Full-length paper Asian Agri-History Vol. 17, No. 3, 2013 (199–220) 199

Probable Agricultural Biodiversity Heritage Sites in : XVII. The South-Central Region of

Anurudh K Singh

H.No. 2924, Sector-23, Gurgaon 122017, Haryana, India (email: [email protected])

Abstract The central part of the Eastern Ghats, located south of the River, consisting of the district of and some bordering southeastern districts of , is an arid and semi-arid region, which has been part of the Neolithic- Chalcolithic cultural complex of southern India. Here, agriculture evolved with pastoral farming and dryland agriculture primarily to support pastoral activities, as per the demand of the prevailing ecological conditions. Most people of the region are primarily involved in agriculture-related activities from ancient times. The evidences originating from different sources suggest involvement of the inhabitants of ancient times in the domestication and introduction (adaption) of animals and plants suited to arid and semi-arid conditions. In the process, these inhabitants made signifi cant contributions, in the evolution and conservation of genetic diversity in important groups of animals such as cattle and sheep, and in drought-tolerant crops such as minor millets and pulses. These efforts have been signifi cant particularly in the area of pastoral farming, contributing to world agriculture by sharing valuable cattle germplasm with several parts of the world. For these reasons, the South-Central Region of the Eastern Ghats in India is being proposed as another National Agricultural Biodiversity Heritage Site, based on the indices described for the identifi cation of such sites. The present article discusses the unique features of the region in brief.

The central part of the Eastern Ghats, number of archaeological sites. It is the south of the Godavari and Krishna rivers, second driest region of India after western particularly in the southernmost part of Rajasthan, because of the dry ecological the , consisting of the conditions created by low rainfall and lack of southern dry districts of Andhra Pradesh perennial sources of water. Consequently, the and a few bordering southeastern districts dominant fl oristic expanses are of savannah of Karnataka, is an agriculturally important grassland and thorny thickets. More than and unique region. Here, agriculture has been 70 per cent of the human population is practiced from ancient times. The region involved in agriculture-related activities. represents one of the dominant centers of The earliest interactions between the human, the Deccan Neolithic-Chalcolithic culture, landscape, and biological diversity resulted as evidenced by the discovery of the highest in the development of pastoral farming 200 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites as the main agricultural activity, which . The Southern-Eastern Ghats dominated for a long time. Field agriculture can be further divided into the Central- evolved later as a supplementary activity to Eastern Ghats and South-Eastern Ghats. support pastoral farming. Thus, the region The former mainly constitutes the southern specialized in pastoral farming and dryland parts of Andhra Pradesh comprising areas agriculture as the most important sectors of south of the rivers Godavari and Krishna, the economy, and can be credited for the and includes the Nallamalai-Palakonda domestication of hardy animals/breeds of ranges, Seshachalam hills, Rayalaseema, cattle and sheep, and drought-resistant crop hills and adjacent semi-arid districts species of indigenous millets and pulses, of Karnataka. Geographically, it extends generating important diversity, which have into the Eastern Ghats, forming a chain been exploited globally both under pastoral of discontinuous range of hills with good farming and fi eld agriculture programs. The vegetation, and the Deccan Plateau consisting archaeological evidences on subsequent of agricultural lands, scrub, and deciduous evolution of agriculture in the region, suggest forests. Agroecologically it represents the adaptation of several crops from other parts semi-arid zone, comprising a part of the of the world, such as pearl millet, sorghum, Deccan Plateau that includes the Rayalaseema wheat, etc., and from within the country such region and parts of from Andhra as pigeonpea. For these unique contributions, Pradesh, and the Raichur and Bellary districts helping the global genetic improvement of Karnataka. Administratively, it consists of programs of both animal and plant species, the districts of Chittoor, , , raising the productivity of dairy and meat of the Rayalaseema region (lying products on the one hand, and increasing between 12º41’ and 16º21’ N, and between yields of hardy crops on the other, thereby 17º45’ and 81º1’E), extending into improving the livelihoods of the people and Prakasam districts (excluding the coastal in different parts of the world, the region plains) of Andhra Pradesh, and the districts deserves its proposition as another National of Bellary, Raichur, and Kolar of Karnataka, Agricultural Biodiversity Heritage Site, extending into small parts of the uplands based on the indices illustrated by Singh and and areas of Nilgiris in Tamil Nadu (Fig. 1). Varaprasad (2008). The region on the north is bounded by the Telangana region and coastal plain of Andhra Location and extent Pradesh, Karnataka in the west, coastal plain and in the east, and extremes The Eastern Ghats are broadly divided of the South-Eastern Ghats falling in Tamil into the Northern-Eastern Ghats and the Nadu in the south. Southern-Eastern Ghats. Kondapalli (), in Andhra Pradesh, is the meeting Landscape point between the Northern-Eastern and Southern-Eastern Ghats. Towards the south, The major landscape of the area is moderate the Eastern Ghats run in a westward direction to gentle sloping, consisting of lush or meeting the in the Nilgiris of dry plains with numerous hilly areas, Asian Agri-History Vol. 17, No. 3, 2013 201

