious contexts and Todd M. Johnson, eds., Christianity promoted there a “peripheral” vision in North Africa and West Asia, Edinburgh of Iran and Bangladesh, insisting that Companions to Global Christianity (Edin- that qualifies static understandings of religious structures like the Muslim burgh University Press, 2018). those conditions we now face among the 2 ummah (global community) shape the Peter T. Lee and James Sung-Hwan frontier peoples of the world. Park, “Beyond people group thinking: A conditions of discipleship (p. 117). critical reevaluation of unreached people George Bristow continues this journal’s ISFM 2018 offers a rare opportunity to groups,” Missiology 46, no. 3 (2018): 212–225, doi: 10.1177/0091829618774332. intrepid excursion into the subject of tackle how we communicate the frontier Muhammad and biblical prophethood mission task to the wider body of (p. 127). David Dunaetz introduces the Christ. For the past two years, mission

The IJFM is published in the name of the International Student Leaders Coalition for Frontier Missions, a fellowship of younger leaders committed to the purposes of the twin consultations of Edinburgh 1980: The World Consultation on Frontier Missions and the International Student Consultation on Frontier Missions. As an expression of the ongoing concerns of Edinburgh 1980, the IJFM seeks to:

promote intergenerational dialogue between senior and junior mission leaders;  cultivate an international fraternity of thought in the development of frontier missiology;  highlight the need to maintain, renew, and create mission agencies as vehicles for frontier missions;  encourage multidimensional and interdisciplinary studies;  foster spiritual devotion as well as intellectual growth; and  advocate “A Church for Every People.”  Mission frontiers, like other frontiers, represent boundaries or barriers beyond which we must go, yet beyond which we may not be able to see clearly and boundaries which may even be disputed or denied. Their study involves the discovery and evaluation of the unknown or even the reevaluation of the known. But unlike other frontiers, mission frontiers is a subject specifically concerned to explore and exposit areas and ideas and insights related to the glorification of God in all the nations (peoples) of the world, “to open their eyes, to turn them from darkness to light and from the power of Satan to God.” (Acts 26:18)

Subscribers and other readers of the IJFM (due to ongoing promotion) come from a wide variety of backgrounds. Mission professors, field mission- aries, young adult mission mobilizers, college librarians, mission executives, and mission researchers all look to the IJFM for the latest thinking in frontier missiology.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Peripheral Vision A Hindu “Path of Jesus”: A Case Study of Modern Roman Catholic Contextualization by H. L. Richard

n the latter stages of the transformative Vatican II gathering (1962–5), the Jesuits launched a new pioneering ministry focused on non-Dalit Hindus in the northern part of the Indian state of Gujarat. The pioneer Imissionary, Fr. Manuel Diaz Garriz (1932– ) from Spain, is celebrated in a recent publication as “among the ‘missionary greats’ like De Nobili, Beschi and John de Britto for proving that one can fully belong to one’s samaj [social group/caste], and simultaneously, be a true bhakt (disciple) [devotee] of Jesus” (Rose 2011, 285; definitions in brackets are mine).

Yet that ministry today is not thriving. Garriz himself commissioned his younger Jesuit colleague, Fr. Jose Panadan, to “go deeply into this matter and study the causes by which the initial enthusiasm became dim.” (Panadan 2015: xxiv) Despite the passing of over half a century since the launching of this venture, this remains the only sustained outreach focused on caste Hindus that has been attempted in light of modern understandings of incul- turation (or contextualization).1 This paper will outline the approach of the mission to North Gujarat by exploring the insights that emerge in its initial H. L. Richard is an independent success and, so far as can be discerned, the causes for its failure.2 researcher focused on the Hindu- Christian encounter. He has published This case study is based on three publications: Mission in North Gujarat Volume numerous books and articles includ- ing studies of key figures like Narayan 1: The Beginnings 1964–1989 was compiled by M. Diaz Garriz in 2004, was Vaman Tilak (Following Jesus in the Hindu Context: The Intriguing never publicly distributed, but was intended to help new mission personnel Implications of N. V. Tilak’s Life and in North Gujarat understand the principles and roots of the mission; Mission Thought, Pasadena: William Carey Library, 1998), Kalagara Subba Rao in North Gujarat II: The Way Ahead 1990–2011 was compiled and edited by (Exploring the Depths of the Mystery Jose Panadan in 2011; and Panadan’s doctoral work, Inculturation and Local of Christ: K. Subba Rao’s Eclectic Praxis of Hindu Discipleship to Jesus, Church: An Ecclesio-Missiological Investigation of the North Gujarat Experiment, Bangalore: Centre for Contemporary which was published in 2015.3 Jose Panadan pointed me to these resources Christianity, 2005), and R. C. Das (R. C. Das: Evangelical Prophet for when we met at the Fellowship of Indian Missiologists in October of 2017, Contextual Christianity, Delhi: ISPCK and he also procured for me a copy of the obscure first volume. My sincere for the Christian Institute for the Study of Religion and Society, 1995). thanks to Jose for his help in preparing this analysis.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology 35:3 Fall 2018•105 106 A Hindu “Path of Jesus”: A Case Study of Modern Roman Catholic Contextualization The Approach in North Gujarat supernatural character of the Church, accept Jesus as their “Guru,” as their and mission work will always be suspect Redeemer and as the Purna Avatar. There are two complementary angles and be interpreted as a form of com- Those who accept Jesus as the Purna from which to view the North Gujarat munal aggression. Every endeavour to Avatar acknowledge the presence of mission. One is to focus on the theo- spread the Kingdom of God will be seen other traditions and other avatars, but retical foundations of the ministry, the as [an] attempt on the part of the In- for them, Jesus is the ultimate Guru, the other is to carefully observe practical dian Christian community to increase its way, the truth, the one who can lead field engagements. The theoretical will numerical strength at the expense of the them to salvation and the “definitive be outlined first, and it is based on a larger Hindu community. It boils down self-revelation of God.” (2011a, 30—1) paper by Jose Panadan entitled “The finally to a struggle for dominance and a competition in all those spheres in which 3. Ecclesiology of the Isupanth Mission Paradigm of North Gujarat the interests of one civilian community from the Perspective of Inculturation” In North Gujarat, there are many are opposed to the interests of another panths (paths or ways), so the message (2011a). Panadan spells out the mis- civilian community: political and eco- of Jesus was presented as the Isu panth, siological orientation quite clearly, and nomic power, employment, privileges, this section will follow the six points etc.5 (Panadan 2015, 249—250, quoting his disciples being Isupanthis. Most of highlighted by Panadan in his paper. from Staffner 1973, 490) those who chose to follow Jesus came from the Niranth Panth, 1. Hindu by Culture, Christian by Faith I discuss this approach more fully below a popular group of Hindus highly inde- The understanding that one can be a (in point six) on the matter of caste as pendent from dogma or institutional- Christian by faith but a Hindu by culture sociological habitat. The North Gujarat ism and it has no temples nor images is noted from earlier cases in Indian nor gods. (Panadan 2011a, 31) Christian history, but Panadan suggests This [Isupanthi] terminology being that “we did not see this approach being inclusive, indicates that there is no lived out concretely and historically in separate social identity for one who any community” (2011a, 28). Following accepts the gospel. After all, Jesus did Brahmabandhab Upadhyay (1861–1907), not establish a new religion, rather he a distinction is made between faith iden- A distinction is made initiated a transformation within the tity (sadhana dharma) and social identity existing religion. (Panadan 2011a, 31) 4 between faith identity (samaj dharma). In keeping with this In his larger work, Panadan spells out distinction, pioneer missionary Garriz and social identity. what this means: avoided two terms: “to become” and This ecclesiological vision would make “Christian.” Panadan points out that more sense if we understand Isu- . . . instead of the expression “becom- panth basically as a movement within ing” the word “accepting” is used. Hinduism. (2015, 438) Thus, one does not become a Christian; rather, remaining within the Hindu The rhetoric of the North Gujarat fold, one accepts the message, the Way Mission achieved a measure of success Mission thus is fully in line with what and the person of Jesus. This mode of in this approach, but it still represents is now in Evangelical Protestant terms proclamation inherently accepts Hindu- just the tip of an iceberg in terms of called “insider movements.” The new ism as a culture rather than a religion– 6 inculturation/contextualization. Jesus movement is not to be “Chris- thus the transformation is not a change of religion (dharmaparivartan) but the 2. Jesus as Purna Avatar (full tian” but rather a movement within acceptance of a “Way of Life” (panth). incarnation) Hinduism. But the reality of what hap- pened is a more complicated story; was (2011a, 28; emphasis original) Whether Jesus should be thought of it or could it ever be possible for this in terms of avatara (“descent” of a This understanding is rooted in the type of insider movement to be real- deity) is one of the hotly debated is- ized in such a deeply institutionalized context-sensitive understanding of sues in Indian Christian theology, and entity as the Roman Catholic Church? conversion that was spelled out by Panadan has an extended discussion of Hans Staffner: the issue in his doctoral work (2015, 4. Every Priest as a Guru As long as conversion signifies the 291–313). But at the practical level the The context of the popular religiosity discarding of the convert’s social com- term simply resonates with Hindus. As munity our efforts at evangelization of North Gujarat necessitates that ev- Panadan says in his brief article, will always appear to them [Hindus] ery priest be a guru. As Panadan states, in the wrong light. This mixing up of followers of Jesus while following Hin- the people of Niranth Panth are ex- religion and community obscures the du culture accept the message of Jesus; tremely committed to their devotion

International Journal of Frontier Missiology H. L. Richard 107

to a Guru and very much alive to bhakti–devotion, to the Supreme God. hey accept caste by making “a distinction between (2011a, 32) the ‘caste system’ (inclusive of discrimination) and But priests are not permanently placed, ‘caste diversity’ (exclusive of discrimination).” and the guru-shishya [disciple] relation- T or female, no high or low. To ac- ship is dynamic. This can lead to some The honoring of the priest as guru also cept a genetic distinction of higher tensions. Panadan points out that takes place at this time. But there is and lower is simply absurd in New it is common to see in the Church of also a regular monthly pilgrimage to Testament values. Therefore, this is 7 North Gujarat that, while every priest Unteshwari at each new moon. rejected. Before accepting baptism is accepted as a Guru, the personal The focus on Mary has been contro- everyone must accept this. But caste Guru of a follower of Jesus may not has much wider implications than versial, with some suggesting that “in be his/her Parish Priest. We need to the “high and low” stratification de- remind ourselves that the term “par- the devotional practices of Isupanthis, manded by karma and laid down by ish priest” indicates an administrative Marian devotion takes precedence over the Manusmruti. Caste constitutes for job while the role of a Guru is more a Christ-centred spirituality” (Pana- every person an essential part of its spiritual. (2011a, 32) dan 2015, 447). Panadan rejects this [sic] dharmic identity, its sociological perspective, however, suggesting that habitat, a harmonious organization Related to the priest as guru is the de- “a realistic observation of the Church of society mainly for the purposes velopment of a new contextual festival does not subscribe to this argument” of “beti aur roti vahevar” [defined based on the guru veneration of the (2015, 447), and Mary is certainly not by Panadan as “a popular expression surrounding culture. This is part of a honored as a goddess. which refers to inter-caste marriage larger contextual Marian festival that and inter-caste dining” (2015, 285)]. will be discussed under the next point. 6. Caste as “Sociological Habitat” I well understand how Mahatma As Panadan states, “The caste phe- Gandhi could affirm that a change 5. Marian Devotion of “dharma” (dharmic identity) is an nomenon is an integral part of the Panadan shares the contextual need impossibility. One can accept a new Indian ethos and culture” (2011a, that was filled by devotion to Mary: panth, a new bhakti, faith in an up- 33). Therefore, caste cannot simply In the popular tradition, each caste to-now unknown guru or prophet, be avoided or transcended. This goes has an ancestral/family goddess who but “change” of samaj, change of is worshipped with great personal against the traditional Christian ap- your own family identity by “becom- love and devotion. However, this proach, which Panadan outlines in his ing” a member of a different samaj, concept of goddess is alien to Chris- doctoral work. But he concludes that is simply demeaning, alienating . . . in tian faith and to Christian theology. although the tendency is to reject the a certain sense “impossible,” as one On the other hand, the new follow- entire system of caste, what seems cannot change what he really is . . . 8 ers of Jesus began to experience both to be more objectionable are the dis- (1988, 376—7) a cultural and religious vacuum due criminatory and hierarchical elements to the absence of a family goddess. within it. (2015, 364) This was one of a number of areas (2011a, 32) where the North Gujarat approach be- So, the North Gujarat position is to came controversial with other Chris- In response, Fr. Girish Santiago S.J., accept caste as one’s “sociological habi- tians, and the outworking of this social with local Isupanthis, began to pres- tat,” making “a distinction between the policy has not been without tensions, ent Mary as kulmata (ancestral clan ‘caste system’ (inclusive of discrimina- as noted by Panadan: mother), and a shrine was eventually tion) and ‘caste diversity’ (exclusive of However, one cannot say that caste dis- built using a local Hindu architectural discrimination)” (Panadan 2015, 368). crimination has disappeared completely style. Mary was designated Unteshwari among the Isupanthis, rather a qualita- Mata, Our Lady of Camels, related to Garriz spelled out his position on this: tive change is visible and the followers the centrality of the camel in North Do we accept caste? We accept and of Jesus who belong to different castes Gujarat society. strongly believe that a Patel or Thakor are living fairly harmoniously with a Ishupanthi, must remain at all costs a genuine sense of koinonia. (2011a, 34) The Isupanthis of North Gujarat Patel and a Thakor besides adhering do not follow the Western calendar loyally to his faith in Jesus. Naturally The Development of the and do not recognize any Western we cannot accept caste in the sense saints’ days. The main Marian festival of “higher and lower” as laid down Mission in Practice is celebrated on the 8th day of the in Book One of the Manusmruti The mission began in 1964 when annual Navratri (Dashera) festival (Book 1, Nos. 31, 91—105). In Christ Fr. Garriz moved to a small village when Hindus focus on the goddess. there is no Jew nor Gentile, no male (Mokhasan) in North Gujarat. In a

35:3 Fall 2018 108 A Hindu “Path of Jesus”: A Case Study of Modern Roman Catholic Contextualization later definition of the work of the mis- Another set of six points (this time my of movements to Christ, which will be sion it was stated that summary of the data) will identify sig- looked at below. It is interesting that the North Gujarat Mission was start- nificant developments or trends from most of our Thakor [higher caste] ed in 1964 by a mandate of [the] Fr. the first decades of the ministry. communities were originally contact- General of the Society of Jesus with ed by the Raval friends acting as vol- the specific aim to undertake direct 1. Church Growth untary catechists. (Garriz 1988, 373) evangelization among caste Hindus. Garriz spoke publicly about the work (Sanand Declaration 2004, 41) of the mission for the first time after 2. The Centrality of Institutions nine years of ministry (Garriz 2004f). From the beginning Fr. Garriz drew on Although the focus was on higher By then there had been about 2,500 some Catholic nuns for assistance by pro- castes, it was also on people in poverty, baptisms. Most (1,500) were people viding medical services for the villagers: as pointed out by Archbishop Stan- of the backward (but non-dalit) Raval For one full year Sr. Elvira and Sr. Mar- islaus Fernandes: caste, and about half of those had tha had been going every Thursday The historical decision was to begin come out of the Niranth Panth. There in 1964—1965 from St. Xavier’s Ladies evangelization in a new area and Hostel, Ahmedabad to Mokhasan to among a new community of people were 500 Thakors and 400 from two groups of Patels, these latter groups help through medical service in the who though neither Dalit nor tribal beginnings of North Gujarat Mis- being forward castes. Most significant suffer the same economic and back- sion. So in 1972, our Superior Mother ward hardships prevalent among among these were two Raval Niranth Zoila, welcomed the invitation of Fr. those who need special consideration Panth leaders (one came to faith in Arana, the Jesuit Provincial to accept to enter the mainstream of public life the challenge of starting a new mis- through education and health care sion convent in Sanand. (Annakutty and social empowerment. (2011, 12) 2004, 145) Fr. Garriz began slowly, seeking under- His oneness Initially Fr. Garriz remained aloof standing and strong relationships: from educational institutions. He The first years were of slow and hard with his people helped establish and taught in a apprenticeship: what to do, what not in their food habits village school that was handed over to do. Four, five, six years of patient to the village (2004f, 13–4). But by waiting, of praying, of reflecting. Dur- was not often 1972 a Catholic school was started ing the first six months in Mokhasan, and by 2011 there were 20 schools I lived in the dharamshala of the understood by his functioning ( James 2011, 250–5). Swaminarayan temple. Then for four more years I lived in the middle of the colleagues. Writing in 1990, Garriz could say that village, sharing a house with a kind “first contacts will usually be through Patel [forward caste] family, paying educational, social and medical work” them a monthly rent.9 (1988, 372) (2004c, 58). 1969, the other in 1971) who went on Mission and church compounds, called Garriz embraced (and demanded from to win many others to faith in Christ multiplied in relation to the other workers) a vegetarian diet, an ashrams, (Garriz 2004f, 15–16). schools and social and medical work. obvious decision due to the strong Jain In describing the decline of response influence on North Gujarat society, In these early years it was established to the gospel, Archbishop S. Fernandes but one not understood by many of his that one could maintain his caste placed some blame on this institution- fellow Christians (“His oneness with community identity while following alizing trend: his people in their food habits, too, was Christ. In 1967, some leaders of the not often understood by his colleagues Raval caste met with Garriz to request The Church appears less as with a spiritual mission [than] as a socio-edu- who considered it unusual” [Rose that a boarding school for boys be cational welfare non-government or- 10 started. Garriz responded by asking if 2011, 288]). After the four years in a ganization that circumstances placed village home Garriz moved to a larger there would be freedom for these boys on the shoulders of the missionaries. town, Kalol. He explained this move: to embrace Christ, and an assurance (2011a, 14) “I saw that a small village did not was given in writing (Garriz 2004f, afford sufficient privacy for people to 18). In 1971, there was a move to expel The explanation for the last clause is contact me on a purely religious level” Raval Catholics from caste, but when then given, that in the first decade of (2004f, 14). Despite his adaptability the Catholic Ravals rallied, that plan work serious floods and then drought and simplicity, Garriz was necessar- was abandoned (Garriz 2004f, 20). necessitated relief work, marking the ily a power figure in the local society. This raises the question of the viability missionaries as social workers.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology H. L. Richard 109

3. Inculturated and Contextual Developments ommunication of the gospel was undertaken by Contextual terminology is crucial to local Isupanthis using the local forms of bhajan this North Gujarat ministry; starting (spiritual song) and katha (spiritual drama). with the name Isupanthi, to priests as C gurus, catechists as bhagats (holy men), profound religious content. I have Karol (which had then a population of and ministry centers as ashrams. But certainly had unforgettable religious about 80,000) surrounded by groups experiences sitting down for hours in of youngsters shouting “Christianto contextual realities are yet more im- their bhajan mandalis . . . (2004f, 17) nash karo” [destroy the Christians]. portant. Communication of the gospel For six full months, week after week, has largely been undertaken by local Hundreds of bhajans have been writ- public meetings were organized in the Isupanthis serving as catechists using ten and thousands of katha perfor- towns of Kalol, Mehsana, Sanand, etc. the local forms of bhajan (spiritual mances (related to the life of Christ to instill hatred in the people against song) and katha (spiritual drama). but also addressing pressing social Christianity. (2004d, 243—4) Everything in contextual ministry is a issues) have been developed and pre- Every single village where we had Catho- learning process. Garriz gives a good sented in North Gujarat (see Macwan lics or catechumens were [sic] visited by example of this in engaging catechists: 2011 for details). a group of Sadhus with film slides, tape recorder, etc. They systematically ex- When we began this mission among It seems odd that there is no dis- caste people in 1964, the greatest cited the feelings of the people against cussion of contextualized baptism, the Christians specially on the issue of difficulty we faced was lack of cat- although it is pointed out that fam- echists. As the first converts began “cow-butchering.” In several villages ily/group baptisms were performed coming, our first concern was to the converts were physically pushed to choose catechists among them. The rather than individual ones (Garriz the Mandir [temple] for aarti [worship]. first catechists whom I tried to train 2004c, 60). As noted above, contextual They were threatened with expulsion were chosen from among educated festivals developed related to Mary, from the village, with the burning of young men. Experience soon taught and a contextual marriage and funeral their houses, some were beaten, an at- me that the social pattern in rural service were also prepared (see Mas- tempt was made on the life of our lay India is deeply “patriarchal” in the carenhas 2004 and Santiago 2004). leader (R. D. Patel), a trumped up case sense that young people (even with The end result was that was put against me and I had to appear in court several times. (1988, 373) university degrees) are not allowed a there really is a different cultural say in the affairs of the caste, family, identity (or at least there should be) Most of the believers stood firm in the etc. Age is still an essential require- between the Ishupanthi (Hindu-Cath- face of this opposition. Garriz later ment for being accepted as an active olic) and the “old Christian.” (Garriz member of the social group. Today 1988, 379; italics original) concluded that all our catechists are above 35 years as a matter of fact, the persecution of age with many of them well in the 4. Opposition which lasted eight months had the fifties. Many of them do not have opposite result of what the fanatics In 1974, severe persecution broke out any formal education. What counts is expected. Our Christian community their personal integrity, practical wis- against the Catholic institutions and emerged from the persecution puri- dom, etc. (2004e, 26—27) new local Isupanthis. The persecution fied, stronger and more confident for lasted for six to eight months (Gar- the future. At a meeting at Kalol of the Elsewhere, Garriz points out that a riz 1988, 373 says six months; Garriz main leaders of the Christian Commu- catechist 2004d, 247 says eight months). There nities, Raval Mangal Kushal of Mandali may be illiterate but must be a good had been opposition previous to 1974, expressed the sentiments of all saying, “contacter” and better if he is also a but large numbers of baptisms set off “After all that we had passed through good singer of bhajans; and obviously a major outbreak of persecution, as these last six months, we feel confident he should be deeply pious. (2004c, 58) described by Garriz. that nothing in the future will be able 11 . . . when groups of families began to to move us from Christ.” (2004d, 247) The importance of bhajan in North ask for baptism and there began to Gujarat is well illustrated by this testi- emerge in various villages new Chris- There was other opposition against mony of Garriz: tian communities, a stormy reaction new believers and workers, but noth- Though educationally backward, was inevitable. Fundamentalists of our ing again on the scale of this 1974 those Thakors who have been influ- region invited a group of Bengali Hin- outbreak. John Rose suggested that enced by bhakti traditions possess du monks. . . . For various weeks two perhaps, the persecutions that the a very beautiful religious culture Hindu monks wrapped in their saf- infant Church of Kalol went through of their own, with bhajans of very fron robes went about the streets of in 1974 will never be repeated, as we

35:3 Fall 2018 110 A Hindu “Path of Jesus”: A Case Study of Modern Roman Catholic Contextualization

have won the hearts of our enemies everything to the point that a com- number of families. They have their through our institutions. (2004, 169) munity can survive and flourish only role in the village. To segregate them when it is socially viable. By social vi- even though with the good inten- 5. Arrival of New Tribal and Dalit ability we mean a substantial number tion of protecting their simple faith, Believers of stable and committed members in will only keep them away from the In 1971, Catholic Christians from tribal each group who can remain firm and mainstream of society and decrease steadfast especially when adverse their sense of self-confidence. They background were discovered in the far situations arise. (2015, 423) must take charge of their lives and the northwest corner of Gujarat. Garriz re- newfound faith must remain rooted in sponded with assistance for those desper- As people came to Christ from various their village of origin. (2011b, 225) ately poor and long neglected people, who scattered villages it was felt that consoli- had become Christians in what is now dation was necessary, and this was done It is also interesting that Panadan Pakistan, and who had then migrated to through what are called Xavier Nagars.13 suggests that “Today everyone recog- India in the time of Partition (1947). As Panadan again gives a clear description: nizes that the creation of such Xavier institutional work developed in that area, Xavier Nagars are settlements of Isu- Nagars is no more economically viable” numbers of Dalits of the Vankar com- panthi families which are established (2015, 427–8). What will develop in munity also joined the church. Garriz adjacent to the parish church. The future years related to this approach later wrote to the Jesuit Provincial (future rationale of this initiative is that it is will be interesting to observe. archbishop S. Fernandes) pointing out believed that unless the appropriate Some Observations that manpower was more focused on the situations are created for the new tribals than the caste Hindus: Before drawing some conclusions from We have two types of Mission here in this case study, I will make five obser- this [North Gujarat] area . . . mission to vations related to points of importance Adivasis [tribals] and to Caste Hindus. not highlighted above. The first should At present there are in this area five Je- Dalit and tribal be obvious from what has already been suit missions to Adivasis . . . with 9 Jesuit stated but needs to be emphasized: priests and 2 lay brothers. The mission peoples more readily that is, in agreement with John Rose’s to Caste Hindus is only at Dhandhuka, quotation in my first paragraph, Fr. Sanand, Kalol and Mehsana with 6 Je- join the church and Manuel Diaz Garriz is a remarkable suit priests and 1 scholastic. You can see attention easily drifts missionary whose work should be there is already an imbalance in favour known, studied, and followed. of the Adivasi mission. This imbalance away from the higher becomes all the greater if we look at the Garriz consciously followed in the picture of the entire Gujarat Province.. . . caste groups. path of de Nobili and Brahmabandhab I have nothing against this situation. It Upadhyay, and had mentors like Hans is the product of historical, sociological Staffner who supported his approach. and many other valid reasons. But cer- converts to practice their faith, it is Yet he is a singular figure in implement- tainly the fact remains; there is imbal- not possible to sustain their faith. ing a vision of “radical inculturation” in a ance in personnel and resources against At present there are five such Xavier pioneer ministry (this is his terminology, our caste-Hindu missions. (2004b, 212) Nagars in North Gujarat. (2015, 383n) see 1988, 375). His patient start, which involved building relationships and deep As will be noted below, the response In his defense of the Xavier Nagar con- learning about local realities, and his to Christ from higher castes has been cept, Garriz appeals for support to the readiness to listen and learn (as seen in slow. Dalit and tribal peoples more Christian villages developed earlier by the case of the age of catechists in the readily join the church and so atten- 14 Protestant missionaries (2011, 261). Yet instance above) are truly praiseworthy. tion and manpower easily drifts away the basic concept here seems to be in from the higher caste groups.12 direct contradiction to the incarnational Garriz is a striking example of a mis- 6. Separate Housing Arranged idea of maintaining one’s caste identity sionary who cultivated reticence. His as their sociological habitat. This seems involvement with the tribal Majirana There has been great concern about a fundamentally extractionist approach. Catholics led to participation in a syncre- whether a “viable community” of This counter position is well stated by tistic festival mixing Hindu gods, praise Isupanthis would develop in North Archbishop S. Fernandes: to Jesus, and tribal history. His comments Gujarat. Panadan describes the The original vision of the Isupanthis on the confusion of the situation: concern and the concept: remaining in the village commu- I should confess that I do not see any By and large, in India, particularly nity set-up needs to be maintained, easy and clear solution to this problem. in the rural areas, caste pervades especially when they are a good The easy way out would be to ban the

International Journal of Frontier Missiology H. L. Richard 111

Catholics from attending the festival and establish a rival festival instead. “ any missionaries admit that this dependency Our Catholic Majiranas are loyal and would do what I tell them to. But that is very much present even today among those would not be a solution. That would who are practicing Isupanth.” — Panadan be escapism and it would introduce an M element of alienation in the conscience Gujarat. The influx of personnel and Panadan identifies the same problems: of the Christian Majiranas. We will the building of institutions made this Another major pastoral concern is have to go on thinking of a solution in almost inevitable. Panadan comments that a good number of Isupanthis the coming years. (2004a, 209) that “many missionaries admit that this have cut themselves off completely dependency is very much present even from the Church and from Church Similarly, in the incident referenced today among those who are practic- related activities. (2015, 428) above where Raval Isupanthis were ing Isupanth” (2015, 429n). Fr. Alex Further: threatened with expulsion from their Thannipara, after forty years in service The excessive preoccupation of the Chris- caste, Garriz was clear: “The catechists among the Isupanthis, stated that and leaders among the Catholics came tian community for material assistance is once the people experienced how to me asking what to do. I told them a counter witness to the true propaga- benevolent the missionary was other tion of the Christian faith. (2011a, 35) to decide for themselves” (2004f, 20). needs also surfaced and so to satisfy In the making of the shrine to Mary, them they were drawn to Bapu [fa- Panadan also shares concern about Garriz had numerous ideas that were ther, i.e. Garriz]. As a result of respond- Ganesh (Ganpathi) related to mar- overruled by the local disciples, and ing compassionately to all the material riage celebrations: in the end a local artist was hired and needs of the new Isupanthis they tend- Among the Hindus, one of the com- ed to become lazy and dependent on given instruction on Mary in Chris- mon religious practices as part of the the missionary even in matters where tian iconography, then was left free entire celebration of wedding is what is 15 they have resources to manage them- to do what he thought best. Garriz known as Ganesh Sthapan which is an selves. Hence we need to reverse the proposed an image of Francis Xavier event that happens a few days prior to present trend. (2011, 230) with four arms in accord with Indian the marriage in which the blessings of god Ganpathi is sought for the upcom- artistic symbolism, and was disap- The third observation, not unrelated to ing auspicious occasion. The researcher pointed at the hostile response that dependency, is that attrition and luke- killed this idea (2004g, 190). has observed that this practice is very warmness are too much in evidence. common even among the Isupanthis. Finally (on Garriz), he continually One testimony in this regard is from The researcher has also verified it by emphasized the long slow process that Sanand: “Down the years many among glancing through about ten wedding is necessary for genuine inculturation/ the baptized people stopped being part invitation cards printed by Isupanthis contextualization. His self-definition of the Catholic community because of for their marriages. (2015, 375n) of his venture in 1988 was “Our work various reasons” (Kodithottam 2011, That leads to the fourth observation, that is a groping in faith and in love” (375), 58). Girish Santiago outlines the com- there is nothing more complicated in the which he later clarified: plexity of such matters: [The] participatory inculturation pro- North Gujarat Mission than the range I am deeply convinced that it is not for of issues related to marriage. The contex- us, the first generation of missionaries, cess has enabled and enhanced them tualization of a marriage ceremony was to try to create a neat blue-print for to feel at home with the Christian inculturation. It is the living experience cultural incarnation and inter-faith dia- mentioned above, yet that seems to have of the new communities that will go logue. Besides such spiritual hunger, been an attempt at creating a common on creating–out of the joint existen- we come across, at regular intervals service for all Isupanthis rather than let- tial reality of their Hindu culture and many of our people who highly aspire ting each caste group take possession of their faith in Jesus–the modules of this for the material prosperity in their their own traditions in appropriate ways. new way. . . . (1988, 379) life at the expense of our institutions Some pastoral guidelines for issues relat- (ashrams). Though, due to our ongo- ed to marriage were drawn up by outside In a paper written in 1994, Garriz ing accompaniment, many have come Jesuit leaders and then presented to local up in their integral life, still some are suggested that one to two generations Isupanthis (A. Fernandes 2004a). very comfortable to be ever lazy and or 30 to 60 years will be needed to lame for they feel that they give an Apart from marriage ceremony issues, establish his work (2004h, 259). opportunity to Fathers and Sisters to the core principle of staying within The second observation is that it can- serve them relentlessly and to reveal one’s caste as sociological habitat is not be a great surprise that dependency [to] them the loveable, graceful and never more clearly tested than in has become a big problem in North merciful face of God. (2011, 277) marriage. There have been Isupanthi

35:3 Fall 2018 112 A Hindu “Path of Jesus”: A Case Study of Modern Roman Catholic Contextualization marriages with traditional Christians the Isupanthis in North Gujarat, has of three Raval nuns and a Raval reached [a] certain level of social vi- (Panadan 2015, 402) and most Isu- member of the Society of Jesus. But ability, the other Isupanthi communi- panthis are marrying outside the faith. ties like Thakors or Koli Patels, etc., a massive influx of outside personnel Garriz stated this as a goal of genuine are far from this ideal and in the cur- has also been necessary to maintain all acceptance within the caste community: rent socio-political scenario the possi- the institutions, and Panadan points A community will be “sociologically vi- bility for further numerical growth is out that able” if their members are accepted very dim. (2015, 423—4) lack of committed missionaries who as Thakors, Ravals, Koris, etc. and at are convinced of this particular way the same time as Ishupanthi within This is by no means an isolated opin- of being a local Church has been a their own caste, particularly for the ion, as Archbishop Fermandes (among major setback for the on-going faith purpose of marriage. (There are still others) also drew attention to the formation of the Church in North Gu- other aspects of a “viable communi- changing political scenario: jarat. (2015, 431) ty”–economic viability, spiritual viabil- ity–which are less important for the The changing socio-political scenario Perhaps a slower and more patient ap- since post [sic] 1990 is our present day purpose of the present reflections.) proach would have been more fruitful (1988, 380—1; emphasis original) experience. The so-called Freedom of Religion Act has halted any new baptis- in the long run. mal entry into the Church. (2011a, 14) Panadan is perhaps speaking a bit Conclusions more cautiously when he states that This raises questions again about as far as the question of mixed mar- The North Gujarat Mission clearly “contextual baptism” and about how riages is concerned, in the present situ- identified and defined the central is- ation, it is unavoidable. Such occasions sue in contextualization in India. It is can also be wonderful means of evan- neither culture nor theology (although gelization and dialogue. (2015, 447) these are also crucially important), but Perhaps rather community identity. Garriz very One final complexity is that many clearly and accurately defined the goal: marriages in North Gujarat involve a slower The ideal should be that persons and legally underage brides and/or grooms and more families are accepted within their (Panadan 2011a, 35) and the Catho- own caste group (Patel, Gajjar, Tha- lic priests clearly do not want to be patient approach kor, Panchal . . . ) and at the same involved in these weddings (Panadan time as disciples of Jesus as a totally 2015, 331; A. Fernandes 2004, 79, 81). would have been natural and acceptable phenom- enon. (1988, 380) Finally, it is my observation that there more fruitful. have been some serious failures in ap- George Kodithottan also stated it plying inculturation principles. One quite clearly: of those would be in the area just truly new believers have been able to Evangelization today necessarily re- mentioned, where outside priests drew maintain their caste identity. The prob- quires a new way of being Christian, up marriage guidelines which were lem of foreign personnel also comes i.e., being a disciple of Jesus without communicated to the local disciples. The losing one’s cultural roots and social into play here. George Kodithottam development of Xavier Nagar residential belonging. It should not be about wisely pointed out that communities is another example already creating new culturally rootless and mentioned. It seems oddly inappropriate if we agree that we, Christians as a socially disenfranchised groups, but community and Jesuits as a religious that the first baptism (Patel 2011, 201) about making disciples who are ca- body, do have some role to play in the and the first Patel Isupanthi marriage pable of influencing their cultures emerging Gujarati society of tomor- and societies through their disciple- (Garriz 2004f, 19) were celebrated in 16 row then, it can’t be done through ship and contribute to the evolution the city cathedral in Ahmedabad. importing personnel from outside, of their communities and societies to- Nothing can be of greater concern whether it be from Spain, Bombay, ward kingdom communities. That is than the flagging of faith and of the Goa, Kerala or Tamil Nadu or any oth- only possible if these disciples remain er part of India. It has to come from original vision. One of Panadan’s con- an integral part of their social groups the soil of Gujarat. (2004, 66) and cultural communities. (2011, 60; clusions to his doctoral research was emphasis original) that the church will not grow: The Jesuits can certainly be commend- Our investigation confirms that ed for their efforts to raise up local The traditional ideal of a new believ- while the community of Raval Isu- leadership; note on the inside front ing community which transcends and panthis, who form the major bulk of cover of Panadan (ed. 2011) a picture refuses to recognize caste is simply

International Journal of Frontier Missiology H. L. Richard 113 not feasible. It leads to situations like Garriz described: ven with such clarity of vision, the mission One of our sincere converts, Shri still failed to live up to its ideals by relying too M.B.P. recalls how when he first ap- much on Christians and institutions. proached, 20 years ago, a Protestant E Padre in Ahmedabad for baptism– sufficient faith and patience that al- for the identity of a particular Church (i.e., a after a thorough study of the New lows for this space. diocese) is essentially theological, while the Testament–he was told to his utter criterion of a local Church (i.e., an organic surprise that as a sign of his “new Daunting challenges lie ahead for group of particular Churches) is primar- life” he should eat meat, and that people who attempt to share Christ ily socio-cultural“ (2015, 72, quoting from eventually he should marry his sons contextually in high caste Hindu Komonchak 1986, 15). 4 and daughters within the “Christian” contexts. Rather than inducing pa- For more information on Upadhyay, community. (1988, 380) ralysis, this case study should lead to see IJFM 18:4, 195–200, “Brahmabandhab Upadhyay and the Failure of Hindu Chris- a realistic understanding of the nature Even with such clarity of understand- tianity” by Madhusudhan Rao. of the task. Lessons from this modern 5 ing and vision, the mission in North For more on Staffner seeIJFM Roman Catholic effort point towards 24:2, 87–97, “The Possibility of a ‘Hindu Gujarat still failed to live up to its less expectation of rapid results, more Christ-Follower’: Hans Staffner’s Proposal ideals. It failed by relying too much investment in patient learning, and for the Dual Identity of Disciples of Christ on Christians and institutions; note deep adaptation. Patient trust in God within High Caste Hindu Communities” by George Kodithottam’s warning that and in the resources of the people Brian K. Petersen. 6 “We [Christians] seem to have an group may well in time lead to the It should be noted that fear of conver- exaggerated sense of our own impor- type of faith response that many of us sion remained a problem; as late as 1998 all the boys ran away from a new hostel “for tance both individually and collective- dream of in Hindu contexts. IJFM fear of religious conversion” (Malar 2011, ly” (2004, 65). It failed to maintain the 107). Some of the reasons why this problem type of long-term consistency neces- Endnotes persisted will become clear below. sary for the work that was undertaken. 7 1 Roger E. Hedlund claimed in 1995 The Unteshwari Mata shrine can Panadan comments on this: that “despite Christianity’s success in India, be seen at https://archgandhinagar.org/ The pastoral ministry of the Church however, its track record in evangelizing the parishes-missions/parishes/kadi-untesh- will be effective and fruitful only if Hindu majority could best be described as wari-unteshwari-mata-maria-mandir/. the process of inculturation initiated massive neglect” (1995, 82). That remains There is a substantial article focused on the right from its origin and pursued the case today, as Protestants cannot even architecture of the shrine and three smaller down the years is understood in its show a failed effort at systematic contextu- articles in the Mission in North Gujarat I volume (Garriz 2004g, A. Fernandes 2004b, perspective with all its nuances, re- alized outreach to caste Hindus like this one Vedamuthu 2004, Girish 2004). There are spected and promoted by the pres- lone Roman Catholic attempt. 2 In making this statement I am going five Unteshwari focused papers inMission ent and the subsequent generation in North Gujarat II (Manickam 2011, Pana- of missionaries. (2015, 444) against Jose Panadan, who wrote, “We must get rid of any language of the ‘failure of dan 2011b, Poothokaren 2011, Chakrana- rayan 2011, Vedamuthu 2011; the best For those interested in new attempts mission’ in North Gujarat” (2015, 448) since the basic paradigm has proved valid even description of the priest-guru celebration is to share the good news of Christ with though fruit from higher castes has been in Chakranarayan 2011). See also Panadan non-Dalit Hindus there is much to less than anticipated. 2015, 324–7, 332–3. 8 learn from the North Gujarat Mission. 3 Panadan’s title should be clearly ex- Ishupanthi and Isupanthi are alterna- It appears that everything will militate plained: inculturation and contextualization tive spellings, the former obviously preferred by Garriz. against success; the existing church are largely the same, the former term being 9 I have made some minor corrections and mission movement will not sup- preferred by Catholics and the latter by Protestants; both will be used in this paper, to these sentences based on corrections port what needs to be done, working including the verb form “inculturated” which made in the paper as republished in Mission against best practices (usually out of is not common among Protestants. “Lo- in North Gujarat I: The Beginnings 1964– ignorance and/or misguided zeal). The cal church” has a distinctive meaning, quite 1989, 43–57. general Hindu population will not different from the Protestant understanding 10 Vegetarianism is also now being understand what is being done or why. of a particular local congregation. A “local abandoned by some, as noted by Panadan: New disciples of Christ will require church” is understood as a church that is “Vegetarianism is followed in the Catholic genuinely inculturated and reflects the char- Ashrams of North Gujarat Mission as a generous space to determine just how acter of the society within which it exists; it way of respecting the local culture and lo- they should live for Christ among is thus much more than a single congrega- cal sensibilities. However, this seems to be their own people, and outside friends tion. Panadan quotes the International Theo- disappearing from certain centers without will find it challenging to offer logical Commission definition: “the criterion a collective process of discernment by the

35:3 Fall 2018 114 A Hindu “Path of Jesus”: A Case Study of Modern Roman Catholic Contextualization missionaries working in the same region” Gujarat.” In Mission in North Gujarat Volume I: The Begin- (2011a, 35). Gujarat Volume I: The Beginnings nings 1964–1989, edited by M. 11 It is rather disconcerting to note 1964–1989, edited by M. Diaz Diaz Garriz, 26–28. Written in Garriz using such Christian terminology in Garriz, 75–82. Notes from a meet- 1971/76. Anand, Gujarat: Gujarat ing on March 19, 1979. Anand, this statement. Obviously he was writing for Sahitya Prakash. Gujarat: Gujarat Sahitya Prakash. Christians, but arguably he was affirming 2004f “The Kalol Mission.” InMission 2004b “Unteshwari Mata, Our Lady of their wrong terminologies and perspectives in North Gujarat Volume I: The the Camels.” In Mission in North Beginnings 1964–1989, edited by by writing in this way. In an email to me of Gujarat Volume I: The Beginnings M. Diaz Garriz, 12–23. Reprinted May 23, 2018, Jose Panadan clarified the 1964–1989, edited by M. Diaz Gar- from Navajuni No. 3, 1974. Anand, use and understanding of terms in North riz, 192–4. Written in 1986. Anand, Gujarat: Gujarat Sahitya Prakash. Gujarat today: “The local Christians [sic] un- Gujarat: Gujarat Sahitya Prakash. 2004g “The Shrine of Unteshwari Mata, derstand themselves as Isupanthis and not as Fernandes, Stanislaus a Step in Inculturation.” In Mis- Christians. But the non-Isupanthis (people 2011a “Foreword.” In Mission in North sion in North Gujarat Volume I: of other religions) think of the Isupanthis as Gujarat Volume II: The Way The Beginnings 1964–1989, edited Christians. They cannot understand the pos- Ahead, 1990–2011, edited by Jose by M. Diaz Garriz, 171–192. sibility of being followers of Jesus by being Panadan, 11–16. Anand, Gujarat: Reprinted from Navajuni No. 8, part of the Hindu society. The new genera- Gujarat Sahitya Prakash. 1982. Anand, Gujarat: Gujarat tion of missionaries (who do not know the 2011b “Personal Impressions: North Sahitya Prakash. history, who do not care for inculturation) Gujarat Mission.” In Mission 2004h “Two Principles of Practical often uses the expression Christians. . . . in North Gujarat Volume II: The Missiology.” In Mission in North Although the term Isupanthi is found in Way Ahead, 1990–2011, edited Gujarat Volume I: The Beginnings Gujarati Christian literature, many Chris- by Jose Panadan, 218–26. Anand, 1964–1989, edited by M. Diaz Gujarat: Gujarat Sahitya Prakash. tians outside of North Gujarat do not really Garriz, 257–260. Extracts from understand the meaning in its context.” Garriz, M. Diaz a talk at an annual clergy retreat 1988 “Inculturation: Notes on an in Baroda, Gujarat, on Nov. 16, 12 This problem developed already in the Experiment.” Indian Missiological 1994. Anand, Gujarat: Gujarat iconic experience of Robert de Nobili (1577– Review 10 (4): 371–83. This paper Sahitya Prakash. 1656), as lower caste converts overtook his is also in chapter three of Mission 2011 “The Xavier Nagar Concept.” In original focus group, the forward castes (see in North Gujarat Volume 1. Mission in North Gujarat Volume II: Rajamanickam 1995, 396–400, passim). 1990 “Twenty Years of Growth, The Way Ahead, 1990–2011,edited 13 The abandonment of local terminolo- 1953–1973.” In History of the by Jose Panadan, 259–63. Anand, gy for a European Christian name is striking. Catholic Church in Gujarat, edited Gujarat: Gujarat Sahitya Prakash. 14 Patience is often not recognized as a by Carlos Suria, Appendix II–2, Garriz, M. Diaz, ed. virtue in mission work. In December of 1965 358–378. Anand, Gujarat, India : 2004 Mission in North Gujarat Volume I: there were complaints that Garriz’s new work Gujarat Sahitya Prakash. The Beginnings 1964–1989.Anand, was “a waste of time.” The matter was referred 2004a “A Hindu Saint.” In Mission Gujarat: Gujarat Sahitya Prakash. in North Gujarat Volume I: The to Rome, with a response that “the experi- Girish [Santiago; see also under Santiago] Beginnings 1964–1989, edited by 2004 “Unteshwari.” In Mission in North ment must continue” (Garriz 1990, 372). M. Diaz Garriz, 207–10. Written 15 The result was not pleasing to many Gujarat Volume I: The Beginnings in 1975. Anand, Gujarat: Gujarat 1964–1989, edited by M. Diaz traditional Christians but was very satisfying Sahitya Prakash. Garriz, 197–8. Anand, Gujarat: to the Isupanthis (Garriz 2004g, 189–90). 2004b “A Letter to Fr. Provincial, Fr. Gujarat Sahitya Prakash. 16 Stanislaus Fernandes S.J.” In Jose Panadan pointed out to me that Hedlund, Roger E. Mission in North Gujarat Volume this was because there was not yet a church 1995 “Post Missionary Asia: One Size structure in North Gujarat. I: The Beginnings 1964–1989,ed - ited by M. Diaz Garriz, 211–14. Doesn’t Fit All.” Evangelical Mis- References Written in 1983. Anand, Gujarat: sions Quarterly 31 (1): 78–84. Gujarat Sahitya Prakash. James, Fr. Annakutty, Sr. C. C. V. 2004c “Methodology for First An- 2011 “A Glance at the Educational 2004 “The Vedrunas in Sanand, Begin- nouncement/Direct Proclama- Apostolate in North Gujarat: nings.” In Mission in North Gujarat tion of the Gospel.” In Mission Educational Apostolate in North Volume I: The Beginnings 1964- in North Gujarat Volume I: The Gujarat as an Entry Point.” In 1989, edited by M. Diaz Garriz, Beginnings 1964–1989, edited by Mission in North Gujarat Volume II: 145–8. Written in 1987. Anand, M. Diaz Garriz, 58–61. Written The Way Ahead, 1990–2011,edited Gujarat: Gujarat Sahitya Prakash. in 1990. Anand, Gujarat: Gujarat by Jose Panadan, 247–58. Anand, Chakranarayan, Rajeev Sahitya Prakash. Gujarat: Gujarat Sahitya Prakash. 2011 “The Unteshwari Feast.” InMis - 2004d “Persecution.” In Mission in North Kodithottam, George sion in North Gujarat Volume II: Gujarat Volume I: The Beginnings 2004 “Religious and Cultural Trends in The Way Ahead, 1990–2011,edited 1964–1989, edited by M. Diaz Gar- Gujarat, Challenges and Opportu- by Jose Panadan, 299–303. Anand, riz, 243–51. Written in 1976. Anand, nities.” In Mission in North Gujarat Gujarat: Gujarat Sahitya Prakash. Gujarat: Gujarat Sahitya Prakash. Volume I: The Beginnings 1964– Fernandes, Antony 2004e “Summary Report on Catecheti- 1989, edited by M. Diaz Garriz, 2004a “Pastoral Guidelines for Caste cal Work in North Gujarat (Kalol 61–6. Written in 1988. Anand, Marriages of Isupanthis of North Parish).” In Mission in North Gujarat: Gujarat Sahitya Prakash.