Figure 1. Location and extent of the South-Central Region of the Eastern Ghats demarcated by dotted and solid lines. intercepted by a few rivers and river- Kambakkam ranges) of Andhra Pradesh, valleys. However, most of the regions, representing the Middle (Central) Eastern particularly the Rayalaseema area, are Ghats (Pullaiah and Rao, 2002). North of undulating, dotted with ridges and clusters the of this region, the central of rocky hills. The mountain ranges are portion of the Eastern Ghats consists of two comparatively low without thick forests. parallel ranges running approximately north- The hilly tracts cover areas between the south; the lower Velikonda range lying in the river Krishna and Tamil Nadu, including east, and the higher Palakonda-Lankamala- the districts of Krishna (Kondapalli range), Nallamalai ranges lying in the west. The Kurnool (Nallamalai range), Kadapa Palar River cuts through these ranges. The (Yerramala, Palakonda ranges), Nellore Velikonda range eventually descends to the (Velikonda range), and Chittoor and coastal plains in northern , Kadapa (Seshachalam-Lankamala-Nagari- while the Nallamalai range continues up to 202 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites

between 90 and 150 days (Sehgal et al., The central part of the Eastern Ghats, 1992), but in some years the length of the south of the Godavari and Krishna growing period may extend between 120 rivers, particularly in the southernmost and 150 days in a year. The period from part of the Deccan Plateau, consisting February to May is the driest period of the of the southern dry districts of year in the region. The temperatures range Andhra Pradesh and a few bordering between 25ºC and 29ºC, and they are higher southeastern districts of Karnataka, is in the kharif (rainy) season than in the rabi an agriculturally important and unique (postrainy) season. Physiographically, the region. region is a hot semi-arid ecoregion with dominant red loamy soil and clayey black soils. The red soils are of the Kadiri series, the River Krishna. The southern low hilly area non-calcareous and slightly acidic in nature. runs in a west-southwest direction and meets The deep clayey black soils represented the high mountain ranges of the Western by Raichur series are slightly alkaline and Ghats in the Nilgiri belt, representing the calcareous in nature. Southern-Eastern Ghats, covering the Tamil The watershed of the Penner (Penna or Nadu districts of the Eastern Ghats. Penneru) River and its tributaries covers part of the southern Deccan plateau, Agroclimate including most of the Rayalaseema region of Andhra Pradesh, and part of Karnataka. The climate of the region is characterized by Therefore, the paucity of perennial rivers, hot and dry summers, and a very mild winter low rainfall, and an enervating climate have season. Lying almost in the southern part hampered the progress of agriculture and of the peninsula, the area comes under the development in some of the areas of the infl uence of both monsoons – southwest and region, particularly Rayalaseema, which northwest – but does not get the full force of is often referred to as the Famine Zone of either. Hence, the frequent failure of rains . causes failure of crops, causing scarcity of food, fodder, and employment. Because of the erratic rainfall, the annual mean ranges Floristic diversity from 400 to 1,000 mm. It covers about 40 The region is bestowed with unique per cent of the potential evapotranspiration biodiversity consisting of the natural (PET), resulting in a gross water defi cit of vegetation represented by a large area of 700–800 mm. The South-Central Eastern tropical dry deciduous forests, mixed dry Ghats and the southern Deccan Plateau deciduous forests, and tropical thorn forests receive very little rainfall during winter. (Champion and Seth, 1968) of the southern The region experiences severe drought Deccan plateau, and dry districts on the nearly throughout the year. The cultivation leeward side of the southern Western Ghats period with moisture availability extends mountain ranges. These forests extend across Asian Agri-History Vol. 17, No. 3, 2013 203 southern Andhra Pradesh and the uplands of isora L., Xeromphis spinosa (Thunb.) Keay, southeastern Karnataka. The dry deciduous Flacourtia ramontchi L’Herit., etc. The forests of the region are fl anked by the moist scrub or thorn forests are dominated by deciduous forests along the lower elevations, thorny species of Acacia Mill. spp., Capparis which receive the southwest monsoon, and sepiaria (L.) R.Br., Ziziphus mauritiana by the thorn scrub in regions that receive the Lam. (syn. Z. jujuba Mill.), Z. oenoplia northeast monsoon. Mill., Z. xylopyra (Retz.) Willd., Euphorbia antiquorum L., E. tirucalli L., Flacourtia The Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests sepiaria Roxb., Xeromphis spinosa and common to the Eastern Ghats are divided also associated with non-thorny drought- into Teak-bearing and Non-Teak-bearing resistant species like Dolichandrone falcata forests. The Seshachalam hill ranges of the (Wall. ex DC.) Seem., Wrightia tinctoria, Central-Eastern Ghats and North Arcot of Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq., Cassia fi stula the Southern-Eastern Ghats contain Non- Linn., etc. (Sandhyarani et al., 2007). Teak-bearing forests. These forests have the important and very valuable endemic The Nallamalai-Cuddapah range is tree, the raktachandana or red sanders fl oristically rich with marked presence of (Pterocarpus santalinus L.f.) and also the dry type of vegetation (Ellis, 1987). The dry type of sal (Shorea tumbuggaia Roxb.), hill ranges of Velikonda, Seshachalam, besides the Syzygium alternifolium (Wight) Palakonda, Lankamala, and Nallamalai Walp., and Boswellia ovalifoliolata Bal & have an evergreen scrub type of vegetation Henry, prominent in some areas, mixed with in the lower plains or ravines, and a other species like Terminalia pallida Linn., deciduous type on the hills and in the Shorea roxburghii Don., Emblica offi cinalis relatively wet valleys. Acacia farnesiana Gaertn. (syn. Phyllanthus emblica Linn.), (L.) Willd., Azadirachta indica A.Juss., Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del., Boswellia Anogeissus latifolia (Roxb.) Wall. ex. Bedd, ovalifoliolata, Cassia auriculata L. [syn. Terminalia paniculata Roxb., T. alata Herb. Senna auriculata (L.) Roxb.], Diospyros Madr. ex Wall., Chloroxylon swietenia DC., chloroxylon Roxb., D. melanoxylon, Dolichandrone arcuata (Wight) Clarke, Euphorbia antiquorum, Gardenia latifolia Wrightia tinctoria (Roxb.) R.Br., Vitex altissima L.f., etc.