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2011 “Historical Notes on Sanand Patel, Ramanbhai by Jose Panadan, 227–30. Anand, Mission.” In Mission in North 2011 “Personal Testimony.” Gujarati Gujarat: Gujarat Sahitya Prakash. Gujarat Volume II: The Way with English translation. In Mis- Vedamuthu, Rajendran Ahead, 1990–2011, edited by Jose sion in North Gujarat Volume 2004 “Unteshwari Mata Melo.” In Panadan, 54–60. Anand, Gujarat: II: The Way Ahead, 1990–2011, Mission in North Gujarat Volume Gujarat Sahitya Prakash. edited by Jose Panadan, 199–202. I: The Beginnings 1964–1989, Komonchak, Joseph A. Anand, Gujarat: Gujarat Sahitya edited by M. Diaz Garriz, 194–6. 1986 “Towards a Theology of the Local Prakash. Written in October 1990. Anand, Church.” Federation of Asian Poothakaren, Rappai Gujarat: Gujarat Sahitya Prakash. Bishops’ Conferences Papers no. 2011 “Gujaratis’ Devotion Makes Our 2011 “Poonam Devotion.” In Mission 42. N.p.: Federation of Asian Lady the One They Love Most.” in North Gujarat Volume II: The Bishops’ Conferences. In Mission in North Gujarat Vol- Way Ahead, 1990–2011, edited by Macwan, Ignace and the Katha Team ume II: The Way Ahead, 1990– Jose Panadan, 304–306. Anand, 2011 “Katha at the Service for a More 2011, edited by Jose Panadan, Gujarat: Gujarat Sahitya Prakash. Humane and Just Society.” In Mis- 294–8. Anand, Gujarat: Gujarat sion in North Gujarat Volume II: Sahitya Prakash. The Way Ahead, 1990–2011,edited Rajamanickam, S. and A. Sauliere by Jose Panadan, 151–8. Anand, 1995 His Star in the East. Written by Gujarat: Gujarat Sahitya Prakash. Sauliere, revised and reedited by Malar, Fr. Rajamanickam. Anand, Gujarat: 2011 “Catholic Ashram, Palanpur.” In Gujarat Sahitya Praksh. Mission in North Gujarat Volume II: Rose, John The Way Ahead, 1990–2011,edited 2004 “Growth of Schools in North by Jose Panadan, 105–12. Anand, Gujarat.” In Mission in North Gujarat: Gujarat Sahitya Prakash. Gujarat Volume I: The Beginnings Manickam, Shekhar 1964–1989, edited by M. Diaz 2011 “Soul-calming Unteshwari: A Garriz, 166–70. Anand, Gujarat: Personal Sharing.” In Mission Gujarat Sahitya Prakash. in North Gujarat Volume II: The 2011 “An Icon of Contextualization.” Way Ahead, 1990–2011, edited In Mission in North Gujarat: The by Jose Panadan, 236–39. Anand, Way Ahead, 1990–2011, edited Gujarat: Gujarat Sahitya Prakash. by Jose Panadan, 285–9. Anand, Mascarenhas, Robert Gujarat: Gujarat Sahitya Prakash. 2004 “A Marriage Rite for North Gu- Sanand Declaration of 1992, The jarat.” In Mission in North Gujarat 2011 “Mission Theology: Objectives Volume I: The Beginnings 1964–1989, of Our Mission, ‘The Sanand edited by M. Diaz Garriz, 83–101. Declaration’ (1992).” In Mission Reprinted from the Indian Missio- in North Gujarat Volume I: The logical Review 10 (4), 1988. Anand, Beginnings 1964–1989, edited Gujarat: Gujarat Sahitya Prakash. by M. Diaz Garriz, 41–2. Anand, Panadan, Jose Gujarat: Gujarat Sahitya Prakash. 2011a “The Mission Paradigm of North Santiago, Girish (see also under Girish) Gujarat from the Perspective 2004 “Funeral Rite for the North of Inculturation.” In Mission in Gujarat Isupanthis.” In Mission North Gujarat Volume II: The Way in North Gujarat Volume I: The Ahead, 1990–2011, edited by Jose Beginnings 1964–1989, edited by Panadan, 24–37. Anand, Gujarat: M. Diaz Garriz, 102–134. Anand, Gujarat Sahitya Prakash. Gujarat: Gujarat Sahitya Prakash. 2011b “Inculturation of Christian Ico- 2011 “North Gujarat at a Glance.” In nography: An Ongoing Mission Mission in North Gujarat: The Way in North Gujarat.” In Mission Ahead, 1990–2011, edited by Jose in North Gujarat Volume II: The Panadan, 273–9. Anand, Gujarat: Way Ahead, 1990–2011, edited Gujarat Sahitya Prakash. by Jose Panadan, 264–72. Anand, Staffner, Hans Gujarat: Gujarat Sahitya Prakash. 1973 “Conversion to Christianity Seen 2015 Inculturation and Local Church: from the Hindu Point of View.” An Ecclesio-Missiological In- In Service and Salvation, edited vestigation of the North Gujarat by Joseph Pathrapankal, 487–501. Experiment. Anand, Gujarat: Bangalore: Theological Publica- Gujarat Sahitya Prakash. tions in India. Panadan, Jose, ed. Thannipara, Alex 2011 Mission in North Gujarat Volume II: 2011 “My Impression of North Gujarat The Way Ahead, 1990–2011.Anand, Today.” In Mission in North Gujarat: Gujarat: Gujarat Sahitya Prakash. The Way Ahead, 1990–2011, edited

35:3 Fall 2018 “Gathered together in one place are all of the components necessary for doing good research in the area of missiology.” —Larry W. Caldwell, PhD, Chief Academic Officer and Dean of Sioux Falls Seminary

MISSIOLOGICAL RESEARCH Interdisciplinary Foundations, Methods, and Integration Paul W. Lewis, Marvin Gilbert, and Alan R. Johnson (Editors) This comprehensive volume is one you will pull off your shelf again and again as you delve into missiological study. The editors could not have made a more thorough or straight-forward volume that will serve researchers across disciplines. Each chapter succinctly defines the method, summarizes its process, suggests resources for more advanced interaction, and provides an exemplar journal article with abstract.

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iscipleship to Jesus always takes place within the contours of particular social contexts, whether it fits smoothly into these social constraints, or rubs abrasively against them. For those following Je- Dsus in the Muslim-majority world, religion is an essential and unavoidable part of this social context. Islam is rarely a privatized or compartmentalized set of beliefs—the practices of its “Five Pillars” are public. Muslim religion interpen- etrates community life, not only intertwining with culture, but integrating with social and political structures. Yet missiologists have often overlooked this key socio-political dimension of Muslim context. Structures (Not Just Culture) as Discipleship Context

In the long history and eventual decline of the historic Christian churches in the Muslim world across Asia, the limitations imposed by Muslim socio-political structures were fundamental to the working out of a public, witnessing presence.1 Those constraints continue to be basic to the dynamics of how Christians living under Muslim governments in Asia and Africa congregate and witness. Yet with regard to Muslim-background Christ fellowships and discipleship movements within Islam, western missiology has preferred to focus on religion in terms of cultural contextualization, often neglecting Islam’s social structures as an essential part of that discipleship context. It was anthropologist Charles Kraft’s application of dynamic equivalence theory to the cultural forms that the church might take in a mission context that helped set the direction for the Insider Movement debates.2 The concept of the “homogenous unit principle,” developed by Donald McGavran Christian J. Anderson is presently a and mission anthropologist Alan Tippett, focused on contextualizing the Bible and PhD student at Asbury Theological Seminary, researching insider move- Christian witness within distinct “people groups,” as delineated by language, eth- ments and their implications for the nicity, and culture. Social structure was acknowledged only as boundaries defined transmission of World Christianity. He has served as an Anglican pastor by these local affinities, potentially isolating these groups—and any people move- and church planter in Sydney, Austra- ments within them—from one another in the spread of the gospel.3 David Shenk, lia, and became interested in missiol- however, soon noticed the problems of over-emphasizing these ethnic delineations ogy through leading short-term teams to South Asia. in the Muslim world with its larger sense of collective religious identity.4

International Journal of Frontier Missiology 35:3 Fall 2018•117 118 Navigating the Constraints of the Ummah: A Comparison of Christ Movements in Iran and Bangladesh

When John Jay Travis introduced his other contribution is a recent article ethnic identities with respect to important category of “C5” Christ- by John Jay Travis and Anna Travis in religious ones) centered communities that remained which they examine the “Societal Fac- 4. Individual factors (relating to the “legally and socially” within Islam, it tors Impacting Socioreligious Identi- integrity and experience of Islam 11 was still in a framework that empha- ties of Muslims Who Follow Jesus.” on a personal level) 13 sized cultural-religious appropriation. They look at discipleship of Muslim- As I will demonstrate, these are very The sociological context of a C5 com- background believers through the lens pertinent observations. But the factors munity of faith was obscured. Travis of Muslim social structures and focus listed are not ordered by importance distinguished between types of believ- on a similar question to the one I wish nor arranged systematically. Since the ing communities that used religiously to pursue: “why different groups of authors are (understandably) reluctant neutral language and cultural forms Muslim-background believers gravitate to publish the names of the countries (C3), Islamic cultural forms (C4), and toward different types of fellowships.”12 where certain types of fellowships have Islamic forms and aspects of Islamic In analyzing 2007 data from 5,800 emerged, it is difficult to go further and theology (C5).5 The important aspect surveys completed by field workers connect particular societal factors with of social identity in Travis’ model has across the Muslim world, the Tra- particular types of fellowship. only been pursued more recently, with vis research first pointed to a large David Greenlee’s edited collection I hope that this article will stimulate distribution of Christ fellowships in Longing for Community: Church, Um- ideas for taking socio-political context their three categories of C3 (28%), C4 mah, or Somewhere in Between? It is seriously as we compare different (37%), and C5/Insider (21%), with a book full of illuminating studies on Jesus-discipleship movements in the how individual Muslim-background Muslim world. I want to give special believers negotiate their personal attention to the Muslim ummah, that identity within Muslim society and in fundamental socio-religious struc- relation to both Muslim and Christian ture of global Muslim identity. First, communities.6 But far less has been Anthropology has I will look at the ummah as a basic written focusing on Muslim social force serving to bind together Muslim structures themselves, taking seri- traditionally society, a force with which all Muslim- ously their capacity to affect whole background movements to Christ discipleship movements (not just been more influential must come to terms. But I will argue individual identity). This deficiency than sociology. that there are variations in the potency reflects North American missiology’s of the ummah’s structural layers— interaction with the social sciences, variations which may help explain where anthropology has traditionally why a particular type of discipleship been more influential than sociology.7 movement would more likely occur Clifford Geertz’s anthropology of a further 8% in the C6 category of in one part of the Muslim world and religion has been especially prominent “secret believers.” Why the different not another. As evidence for this, I will in our missiology, and we more readily C-spectrum fellowships in different then compare discipleship movements view religion as a set of symbols that places? With the caveat that mission- in Iran and Bangladesh. evocatively communicate worldview aries themselves may have influenced meaning; we are less prone to accept the kinds of fellowship that form, the The Muslim Ummah and Jesus Talal Asad’s critique that wider social authors then identify a string of on- Discipleship processes shape the meaning of those 14 8 the-ground factors, which include: Theummah —the worldwide “Mus- symbols, or to use Peter Berger’s lim community” that’s experienced analysis of religion and societal struc- 1. Political factors (including how 9 locally and perceived globally—has ture as mutually dependent. Islamic law is enforced with con- version penalties) been held together by strong social Two recent contributions may indicate 2. Communal factors (at the family and political bonds from its inception. a correction of this tendency to focus and neighborhood level where The Qur’an uses the word “ummah” only on culture. Fuller Theological peer pressure occurs) sixty-two times, with slightly different Seminary’s 2016 Missiological Lectures meanings.15 While for the most part 3. Religious, demographic, and were devoted to trying to understand an ummah is a religious community to cultural factors (including the the “Dynamics of Contemporary Mus- which God has sent a prophet, there history of Muslim-Christian lim Societies” as vital preliminary work seems to be a progression in the latter 10 relations and the strength of 16 to any missionary engagement. The Medinan surahs, where more often it

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Christian J. Anderson 119 refers to Muhammad’s community— those who have truly submitted to he ummah’s unifying force is stronger in some God under the prophet’s teaching, and places, and the different institutional structures who have now become exemplary, “the best of all communities that has been that hold the ummah together vary in strength. 17 T brought forth.” based on Muslim religious confession Whether pulled into the ummah or It was in Medina that Muhammad and practice, and an outward exclu- pushed away from it, Tim Green re- united Arabs across tribal lines into a sion of the non-Muslim who must be minds us that discipling communities socially and legally separate from the also face the issue of next-generation single community, while rallying them 25 to fight in the name of Islam against ummah. These forces bring a range continuity. For Muslim-background those from their own tribe and blood- of related challenges for a fruitful Christ fellowships that have pulled lines. Ties to the ummah now trumped disciple-making movement, which I away from the ummah, the next tribe and kin. But many characteristics associate with: generation is likely to pull further away from the possibility of discipling of Arabian tribal life would be carried 1. Faithful presence over: primary loyalty to the Muslim new Muslims: either they develop 2. Faithful distinction their own religious identity (if the “tribe,” religio-political headship, 3. Next-generation continuity spatial territoriality, and impositions on Muslim-background community is non-members.18 Muhammad saw the First, consider the difficulty of faith- large enough to marry into), or they ummah as being a place of political and ful presence alongside the ummah. join a Christian church. Christ fellow- ships that remain inside the ummah economic protection (dhimma) for non- These social forces may not allow Jesus risk being reabsorbed back into a Muslims willing to submit to its overall discipleship a tenable “alongside” posi- “non-Jesus following Islam,” through authority, evidenced initially in the tion. The ummah protects those within the inexorable pressures of inter- monotheistic Jewish community’s being it and opposes those who depart with marriage, orthodox Islamic teaching in allowed to exist alongside the Muslims the zeal of wounded tribal honor. For their socio-religious networks, and a with only hints of a lower sub-ummah the new Christ followers who do leave, 19 weak connection to the global body of status. But as Muhammad’s Medinan they often forfeit family inheritance, Christ. Green suggests that the most revelations became more legislative, employment networks, marriage pros- 22 stable position might be as a tolerated theocratic pressures were exerted on the pects, even a home to live in. Though sect within Islam, though finding a three Jewish tribes, two of whom were such a sacrificial decision in Jesus’ 20 stable identity may be at odds with exiled and one attacked. name can be initially a powerful act of witness, they must then join Christ sustaining an outward-looking dis- 26 A trajectory had begun where Moham- communities that are cut off from cipleship movement. medan monotheism was to be insepara- former Muslim families and networks. However, discipleship does not take bly intertwined with lines of social and Even when they can negotiate a degree place merely against the backdrop political organization, and the whole 23 of continuity in those relationships, of the ummah’s singularity but also would be referred to as the Muslim the challenge remains: How can they against its variation across contexts. ummah. Although today there is no fruitfully disciple members of the um- Though it exerts a consistent and longer an overall political structure mah if it has shunned them? powerful socio-religious influence governing all Muslims, there is an in- across the Muslim world, this unifying grained Muslim belief in the ummah as Not surprisingly, the large 2007 study I force is stronger in some places than in a global society under one God and his referred to earlier indicated that Christ others, and the different institutional sharia.21 This global consciousness has fellowships remaining in the ummah structures that hold the ummah to- taken on powerful social and legal flesh (C5) were more successful at seeing gether vary in strength. For the sake of in distinctive ways in diverse Muslim the gospel permeate and transform their existing social networks.24 But to conceptualization, I will try to simplify societies. This is what I want to explore. remain within the Muslim commu- the ummah’s complex socio-religious This socio-religious “oneness” of the nity brings another problem: that of bonds into a set of three strata: ummah is the right starting point for faithful distinction. The inward pull of 1. The individual level seeing the challenging socio-political Muslim social structures is towards a 2. The family and mosque network context for Muslim-background religious unity around a Muhammad- level discipleship. It implies two pressures mediated monotheism. How can acting as a “forcefield” within which disciples live within these structures 3. The collective and state level disciples of Jesus make their spiri- and still, with integrity, uphold Jesus By the use of this three-fold strata I tual decisions: an inward acting bond as God’s supreme mediating authority? am aligning with Tim Green’s analysis

35:3 Fall 2018 120 Navigating the Constraints of the Ummah: A Comparison of Christ Movements in Iran and Bangladesh of personal identity negotiation among Don Little’s recent study into the of discipleship movements that are Muslim-background Christ followers, obstacles faced by sixty Muslim-back- occurring, and then examine how their which he believes takes place at the ground disciple-makers in the Arab features interact with the strength of levels of “core identity,” “social iden- world demonstrates that the ummah the ummah’s ties at the individual, fam- tity,” and “collective identity.”27 Here, presents different challenges in differ- ily/mosque, and state/collective level. though, I am more interested in ana- ent church planting contexts, and Little Iran lyzing the ummah’s bonding influence also found it helpful to categorize them toward the Muslim identity. into Green’s three levels of identity ne- In Iran, there are now about 100,000 gotiation. He found that the three most Muslim-background Christ follow- At each of these levels (i.e., individual, frequently cited obstacles were at the ers—still a tiny portion of its popula- family/mosque, and collective/state) level of social identity: pressure from tion of 82 million, but growing rapidly there are certain agents, patterns, ritu- family, from the religious community, from as few as 500 Muslim-background als, and penalties which engender loy- and from economic vulnerability; also, believers when the revolution occurred 29 alty to the ummah. At the individual frequently cited were personal fears at in 1979. Duane Alexander Miller’s re- level, heart loyalty to the ummah may the core level, and at the collective level search indicated that these new believ- emerge from factors such as house- the challenges of marriage, child-rear- ers have decisively turned away from the hold upbringing, ongoing personal ing, and education laws.28 But my point ummah, and from the authority of the prayers, personal convictions about is that these are more than problems of Qur’an and Muhammad, and are em- Muhammad and the truth of Islam, or individual identity negotiation. Each bracing an evangelical form of Christi- conceivably from a demonic bondage. anity.30 Forbidden by law to enter into 31 Family and mosque network could rein- established Christian churches, they force Muslim loyalty to the ummah in meet in small, secret home gatherings as regularly as security permits, and may a myriad of ways: mosque and festival 32 participation, a particular imam’s author- Certain agents, not even use their real names. Accord- ity in social and religious matters, the ing to Christian news sites, these are requirement to marry another Muslim, patterns, rituals, usually small groups of five to twelve people, and if they get any bigger, they the strong social and economic support 33 extended to fellow Muslims, the with- and penalties will tend to form new groups. Some holding of this same support from non- engender loyalty of these groups are led via the internet Muslims, and the threat of banishment, by pastors who have fled the country, physical punishment, or honor killing for to the ummah. and many make use of Farsi Christian those who attempt to leave Islam. television channels broadcast from out- side Iran.34 Leaders appear to be quickly At the collective and state level, bonds raised up; new converts frequently begin to the ummah could be fortified by the organizing their own house groups joining of national/ethnic identity with “obstacle” that Little identifies are within six months, at which point they Islam, laws of apostasy and intermar- features of a larger socio-political land- are likely to come under monitor- riage, pervasive legal and judicial bias scape in that part of the Muslim world. ing by the Iranian government.35 The against non-Muslims, the fixed reli- They are clues to the social contexts government’s Revolutionary Guard gious status of citizenship cards, or by that shape and transform what “effec- have increased harassment strategies extra-judicial arrests and persecution. tive discipling” will look like. to prevent new Christ followers from progressing along a path from worship, Straightaway, it is obvious that dif- A Comparison of Iran and to baptism, on to evangelism: they begin ferent ummah structures will vary in with warnings, but eventually proceed strength and importance across differ- Bangladesh to imprisonment, flogging, or exile to ent contexts. A spiritually disillusioned By taking a look at two Muslim- 36 remote parts of Iran. Muslim woman in Tehran and a proud background discipleship movements in Muslim Indonesian immigrant in Iran and Bangladesh, I want to begin to Let us take a step back and look at the London are both tied into the same test the hypothesis that fruitful Christ three strata of the ummah as a con- universal ummah, but through dif- movements in the Muslim world will text for this extraordinary movement ferent local structures. Even within a vary in form according to the strength of Iranian Muslims to Christ. At the single country, the ummah’s cohesion and relative importance of the different state/collective level, the Iranian govern- may vary significantly between regions structures of the ummah. For each of ment takes strong measures to bind Iran and across an urban-rural axis. these locations I will describe the kind as a nation to the Muslim ummah and

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Christian J. Anderson 121 to violently repress any religious alterna- tive. Nor is there a legal religious identity he apparent disconnect between Iranian families available to Iranian converts, since they and local mosque authority may explain how the are not allowed to associate with the offi- Christ discipleship movement spreads so effectively. cial Christian churches (who themselves T are prohibited from conducting services go even once a week.43 Compared to Bangladesh 37 in Farsi). Once found out, Muslim- religious leaders in other Muslim societ- Moving from Iran to Bangladesh, we background Christians also face bu- ies, the Shiite clerics have had their own find another significant movement reaucratic obstacles to employment and influence reduced by politicization from of people to Christ from a Muslim 38 44 education. From what we have out- above. Iranian reformist writers Abdol- background, but who are remaining lined, the threat of the state is arguably karim Soroush and Muhammad Muj- within the ummah, calling themselves the dominant social context to which tahid Shabestari have objected to Iran’s “Isai Muslims”50 (isa imandars).51 Isai the dynamics of the Christ fellowships religious authority being concentrated Muslims in Bangladesh were first must adjust. The pressure to conform in the hands of the government rather identified as “insider movements” in to the ummah is not coming from a than in the hands of pious, independent western missiology discussions in the 45 senior family member or mosque leader, religious scholars. The apparent discon- 1980s.52 Since then, the movement has but from the regime above, leading to a nect between Iranian families and local grown: the World Christian Database dynamic of covertness, as distinct from mosque authority may help explain how estimates that by 2015, the major- insider-ness or an isolated invisibility the Christ discipleship movement seems ity of Muslim-background believ- (C5 and C6 on Travis’ spectrum). to spread so effectively through family ers in Bangladesh were members of and relational networks.46 If Iran’s family There is, however, another element insider movements—100,000 out of networks are inherently strong, but their 180,000.53 Finding and publishing ac- that can weaken this state strata of the ties to the ummah are weak, this would ummah in Iran: a collective sense of curate information on Bangladeshi Isai make it possible for whole groups to Muslims in particular is not straight- Persian identity that runs so deep as to quickly shift allegiance to Christ.47 rival Islam as a unifying force. The two forward; those within the fellowships, corporate identities are competing “eth- At the personal level, Iranians’ ties to the and the cross-cultural workers who are nocultural loyalties,” according to Har- ummah also appear very weak. Disillu- in contact with them, want to keep a old Rhode.39 The Persian civilization sionment with the autocratic tendencies certain level of anonymity, so a lot of long preceded Islamic conquest, and its of the Islamic Republic has contributed to information must be included under a 48 history, language, and literature evoke a disillusionment with Islam itself. The larger heading of “South Asia.” (This pride even when it contradicts Islam.40 tendency for new believers in Jesus to do itself says something about these The Muslim-background believers to away with all Muslim forms of worship, believers’ global sociological position- whom Miller spoke were evidently especially when the state is not watching, ing: whereas Iranian underground ready to re-connect to this Persian col- indicates that house church members churches have many advocates among lective identity.41 It’s quite conceivable do not feel much loyalty to the ummah’s migrants’ groups, human rights’ groups, that a future Iranian government could devotional patterns of approaching God. and western denominations, Bangla- choose to bind national unity to Persian Similarly, when Iranians have attempted deshi Isai Muslims only have obscure ethnicity instead of to the ummah.42 to make a new start in Europe, many are missionary voices, who themselves quick to dissociate themselves from Islam are treated with suspicion by many The ummah’s “middle” identity level and convert to Christianity, either genu- Christian stakeholders.) Tim Green, of mosque and family networks appears inely or in order to increase their chances quoting a trusted informant in Dhaka, much weaker in binding people to the of asylum.49 Collating these observations gives a helpful overview of how Isai Muslim community. Mosque atten- for Iran, we can then sum up the relative Muslims fit socially into the Bangla- dance in Iran is exceptionally low for strengths of the ummah strata as shown deshi Christ-followers landscape: the Muslim world: only 27% of Iranians in table 1 below. [i] The first group is made up of the Table 1. Levels of Ummah Cohesion (Iran) ones we call “Christian.” They are com- pletely assimilated in the traditional State/Collective (Ummah strata) High (strength) church with its festivals, language and Mosque and extended family Low social relationships. They no longer have any contact with their Muslim Personal Low relatives. [ii] In the second group are the ones called “Isai.” 54 They mostly Type of Discipleship Movement Covert/Underground, outside the Ummah live in the Christian community but