The Mixed Dry Deciduous Forests found The climate of the region is in the drier areas of the Eastern Ghats characterized by hot and dry summers, are dominated by tree elements, like and a very mild winter season. Lying Anogeissus latifolia, Chloroxylon swietenia, almost in the southern part of the Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb., Gardenia peninsula, the area comes under the gummifera Linn.f., Albizia odoratissima infl uence of both monsoons – southwest Benth. (syn. Mimosa odoratissima Roxb.), and northwest – but does not get the Hardwickia binata Roxb., Pterospermum full force of either. xylocarpum (Gaertn.) Oken., Helicteres 204 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites

Schlecht. ex Hook.f., Hardwickia binata, Manilkara hexandra (Roxb.) Dubard, The region is bestowed with unique Morinda citrifolia L., Premna tomentosa biodiversity consisting of the natural Miq. ex C.B.Clarke, Prosopis spicigera L., vegetation represented by a large area Sapindus emarginatus Hort. Algo., Soymida of tropical dry deciduous forests, mixed febrifuga (Roxb.) A.Juss., Syzygium dry deciduous forests, and tropical thorn alternifolium, Terminalia chebula Willd. ex forests of the southern Deccan plateau. Flem., T. pallida, Ventilago madraspatana Gaertn., Ziziphus mauritiana, and Z. vulgaris Lam. are some of the major components properties. The other endemic species of the vegetation. The Tirupati hills are Boswellia ovalifoliolata and Pimpinella floristically rich with Ceiba pentandra tirupatiensis Bal. & Subr. are adapted to (L.) Gaertn., Pterocarpus santalinus, specialized ecological conditions. The wide Pterospermum heyneanum Wall., Grewia range of topography and other physical tiliaefolia Vahl., Erythroxylum monogynum features, and the geological factors of Roxb., and Aglaia roxburghiana (W.&A.) Kadapa formation and soil types with red Miq. The leguminous endemic species and calcareous shales support a number of occupy the understory of the deciduous endemic species, including edaphic ones in forests and scrub jungles with Crotalaria the vegetation. shevaroyensis Gamble (syn. Crotalaria longipes Wight & Arn.), C. perfoliata L., Most of the dry tropical forests of the region Indigofera barberi Gamble, Rhynchosia have now disappeared due to clearance by beddomei Baker, R. fi lipes Benth, etc. grazing and overharvesting of the forests for timber and fi rewood, and are replaced The economically valuable endemic plant by thorny shrub lands. The region is also species of the region, Pterocarpus santalinus endowed with rich fauna, livestock, and (the sacred raktachandana) and Cycas land resources. beddomei W.T.T. Dyer are distributed in the Kadapa and Tirupati hills. They have become rare due to overexploitation for Agriculture and agrobiodiversity their professed medicinal and cosmetic The pastoral farming and rainfed agriculture are the traditional farming practices in the region. The latter may include fallowing The paucity of perennial rivers, low the land in the rainy season and growing of rainfall, and an enervating climate a crop in the postrainy season on residual/ have hampered the progress of conserved moisture. It is observed that the agriculture and development in some farmers of the region follow predominantly of the areas of the region, particularly dryland-based agriculture, dependent on Rayalaseema, which is often referred to low rainfall. For these reasons, in the dry as the Famine Zone of South India. districts of Anantapur