35:3 Fall 2018 122 Navigating the Constraints of the Ummah: A Comparison of Christ Movements in Iran and Bangladesh

preserve a little contact with their That is, Bangladeshi national identity Muslim Isai, too, face pressure from Muslim relatives, visit them at Eid and is not exclusively tied to Islam; there their families and local networks for so on. They switch between Christian and Muslim terminology according to is a degree of religious freedom for their commitment to Jesus. Jor- Christians, and in theory, freedom for gensen’s interviewees reported that the group they are with . . . their Mus- 62 lim relatives view them as heretical Muslims to convert to Christianity. their families treated the move with but not beyond the bounds of social But there has always been a competi- great suspicion, or even accused them contact. [iii] Next we have . . . “Isai tion in Bangladeshi politics between of madness; one described how his Muslim.” They are mostly in the Mus- a secularist Bengali national vision— village court had ruled that other vil- lim community but they preserve a represented by founding father Sheik lagers should sever social and business little contact with Christians. They use Mujib’s generation, who fought for ties with them.68 With community- Muslim terminology . . . Muslims view independence against Pakistan in level authority functioning to protect them as an odd kind of Muslim, but 1971—and an Islamic nationalism, against even the Muslim Isai type of acceptable within the range of Mus- which rose up after Mujib’s assassina- lim sects. [iv] Finally we have those deviation, we can see these Muslim tion in 1975. While Islamic politics who follow Jesus but are called “Mus- Isai as having developed a feasible have gained influence in the last lim.” They remain within the Muslim 63 but difficult social position—one that community . . . [and] have no contact decade, the government has not coheres with their faith in Jesus, and with Christians . . . [Some] Believers in directly persecuted Christians (barring finds a place for it in a very taut, even this group meet for fellowship with land displacement pressures in rural 64 claustrophobic, socio-religious setting. each other . . . Others . . . do not meet areas ). Unlike Iran, churches with up with other Jesus-followers.55 Muslim-background believers do not At the individual level of the ummah, currently face legal pressure. it is difficult to estimate how deep Even though Green’s point is to show Bangladeshi loyalty to the ummah At the mosque/family network level, that there is a range of identity options goes. In the 2012 Pew Survey, 81% the ummah bonds are far stronger. for the Muslim who turns to Christ, we of Bangladeshi Muslims said that While weekly mosque attendance can still see a social gap between the first religion was important to them, yet (53%) is only medium in comparison two options (outside the ummah) and 65 only 39% said they prayed several to other Muslim populations, those the second two (inside the ummah), and times a day.69 A window onto Bangla- in religious authority at the communi- hints that the gap is determined by their deshi personal commitment to Islam is extended family. We get a more detailed ty level wield considerable influence. A study of communities in the Dinajpur provided by Isai Muslims themselves. snapshot in Jonas Adelin Jorgensen’s field In Jorgensen’s study, some of the in- study, where he interviewed forty-four district described a popular desire for moral order to be regulated at the level terviewees are more enthusiastic than members of three Jesus imandar groups others with keeping the term “Muslim” 56 of the samaj (local or kinship commu- in Dhaka during 2002 and 2004. 70 nity), with the mosque playing a key as a self-description. What does Fitting into Green’s third “Isai Muslim” 66 seem clear is that there is an apprecia- category, these members have a small role. It is communal rather than state violence that Christian churches have tion of the Muslim worship forms amount of contact with the Christian (more than Muslim religious struc- community57 but meet as (com- to fear. The U.S. State Department’s jamaat tures), and various levels of un-enthu- munity) fellowships, mainly in homes but 2016 report into religious freedom in Bangladesh highlights community siasm about the Christian churches sometimes in offices or slum areas, retain- 71 and even “Christianity” as a religion. ing Muslim forms and redirecting them violence against religious minorities, The contrast here with Iranian con- to Jesus.58 Most had been baptized.59 documenting fifteen of the year’s worst verts is striking. With admittedly more Most continued to attend the mosque in incidents, in both rural and urban research needed on this last stratum, some way, either regularly or when they settings. This included the attempted 60 we can surmise the following levels visit their family in the village. murder of a Muslim convert to Chris- tianity in May 2015, and 60 Catholics of ummah cohesion for Bangladesh, Looking at Bangladesh’s ummah being beaten by sticks in June.67 shown in table 2 below. structures as a context for the growth of Table 2. Levels of Ummah Cohesion (Bangladesh) Isai Muslims, we see that ummah ties at the state/collective level have a degree of State/Collective (Ummah strata) Low slackness. The constitution is ambivalent: Mosque and extended family High The state religion . . . is Islam, but the state shall ensure equal rights in the Personal Medium practice of the Hindu, Buddhist, Chris- Type of Discipleship Movement Isai Muslim prayer fellowships, inside the Ummah tian . . . religions.61

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Christian J. Anderson 123 Conclusion hese Muslim Isai have developed a feasible but I have laid out a way that we can take social context seriously as we consider difficult social position that coheres with their faith what kind of fruitful disciple-making in Jesus in a claustrophobic socio-religious setting. movements God is causing to flourish in T Endnotes 6 David Greenlee ed. Longing for Com- the Muslim world. Tim Green, in calling 1 munity: Church, Ummah, Or Somewhere in Samuel Moffatt, in the conclusion to for a reframing of the polarized debate Between? (Pasadena, CA: William Carey his first volume of the history of Asian Chris- over Insider Movements, remarks Library, 2013). tianity, says: “The church might better have 7 . . . the debate is too generalized. The withstood violence. Sharp persecution breaks Robert Priest, “Anthropology and socio-cultural contexts of such coun- off only the tips of the branches; it produces Missiology: Reflections on the Relationship,” tries as Algeria, Iran, Bangladesh and martyrs and the tree still grows. Never-ending in Charles Edward van Engen, Darrell L. Indonesia are very different from social and political repression, on the other Whiteman, and John Dudley Woodberry, Paradigm Shifts in Christian Witness: Insights each other. Why, then, do we persist hand, starves the roots; it stifles evangelism and the church declines. Such was the history from Anthropology, Communication, and in homogenizing them all with the Spiritual Power: Essays in Honor of Charles H. 72 of the church in Asia under Islam.” A History same lines of argument? Kraft (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2008). of Christianity in Asia: Volume 1: Beginnings 8 (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis 1998), 504. Talal Asad, Genealogies of Religion: In comparing contexts, I have argued to 1500 2 Charles H. Kraft, “Psychological Stress Discipline and Reasons of Power in Christi- we need to pay attention to the um- Factors among Muslims,” in Media in Is- anity and Islam (Baltimore, MA: The John mah as a fundamental socio-religious Hopkins University Press, 1993), 43–54. lamic Culture (1974): 137–44; and “Dynamic 9 constraint operating at all levels of Equivalence Churches in Muslim Society,” Peter L. Berger, The Sacred Canopy in The Gospel and Islam: a 1978 Compendium (Garden City, NY: Anchor, 1967). Muslim society, and thereby pulling on, 10 or pushing against, any Jesus disciple- (1979): 114–128. For a commentary on the These lectures have since been role of Kraft’s dynamic equivalence ideas published as Evelyne A. Reisacher, ed., ship movement that occurs. By exam- in the historical development of the insider Dynamics of Muslim Worlds: Regional, Theo- ining the strength of these forces on movement debates, see Henry J. Wolfe, “The logical and Missiological Perspectives (IVP three different levels of social structure Development of the Insider Movement Academic, 2017). in Iran and Bangladesh, I have tried to Paradigm,” Global Missiology 4, no. 12 (2015). 11 John and Anna Travis, “Societal Fac- show that there is a logic to the kind 3 Donald McGavran and C. Peter Wag- tors Impacting Socioreligious Identities of of discipleship movement that emerges ner, Understanding Church Growth (Grand Muslims Who Follow Jesus,” in Harley Tal- man and John Jay Travis, eds., Understanding and proves fruitful. I hope that oth- Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1990) 153–178. As one critic noted, “McGavran identifies ‘a few Insider Movements: Disciples of Jesus within ers will engage with the initial model typical elements of social structure’ as: the Diverse Religious Communities (Pasadena, I’ve proposed, suggesting where it is unique self-image, marriage customs, elite CA: William Carey Library, 2015); pub- either inadequate or useful, especially or power structure, landrights, sex mores, lished in an earlier form as “Factors Affecting in its application to other Muslim people consciousness, geographical location the Identity that Jesus Followers Choose,” in J. Dudley Woodberry, ed. From Seed to Fruit: populations—whether in the Muslim- and language. What is particularly surprising is his omission of religion from his discussion Global Trends, Fruitful Practices, and Emerg- majority world or outside of it. I believe of social structure. As he acknowledges in ing Issues among Muslims (Pasadena, CA: it has predictive value, but we must How Churches Grow, the missionary requires William Carey Library, 2008), 193-205. see if that value extends to the further knowledge of actual beliefs and practices in 12 Travis and Travis, “Societal Factors,” challenges which ensue in the social other religious systems. Religion in many 600. 13 positioning of the second generation.73 non-Western societies, however, is an Travis and Travis, 602–604. integral part of the social structure and must 14 The Arabic wordummah comes No genuine follower of Jesus from a be understood within a particular social from either the Hebrew am (nation) or the Muslim background chooses an easy context.” Wayne McClintock, “Sociological arabic umm (meaning ‘mother’ or ‘the source’ Critique of the Homogeneous Unit Prin- path. In fact, those we have looked of something born). For a discussion on ciple,” International Review of Mission 77, etymology, see Frederick M. Denny, “Mean- at in Iran and Bangladesh are willing no. 305 (1988): 107–116, italics added. ing of Ummah in the Qur’ān,” History of to defy their most powerful ummah 4 David W. Shenk, “The MuslimUmma Religions 15, no. 1 (1975): 36–42, and Nadia stakeholders (the state and the com- and the Growth of the Church,” in Wilbert. R. Amin Rehmani, “Debating the Term Ummah munity respectively). Yet, they do it in Shenk (ed.), Exploring Church Growth (Grand as a Religious or Social and Political Notion,” Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1983), 151–152. Hamdard Islamicus 33, no. 1:9, 2010. ways that make sense in their socio- 5 15 political context, ways that prove John Travis,“The C1 to C6 Spectrum: It refers at different times to follow- A Practical Tool for Defining Six Types of ers of the prophet, a religious congregation, feasible for the gospel of Jesus to take ‘Christ-Centered Communities’ (‘C’) Found a minority religious population, a nation, or root and flourish among Muslim in the Muslim Context,” Evangelical Mis- a species. Gabriele Marranci, The Anthropol- peoples and their societies. IJFM sions Quarterly 34(4) (1998): 407–408. ogy of Islam (New York: Berg, 2008), 108.

35:3 Fall 2018 124 Navigating the Constraints of the Ummah: A Comparison of Christ Movements in Iran and Bangladesh

16 E.g., surah 2:128a: “Our Lord, and 28 Don Little, Effective Discipling in Iran: Politics, Culture and Religion (Lan- make us Muslims in submission to You Muslim Communities: Scripture, History and ham, MD: Lexington Books, 2015). and from our descendants a Muslim nation Seasoned Practices (Downers Grove: IVP 40 In July 2000, after the death of Ah- [ummah] in submission to You.” See Denny Academic, 2015), 136–139. mad Shamlou (an atheist poet) 30,000 Irani- “Meaning of Ummah,” 43. 29 Duane Alexander Miller, and Patrick ans lined the streets of Tehran to pay their last 17 Surah 3:110a. See Denny, “Meaning Johnstone, “Believers in Christ from a Mus- respects. Mark Bradley, Iran and Christianity: of Ummah,” 34–35. lim background: a Global Census,” Inter- Historical Identity and Present Relevance, 34. 18 For a description of some of the disciplinary Journal of Research on Religion 41 “There is also the deep conviction I Arabian influences on Muhammad, includ- 11 (2015); Duane Alexander Miller, “Power, found in many of my interviews with Iranian ing Bedouin clans, see Ira M. Lapidus, A Personalities and Politics: the Growth of Christians, that Islam is a form of socio-reli- History of Islamic Societies (Cambridge: Iranian Christianity since 1979,” Mis- gious colonialism—that it was unjustly imposed Cambridge University Press, 2014), 23–45. sion Studies 32, no. 1 (2015): 66–86; Jason by Arabs (an unaccomplished and uncultured 19 See discussion of article 25 of the Mandryck, Operation World (7th edition) group of warriors, in this view) on the rich and Constitution in Frederick M. Denny, “Um- (Colorado Springs, CO: Biblica, 2010), 465. great culture of Persia. As one interviewee said, 30 mah in the Constitution of Medina,” Journal Miller, “Power, Personalities and ‘Islam was a step up for the Arabs, because they of Near Eastern Studies 36, no. 1 (1977): 44. Politics,” 69. moved from fighting with each other to unity; 31 20 Ira M. Lapidus, A History of Islamic US State Department, 2016 Report but for Iran it was a step down.’” Miller, “Power, Societies, 35–36. on International Freedom: Iran, accessed Personalities and Politics,” 75. 42 21 Sumaya Mohamed Saleh, and Shadiya May 2018 https://www.state.gov/ Rhode, “The Unending Battle between Mohamed Baqutayan. “What is the Islamic documents/organization/269134.pdf. the Persian and Islamic identities of Iran,” 17. 32 43 Society?” International Review of Social Sciences Mark Bradley, Iran and Christianity: Tezcur, Gunes Murat, Taghi and Humanities 2, no. 2 (2012), 118. For a Historical Identity and Present Relevance Azadarmaki, and Mehri Bahar. “Religious study in the pervasiveness of, but variations in (A&C Black, 2008), 178. participation among Muslims: Iranian “Ummah consciousness” across the Muslim 33 “Rapid Church Growth, How is it exceptionalism.” Critique: Critical Middle world, see Riaz Hasan, Faithlines: Muslim Happening?”, Elam Ministries, accessed Eastern Studies 15.3 (2006): 217–232. Conceptions of Islam and Society (Karachi, Paki- May 2018, https://www.elam.com/page/ 44 See Olivier Roy, “The Crisis of Reli- stan: Oxford University Press, 2003), 84–105. rapid-church-growth-how-it-happening; gious Legitimacy in Iran,” The Middle East 22 Sufyan Baig describes how his own “Country Policy and Information Note; Journal (1999): 201–216. conversion to Christ as a young man resulted Iran: Christians and Christian Converts,” 45 Kathleen Foody, “Interiorizing Islam: in his Indian father banishing him from his UK Home Office, accessed May 2018. Religious Experience and State Oversight home and family business. His unprepared http://www.refworld.org/docid/58b42f774. in the Islamic Republic of Iran.” Journal of pastor could only send him to an orphanage: html, citing an interview with Open Doors. the American Academy of Religion 83, no. 3 “One day I was living as a wealthy business- 34 “Many New Church Plants Thanks (2015): 599–623. man; the next day, for the sake of food and to the Internet,” Elam Ministries, accessed 46 Family networks tend to safeguard shelter, I was cleaning toilets in an orphan- May 2018, https://www.elam.com/Iran30/ the house churches from government-aligned age for street children.” His research in India many-new-church-plants-thanks-internet; strangers joining. See Austrian Red Cross/ revealed many similar stories of leaving the K. A. Ellis, “Evangelism, Iranian Style,” Austrian Centre for Country of Origin & ummah—and the frequent discovery that the Christianity Today, June 21, 2017. Asylum Research and Documentation, “Iran: church could not provide adequate commu- 35 “Country Policy and Information House Churches,” June 2017 accessed May nity. Baig, “The Ummah and Christian Com- Note; Iran,” UK Home Office, accessed 2018, https://www.justice.gov/eoir/page/ munity,” in Longing for Community: Church, May 2018 http://www.refworld.org/ file/975066/download, accessed May 2018), 7. Ummah, or Somewhere in Between? (Pasa- docid/58b42f774.html, 16. 47 Mark Bradley suggests that whole 36 dena, CA: William Carey Library, 2013), 72. “Country Policy and Information family networks have been known to 23 See Green, “Identity Choices at the Note; Iran,” UK Home Office, accessed convert together, but he does not provide Border Zone,” in Longing for Community: May 2018 http://www.refworld.org/ evidence of it. (Iran and Christianity: His- Church, Ummah, or Somewhere in Between? docid/58b42f774.html, 18–19, drawing torical Identity and Present Relevance, 180). 59–61. on 2017 interviews with Open Doors and 48 Miller, “Power, Personalities and 24 Andrea Gray and Leith Gray, Elam Ministries. Politics,” 74–75. 37 “Transforming Social Networks by Planting “2016 Report on International Free- 49 Koser Akcapar, Sebnem. “Conver- the Gospel,” in J. Dudley Woodberry ed., dom: Iran,” US State Department, https:// sion as a migration strategy in a transit From Seed to Fruit, 287–289. www.state.gov/documents/organization/ 25 country: Iranian Shiites Becoming Chris- Green, “Identity choices at the Bor- 269134.pdf, accessed May 2018. tians in Turkey,” International Migration 38 der Zone,” 63–66. “The Persecution of Christians in Review 40, no. 4 (2006): 817–853; “Iranian 26 Green, 64. Iran,” Christians in Parliament, accessed Refugees Turn to Christianity in the Neth- 27 Tim Green, “Conversion in the Light May 2018, http://www.christiansin erlands,” BBC, August 25, 2017 accessed of Identity Theories,” in Longing for Commu- parliament.org.uk/uploads/APPGs-report- May 2018 http://www.bbc.com/news/av/ nity, 47–50, drawing these categories from on-Persecution-of-Christians-in-Iran.pdf. world-europe-41040163/iranian-refugees- Benjamin Beit-Hallahmi, Prolegomena to 39 Harold Rhode, “The Unending turn-to-christianity-in-the-netherlands; the Psychological Study of Religion (London: Battle between the Persian and Islamic “Muslim Refugees are Converting to Associated University Press, 1989), 96–97. identities of Iran,” Identities in Crisis in Christianity in Germany,” Independent,

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Christian J. Anderson 125

December 19 2016, accessed May 2018, https://www.state.gov/documents/organiza- anxiety. There was also an openness to being https://www.independent.co.uk/news/ tion/269170.pdf, 3. taught a purer form of Islam by traveling world/europe/muslim-refugees-converting- 62 Bangladesh Constitution Part 3: members of the Tablighi Jamaat (140–142). to-christianity-in-germany-crisis-asylum- 41(1): “Subject to law, public order and 67 “2016 Report on International Free- seekers-migrants-iran-a7466611.html. morality—(a) every citizen has the right to dom: Bangladesh,” US State Department, 50 Tim Green, “Identity Choices at the profess, practise or propagate any religion; accessed May 2018, https://www.state.gov/ Border Zone,” in Longing for Community, 61. (b) every religious community or denomina- documents/organization/269170.pdf, 11–13. 51 Jonas Adelin Jorgensen, Jesus tion has the right to establish, maintain and 68 Jorgensen, Jesus Imandars and Christ Imandars and Christ Bhaktas (Frankfurt, manage its religious institutions.” Bhaktas, 210–211, see footnote 337. 63 Germany: Peter Lang, 2008). See, for example, Akhand Akhtar 69 “The World’s Muslims: Unity 52 Jeff Morton,Insider Movements: Hossain, “Islamic Resurgence in Bangladesh’s and Diversity,” in Chapter 2: Religious Culture and Politics: Origins, Dynamics and Biblically Incredible or Incredibly Brilliant? Commitment, Pew Forum Report 2012, Implications,” Journal of Islamic Studies 23, no. 2 (Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock Publishers, accessed May, 2018, http://www.pewforum. (2012): 165–198; Md Maidul Islam, “Secular- 2012), 113–115. org/2012/08/09/the-worlds-muslims-unity- 53 ism in Bangladesh: An Unfinished Revolution,” Todd M. Johnson and Gina A. Zur- and-diversity-2-religious-commitment/. lo, eds. World Christian Database (Leiden/ South Asia Research 38, no. 1 (2018): 20–39. 70 64 Jorgensen, Jesus Imandars and Christ Boston: Brill), accessed April 2018. “2016 Report on International 54 Bhaktas, 231–233. “Isai” is the adjective related to the Freedom: Bangladesh,” accessed May 2018, 71 Jorgensen, Jesus Imandars and Christ Arabic word, “Isa,” or Jesus. https://www.state.gov/documents/ 55 organization/269170.pdf, 11. Bhaktas, 231–233. Green, “Identity Choices at the 72 65 Tim Green, “Identity Choices at Border Zone,” 59–60. Pew Survey 2012, http://www. 56 pewforum.org/2012/08/09/the-worlds- the Border Zone,” Longing for Community: See Jorgensen, Jesus Imandars and muslims-unity-and-diversity-2-religious- Church, Ummah or Somewhere in Between?, 65. Christ Bhaktas, 136–141. 73 57 commitment/. If a community of Jordanian im- Jorgensen, 137–138. 66 58 Joseph Devine, and Sarah C. White, migrants living in the United States, for Jorgensen, 142–144. example, had “High” strength ties to the 59 “Religion, Politics and the Everyday Moral Jorgensen, 155–157. Order in Bangladesh,” Journal of Contempo- ummah at the personal level, but “Low” at 60 Jorgensen, 160–161, 234–236. rary Asia 43, no. 1 (2013): 127–147. The study the communal and state level, what might 61 “2016 Report on International noted that for a community to be without we expect a fruitful discipling movement to Freedom: Bangladesh,” accessed May 2018, a mosque was a source of shame and even look like from a social perspective?

35:3 Fall 2018 It is through missions that we live out God’s love for our global neighbors. —Miriam Adeney, PhD, Associate Professor of Missiology, Seattle Pacific University

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William Carey Library is a ministry of Frontier Ventures Peripheral Vision More than a Prophet: John the Baptist and the Question “Is Muhammad among the Prophets?” by George Bristow

“ o, what do you think of Muhammad?” I have often been confronted with this challenging question during my 30 years in Turkey. Without giving reasons for rejecting Muhammad as the final prophet, I sometimes answer, “Jesus said, ‘I am the first and the last,’ and as a Christian I believe that he will be S 1 with his followers until he returns at the end of this age.” At times I talk about Joseph Smith, whom Mormons believe to be a great prophet. Although Smith spoke very highly of Jesus Christ, the Book of Mormon subverts the biblical story line at various points and so I cannot affirm his claim to be a prophet. Because of obvious parallels with Islam (divine revelation and a “final” prophet centuries after Christ), Muslim questioners understand my Christian position regarding Muhammad without requiring that my position be spelled out.2 The point is clear: because these later writings (the Qur’an or the Book of Mormon) do not cohere with the biblical witness to God’s final act through Jesus, I do not see their proclaimers as trustworthy prophets. This approach to evaluating prophecy is analogous to the early church’s use of the “rule of faith”—a summary of the biblical metanarrative joining the confession of Jesus as Lord and Savior with the confession of God as Creator.3

In his provocative article, “Is Muhammad Also Among the Prophets?” (IJFM 31:4 [Oct-Dec 2014)], 169–190), Harley Talman offers a very differ- ent answer to this challenge, arguing that there is “theological, missiological,

George Bristow (PhD, Vrije Uni- and historical sanction for expanding constricted categories of prophethood versiteit Amsterdam) is the author to allow Christians to entertain the possibility of Muhammad being other of Sharing Abraham?: Narrative Worldview, Biblical and Qur’anic than a false prophet.” Talman’s argument has stimulated thoughtful responses Interpretation and Comparative The- from Ayman and Azumah,4 but because of the importance of this subject for ology in Turkey (Doorlight Academic: Cambridge, MA, 2017). He is a missiology, I wish to revisit the question from the perspective of comparative research fellow of the Institute for the theology, and from my own experience and research in Turkey. Study of Religion in the Middle East (ISRME) and serves as coordina- To treat this issue adequately we must not only do biblical theology carefully but tor of a theological training network also examine the qur’anic picture as a whole. Representative Muslim scholars serving churches in Istanbul, where he and his wife have lived since 1987. should be able to concede that I present the nature of prophethood in the Qur’an

International Journal of Frontier Missiology 35:3 Fall 2018•127 128 More than a Prophet: John the Baptist and the Question “Is Muhammad among the Prophets?” fairly, particularly in relation to Numerous prophet stories appealed acts. Al Faruqi, for example, rejects the Muhammad. In previous research on to throughout the Qur’an flesh out biblical pattern as unworthy of God: Abraham I argued that we need to the concept of prophethood. These The so-called “saving acts of God” in think clearly about the partially over- narratives generally follow a pattern in Hebrew Scripture, Islam regards as lapping biblical and qur’anic narra- which the community rejects the mes- the natural consequences of virtue 5 tives. Otherwise, our first impressions senger, but God vindicates the prophet and good deeds . . . The “Promise” of Hebrew Scripture, or the unearned of common ground may turn out to be and punishes the unbelieving com- blessing of any man or people, the false positives, incorrectly indicating munity. These fragmentary episodes commonalities that do not stand up to Qur’an utterly rejects as inconsonant provide moral examples, underscoring with God’s nature and His justice; the scrutiny. Here I will focus especially the danger of rejecting the messengers Muslims being no more unfit for such on accounts of John the Baptist, son of God and warning the audience to favoritism than any other people.12 of Zachariah, as an instance of such beware how they receive the Prophet overlapping narratives. (Muhammad) and his message. Whether or not al Faruqi misrepre- As we look at qur’anic and biblical sents the biblical concept of God’s concepts of prophecy and prophets, I Qur’anic prophets are sent to different election of grace with the phrase “such will defend three propositions. First, human communities to proclaim ethi- favoritism,” he correctly represents the Muhammad’s prophethood is insepa- cal monotheism: “We sent a messenger qur’anic position as deeply different rable from the qur’anic prophet story to every community, saying, ‘Worship from it. The lives of qur’anic prophets 9 pattern and needs to be examined as God and shun false gods’” (16:36). support its rhetoric and worldview, the epitome of this element of Muslim in which they function as models for worldview. Second, biblical prophet- believers. Salvation comes through hood or prophecy is inseparable from “virtue and good deeds,” above all by the overarching biblical narrative avoiding the unforgivable sin of shirk which reaches its fulfillment with the Muhammad’s or idolatry (Q4:48, 116; cf. 39:65; 34:22; 31:13). coming of Jesus. Third, these two per- prophethood is spectives on prophethood are funda- The close relationship between Abra- mentally incompatible. inseparable from ham and Muhammad displays this qur’anic prophet portrait clearly, espe- Muhammad and the Qur’anic the qur’anic prophet cially the story of Abraham disputing Prophets: Muhammad as the story pattern. with idolaters, which is found in eight “Seal” suras in different forms.13 The Qur’an narrates how Abraham deduces the Talman states his intent to reality of God from the evidence of broaden our base of theological, histor- creation and boldly rebukes his kinfolk ical and missiological understandings of The Qur’an, which is disclosed to the (6:78–84). In some accounts, Abraham prophethood in general and of the per- final messenger, describes itself as son of Muhammad in particular. (170)6 “guidance for mankind” (2:185). No is cast into a fire by his adversaries but is miraculously protected.14 As Mu- society will be judged before being hammad is being mocked by idolaters, Since he rejects Islamic tradition as a warned by a prophet, who may even God assures him that other messen- reliable guide to understanding Mu- testify against them in the judgment hammad,7 I will focus on the qur’anic gers have been mocked before him (10:47; 39:69). Unless we deny that prophethood material, particularly the (6:10) and that he has been guided Muhammad is the primary addressee “prophet stories” found throughout the into “an upright religion, the faith of in qur’anic discourse, as some do,10 text. Concerning the overall unity of Abraham” (6:161). we find him presented there as the the Qur’an, Ruthven says: epitome of prophethood: “Muhammad Like Abraham, John (Yahya), the son The seemingly chaotic organization . . . is God’s Messenger and the seal of of Zachariah, also functions in this role of the material ensures that each of 15 11 of model messenger in the Qur’an. In the parts in some way represents the the prophets” (Q33:40). whole . . . any one of the surahs will 6:84–86 he is listed among the proph- Muslim scholars have recognized that contain, in a more or less condensed ets whom God chose and “guided form, the message of the whole.8 this qur’anic pattern diverges from on a straight path.” Like all qur’anic the biblical salvation-history concept prophets, John’s exemplary character This coherence is evident in the of God redeeming a particular people is underscored: “He will be noble and prophethood material. through a series of covenant-making chaste, a prophet, one of the righteous”

International Journal of Frontier Missiology George Bristow 129

(3:39; 19:12–14). His birth story, which forms part of Mary’s story in the t may be useful to distinguish the activity of Qur’an, has elements in common with 16 prophesying from the “vocation” of prophet as it the narrative in Luke 1:5–20. But we came to be understood. find nothing of his ministry or crucial I New Testament (NT) role as Jesus’ differences, above all the nature of the is not said to be a prophet, but only to forerunner, which, as we will see below, gods they served.20 Another was that have “prophesied with the prophets” is key for understanding the biblical outside of Israel “there is no evidence under the Spirit’s influence. Years later perspective on prophets. that ancient Near Eastern prophecy Saul, controlled by jealousy, sent mes- ever fundamentally questioned the sengers to capture David, who had been While stories of qur’anic prophets are 21 24 found in a variety of detail and are monarchy.” By contrast, the “proph- anointed king by the prophet Samuel. certainly not identical to one another, ets of the Lord,” who spoke his word Saul’s messengers “also prophesied” whether favorable or not to the re- when they approached the ecstatic their DNA is consistent. The qur’anic 22 portrait of Muhammad as the ideal and gime, were frequently in conflict with company of prophets (19:20–21), yet final prophet is built upon and insepa- false prophets who flattered the kings the messengers were not called proph- rable from this qur’anic prophet model. of Israel. These are typically either idol- ets. Although the Spirit had long since atrous “prophets of Baal and prophets “departed from him” (16:14), Saul Jesus and the Biblical of the Asherah” (1 Kings 18) or “proph- “prophesied” again (19:23–24). He fi- Prophets: John as the “Seal” ets of the deception of their own heart,” nally consulted a banned medium when who claimed to represent the Lord God no longer answered him. The ex- If Muhammad cannot be separated ( Jer. 23:26). Often these false prophets perience of being moved to ecstasy and from the larger qur’anic narrative, nei- served along with diviners, dreamers, prophesying under the powerful influ- ther can biblical prophets be separated soothsayers, or sorcerers ( Jer. 27:9). ence of God’s Spirit does not make one from the overarching biblical narra- “The leading traits of their ‘revelations’ a prophet of God. Nor is the case of tive. The Hebrew prophets arise within are mixing of falsity and truth ( Jer. Saul a likely point of common ground Israel, the people uniquely “known” by 23:28) and stealing Yahweh’s words with Muslims, since the comparison of God (Amos 3:2). With rare exceptions from other sources,” such as dreams and Muhammad with sinful Saul contra- 23 (e.g., Jonah), they prophesy in Israel, other prophets (23:30–32). dicts the consistent qur’anic portrait of charging God’s people to live by His 17 At the core of genuine prophethood prophets as exemplary and protected by covenant. Biblically speaking, “the Jews was “covenantal integrity” embodied in God from significant sin. were entrusted with the oracles of God” personal contact with the living God, (Rom. 3:2) and as Vanhoozer says There are no clear biblical references to obedience to covenant provisions, the task of interpreting Israel’s histo- genuine prophets outside of the cov- ry . . . fell first to the prophets. It was and loyalty to his Davidic kingdom enant people of God. Paul once quotes a their interpretive words that made promises. God said of false prophets, pagan prophet from Crete as “a prophet sense of God’s saving deeds.18 “if they had stood in my council, then of their own” (Titus 1:12; cf. Acts 17:28), they would have proclaimed my words but not as a prophet of the Lord.25 Biblical use of the category of pro- to my people” (Jer. 23:22). The life- Balaam, who superficially appears to be phetic activity is not systematic, but changing calls of Isaiah and Ezekiel 19 an exception, on closer scrutiny turns out varied and complex. It may therefore came from the throne of God symbol- to represent a pattern of false prophecy. be useful to distinguish the activity ized by the ark of the covenant in the God’s Spirit came upon Balaam and he of prophesying from the “vocation” of temple (Isa. 6; Ezek. 1; cf. Rev. 4–5). spoke divine oracles (Num. 24:2). Yet prophet as it came to be understood. The prophets relay both God’s anguish Moses’ soldiers later executed him for over his disobedient children and his Prophetic activity, for example, even helping the Midianites lead Israel into intent to restore a remnant after the included temple singers who, though idolatry (Num. 31:8, 16). Moreover, in not prophets, “prophesied with the inevitable judgment falls. the most important NT reflection on lyre in thanksgiving and praise to the It is against this background that we Balaam, Peter speaks of “the prophet’s Lord” (1 Chron. 25:1–3). should place Saul, with whom Talman madness,” and uses Balaam as a mem- While the phenomenon of prophecy begins his consideration of Muham- orable example of “false prophets” was prevalent throughout the ancient mad’s reputation among Christians. (2 Peter 2:1, 16).26 Thus Balaam is clear Near East and similar terminology was Saul’s surprising “prophesying” prompt- evidence that simply communicating used for these figures and the Hebrew ed the reaction, “Is Saul also among the words from God does not make one a prophets, there were also significant prophets?” (1 Sam. 10:10–13). Yet Saul genuine prophet of God.

35:3 Fall 2018 130 More than a Prophet: John the Baptist and the Question “Is Muhammad among the Prophets?”

We see this same phenomenon in the All four Gospels begin their accounts • “He will baptize you with the Holy New Testament. Even Caiaphas, the of Jesus’ ministry with John’s arrival and Spirit.” (Luke 3:16) — Jesus is the high priest who conspired to have cite Isaiah 40:1–11 and Malachi 3:1 to giver of the eschatological Spirit. Jesus executed, unwittingly but truly identify him as the forerunner. In both (Isa. 59:20–21; Joel 2:30) “prophesied that Jesus would die for Old Testament (OT) passages, the one • “His winnowing fork is in his hand, the nation” (John 11:44–52). The out- whose way is being prepared is the cre- to clear his threshing floor and pouring of the Spirit makes prophecy ator God, coming at last to restore his to gather the wheat into his barn, 30 a central reality of God’s new covenant people. Jesus thus gives his disciples but the chaff he will burn with people (Acts 2:1–36). Yet even if NT a framework for understanding God’s unquenchable fire.” (Luke 3:17) — prophecy can be both legitimate and progressive self-revelation in relation to Jesus is the Lord of the harvest. 27 fallible as some argue, identifying John and to himself: (Mal. 4:1–3). and rejecting false prophecy remains Moses/prophets Final OT prophet → • “I saw the Spirit descend from essential (1 Tim. 4:1–3; 2 Peter 2:1; (forerunner) The Son 31 → → heaven like a dove, and it remained 3:1–2; 1 John 4:1–6).28 The essential NT prophets on him.” (John 1:32) — Jesus is criteria is loyalty to the incarnate, cru- the Spirit-endowed Messiah and cified, and risen Lord, whose apostolic In the parable of the tenants, Jesus shows that God (the landlord), after Servant-Priest. (Isa. 11:1; 42:1; 61:1) gospel was once for all delivered to • “Behold, the Lamb of God, who the saints by his apostles and prophets sending many prophets (the servants), has finally sent his son (Matt. 21:33–46). takes away the sin of the world!” ( Jude 3; Eph. 2:20–22; 4:11). ( John 1:29) — Jesus is God’s own A robust Christian understanding of sacrificial Lamb. (Gen. 22:8, 14; prophecy must also reckon with the ep- Isa. 53:6–7) ochal change introduced by the arrival of • “The one who has the bride is the Jesus Christ. Here we return to John the Jesus speaks bridegroom.” (John 3:29) — Jesus Baptist, who epitomizes biblical proph- is the coming “Bridegroom” of ecy from the perspective of the Evange- of John the Baptist God’s people. (Isa. 62:4–5) lists. We saw above that in the Qur’an as something John is simply one of the prophets. But The NT apostles and prophets confirm Jesus speaks of him as something more more akin to and develop John’s witness, preach- akin to the “seal” of the prophets: ing the crucified and risen Jesus as Lord to Jews and “God-fearers” with What then did you go out to see? A the “seal” 32 and prophet? Yes, I tell you, and more of the prophets. direct citations of the prophets, than a prophet. This is he of whom to Gentile hearers with the biblical it is written, “Behold, I send my metanarrative in the background (Acts 33 messenger before your face, who 14:15–17; 17:24–31). They insist that will prepare your way before you.” He also announces to Jerusalem that as “all the prophets” proclaimed these Truly, I say to you, among those born the Son he will send them “prophets and messianic days (Luke 24:25; Acts of women there has arisen no one wise men and scribes” to announce his 3:24; 1 Peter 10–12). New Testament greater than John the Baptist. Yet prophets, along with the apostles, un- reign (Matt. 23:34; see 24:14; 28:18–20). the one who is least in the kingdom fold the unsearchable riches of Christ The author of Hebrews works within of heaven is greater than he… All the to the people of God (Eph. 3:4–10). this same framework: God, who spoke Prophets and the Law prophesied un- The test of prophecy is henceforth full through the prophets in past ages, is now til John. (Matt. 11:11—14) conformity to the Spirit-revealed testi- speaking “in these last days” by his Son, mony that Jesus is Lord (1 Cor. 12:3). John was a genuine prophet of God, his (Heb. 1:1–2). calling announced by the angel Gabriel Thus, from the standpoint of biblical John felt himself unworthy as Jesus’ in the temple sanctuary and by Zacha- theology, Jesus’ era is the finale of sal- 29 lowly servant (Luke 3:16) and intro- riah’s prophecy. He arose among the vation history. There can be no return duced him with glowing words brim- covenant community and proclaimed to pre-Jesus prophecy, at least none ming with OT prophecy: a baptism of repentance for the for- which does not submit to the correc- giveness of sins. But as the promised • “He who comes after me ranks tive teaching of Christian evangelists “messenger,” whose coming heralds the before me, because he was before (Acts 18:25–26) and to baptism in the arrival of God himself, he was “more me.” (John 1:15, 30) — Jesus is name of the Lord Jesus (Acts 19:1– than a prophet” and identified by Jesus the pre-existent Coming One. 10). Paul makes this clear to the Athe- as the greatest person born to that point. (Ps. 118:26; Mic. 5:2; Mal. 3:1) nians: “The times of ignorance God

International Journal of Frontier Missiology George Bristow 131 overlooked, but now he commands all people everywhere to repent” (Acts e can see the incompatibility of biblical and 17:30–31). Despite suggestions by qur’anic concepts of prophethood by pairing Talman (179) that we might think of Muhammad as a “BC-like prophet the main elements of their worldviews. 34 W during an AD time frame,” we find consummation,” resulting in the fol- system,38 looking for its fulfillment in no evidence in the New Testament for lowing set of pairs or correspondences: the “last days” (e.g., Ezek. 40–48).39 The the possibility of another “preparatory New Testament announces this fulfill- Creation-Fall – Tawhid economy” like God provided in OT ment in Jesus and his new covenant 35 salvation history. Redemption – Prophethood kingdom of priests. But the qur’anic perspective not only allows neither In the Old Testament, prophecy Consummation – Afterlife highlights God’s dwelling place in “intercession” nor “ransom” in the “Day Jerusalem and the priestly worship While the first and last of these pairings when no soul will stand in place of based on the law of Moses and the share some common ground, the middle another” (2:48; cf. 6:164; 17:15) but also, commandments through David and pair, redemption and prophethood, radi- as traditionally understood, rejects Jesus’ cally diverge and ultimately tell different death by crucifixion (4:157)40 and makes the prophets (2 Chron. 29:25–30; 36 36:15–16). Jesus’ inauguration of the stories of God and humanity. These nothing of his present universal priestly “new” covenant promised by prophets divergent narratives also correspond role. Here the qur’anic John’s simple such as Jeremiah and Ezekiel brings to very different diagnoses of what is prophet role diverges deeply from not only the fulfillment of the Davidic wrong with the world. In the biblical priestly-born John’s prophetic declara- kingdom through Jesus, son of David worldview God brings redemption to tion of Jesus as the “Lamb of God.” fallen humanity (through Christ); in the and son of God, but also of the priest- The biblical John warns of the “wrath qur’anic worldview he provides remind- hood through Christ’s once-for-all to come” and points to Jesus himself ers and guidance to forgetful humanity sacrifice and ministry at God’s right as the judge who will separate wheat (through prophets). While the Bible hand (Heb. 8–10), of God’s law now from chaff (Matt. 3:7–12). In the underscores God’s repeated entries into written on hearts as the law of Christ qur’anic message, belief in the afterlife and powerful action within history, (2 Cor. 3; Heb. 8; 1 Cor. 9:21), and of is second only in importance to belief the qur’anic version of human history Christ’s worldwide “body” as the true in God. The prophets continually highlights God’s repeated sending of dwelling place of God by the Spirit remind forgetful humanity of God and prophets. The comparison of the biblical (Eph. 2:19–22; 3:). The New Testa- “the Day.”41 Talman asserts that “the John as the coming Lord’s unique fore- ment concludes with John’s prophecy emphasis of [Muhammad’s] escha- runner with the qur’anic John sharpens of Christ’s “bride” as the holy temple- tological proclamation was Christ’s this dissonance. city (Rev. 21:9–22:5). Considering this Second Advent” (185). Yet if we base advancing purpose of God, there can Muslim writers are clear that the biblical our understanding of Muhammad’s be no return to a geographical center concept of God coming tangibly into the prophethood on the Qur’an, this is a of worship on earth, whether Rome, world is incompatible with the qur’anic dubious statement. While there is ex- Mecca, or Salt Lake City. Tawhid principle. For Shah, the tension tensive para-qur’anic Muslim exegeti- caused by the “amalgamation of anthro- cal literature that expects Jesus’ return Incompatible Perspectives on pomorphic and transcendental tenden- in the eschaton, no qur’anic statement Muhammad’s Prophethood cies” of the Hebrew Bible becomes clearly affirms it. As Reynolds says: unbearable in the NT: “Incarnational None of the events which Jesus is said We can more clearly see the incompat- theology is not paradoxical. It is thor- by the [Muslim] exegetes to accom- ibility of biblical and qur’anic concepts oughly and utterly contradictory.”37 plish in the eschaton–killing al-Dajjāl, of prophethood by pairing the main Muslims see the Qur’an, revealed to leading believers in prayer, breaking elements of the qur’anic and biblical Muhammad, as correcting the Jewish Crosses, killing swine (and Christians), worldviews. I have argued elsewhere 42 error of making God too immanent and etc.–are mentioned in the Quran. that the essential three elements of the Christian error of deifying a prophet. the Muslim worldview are Tawhid Despite similarities, there are deep dif- Yet this biblical revelation of the God of (divine unity), Prophethood, and ferences between the qur’anic “afterlife” Israel condescending to come among us Afterlife, and that these may be use- concept which emphasizes the soul’s is at the heart of its prophetic witness. fully juxtaposed with the elements of a “return” to God and the biblical “con- biblical worldview framework sum- Hebrew prophecy gives great signifi- summation” concept which is built upon marized as “creation, fall, redemption, cance to the temple and priestly sacrificial the resurrection and return of Jesus.43

35:3 Fall 2018 132 More than a Prophet: John the Baptist and the Question “Is Muhammad among the Prophets?”