and Kadapa, podu or shifting cultivation and pastoral farming Asian Agri-History Vol. 17, No. 3, 2013 205 are still common. Because of low rainfall, Tamil Nadu both under irrigated and non- traditionally, millets locally known as satyam irrigated conditions. pantalu (crops of truth) were very common among poor and marginal farmers, as these Diverse cropping systems and pattern are crops grow on practically no inputs and even followed in the Anantapur (dry) region. The on highly infertile soil. In fact, in Andhra crops that are cultivated are early-maturing Pradesh, except for coastal areas, most of sorghum varieties, pigeonpea, castor, mesta, the regions grew millets [pearl millet (bajra), etc. If the rains arrive late, then pearl millet, fi nger millet (ragi), other small millets], foxtail millet, and groundnut are sown and other traditional crops like pulses. (Rathore and Gupta, 1991). In the Kolar However, after the Green Revolution, most semi-arid region, kharif crops like maize, farmers gave up millets farming and took to pigeonpea, and ragi are grown, while in the cultivation of hybrids and cash crops, despite eastern zone of the region, sorghum, pearl the millets being well-known for suitability millet, groundnut, and cowpea are grown. to semi-arid agroecology and high nutritional Some of the common cropping patterns value and other benefits, like fodder to are rice–sesame, rice–groundnut, rice– support pastoral farming. Thus, the area sunfl ower, sesame–fi nger millet, mung bean/ under millets cultivation has declined over black gram–groundnut, fi nger millet–rice– the last fi ve decades, especially after the groundnut, rice–rice–groundnut, rice–rice– Green Revolution. Between 1966 and 2006, sesame–groundnut, and rice–rice–sesame. more than 44 per cent of millets cultivation The following combinations of crops are areas have been occupied by other crops, practiced under the mixed cropping systems: primarily cash crops. Government policies castor+ginger/turmeric; castor+sesame; and towards millets have also led to their castor+sesame/pigeonpea+groundnut. decline causing severe genetic erosion. The Under the evolutionary history of agriculture other major crops grown are rice, sorghum (jowar), cotton, sugarcane, pulses (beans, of the region, pastoral farming occupied peas, lentil, and horse gram), groundnut, prime position. One of the reasons for this bananas, tobacco, etc. was that the region was endowed with rich livestock diversity and land resources with The major kharif crops are sorghum, cotton, savannah grassland and thorny thickets for pigeonpea, and groundnut, while in the their feed. Livestock rearing still occupies rabi season, sorghum, sunfl ower and other an important status among resource-poor oilseeds are grown on residual soil moisture. farmers. A survey has shown that 70 per Rice is cultivated under irrigated conditions. cent of the small and marginal farmers and The important crops cultivated in the semi- agricultural laborers depend upon livestock arid southern Andhra Pradesh are millets, rearing. The requirement of fodder for pulses, and oilseeds in the kharif season and livestock is met mostly from the straw and/ sorghum, cotton, and oilseeds in the rabi or residues of various food crops (60%), and season. Groundnut is cultivated in southern in a limited way from the fodder crops and Andhra Pradesh and adjoining northeastern the ever-diminishing pasturelands. 206 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites

campestris L.), niger [Guizotia abyssinica Between 1966 and 2006, more than 44 (L.f.) Cass.], pigeonpea [Cajanus cajan per cent of millet cultivation areas have (L.) Millsp.], purple bean [Macroptilium been occupied by other crops, primarily atropurpureum (DC.) Urb.], safflower cash crops. Government policies (Carthamus tinctorius L.), sesame (Sesamum towards millets have also led to their indicum L.), sunfl ower (Helianthus annuus decline causing severe genetic erosion. L.) and non-edible oilseeds – castor (Ricinus communis L.), physic nut (Jatropha curcas L., J. gossypifolia L.) (a recent introduction), Representative crop species in various sweet pea (Lathyrus odoratus L.), and lentil crop groups (Lens culinaris Medik.). Cereals, pseudocereals, and millets. Fodder and fi ber crops. Cotton (Gossypium Barnyard millet [Echinochloa crus-galli hirsutum L., G. arboretum L.), Decaschistia (L.) P. Beauv.], Dactyloctenium aegyptium cuddapahensis Paul and Nayar, D. rufa (L.) Beauv., Digitaria tomentosa (Koen. Craib, kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus L.), ex Rottl.) Henr., fi nger millet (Eleusine roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.), sunn hemp coracana Gaertn.), korralu (Telugu) or (Crotalaria juncea L.), and fodder – mushel navane (Kannada) or foxtail millet [Setaria (Iseilema laxum Hack.) and velvet bean italica (L.) Beauv.; Setaria verticillata [Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. var. pruriens]. L.], kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum Additionally, forage types of sorghum, pearl L.), maize (Zea mays L.), millet-grasses millet, and minor millets are cultivated. [Brachiaria ramosa (L.) Stapf], pearl millet [Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R.Br.], proso Vegetables. Bhindi or okra [Abelmoschus millet (Panicum miliaeceum L.), rice (Oryza esculentus (L.) Moench], bitter gourd sativa L.), sanwa (Echinochloa frumentacea (Momordica balsamina L., M. charantia L.), Link.; syn. Panicum frumentaceum Roxb.), bottle gourd [Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench], Standley], brinjal (Solanum melongena L.), thipa ragi (Eleusine indica Steud.), vedalu cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.), kachra (Echinochloa colonum L.), and wheat (Cucumis melo var. agrestis Naud.), kudzu (Triticum aestivum L., T. dicoccum Schubl.). vine [Pueraria tuberosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Additionally, wild Panicum spp. are also DC], muskmelon (Cucumis melo L.), cooked as rice. pumpkin (Cucurbita pepo L.), and sponge gourd (Luffa cylindrica Roxb.). Grain legumes and oilseeds. Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.), green gram [mung bean; Vigna Leafy vegetables. Adavi gogu (Hibiscus radiata (L.) R.Wilczek], groundnut (Arachis aculeatus Walt.) (leaves as pot herb), hypogaea L.), horse gram [Macrotyloma amaranthus (Amaranthus spinosus L., uniflorum (Lamk.) Verdc.], hyacinth A. tenuifolius Willd., A. viridis L., A. bean [Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet; syn. dubius Mart. ex Thell.), ambary (Hibiscus Dolichos lablab L.], mustard (Brassica cannabinus) (leaves pickled), Corchorus Asian Agri-History Vol. 17, No. 3, 2013 207 aestuans L. (tender leaves), and Digera Gomphrena globosa L., and scarlet ixora muricata (L.) Mart. (pot herb). (Ixora coccinea Linn).