Talman claims that: the previous books,47 it does not present But he also insists that man always Jewish Christian Christology . . . would a continuation, much less a concluding subverts this silent work of God not have compromised the Abraha- resolution, of this particular history. through repression and substitution, mic monotheism of the ḥunafā’, as that the church must humbly testify A full biblical theology of Islam (or did the aberrant Christologies of the in harmony with all the prophets, and other religions) is beyond the scope Christians that Muhammad refuted in that in Jesus Christ alone do we hear of this paper.48 God is indeed at work the Qur’an. (173) God’s voice and see his image.50 among peoples outside of the covenant I have two concerns here. First, the community in a variety of ways, not In my view, the Qur’an substitutes New Testament writings diverge sharp- leaving himself without witness (Acts a different story for “the gospel of ly from the Jewish exegetical narratives 14:17; Rom. 1:20). God does speak God, which he promised beforehand which parallel the Qur’an in many plac- through visions, angels, and human through his prophets in the holy Scrip- es and which were apparently known to representatives to individuals who need tures, concerning his Son . . .” (Rom. pre-Islamic Arab monotheists. to hear the true prophetic word, such as 1:1–4). Consequently, the qur’anic Naaman whose servant girl told him of prophet model personified by Mu- Second, as Bauckham has demonstrated, Elisha (2 Kings 5:1–4), and Cornelius hammad is ultimately incompatible the earliest Jewish Christian monotheism whom the angelic vision prepared to with the biblical model in which “the was a “Christological monotheism” which hear Peter’s “message by which you will spirit of prophecy is the testimony of included Jesus “in the unique identity of 44 be saved” (Acts 11:14). But neither Naa- Jesus” (Rev. 19:10). this one God.” Thus the “Abrahamic man nor Cornelius were thereby made monotheism” of the New Testament, in which Christ presents himself as the Missiological Implications God of Abraham and the Lord of David A gospel-centered hermeneutic is es- ( John 8:56–58; Matt. 22:41–46), has sential to seeing the Old Testament and little in common with that expressed New Testament writings as one book. As in the Qur’an. It does, however, have a The Qur’an the seal of the biblical prophets, John the lot in common with the Christology of Baptist’s ministry as Christ’s forerunner the churches present in the Hijaz at the substitutes a clarified this hermeneutic, announcing time of the emergence of Islam. Despite that the Kingdom of God was at hand. intense controversy over how to for- different story for After his resurrection, Christ taught his mulate the mystery, “the orthodox, the the gospel of God. followers to read the Scriptures in light Monophysites, and the Nestorians were of his suffering and subsequent glory all agreed that He was both God and (Luke 24:25–27, 32–34, 44–49; Acts man.”45 The Qur’an insists that Jesus is 1:3). If we are going to use the Bible to only a messenger (Q 5:72–75; 4:171). evaluate Muhammad correctly and wit- ness to Muslims convincingly, we must The presence of biblical concepts and prophets. Deciding if there is a biblical keep this interpretive grid clearly before para-biblical material in the Qur’an, category which can include Muham- us. This is, of course, essential to doing a especially given its use of the for- mad as a prophet of God is a different biblical theology of any religion. mula “remember . . .” when introducing question, one which requires a thorough prophet narratives, may be explained by assessment of the qur’anic prophet story A reconstrual of Muhammad’s their presence in the Jewish and Chris- pattern and the role of prophets in the prophethood which forces him into a tian communities extant in the Hijaz. overarching biblical narrative. quasi-Christian category, as a prophet Yet we should remember that the New Talman cites with approval Bavinck’s bearing fallible witness to Jesus, does Testament explicitly warns against Jew- view that “God dealt with Muham- justice to neither the Bible nor the ish exegetical narratives and interpretive mad and touched him.”49 Bavinck does Qur’an. Respectfully confessing my approaches which paint biblical figures indeed argue that: belief in the uniqueness and finality of in glowing colors (1 Tim. 1:4; 4:7; Titus Buddha would never have meditated Jesus is therefore the best answer to the 1:14). Watson shows how Paul is in on the way of salvation if God had question of what I think of Muham- “conversation” with second-Temple nar- not touched him. Mohammed would mad. Telling the story of John the ratives in which Abraham is a paragon of never have uttered his prophetic Baptist pointing to Jesus as the long- virtue.46 It seems to me that the Qur’an witness if God had not concerned Him- expected Savior and Jesus’ testimony to expands on these Jewish para-biblical self with him. Every religion contains, John as “more than a prophet” may give “hero” stories and presents a very differ- somehow, the silent work of God. clearer understanding why Muham- ent narrative. While claiming to confirm mad does not fit into the biblical story.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology George Bristow 133

Good witness often takes the hearers’ should be interpreted in harmony with the God to Israel (e.g., Neh. 9:26, 30); another worldview as a starting point, as Paul previous Scriptures which it claimed to 23% refer to “false prophets;” 12% refer to began his talk in Athens with a refer- confirm, rather than rely on later traditions the “prophesying” activities of both true and that contradict them” (170–71). false prophets; and 5% refer to “prophecy” ence to the altar “to the unknown god” 8 Malise Ruthven, Islam in the World, 3rd as a phenomenon. For example, Daniel 9:24 (Acts 17:23). But as Coleman notes, ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), 84. speaks of an eschatological sealing of “vision “Paul moved from commentary on 9 Unless otherwise noted I cite the and prophecy” and the NT refers to proph- the altar to a fairly significant rebuke translation of M. A. S. Abdel Haleem, The ecy as a spiritual gift (1 Cor. 12–14). of their worldview and practices while Qur’an, Oxford World Classics (Oxford: 20 See Karl Möller, “Prophecy and Proph- continuing to emphasize both their Oxford University Press, 2004). ets in the OT,” in Dictionary for Theological In- ignorance and culpability.”51 Witness 10 Rippin says, “it does seem that in no terpretation of the Bible, ed. Kevin J. Vanhoozer to Muslims may well begin from their sense can the Qur’an be assumed to be a (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2005). 21 understanding of prophets and move to primary document in constructing the life J. Stokl, “Ancient near Eastern Proph- the Gospel, as Pennington proposes.52 of Muhammad.” Andrew Rippin, “Muham- ecy,” in Dictionary of the Old Testament: Proph- mad in the Qur’an: Reading Scripture in ets, ed. Mark J. Boda and J. G. McConville However, it is crucial in light of my the 21st Century,” in The Biography of Mu- (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 2012), 23. findings here to keep in mind that bib- 22 hammad: The Issue of the Sources, ed. Harald 1 Sam. 3:20; 1 Kings 18:4, 13, 22; lical and qur’anic concepts of prophet- Motzki (Boston: Brill, 2000), 307. 22:7–8; 2 Kings 3:11; 17:13; 2 Chron. 18:6, 11 hood are deeply different. We should This is one of four verses where 13; 20:20; 28:9; 29:25; 36:16; Ezra 5:2. stress John’s prophetic announcement Muhammad is mentioned by name (3:144; 23 Ronald E. Manahan, “A Theology of the glorious One who came after 33:40; 47:2; 48:29). of Pseudoprophets: A Study in Jeremiah,” 12 him and Jesus’ own insistence that all Isma’il R. al Faruqi, “A Comparison Grace Theological Journal 1, no. 1 (1980): 88. the prophets spoke of him. of the Islamic and Christian Approaches 24 The role of Samuel, Nathan, and to Hebrew Scripture,” Journal of Bible and other prophets in announcing the reign of Whatever our biblical theology of Religion 31, no. 4 (1963): 286, 90. David and the Davidic Messiah is crucial, as 13 religions, we do not respect Muslims Qur’an 6:74–87; 19:41–50; 21:51– Peter reminds the Jews of Jerusalem in Acts by redefining Muhammad on our own 73; 26:69–102; 29:16–27; 37:83–100; 3:24; see also 1 Chron. 29:29. 43:26–28; 60:4–7. 25 terms. Rather we honor their seek- 14 “‘Prophet’ would then be a title of ing after God by standing with John, Though this material has no parallels honor that attached itself to various historical in the canonical Abraham narrative, many (and legendary) figures known to have been the prophet who was “more than a are found in Jewish para-biblical writings. prophet,” and directing them to the great teachers and poets.” Philip H. Towner, See Shari L. Lowin, The Making of a The Letters to Timothy and Titus,NICNT Lamb of God. IJFM Forefather: Abraham in Islamic and Jewish (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2006), 700. Exegetical Narratives, Islamic History and 26 See also Deut. 23:4–5; Josh. 13:22; Endnotes Civilization (Leiden: Brill, 2006). 15 24:9–10; Neh. 13:2; 2 Peter 2:15; Jude 1:11; 1 John is mentioned in four suras: Rev. 2:14. Rev. 1:17–18; Matt. 28:18–20. 3:33–41; 6:84–90; 19:2–15; 21:83–91. 2 27 There are also parallels between Mus- 16 Most notably Wayne A. Grudem, These include the angelic announce- The Gift of Prophecy in the New Testament lim and Mormon writings in their relation- ment to his father Zachariah as he prays in and Today, Rev. ed. (Wheaton: Crossway ship to Jewish extra-biblical literature. See the sanctuary and his mother’s barrenness. Books, 2000). Talman affirms this position Bradley J. Cook, “The Book of Abraham and Zachariah’s dumbness comes in answer to the Islamic Qiṣaṣ Al-Anbiyā’ (Tales of the in footnotes 64 and 114. his request for a sign, rather than a punish- 28 Prophets) Extant Literature,” Dialogue: A ment as in Luke’s account. Jesus repeatedly warned his followers of Journal of Mormon Thought 33, no. 4 (2000). 17 false prophets to come (Matt. 7:15; 24:11, 24). 3 OT prophecy also includes judg- 29 Kathryn Greene-McCreight, “Rule of ments on Israel’s neighbors: Babylon, Assyria, Luke 1:11–20, 76–79. 30 Faith,” in Dictionary for Theological Inter- Philistia, Moab, Damascus, Ethiopia, Egypt, See Bristow, 30, endnote 42. On pretation of the Bible, ed. Kevin Vanhoozer Edom, Arabia, Kedar, Hazor, Elam, Tyre, Jesus and the coming of God, see N. T. (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2005), 704. Sidon (e.g., Isa. 13–25; Jer. 46–51; Ezek. Wright, Jesus and the Victory of God, Chris- 4 See IJFM issues in volumes 32 (2015) 25–32; Dan. 4–5; Amos 1:3–15; Zech. 9:1–7; tian Origins and the Question of God, Vol. and 33 (2016). and the books of Obadiah and Nahum). 2 (London: SPCK, 1996), 615–21. 5 31 See George Bristow, Sharing Abra- 18 Kevin J. Vanhoozer, The Drama of Jesus identifies himself in the context ham?: Narrative Worldview, Biblical and Doctrine: A Canonical-Linguistic Approach as the unique Son of God (Matt. 11:27). Qur’anic Interpretation and Comparative to Christian Theology (Louisville: Westmin- 32 Acts 2:21–36 cites Pss. 16, 110, and Theology in Turkey (Cambridge, Mass: ster John Knox Press, 2005), 50. 132; Acts 3:12–26 cites Deut. 18:15–19 and Doorlight Academic, 2017). 19 A search for the words prophet, Gen. 22:18; Acts 4:8–12 cites Ps. 118 and Acts 6 Page numbers for Talman, “Is Mu- prophecy, prophesy, and cognates yields more 4:24–28 cites Ps. 2. Stephen (7:52) and Philip hammad Also Among the Prophets” are than 550 verses, across biblical genres. Of preach the good news about Jesus from the given in parentheses when it is cited. these, 35% refer to individuals who are called prophets (Acts 8:27–35). Peter (Acts 10:43), 7 Talman aligns himself with scholars “prophet” (or “prophetess”) of God; 25% are Paul (Acts 13:16–41, citing Pss. 2 and 16, who “maintain that Muhammad’s message plural references to “the prophets” sent by Isa. 49 and 55; Hab. 1) and James (15:13–18,

35:3 Fall 2018 134 More than a Prophet: John the Baptist and the Question “Is Muhammad among the Prophets?” citing Amos 9:11–12) believed that the gospel K. Beale, The Temple and the Church’s Mission was Monophysitism that Muhammad likely was precisely what all the prophets had an- (Leicester: IVP, 2004), 123–67. encountered.” C. Jonn Block, The Qur’an in nounced beforehand. Several begin specifically 40 Q4:157 is interpreted differently Christian-Muslim Dialogue: Historical and from John (Acts 1:22; see 10:27; 13:24–25). by some: “God (and not the Jews!) first Modern Interpretations (Abingdon: Routledge, 33 Note the movement from the ages made Jesus die, and then made him ascend 2014), Kindle Locations 911–12. before Jesus—“in past generations” and “the to heaven.” Gabriel Said Reynolds, “The 46 Francis Watson, Paul and the Herme- times of ignorance”—to the emphatic “but Muslim Jesus: Dead or Alive?,” Bulletin of neutics of Faith (London: T & T Clark now . . .” of the final, post-resurrection era in SOAS, Vol. 72, no. 2 (2009): 240. Neverthe- International, 2004), 167–269. which all peoples are commanded to repent less, in 19:33 Jesus’ death is treated just as 47 For example, “He has sent the Scrip- and take refuge in Christ (Acts 14:16; 17:30). that of John in 19:15. ture down to you [Prophet] with the Truth, 34 Citing Dudley Woodberry’s lectures. 41 Bristow, 163–67. confirming what went before: He sent down 35 For discussion of proposals that the 42 Gabriel Said Reynolds, “The Muslim the Torah and the Gospel earlier” (Q3:3; cf. Qur’an be seen as preparatory for Muslims see Jesus. Dead or Alive?,” Bulletin of SOAS, 2:91; 3:81; 5:48; 10:37). 48 Doug Coleman, “A Theological Analysis of Vol. 72, no. 2 (2009): 250. See also Zeki A recent evangelical entry is Daniel the Insider Movement Paradigm from Four Sarıtoprak, Islam’s Jesus (Gainesville: Uni- Strange, ‘For Their Rock Is Not as Our Perspectives: Theology of Religions, Revela- versity Press of Florida, 2014), 23. Rock’: An Evangelical Theology of Religions tion, Soteriology, and Ecclesiology,” EMS 43 Bristow, 47–51, 163–68. (Leicester: Inter-Varsity, 2014). 49 Dissertation Series (Pasadena, CA: WCIU 44 Richard Bauckham, Jesus and the God J. H. Bavinck, The Church between Press, 2011), PhD Dissertation, 128–29. Temple and Mosque (Grand Rapids: Eerd- 36 of Israel: God Crucified and Other Studies on the Bristow, 36–51. New Testament’s Christology of Divine Identity mans, 1966), 125. 37 50 Zulfiqar Ali Shah,Anthropomorphic (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2008), 182. Ibid., 200–05. 51 Depictions of God: The Concept of God in Judaic, 45 Theodore Sabo, From Monophysitism to Coleman, 59. See pp. 54–65 for Christian and Islamic Traditions: Representing Nestorianism: ad 431–681 (Cambridge: Cam- discussion of Acts 17:15–34, particularly the Unrepresentable (Herndon, Va.: Interna- bridge Scholars Publishing, 2018), 1. As Cragg engaging Kevin Higgins, “The Key to In- tional Institute of Islamic Thought, 2010), 661. argues, “The clause, from Nicea, ‘of one sub- sider Movements: The ‘Devoted’s’ of Acts,” 38 It also insists that insincere sacrifices stance with the Father’ was not in question.” IJFM, Vol. 21, no. 4 (2004). are abhorrent to God (e.g., Mal. 1). Kenneth Cragg, The Arab Christian: A History 52 Perry Pennington, “From Prophethood 39 On the “expanding end-time purpose in the Middle East (Louisville: Westminster/ to the Gospel: Talking to Folk Muslims About of temples” in the OT prophets, see, Gregory John Knox Press, 1991), 15–16. Block says, “It Jesus,” IJFM, Vol. 31, no. 4 (2014): 197–98.

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International Journal of Frontier Missiology Peripheral Vision Cognitive Science and Theological Education in Technologically Developing Countries by David R. Dunaetz

Editor’s Note: This paper was presented at the Evangelical Missiological Society national meeting in October 2017. While focused on the learning process in more traditional set- tings of theological education in the Majority World, the author’s insights illustrate the increasing relevance of cognitive science to missiology. These transferable concepts apply both to the informal learning contexts encountered in frontier mission, and to new train- ing institutions where movements to Christ are emerging among unreached peoples.

lthough incredible diversity exists among humans, there is sufficient similarity in human minds across cultures to scientifically study how a person’s thoughts, feelings, and behavior influence each other. CognitiveA science is the broad, interdisciplinary field that examines the psycho- logical and biological phenomena associated with the mind. Because the human mind is so complex, progress in the field is often painstakingly slow, especially when compared to the progress that has been made in the physical sciences. Although we can predict with a good deal of accuracy what a molecule or a nearby star will do in a year or a century from now, we have a very difficult time predicting what our next-door neighbor will do tomorrow. Nevertheless, cogni- tive science has enabled us to discover general trends that describe how humans are likely to behave in various circumstances, although we will never be able to predict exactly how a specific individual would act in those circumstances. Towards a Theology of the Mind

For many Christians, anything having to do with psychology is of questionable value. Some equate psychology with the speculative assumptions of psycho- analysis developed by Sigmund Freud (1856–1939; e.g., Freud 1923; 1962) which have long been downplayed, if not discredited, by scientists (Dufresne 2007; Eysenck 1991; Stanovich 2013). After World War II, the dominant paradigm in psychology was behaviorism (Skinner 1971; Watson 1926) which was more David R. Dunaetz is Associate Profes- scientific in nature but was still quite unacceptable from a Christian point of view. sor of Leadership and Organizational Psychology at Azusa Pacific University. Behaviorists such as Watson and Skinner believed that human behavior depended He was a church planter in France for 17 uniquely on a person’s background and his current environment. From a behav- years with WorldVenture, planting two churches and helping two others move be- iorist point of view, thoughts, feelings, beliefs, values, and other cognitive phe- yond missionary dependence. His research nomena were irrelevant to behavior, mere artifacts of evolution that gave humans focuses on understanding interpersonal processes in Christian organizations. the illusion of free will and for which humans could not be held accountable.

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However, by the 1960s, psychologists be- behaviors” (Myers and DeWall 2015, might naturally encounter it (e.g., gan to realize that mental states and pro- 280). This definition is especially responses to attacks on Christianity by cesses did indeed influence behavior and appropriate for theological education be- a non-Christian friend) and, second, could be studied relatively objectively, cause it includes the concept of acquir- the material is primarily transmitted albeit imprecisely. As these mental states ing both information and behaviors. Tra- through language (oral and/or written), and processes were studied, it became ditional theological educators certainly rather than by watching other people clear that the experimental evidence want their students to master informa- model it (e.g., the biblical concept of pointed to the mind, not as a blank slate, tion about the Bible, church history, and forgiveness) (Bruner, Olver, and Green- but as a preprogrammed organ that theology, but even traditional, western field 1966; Scribner and Cole 1973). tended to learn, interpret, and create in theological education is not limited to predictable ways across individuals and learning information. It includes acquir- Cross-Cultural Cognitive across cultures (Pinker 2002). By the ing new behaviors which, depending Functions 1980s, this approach to studying the hu- on the cultural context, may range from Before examining principles from cogni- man mind became dominant in the field, administering baptism and performing tive science that may be useful for theo- a change which has become known as weddings to exegeting a biblical passage 1 logical education in developing countries, the cognitive revolution (Miller 2003). and presenting an effective sermon on the question of whether the underlying it. In addition, theological education This new focus on the mind has made cognitive phenomena are culturally may include elements of leadership and psychology as a science much more com- universal or are culturally relative must character development, which manifests patible with Christian theology. Rather be asked. This is an important question than assuming that human beings are because much of cognitive science has born as a blank slate, they are assumed to been developed by studying people who be born with a specific nature common are white, educated, industrialized, rich, to all humans, yet also with individual A more and democratic (commonly known as differences. The role of science is thus WEIRD; Henrich, Heine, and Norenza- to discover and describe this nature and cognitive approach yan 2010a, 2010b), whereas most people to describe how, along with individual makes psychology in the world are not. differences and the environment, it influ- Some cognitive functions are clearly uni- ences human behaviors such as learning, more compatible with versal. People of all cultures use the five communication, and social interaction. Christian theology. senses to gain information about their This is perfectly congruent with Christian physical and social environment. People theology which teaches that human na- of all cultures use language to communi- ture most certainly exists and is character- cate within their in-group. People of all ized by, if not defined by, both the image cultures can also learn cultural informa- of God ( , Gen. 1:26–28) and tion in a classroom setting (Bruner 1960). sinfulness (Rom. 3:23, Eph. 2:3). itself through new behaviors which are constructive and consistent. Other cognitive functions differ from Theological Education and culture to culture. This is at least partially Cognitive Science Because it can occur in many different due to differences in cultural schemas, contexts, for the purpose of this study, cognitive structures and categories repre- Thus, insights gained from cognitive traditional theological education will be senting regularities in patterns regularly science concerning learning (such as defined asthe complex process by which encountered in one’s culture (Baldwin in a context of theological education), students, in an institutional context, 1995; Nishida 1999). Similarly, language to the degree that they are true and are learn new and enduring information and structures influence beliefs about the based upon an accurate understanding behaviors that are relevant to Christian world. Languages vary in the vocabulary of human behavior, can enable Christian life and ministry (cf. Myers and DeWall available to describe differences in nuanc- missionaries, educators, and students to 2015, 280). These institutions may be es, both in physical domains (e.g., colors become more effective in the areas to schools, churches, or any other organi- or weather-related phenomena) and the which God has called them. In this ar- zation with theological education as one psychological (e.g., emotions or commit- ticle, we will focus upon learning, which of its goals. Institution-based learning ment). These vocabulary differences, as is one of the principal goals of theologi- differs from other types of learning in well as grammatical structures that exist cal education. Learning can be defined several ways. First, the material present- in a language (e.g., tenses), influence how as “the process of acquiring new and ed to the student is not presented in its members of a culture think, feel, and relatively enduring information or normal, day-to-day context as a student behave (Myers and DeWall 2015; Whorf

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1956). Other cognitive phenomena that differ by culture include perceptions of o complicate matters, all cultures are evolving fairness and cooperation, moral reasoning, . . . and this cultural evolution is accelerating, and self-concept (Henrich et al. 2010b). at least in part, due to technology. So, there are some cognitive processes T that vary according to culture and others high elaboration strategies to describe processing only occurs when a person is that are common to all humans. The ways that the information can be both willing and able to put in the time processes that are purely biological and processed and how beliefs and attitudes and effort necessary to comprehensively are fundamental to human nature tend are formed (Chaiken 1980; Kahne- analyze the material being presented. to be culturally universal. The processes man 2011; Petty and Cacioppo 1986a, Rather than focusing on the source that are learned and are influenced by 1986b). The type of elaboration strategy or context of the material, this type of the environment tend to be culturally used influences how well a person learns processing focuses on the content of the relative. However, it is often difficult to material and the strength of their beliefs material. Learners are typically willing to distinguish between these. As a rule of that form about the material. put forth the effort necessary for effort- ful processing when they believe that the thumb, one can assume that, apart from Low elaboration strategies use automatic material will personally affect their lives evidence to the contrary, human cogni- processing to store the perceptions made depending on whether it is true or not. tive processes are at least similar between by the source of the new information. cultures, if not identical. However, if there This is sometimes called System 1 For theological education, this means is evidence that cultural differences in thinking (Kahneman 2011) and is said that the primary role of the professor is cognitive processes exist, these need to be to use the peripheral route through the not only to provide access to new infor- taken into account because the phenom- brain. Automatic processing is fast and mation, but also to ensure that the stu- ena may very well be culturally relative. does not require much, if any, effort, but dent effortfully processes the material. The phenomena and models described in it does not critically evaluate the content Education that consists of listening to this study currently appear to be cultur- of the material concerning its truth or lectures, reading texts, and then reread- ally universal. They include automatic relevance. Rather, the environment of ing the texts (and even highlighting key and effortful processing, the spacing the message influences its impact. For points) generates less effortful process- effect, and the testing effect. However, example, automatic processing occurs in ing than education that includes writing as our knowledge and understanding of theological education when a student (whether summarizing, elaborating, or culture increases, it would not be surpris- receives and evaluates information applying the material), discussion, and ing to find at least some small differences positively because he or she believes the testing, especially when these elements between cultures in how these phenom- professor to be credible and authorita- are clearly seen to be directly relevant to ena play out. To complicate matters, all tive, because the teacher is attractive or the student’s previous experiences and cultures are evolving (Mesoudi, Whiten, charismatic, or because the professor ministry (Dunlosky et al. 2013; Fowler and Laland 2006) and this cultural presents the information in a catchy or and Barker 1974). Assuming that all evolution is accelerating, at least in part, humorous way. In automatic processing, theological students in a given context due to technology (Rosa 2003). Because the learner uses these and other mental will have access to the material that they of the rapidity of technology-driven shortcuts (heuristics) rather than evi- need to learn through lectures or books, cultural change, a special emphasis will dence and reason to evaluate the materi- we can safely predict that the amount be placed on the influence that technol- al. This type of learning requires far less that each student learns will be propor- ogy can have on the cognitive processes effort than more in depth processing, tional to his or her effortful processing and phenomena involved in theological but is less stable, less resistant to counter of this material. The most effective education in the Majority World. arguments, and less likely to influence professors are thus those who maximize the learner’s behavior than learning that effortful processing in their students, Automatic and Effortful involves in-depth processing (Chaiken creating desirable difficulties that lead to Processing 1980; Eagly and Chaiken 1998). greater learning (Bjork, Dunlosky, and Kornell 2013; Kornell and Bjork 2007). When theological students (and every- High elaboration strategies, on the other one else) are exposed to new informa- hand, require effortful processingrather tion, some type of processing must oc- than automatic processing (Petty 2013; The Testing Effect cur in their brain before one can say that Petty and Cacioppo 1986a, 1986b). One way to increase effortful processing the material has been learned to some This is also known as System 2 thinking (and thus learning) is through testing, degree or another. Cognitive scientists (Kahneman 2011) and is said to use the either non-graded self-testing or graded distinguish between low elaboration and central route through the brain. Effortful testing that is part of the curriculum.

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Thetesting effect describes the phenome- other perceived reward coming from an Self-determination theory (Deci and na whereby people who have been tested outside source. However, such motivation Ryan 2008; Ryan and Deci 2000) also on material they have studied remember persists only as long as the prospect of predicts that intrinsic motivation to it better than those who have not been gaining such a reward is a possibility. perform a behavior will increase with tested on it, even when the amount of autonomy, the feeling that one can Intrinsic motivation, on the other hand, studying is the same (McDaniel et al. freely choose to perform the behavior is more permanent and not conditioned 2007; Roediger and Karpicke 2006). This or not. For the theological educator, this by external forces. Self-determination phenomena is especially true when the implies that instruction should not sim- theory (Deci and Ryan 2008; Ryan tests are composed of questions that re- ply teach the “correct” way to do things and Deci 2000) argues that intrinsic (baptize, perform a marriage, preach a quire a higher level of processing (such as motivation for a behavior (such as sermon, start a church, etc.), but should analysis, evaluation, or application) than studying material for a test) increases to provide instruction and examples con- questions that require a lower level of the degree that the behavior increases cerning a number of means and strate- processing, such as recalling facts ( Jensen one’s sense of competence, autonomy, and gies for accomplishing these tasks. This et al. 2014; Wooldridge et al. 2014). relatedness. Theological students, like enables theological students to choose all humans, want to be competent, to There are at least several mechanisms the approach which best corresponds gain mastery over their environment in behind the testing effect. First, from a to their personality, gifting, and context. order to achieve their life goals. If they biological perspective, retrieval practice Being able to choose among different believe that studying the material in a through testing strengthens neural approaches will increase their sense class may increase their competency, pathways linking concepts that increase of both competence and autonomy, recall ability (Liu et al. 2014; Wing, increasing their motivation to perform Marsh, and Cabeza 2013). Although the task. Testing students with questions retrieving information and processing that ask them to compare and evaluate it for analysis, evaluation, or application methods and strategies to accomplish is difficult the first time, it becomes Motivation increases ministry tasks are especially useful for easier with practice and the ability to developing this sense of autonomy. do so becomes more permanent. Thus with the sense of while it might be initially difficult for The promise of high quality relation- a theological student to respond to competence, autonomy, ships also increases intrinsic motivation the test prompt “What would you say and relatedness. according to self-determination theory to a member of a youth group who is (Deci and Ryan 2008; Ryan and Deci considering becoming a Muslim?”, the 2000). Being created in the image of second time he or she faces the prompt God whose fundamental nature is love (or an actual youth group member), the (1 John 4:7–8) implies that humans are response will require less effort. innately social. Furthermore, we do not they will be likely to study for a test. The simply desire relationships with others, Second, from a motivational point of role of the theological educator in this but high-quality relationships which are view, the testing effect occurs because case is to demonstrate that the material mutually beneficial cognitively, emotion- testing typically motivates people to use is related to competencies necessary to ally, and spiritually. If a Bible professor high elaboration strategies and expend achieve their life goals. For example, if a teaching a course in the prison epistles the effort necessary to thoroughly process theological student desires to serve the can demonstrate how mastery of the ma- the material. Self-determination theory Lord in a local church, the educator can terial will increase the quality of students’ (Deci and Ryan 2008; Ryan and Deci increase motivation to study for a test on relationships, the students will be more 2000) is useful for understanding how the Pentateuch by demonstrating how motivated to study the material. Tests testing may increase motivation. Moti- mastery of the Pentateuch can make that that focus on applications of the biblical vation can be either extrinsic (directed person a more effective minister, such content are especially relevant to help the towards seeking external rewards) or as by providing a foundation of creation student focus on improved relationships. intrinsic (directed towards meeting theology or interpersonal ethics. Students Prompts such as “How did Paul express internal, psychological needs). Testing in who do well on a test measuring these his thankfulness to the Philippians?” theological education can produce extrin- competencies will increase their internal or “Cite several Pauline principles of sic motivation if the student believes that motivation to use these competencies in conflict resolution.” encourage students mastering the material (or at least doing real life situations. In contrast, those who to think in terms of relationships and well on the test) will lead to higher grades, do not do well will be less motivated to motivate them to master the concepts in a better internship, a higher salary, or any try to use these competencies. order to improve their relationships.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology David R. Dunaetz 139 The Spacing Effect he unconscious brain continues to evaluate One of the most important ways that cognitive scientists have discovered to through a process of incubation, and this is increase retention of abstract material is partially responsible for the eureka effect. distributed practice in contrast to massed T practice (Cepeda et al. 2006; Ruch 1928). not consciously thinking ( Jung-Beeman the semester will have the advantage Distributed practice is studying material et al. 2004; Perkins 2001). A theologi- of being forced to integrate their new over a period of time, coming back to it cal student who does not understand a experiences into their learning. after breaks (ranging from minutes to difficult concept (e.g., the relationship A third phenomena that occurs with weeks) whereas massed practice is doing between faith and works) may not get spaced study periods in contrast to all of the studying at once, commonly the information the first or second time a massed study period is simply the known as cramming. The difference in he or she studies the relevant biblical testing effect (Putnam, Sungkhaset- learning that occurs under these two texts. However, during a flash of insight tee, and Roediger 2016; Roediger and conditions is known as the sometime later, the relationship may be- spacing effect Karpicke 2006). When students en- come clearer. A third session of studying (Kapler, Weston, and Wiseheart 2015). counter new material on a topic, they the relevant biblical texts would allow The studying effort spaced over a longer are, to a certain degree, tested on the the incorporation of the new insight into period of time leads to more permanent previously covered material. Cognitive learning than does the same amount of the student’s understanding of faith and works, cementing the student’s convic- effort is required to recall the material studying massed together. For example, on the topic, perhaps with significant studying a language a little bit each day, tions by strengthening his or her beliefs (Dunaetz 2016). priming from the professor, which or even several times a week, will lead strengthens the neural pathways asso- to better retention than studying for the A second learning-enhancing phe- ciated with the concept and makes the same total amount of time once a week nomena that occurs during the spacing material easier to recall when needed. in one sitting (Bahrick et al. 1993). effect is the incorporation of new and relevant experiences into one’s develop- Because interacting with material sev- In addition to encouraging students to eral times over a long period is a more study regularly, this means that effec- ing schemas (Shors 2014; Sisti et al. 2007). If students are studying about effective way to learn than is concen- tive professors will design their courses trated exposure to the same amount of so that students are repeatedly exposed baptism in a theology class, they might hear some basic rationale about different material (Kapler et al. 2015; Putnam to the material in a cognitively chal- et al. 2016), theological educators can lenging way multiple times during the modes. The material might not gener- ate much cognitive reflection because organize their classes and motivate quarter or semester. Quick learning their students appropriately: essentially leads to quick forgetting there are so many other equally inter- (Cepeda et al. 2006; Ebbinghaus esting concepts presented in the class, • Professors should encourage regu- 1885/1913). The physical phenom- especially if the professor’s preferred lar studying and reviewing after ena behind the spacing effect is that baptismal mode corresponds to that of each class period rather than cram- repeated processing of given material the students’ background. However, if ming before exams. It is useful to creates longer lasting neural path- a student encounters someone in the inform students that this is a more ways. Like the testing effect, repeated coming weeks who prefers a different effective way to study because stu- exposure to material makes it easier to mode of baptism, the student’s interest is dents tend to believe that massing recall, especially when needed (Sisti, piqued and additional reflection occurs. is more effective than distributed Glass, and Shors 2007). Several psy- Without distributed practice, what the practice (Son and Simon 2012). student learned originally might not chological and behavioral phenomena • Learning will be more permanent lie behind the spacing effect as well. evolve. However, if the professor assigns additional assignments or tests that in classes that meet several times First, the material being studied contin- concern arguing for or against a mode per week rather than just once a ues to be evaluated by the unconscious of baptism, deep level processing is more week or once a month. Frequent brain in between study sessions in a likely to occur in students who can add exposure to the material is more process known as incubation (Sio and recent experiences into their thought effective than longer, infrequent Ormerod 2009; Smith and Blankenship process as they develop their argument. exposure to the material. 1991). This process is at least partially Students who cover the question of bap- • Longer semesters are more effec- responsible for the eureka effect, whereby tism all at once in the semester will not tive than shorter semesters. Shorter a person has a flash of insight concern- have this advantage. Students who are semesters provide less opportunity ing a problem about which he or she is exposed to the topic several times during to process and apply the material

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and there are fewer opportunities facilitates communication (e.g., email students miss much information that to integrate new, relevant experi- and texting), makes scholarship accessi- would increase their learning. Forbid- ences into the course. ble (e.g., Google Scholar and Research- ding both cell phone use (Beland and • Short, frequent assignments are more Gate), and permits paperless classroom Murphy 2016) and internet access effective than fewer, long assign- management at a distance (e.g., Moodle in the classroom (Wood et al. 2012) ments. Students should be asked to and Canvas), technology can also reduce increases learning as demonstrated by review, analyze, and apply the mate- learning in theological education. Re- higher test scores. In addition, students search in the cognitive sciences provides rial shortly after its initial presenta- who can see another student’s screen are insights into how to avoid some of the tion to strengthen their understand- often distracted due to no fault of their dangers associated with technology. ing of the concepts so that they may own (Fried 2008). Messaging apps and continue to build upon them. Perhaps the most obvious danger asso- social networks are often the greatest ciated with technology is distraction in distraction in developed countries ( Jun- • Frequent, cumulative quizzes and co and Mastrodicasa 2007) and there tests are more effective than fewer, a classroom. Although humans believe they can multitask, they really only is little reason to doubt that a similar non-cumulative quizzes and tests phenomenon occurs in the Majority and much more effective than no can give their attention to one event or activity at a time (Driver 1998; Kaplan World where people tend to be more testing or quizzing. Increasing collectivistic than individualistic. the number of quizzes and tests and Berman 2010; Pashler and Johnston increases learning through both the 1998). Attention is a process by which The question thus arises, “Should theo- testing effect and the spacing effect. a person perceives information from logical educators ban the use of comput- ers and cell phones in the classroom?” Although the spacing effect is one of Mueller and Oppenheimer (2014) found the most strongly supported phenom- through a series of experiments that ena in the cognitive sciences, imple- students who took lecture notes by hand menting strategies that increase learning learned more than students who took through this phenomena is often met The adoption notes on their computer as demonstrated with resistance by students, professors, of technology by their response to conceptual questions or administrators. Such strategies often on a test. Even when not distracted by the require more time, effort, and resources is 50% faster in the internet, computer users tended to focus than strategies that encourage massing. Majority World. their attention on copying material verba- Nevertheless, as faithful stewards of that tim whereas students taking handwritten which God has entrusted us, we need notes processed the information to put to consider what is in the best interest it into their own words. This means that of theological students and the people theological educators can increase learn- whom God is calling them to serve. ing by forbidding the use of computers one source while ignoring information and cell phones in the classroom because from other sources (Pashler 1998). This Technology-Related Pitfalls this both reduces distractions and encour- choice concerning one’s focus may be ages deeper level processing. Certainly, in Much of the Majority World is charac- either conscious or unconscious. If too some classes the use of a computer would terized by rapid adoption of electronic much information is available, bottle- technology. Because the technology gap necking occurs which causes some infor- be beneficial (e.g., a course in media use during the Cold War era was so large mation to not be perceived. This permits for evangelism), but in many classes it is between developed and developing the information that is the focus of in the students’ interest to forbid its use. nations, the adoption of technology has one’s attention to be processed and Another threat to theological education been around 50% faster in the Majority acted upon, although other information associated with technology concerns World than in the West since then, but is ignored and has little influence on a the students’ time management outside a gap still exists (The World Bank 2008). person (Simon 1994). of the classroom. The internet provides This has enormous implications for theo- a virtually unlimited source of amusing logical education in the Majority World, This means that students tend to believe cat videos and other sources of enter- providing both opportunities and pitfalls. that they can surf the internet on their cell phones or laptops during a lecture tainment (Myrick 2015). Internet-based Although contemporary electronic deemed boring, yet keep an ear open entertainment is often effective as a technology in Majority World contexts in case the professor says anything mood enhancer, but it also motivates permits the use of media in the class- important or interesting. In reality, these procrastination and the negative effects room (e.g., PowerPoints and YouTube), that accompany it (Myrick 2015; Steel

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2007). This makes time management more difficult for students. They may hen an institution focuses on economic have every intention of studying, but the stability, student satisfaction or engagement draw of internet entertainment and so- may become more important than learning. cial media may severely restrict the time W that they can consecrate to their studies. the price of photocopies, without a need is interested vs. preparing ministers who Because this phenomena is relatively to print a minimum number of copies have been recognized by their churches new, a given culture may have few effec- (e.g., Dunaetz 2017). Such books are an for full-time ministry), they can meet tive strategies for overcoming this diffi- economical way to enhance the effective- the needs of both the students and the culty. Theological educators should thus ness of PowerPoint-based lectures. employees, while maintaining their own consider introducing time management salaries as well. strategies into the curriculum. In many The Economic Threat to Learning cultures, calendars and to-do lists would When the focus of the institution be very appropriate, both of which can The increased use of technology in the changes to concern for economic stability, be managed through technology (e.g., Majority World is strongly associated student satisfaction or engagement may Google Calendar, Microsoft Note), with economic growth (Chatterji 2016; become more important than student often more effectively than through The World Bank 2008). Economic learning. By focusing on satisfaction or traditional handwritten approaches. A growth is generally a desirable phenom- engagement, student retention will in- wide variety of time management apps enon, but some side effects may affect crease (Kuh et al. 2011) which helps meet exist (e.g., Timeful, Focus Booster, and theological education in the developing the financial needs of the organization. Remember the Milk) which increases world. Theological institutions started However, with an increased emphasis on the likelihood of finding a cultur- by missionaries are initially dependent meeting student desires, it is quite possi- ally appropriate tool. So by beginning on outside funds. Those who control the ble that academic standards and learning the semester with the presentation of funds have a large say in defining the decrease (Trow 1987). Since maximizing several time management strategies, a mission of the institution (e.g., training learning requires effortful processing, theological educator would likely enable workers for full-time Christian service). higher standards are resisted by students; his or her students to study more and However, as the national church and weaker students are especially discour- thus learn more during the semester. local economy grow, the likelihood of aged by higher standards and are more the institution supporting itself grows as likely to drop out, taking their tuition The inappropriate use of media by the well. This has long been a goal of many with them. There are no easy solutions to professor in the classroom is another mission organizations (e.g., Venn 1865). the tensions created by a need for stability threat to effective theological education. However, once an institution needs to and the desire to maintain and fulfill the As mentioned earlier, students who take support itself, including its salaried staff, it original mission of a school. However, notes on a computer process the informa- is easy for its mission to drift. The leaders being aware of the cognitive processes tion less than those who take notes by of the organization, especially Christian involved can help leaders of theological hand (Mueller and Oppenheimer 2014). leaders, are likely to feel responsible for institutions make wiser decisions. This is especially true for PowerPoint the well-being of the employees of the presentations which are often presented organization, a phenomena often as- If one of the main goals of theologi- at a rate that is comfortable for the pro- sociated with servant leadership (Mark cal education is to prepare students for fessor but not the students (Putnam et al. 9:35; Greenleaf 1977). Because of loss ministry, students need to learn the 2016). Elizabeth Marsh and Holly Sink aversion (Kahneman and Tversky 1979; knowledge and skills that will make of Duke University (2010) have demon- Kermer et al. 2006), the immediate threat them effective ministers of Jesus Christ. strated that students typically learn better of hurting coworkers seems more serious Schools can encourage this learning in from a PowerPoint presentation if they than a change of mission for the school. ways that are effective or ineffective, or are given paper copies of the slides before Our brain essentially tells us (through anywhere in between. By being aware of the lecture than if they took all their notes subjective feelings) that the loss associ- some of the cognitive phenomena that themselves. Such handouts increased ated with hurting someone (e.g., laying can enhance learning, such as effortful student satisfaction, reduced time needed off a colleague due to lack of funds) is processing, the testing effect, and the to study, and increased test scores. Print- greater than the long-term benefits of spacing effect, administrators and profes- on-demand publishers (e.g., Createspace. focusing on the established mission of the sors at theological institutions, especially com) permit professors to publish lecture theological institution. So, leaders may those in technologically developing coun- notes or other handouts in the form of a conclude that if they make the mission of tries, can encourage effective practices soft-cover book at a price of 1%-3% of the organization broader (e.g., providing that will prepare students to use all their a typical US textbook and at about half a theological education to everyone who gifts for the service of the gospel. IJFM

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Endnotes H. Pashler, 297–340. Hove, UK: Jensen, J. L., M. A. McDaniel, S. Woodard, Psychology Press. and T. A. Kummer 1 The cognitive revolution occurred pri- Dufresne, T. 2014 “Teaching to the test… or testing marily in America. European psychologists 2007 Against Freud: Critics talk back. Stan- to teach: Exams requiring higher had not adopted a behaviorist perspective ford, CA: Stanford University Press. order thinking skills encourage to the degree that American psychologists Dunaetz, D. R. greater conceptual understand- had and thus continued to consider mental 2016 “Missio-logoi and faith: Factors ing.” Educational Psychology processes in their study of human behavior. that influence attitude certainty.” Review 26: 307–329. In other contexts (e.g., the biblical world or Missiology: An International Junco, R., and J. Mastrodicasa other non-Western cultures), the impor- Review 44: 66–77. 2007 Connecting to the net generation: tance of thoughts and beliefs, and how they 2017 Research methods and survey ap- What higher education professionals relate to behaviors, had never been doubted. plications: Outlines and activi- need to know about today’s students. References ties from a Christian perspective. Washington, DC: NASPA. Claremont, CA: Martel Press. Jung-Beeman, M., E. M. Bowden, J. Haber- Bahrick, H. P., L. E. Bahrick, A. S. Bahrick, Dunlosky, J., K. A. Rawson, E. J. Marsh, M. man, J. L. Frymiare, S. Arambel-Liu, R. and P. E. Bahrick J. Nathan, and D. T. Willingham Greenblatt, P. J. Reber, and J. Kounios 1993 “Maintenance of foreign language 2013 “Improving students’ learning 2004 “Neural activity when people vocabulary and the spacing effect.” with effective learning techniques: solve verbal problems with in- Psychological Science, 316–321. Promising directions from cogni- sight.” PLoS Biology 2(4): e97. Baldwin, M. W. tive and educational psychology.” Kahneman, D. 1995 “Relational schemas and cogni- Psychological Science in the Public tion in close relationships.” Interest 14: 4–58. 2011 Thinking, fast and slow. New York, Journal of Social and Personal Eagly, A. H., and S. Chaiken NY: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. relationships 12: 547–552. 1998 “Attitude structure and function.” Kahneman, D., and A. Tversky Beland, L. P., and R. Murphy In The handbook of social psychology 1979 “Prospect theory: An analysis of 2016 “Communication: Technology, dis- (4th ed.), edited by D. T. Gilbert, S. decision under risk.” Economet- traction & student performance.” T. Fiske and G. Lindzey, 269–322. rica: Journal of the Econometric Labour Economics 41: 61–76. Boston, MA: McGraw Hill. Society, 263–291. Bjork, R. A., J. Dunlosky, and N. Kornell Ebbinghaus, H. Kaplan, S., and M. G. Berman 2013 “Self-regulated learning: Beliefs, 1885/ Memory: A contribution to ex- 2010 “Directed attention as a common techniques, and illusions.” Annual 1913 perimental psychology. New York, resource for executive functioning Review of Psychology 64: 417–444. NY: Columbia University. and self-regulation.” Perspectives Bruner, J. S. Eysenck, H. J. on Psychological Science 5: 43–57. 1960 The process of education. Boston, 1991 Decline and fall of the freudian Kapler, I. V., T. Weston, and M. Wiseheart MA: Harvard University Press. empire. New Brunswick, NJ: 2015 “Spacing in a simulated under- Bruner, J. S., R. R. Olver, and P. M. Greenfield Transaction Publishers. graduate classroom: Long-term 1966 Studies in cognitive growth. Ox- Fowler, R. L., and A. S. Barker benefits for factual and higher- ford, UK: Wiley. 1974 “Effectiveness of highlighting for level learning.” Learning and Cepeda, N. J., H. Pashler, E. Vul, J. T. Wixted, retention of text material.” Journal Instruction 36: 38–45. and D. Rohrer of Applied Psychology 59: 358–364. Kermer, D. A., E. Driver-Linn, T. D. Wil- 2006 “Distributed practice in verbal Freud, S. son, and D. T. Gilbert recall tasks: A review and quan- 1923 The ego and the id. London: Hog- 2006 “Loss aversion is an affective fore- titative synthesis.” Psychological arth Press. casting error.” Psychological Science Bulletin 132: 354–380. 1962 “The aetiology of hysteria.” In The 17: 649–653. Chaiken, S. standard edition of the complete Kornell, N., and R. A. Bjork psychological works of Sigmund 1980 “Heuristic versus systematic in- 2007 “The promise and perils of self- Freud, Vol. III, edited by A. Freud formation processing and the use regulated study.” Psychonomic and J. Strachy, 187–221. London, of source versus message cues in Bulletin & Review 14: 219–224. persuasion.” Journal of Personality UK: Hogarth Press. and Social Psychology, 39: 752–766. Fried, C. B. Kuh, G. D., J. Kinzie, J. H. Schuh, and E. J. Whitt Chatterji, M. 2008 “In-class laptop use and its effects 2016 Technology transfer in the develop- on student learning.” Computers 2011 Student success in college: Creat- ing countries. New York, NY: & Education 50: 906–914. ing conditions that matter. San Springer. Greenleaf, R. K. Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Deci, E. L., and R. M. Ryan 1977 Servant leadership: A journey into the Liu, X. L., P. Liang, K. Li, and L. M. Reder 2008 “Self-determination theory: A nature of legitimate power and great- 2014 “Uncovering the neural mecha- macrotheory of human motiva- ness. New York, NY: Paulist Press. nisms underlying learning from tion, development, and health.” Henrich, J., S. J. Heine, and A. Norenzayan tests.” PloS one 9: e92025. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie 2010a “Most people are not WEIRD.” Marsh, E. J., and H. E. Sink Canadienne 49: 182–185. Nature 466: 29. 2010 “Access to handouts of presentation Driver, J. 2010b “The weirdest people in the slides during lecture: Consequences 1998 “The neuropsychology of spatial world.” Behavioral and Brain Sci- for learning.” Applied Cognitive attention.” In Attention, edited by ences 33: 61–135. Psychology 24: 691–706.