Bulb, root, and tubers. Elephant-foot yam Other economic plants. Bamboo [Bambusa [Amorphophallus paeonifolius (Dennst.) arundinacea (Ritz.) Roxb.; Dendrocalamus Nicolson], mango ginger (Curcuma amada strictus (Roxb.) Nees.], sugarcane Roxb.), onion (Allium cepa L.), and potato (Saccharum offi cinarum L.), and tobacco yam (Dioscorea bulbifera L.). (Nicotiana tabacum L.).

Fruits. Aonla (Emblica offi cinalis), bael Medicinal plants. Some of the common [Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa ex Roxb.], medicinal plants known from the region clove tree [Syzygium aromaticum (L.) are baheda [Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Merr. & L.M. Perrym], custard apple Roxb.], Centella asiatica (L.) Urban, Costus Annona squamosa L.), country date palm speciosus Koen ex Retz.) Sm., Cassia fi stula, [Phoenix sylvestris (L.) Roxb.], date palm giloe [Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Hook.f. [P. robusta (Becc.) Hook. f.], grapes (Vitis & Thomson], Gloriosa superba L., harada vinifera L.), jamun [Syzygium cuminii (L.) (Terminalia chebula), kalmegh [Andrographis Skeels], kaith or wood apple (Limonia paniculata (Burm. f.) Wall.], noni (Morinda acidissima L.), karonda (Carissa carandas citrifolia), Phyllanthus amarus Schum., Piper Lour.), khonda mavu (Commiphora longum L., Plumbago zeylanica L., Strychnos caudata Engl.; syn. C. wightii Arn.), lime nux-vomica L., and Tacca leontopetaloides [Citrus aurantifolia (Christm.) Sw.; syn. (L.) Kuntze. Raju and Ramana (2011) have C. medica L.], mango (Mangifera indica described the use of Decalepis hamiltonii L.), pomelo [Citrus maxima (Burm.) Wight & Arn., as a health drink. In addition, Merr.], rose apple [Syzygium jambos (L.) Rao et al. (2006) have listed a total 240 Alston], toddy palm or palmyra (Borassus plant species of medicinal significance flabellifer L.), watermelon [Citrullus with enumeration on their uses from the lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. & Nakai], and Rayalaseema area. et al. (2009) have Ziziphus mauritiana. reported ethnomedicinal uses of 48 plant species, belonging to 44 genera and 30 Spices. Chili (Capsicum annuum L.), families, used to cure 32 types of ailments coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.), curry from the Seshachalam hill ranges of Kadapa leaf [Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng.], district alone. ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.), and turmeric (Curcuma domestica Valet.; syn. Timber. Dry type sal (Shorea tumbuggaia), C. longa L.). neem (Azadirichta indica), raktachandana – the sacred wood (Pterocarpus santalinus), Ornamentals. Some naturalized ornamental teak (Tectona grandis), and Terminalia species are Bauhinia purpurea Linn., tomentosa. bela or jasmine (Jasminum L. spp.), bluebell barleria (Barleria cristata Linn.), Multipurpose and aromatic plants. Lemon Crossandra infundibuliformis (L.) Nees, grass [Cymbopogon flexuosus (Steud.) 208 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites