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McDaniel, M. A., J. L. Anderson, M. H. Putnam, A. L., V. W. Sungkhasettee, and H. implications.” Educational Psy- Derbish, and N. Morrisette L. Roediger chology Review 24: 379–399. 2007 “Testing the testing effect in the 2016 “Optimizing learning in college Stanovich, K. E. classroom.” European Journal of tips from cognitive psychology.” 2013 How to think straight about psy- Cognitive Psychology 19: 494–513. Perspectives on Psychological Sci- chology. Boston, MA: Pearson. Mesoudi, A., A. Whiten, and K. N. Laland ence 11: 652–660. Steel, P. 2006 “Towards a unified science of Roediger, H. L., and J. D. Karpicke 2007 “The nature of procrastination: cultural evolution.” Behavioral and 2006 “Test-enhanced learning: Taking A meta-analytic and theoretical Brain Sciences 29: 329–347. memory tests improves long-term review of quintessential self- Miller, G. A. retention.” Psychological science 17: regulatory failure.” Psychological 2003 “The cognitive revolution: A 249–255. Bulletin 133: 65–94. historical perspective.” Trends in Rosa, H. The World Bank cognitive sciences 7: 141–144. 2003 “Social acceleration: Ethical and 2008 Global economic prospects 2008: Mueller, P. A., and D. M. Oppenheimer political consequences of a desyn- Technology diffusion in the devel- 2014 “The pen is mightier than the chronized high–speed society.” oping world. Washington, DC: keyboard: Advantages of longhand Constellations 10: 3–33. The World Bank. over laptop note taking.” Psycho- Ruch, T. C. Trow, M. logical Science 25: 1159–1168. 1928 “Factors influencing the rela- 1987 “Academic standards and mass Myers, D. G., and C. N. DeWall tive economy of massed and higher education.” Higher Educa- 2015 Psychology (11th ed.). New York, distributed practice in learning.” tion Quarterly 41: 268–292. NY: Worth Publishers. Psychological Review 35: 19–45. Venn, H. Myrick, J. G. Ryan, R. M., and E. L. Deci 1865 Retrospect and prospect of the 2015 “Emotion regulation, procrasti- 2000 “Self-determination theory and the operations of the Church Mission- nation, and watching cat videos facilitation of intrinsic motivation, ary Society. London, UK: Church online: Who watches internet social development, and well-being.” Missionary Society. cats, why, and to what effect?” American Psychologist 55: 68–78. Watson, J. B. Computers in Human Behavior 52: Scribner, S., and M. Cole 1926 “Behaviorism.” Journal of Philoso- 168–176. 1973 “Cognitive consequences of phy 23: 331–334. Nishida, H. formal and informal education.” Whorf, B. L. 1999 “Cultural schema theory.” In Science 182: 553–559. 1956 “Science and linguistics.” In Lan- Theorizing about intercultural Shors, T. J. guage, thought, and reality: Selected communication, edited by W. B. 2014 “The adult brain makes new neu- writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf, Gudykunst, 401–418. Thousand rons, and effortful learning keeps edited by J. B. Carroll. Cambridge, Oaks, CA: Sage. them alive.” Current Directions in MA: MIT Press. Pashler, H. Psychological Science 23: 311–318. Wing, E. A., E. J. Marsh, and R. Cabeza 1998 Attention. Hove, UK: Psychology Simon, H. A. 2013 “Neural correlates of retrieval- Press. 1994 “The bottleneck of attention: based memory enhancement: An Pashler, H., and J. C. Johnston Connecting thought with mo- fMRI study of the testing effect.” 1998 “Attentional limitations in dual- tivation.” In Integrative views of Neuropsychologia 51: 2360–2370. task performance.” In Attention, motivation, cognition, and emo- Wood, E., L. Zivcakova, P. Gentile, K. Archer, edited by H. Pashler, 155–190. tion, edited by W. D. Spaulding, D. De Pasquale, and A. Nosko Hove, U.K.: Psychology Press. 1–21. Lincoln, NE: University of 2012 “Examining the impact of off-task Perkins, D. N. Nebraska Press. multi-tasking with technology on 2001 The eureka effect: The art and logic of Sio, U. N., and T. C. Ormerod real-time classroom learning.” Com- breakthrough thinking. New York, 2009 “Does incubation enhance problem puters & Education 58: 365–374. NY: WW Norton & Company. solving? A meta-analytic review.” Wooldridge, C. L., J. M. Bugg, M. A. Mc- Petty, R. E. Psychological Bulletin 135: 94–120. Daniel, and Y. Liu 2013 “Two routes to persuasion: State Sisti, H. M., A. L. Glass, and T. J. Shors 2014 “The testing effect with authentic of the art.” International Perspec- 2007 “Neurogenesis and the spacing ef- educational materials: A cautionary tives on Psychological Science 2: fect: Learning over time enhances note.” Journal of Applied Research in 229–247. memory and the survival of new Memory and Cognition 3: 214–221. Petty, R. E., and J. T. Cacioppo neurons.” Learning & Memory 14: 1986a Communication and persuasion: Cen- 368–375. tral and peripheral routes to attitude Skinner, B. F. change. New York, NY: Springer. 1971 Beyond freedom and dignity. New 1986b “The elaboration likelihood York, NY: Knopf. model of persuasion.” Advances in Smith, S. M., and S. E. Blankenship experimental social psychology 19: 1991 “Incubation and the persistence of 123–205. fixation in problem solving.” The Pinker, S. American journal of psychology, 61–87. 2002 The blank slate: The modern denial Son, L. K., and D. A. Simon of human nature. New York, NY: 2012 “Distributed learning: Data, Penguin Books. metacognition, and educational

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means, in conjunction with Visser ’t Hooft, do read Lesslie Newbigin’s slender volume, The Finality of Christ.2 It both Reviews puts the stakes of the discussion on display and opens up the topic of conversion.) Indigeneity, Contextualization, and Accommodation Traditional Ritual as Christian Worship: Dangerous Syncretism or Necessary Hybridity?, edited by R. Daniel The 1950s and 1960s saw articles by William Smalley Shaw and William R. Burrows (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis and others that dealt with the character of the indigenous Books, 2018), xxiv, 276 pp. church published in the journal Practical Anthropology. The articles stretched Protestant missionaries, calling attention to their lack of trust in the power of the Holy Spirit to —Reviewed by Dwight P. Baker guide “younger” churches. Smalley especially focused on the need for anxious missionaries to surrender “control” and to hroughout missionary history, place their confidence in the capability of the Holy Spirit to and indeed throughout the whole lead national and tribal churches in making decisions that ofT church history, the issue of control were appropriate for their settings and circumstances.3 has been prominent. Who or what is authoritative? Is there a standard and, Discussion of indigenization persisted; a seminal article if so, who has rights of administration? by Charles Taber appeared in 1978. Titled “The Limits On the flip side, this concern has found of Indigenization in Theology,” the topic was one he, as expression as fear of syncretism. Where president of the American Society of Missiology, had do the bounds of permissibility lie? Is someone appointed been requested to address. Taber sought to shift the focus to patrol those borders? In a world of immense—and from “outer boundaries” of the permissible and instead to sometimes individualized—religious diversity, who is the emphasize “central norms” or “criteria” for Christian theol- authoritative arbiter? What rests secure within, and what ogy. Writing to Western mission leaders and professors, lies beyond the pale? Or should all fences be torn down he concluded: and all neighbors be allowed to tramp in? Let us not impose rigid limits on what our brothers and sisters are doing; not only because we do not have the power to Efforts to address these issues from a missionary van- enforce our judgments, but because we do not have the right. tage point are not new. Half a century ago, W. A. Visser ’t Let us, for our own blessing, try to understand what they are Hooft traced the challenge of syncretism back to the heart doing. Let us feel free to ask questions; but let us also be pre- of the earliest Christian documents, the New Testament pared to listen to them tell us where our theology has been itself—and even earlier. For him the danger of syncretism wrongly or excessively indigenized. As we do, we will help one was far from nonexistent, but it was hardly a matter to lead another, in the fellowship of the entire Body, to grow into the 4 to timidity. Foremost, he discussed instruments of com- full stature of Christ. munication, stating that words, terms, language, forms, Not only, contended Taber, do younger churches growing concepts, all alike, could be appropriated and made part up on the “mission” field have the right to pursue theologi- of Christian understanding and expression as long as one cal construction in ways and directions that differ from needful criterion was met. The decisive issue was whether or those developed over centuries in the Western churches, but not the “new” elements, concepts, and terms fit within the Western churches might find profit for their own spiritual Christological understanding proclaimed by the apostles. life if they were to listen in and to do so with open and Which system was acknowledged to be in control: the receptive hearts. Christocentric understanding of the New Testament or that of some other system from which concepts, terminology, Discussion of appropriate and inappropriate ways mission- or practices were being appropriated? With that allegiance aries might accommodate the gospel to the understand- secure, the followers of Christ could proceed boldly.1 (By all ing and life settings of their hearers had long preceded

Dwight P. Baker retired as associate director of the Overseas Ministries Study Center, New Haven, Connecticut, in 2011. He was associate editor of the International Bulletin of Mission Research (2002–15) and has coedited several books, including Serving Jesus with Integrity: Ethics and Accountability in Mission (2010) and People Disrupted: Doing Mission Responsibly among Refugees and Migrants (2018).

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hat is at stake is the lifting up of forms or elements found in traditional religious practice and incorporating them as objects of Christian concern W and components within Christian worship. Can it be done? widespread missionary interest in the topic of indigenizing out names and topics almost at random: Yoshiyuki Billy the gospel. Inquiries into ways and limits for contextual- Nishioka reports on a Christian death ritual in Japan; Paul izing the gospel overlapped with and succeeded discussions Mantae Kim reflects on making space in the Korean church about indigenization. Efforts to inculturate the gospel, to for a Christian understanding of the Korean ancestral rite; create local theologies, and more, followed in line. To the El Baile de La Yegüita examines a Costa Rican folk festival three traditional missionary goals of planting churches that of reconciliation; Chinaka S. DomNwachukwu explores the were self-governing, self-supporting, and self-propagating, presence of indigenous Igbo worship in Nigerian churches; 5 Paul Hiebert added a fourth, that of self-theologizing. Joshua Kurung Daimoi lifts up ancestors as a bridge for What Does Hybridity Add? understanding Jesus among the Sentani of PNG; and John Sanjeevakumar Gupta writes in the context of India of With so much as lead-up, what new does the topic of a house for God to live in. Each of the twelve case stud- hybridity bring to the discussion? How does it differ from ies deals with an aspect of pre-existing worship and ritual the approaches advanced earlier? In the hands of Daniel which has been lifted up and made, to greater or lesser Shaw and William Burrows, the argument for hybridity shifts the ground significantly. At the same time, it carries degree, a facet of local Christian reflection or expression. forward a line of development that can be seen as implied Here lies the point at which hybridity goes beyond indige- by positions and arguments expressed under some of those neity (how can local Christian leaders be allowed to take earlier labels, though not necessarily expressly articulated by charge of local Christian decisions), contextualization (how their proponents. should Christianity be shown to address issues and con- cerns in one or another local context or region), and similar Before developing that point, a word about the book itself. projects. What is at stake is the lifting up of forms or Dan Shaw has taught at Fuller Theological Seminary’s elements found in traditional religious practice and incor- School of Intercultural Studies since 1982. He served porating them as objects of Christian concern and compo- with Wycliffe as a Bible translator in Papua New Guinea nents within Christian worship. Can that be done? Ought (PNG), did his anthropological fieldwork there, and also it to be done? Can components of traditional religious has returned for significant periods of further residence practices be incorporated within Christian worship and still and study. Bill Burrows served for five years as a Divine speak to Visser ’t Hooft’s concern that mashing together Word missionary in PNG, teaching theology and laboring of two religious systems (dangerous syncretism) is to be as a rural pastor. For twenty years he was managing editor avoided at all cost? for Orbis Books. Since retirement he has been research professor of missiology at New York Theological Seminary. Part of the answer to that question lies in the nature and With deep roots in Papua New Guinea, both editors draw scope of common grace. If God’s grace manifest in Jesus on their experience and acquaintance with the peoples the Christ and made effective by the Holy Spirit is God’s and religious history of the island as a foundation for their special grace, then common grace is everything else that conception of hybridity. God does in and for the world. God is not and never has The opening chapter by Shaw and the second chapter been absent from the world. Common grace is present by Burrows supply the theoretical underpinnings of the to all people everywhere, and it bears testimony to God’s volume. These chapters are followed by twelve case stud- goodness. Paul, in speaking to the people at Lystra, declared ies, contributed by authors spanning the globe. Hailing the same, saying that God “has not left God’s self without from Armenia, Costa Rica and Nicaragua, First Nations a witness” (Acts 14:17). If traditional religion from time (Canada), India, Jamaica, Japan, Korea, New Zealand, immemorial is or can be, at least in part, a response to Nigeria, Papua New Guinea, and the United States, they God’s common grace, then traditional religious concerns represent multiple theological and ecclesiological traditions and practice—on Christian grounds—cannot simply be as well. In their diversity they supply vantage points from written off, summarily and without appeal or further con- which to illustrate hybridity “in action,” so to speak. To pull sideration, as being utterly and only darkness, without

35:3 Fall 2018 146 Book Reviews

am wary of contextualization as a missioner’s open sesame. I have always felt more comfortable with receptor-oriented adaptation: indigenization or I contextualization by rather than contextualization or adaptation for. any glimmers of light. There might even be something to Endnotes be learned. That insight can engender humility—an insight 1 W. A. Visser ’t Hooft, No Other Name: The Choice between that alone is worth much more than the price of the book Syncretism and Christian Universalism (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1963), 50–82. and the labor of studying it closely. 2 Lesslie Newbigin, The Finality of Christ (Richmond, VA: Conclusion John Knox Press, 1969). 3 See William A. Smalley, Readings in Missionary Anthropol- Accommodation, indigenization, contextualization, and ogy, 2nd ed. (South Pasadena, CA: William Carey Library, 1978). inculturation, when carried out as missionary techniques 4 Charles R. Taber, “The Limits of Indigenization in Theol- or programs for success, have always seemed to convey a og y,” Missiology: An International Review, 6, no. 1 (1978): 53–79, quoted words, pp. 53–54, 77. See also Charles R. Taber, “Is There concessionary air. The pejorative whiff of condescension is More Than One Way to Do Theology? Anthropological Comments one reason, I suspect, that each felt like an incomplete step on the Doing of Theology,”Gospel in Context, 1, no. 1 (1978): 4–37. on the way and not a destination. Hence the quest contin- (Full disclosure: Charles Taber, who died in 2007, was my wife’s ued for an appropriate way to frame the issue. I am wary older brother.) 5 of indigenization, contextualization, or any similar gestures Paul G. Hiebert, “The Fourth Self,” inAnthropological Insights for Missionaries (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1985), 193–224. conceived of as a technique in Jacque Ellul’s sense of the 6 John Samuel Pobee, Giving Account of Faith and Hope in term, that is, as a missioner’s open sesame. I have always Africa (Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2017). felt more comfortable with receptor-oriented adaptation: indigenization or contextualization by rather than contextu- alization or adaptation for. In offering itself as the latest addition to this series, the term “hybridity,” as noted, takes seriously the presence and activity of the Holy Spirit among all peoples and through- out all history the whole world over. It is grounded in common grace. And grace wherever and however expressed is to be cherished and nurtured, not denied or demeaned. To make the implication explicit: the ground was not utterly barren before the arrival of missionaries (out goes an immense amount of Western Protestant missionary rhetoric of the past two hundred years). Everything was not as dark or as evil as it possibly could have been. That stated, there was and is still plenty of warrant for Christian missionary outreach, but it might wear a different face and have a dif- ferent cast to its character. John Pobee has insistently stated for his continent that Africans were not tabula rasa, religiously or otherwise, upon the arrival of Western missionaries.6 The same is true of peoples in other parts of the world. Could it be that some religious conceptions, concerns, and modes of expression present before the arrival of missionaries could appropri- ately find their way into those people’s ways of thinking about Jesus the Christ and their ways of expressing their worship of him? Traditional Ritual as Christian Worship offers a strong case for the affirmative. IJFM

International Journal of Frontier Missiology New in The American Society of Missiology Series

TRADITIONAL RITUAL AS CHRISTIAN WORSHIP Dangerous Syncretism or Necessary Hybridity? R. Daniel Shaw Fuller Graduate School of Intercultural Studies William R. Burrows New York Theological Seminary . Editors ,

ontributions by some of missiolo- C gy’s leading lights discuss rituals, beliefs, and practices of diverse peoples, supporting the conclusion that orthodox Christianity is hybrid Christianity. “Brilliantly drawing upon the concept of religious hybridity, Shaw and Burrows assert that the fu- ISBN 978-1-62698-262-8 ture of world Christianity ought to be shaped by people making 304pp., index, $50.00 sense of how God was already active among them before the missionaries arrived—in the rituals and ceremonies that en- abled them to connect with the divine. I believe this book will change the way we talk about mission.” —Harvey C. Kwiyani Missio Africanus and Liverpool Hope University

IJFM readers SAVE 30% through October 31st 2018! ($35.00) Use code IJFM when ordering online at OrbisBooks.com Or call 1-800-258-5838 M-F 8-4 Eastern Time OrbisBooks.com 148 In Others’ Words

American Pastor Released from Prison to House Arrest In Others’ Words in Turkey  On July 25, 2018, the Turkish government abruptly released Editor’s Note: In this department, we highlight resources outside Andrew Brunson, an American pastor who had been of the IJFM: other journals, print resources, DVDs, websites, imprisoned in a Turkish prison for 22 months on false es- blogs, videos, etc. Standard disclaimers on content apply. Due to pionage charges. See the Washington Post August 15 article the length of many web addresses, we sometimes give just the title “Why an American Pastor’s Imprisonment is at the Center of the resource, the main web address, or a suggested search phrase. of the US-Turkey Dispute.” The New York Times adds that more than 20 US (Turkish American) citizens and three Boko Haram Terror: Thousands Killed, Millions Flee Turkish American Embassy employees have also been de- tained in the past two years since the failed coup attempt. Boko Haram has recently expanded into Chad, killing Are Unreached People Groups Passé? eighteen and kidnapping nine women (“Suspected Boko Don’t miss the article in Missiology ( June 2018) by Lee Haram Militants Kill 18 in Chadian Village”). In the past and Park of Trinity Evangelical Divinity School entitled nine years, more than 30,000 have been killed in Boko “Beyond People Group Thinking: A Critical Reevaluation Haram’s relentless march to establish an Islamic caliph- of Unreached People Groups.” The authors rehearse three ate made up of pieces torn from Nigeria, Niger, Chad, and (old) objections to unreached people group (UPG) think- Cameroon. The violence and terrorism have forced more ing. The first objection is theological, and refers to what they than 2.7 million people from their homes in a desperate claim is a dubious hermeneutic of “panta ta ethne.” The flight for safety. See also the Council on Foreign Relation’s second is cultural, based on what they see as an outdated website for the background on “Nigeria’s Battle with Boko (and unbiblical) “essentialist” view of culture. The third Haram,” updated August 2018. is strategic, and is based on their reading of McGavran’s Boko Haram and Secularization: Is There a Connection? “homogenous unit principle” (HUP). Lee and Park reject Dave Datema, former General Director of Frontier Ven- the idea of mobilizing personnel and resources for the most unreached people groups. They reason that the emerging tures, will be giving a talk entitled “Boko Haram as a Re- fellowships would be homogenous (not multicultural) and sponse to Secularization and the Implications for Mission might perpetuate racism and division (instead of unity). Praxis,” at the upcoming Evangelical Missiological Society These claims call for further interaction with the authors. (EMS) meetings in Dallas, October 12–14. This year’s EMS theme is “Mission and Evangelism in a Secularizing Further Reading for Different Takes on UPG Controversy World.” The International Society for Frontier Missiol- For different views on some of these same topics, we invite ogy annual gathering, meeting jointly with the EMS, has you to peruse this handful of articles. On hermeneutics and chosen the theme “Clarifying the Frontier Mission Task.” theology of panta ta ethne, see John Piper’s 1991 (but still One new tool that should help clarify things is the brand relevant): “Unreached Peoples: The Unique and Primary new series of maps on joshuaproject.org showing where the Goal of Missions.” You’ll find a lot of relevant articles in largest “frontier” people groups are. the IJFM archives. On culture, don’t miss Mark Pickett’s Nepal Reported to Have Fastest Annual Growth Rate “Ethnicity, Kinship, Religion, and Territory: Identifying of Christian Conversions in Asia Communities in South Asia,” which reflects an up-to-date and complex understanding of the overlapping boundaries TheSouth China Morning Post looks at the geopolitics of identity (IJFM 32:1). For more historical context and surrounding Nepal, a country of concern to both India and accuracy about UPGs and strategy, see “The Legacy of China: “How India and China Are Keeping the West Out Donald McGavran: A Forum” in IJFM 31:2. In the same in Nepal.” For China, Nepal represents the escape route for issue, you’ll find Harold Fickett’s piece on Winter’s Laus- Tibetans fleeing Chinese rule. For India, Hindu conserva- anne speech—a very entertaining, but informative article tives are upset at the number converting to Christianity. that puts Winter’s views on unreached peoples in context. The Centre [sic] for the Study of Global Christianity (CSGC), a Greg Parsons, former General Director of Frontier Ven- US-based research group, lists Nepal as the Asian nation with tures (the mission agency Winter founded) has written the most accelerated rate of conversions. At 10.93%, it has the “Will the Earth Hear His Voice? Is Ralph Winter’s Idea fastest average annual growth rate of Christian conversions in Still Valid?” in IJFM 32:1. Lastly, see Dave Datema’s Asia. Currently comprising 3.8% of the Nepali population, the brief history of the development of the unreached people population of Christians is expected to double by 2020, which group concept in “Defining Unreached: A Short History,” worries both India and China. published in IJFM 33:2. IJFM International Journal of FrontierZ Missiology IJFM & Perspectives 149

Related Perspectives Lesson and Section Whether you’re a Perspectives& instructor, student, or coordinator, you can continue to explore issues raised in the course reader and study guide in greater depth inIJFM . For ease of reference, each IJFM article in the table below is tied thematically to one or more of the 15 Perspectives lessons, divided into four sections: Biblical (B), Historical (H), Cultural (C), and Strategic (S). Disclaimer: The table below shows where the content of a given article might fit; it does not imply endorsement of a particular article by the editors of the Perspectives materials. For sake of space, the table only includes lessons related to the articles in a givenIJFM issue. To learn more about the Perspectives course, including a list of classes, visit www.perspectives.org.

Articles in IJFM 35:3 Lesson 2: The Story of His Glory (B) Lesson 6: The Expansion of the World Christian Movement (H) Lesson 7: Eras of Mission History (H) Lesson 9: The Task Remaining (H) Lesson 10: How Shall They Hear? (C) Lesson 11: Building Bridges of Love (C) Lesson 12: Christian Community Development (S) Lesson 13: The Spontaneous Multiplica - tion of Churches (S) Lesson 14: Pioneer Church Planting (S)

A Hindu “Path of Jesus”: A Case Study of Modern Roman Catholic Contextualization X X X X H. L. Richard (pp. 105–15)

Nagivating the Constraints of the Ummah: A Comparison of Christ Movements in Iran X X X X and Bangladesh Christian J. Anderson (pp. 117–25)

More than a Prophet: John the Baptist and the Question “Is Muhammad among X X the Prophets?” George Bristow (pp. 127–34)

Cognitive Science and Theological Education in Technologically Developing Countries X X David R. Dunaetz (pp. 135–43)

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35:3 Fall 2018

in conjunction with

ISFM Int’l Society for Frontier Missiology Join us for one of the largest international gatherings of Evangelical Missiologists, Missionaries, Anthropologists, Mission Organizations, Mission Professors and Students Clarifying the Frontier Plenary Speakers Dr. Robert Woodberry, Independent Scholar (Baylor University) Mission Task Dr. Kwabena Asamoah-Gyadu, Professor of Contemporary African Christianity & Pentecostal Studies (Trinity Theological Seminary – Accra, Ghana) Dr. Robert J. Priest, President (Evangelical Missiological Society) & GW Aldeen Professor of International Studies & Professor of Mission and Anthropology (Trinity Evangelical Divinity School) Mission researchers estimate that over 25% of the 2018world’s population live in people groups without even Facilitation Team of “Bridging the Divide” (BtD) Consultation / Forum their first movement to Christ.

Yet modern secularizing forces seem to melt away the bordersTrack of these Topics “frontier (over peoples.” 95 sessions to choose from) ISFM Evangelical2018 will Missiologicalbe a rare Society summit for mission Exampledemographers, topics include : missiologists,“Son of God” translation; and mission mobili- Insider Movements;zation Same leaders-Sex Sexuality to discuss; Contextualization; the nature and scope of the Early-Bird Rates Money Issuesfrontier; Holism/Proclamation mission task; Millennials today. in Mission Until Sept 1, 2015 October 12–14,Edgy 2018 Questions • Graduate inInstitute Arts of& AppliedMission Linguistics Campus, Dallas, TX

For registration andCoordinated full conference by Robin details, Harris see www.emsweb.org. Each registrant receives a free copy of Graduate Institute of Applied Linguistics Understanding Insider Movements: Disciples of Jesus within Diverse Anthropology & Christian Mission Religious Groups Coordinated by Robert Priest Evangelical Missiological Society For more information or to register: Issues in Frontier Missiology www.emsweb.org Coordinated by Brad Gill International Society for Frontier Missiology CONTROVERSIES in mission September 18-20, 2015 / GIAL Campus (Dallas, TX) A conference of the Evangelical Missiological Society in partnership with the International Society for Frontier Missiology and hosted by the Graduate Institute of Applied Linguistics

September 18-20, 2015 / GIAL Campus (Dallas, TX) A conference of the Evangelical Missiological Society in partnership with the International Society for Frontier Missiology and hosted by the Graduate Institute of Applied Linguistics