Wats., Cymbopogon martinii (Roxb.) Wats.] Klein, Vigna trilobata (Linn.) Verdc., and V. and Hildegardia populifolia (Roxb.) Schott umbellata (Thunb.) Ohwi & H.Ohashi from & Endl. (medicinal and fi ber). the region. However, since then many more wild relatives of crop species, such as Cajanus Gum- and resin-yielding plants. The forests of scarabaeoides (L.) Thouars. Carissa inermis the region yield a large variety of non-timber Vahl, Crotalaria shevaroyensis, C. perfoliata, forest produce, including sal seeds (from Cucumis melo var. agrestis, Cymbopogon which an edible oil is extracted), tendu leaves L. spp., Dioscorea intermedia Thwaites, (for rolling local cigarettes), gum karaya D. pentaphylla L., D. wallichii Hook.f., D. (a type of emulsifi er), bamboo, etc. As the wighti Hook.f., Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn., tribals are interconnected with the habits of Indigofera barberi, Jasminum angustifolium local biodiversity and natural resources, they Wall., J. auriculatum Vahl, J. scandens Griff., gather root and tubers for food, medicinal Momordica tuberosa Cogn., Phoenix pusilla herbs for health care, animals for food, and Gaertn., Phyllanthus fischeri (Gamble) mineral-based products for income. J.L.Ellis, Sesamum alatum Thonn., S. prostratum Retz., Solanum erianthum D.Don, Wild relatives of crop species. Arora and S. nigrum L., S. surattense Burm.f., Sorghum Nayar (1984) recorded Abelmoschus fi culneus halepense Pers., Syzygium alternifolium, Wight & Arn., Amorphophallus campanulatus S. zeylanicum (L.) DC., Trigonella occulta (Roxb.) Bl. ex Decne, Boehmeria platyphylla Delile, Vitis adnata (Roxb.) Wall., V. linnaei D. Don., Canavalia stcokii Dalz., Coleus (syn. Cissus vitiginea L.), V. pallida Wight & forskohlii (Willd.) Briq., Corchorus antichorus Arn. (syn. Cissus pallida Wight & Arn.), and Raeuch, Grewia tenax Forsk., G. villosa, V. woodrowii Stapf. have also been reported Luffa umbellata M. (Klein) Roem, Malva from the region. rotundifolia Linn., M. sylvestris Linn., Momordica subangulata Blume, Panicum Endemic species. As per Nayar (1996) and hypheron Schult. and P. lippothrix K. Schum Reddy et al. (2009), Albizia sikharamensis, (grain cooked like rice), Sesamum laciniatum Andrographis nallamalayana Ellis, Boswellia ovalifoliolata, Canavalia stcokii Sm., Crotalaria madurensis R. Wight, Under the evolutionary history of C. longipes, C. madurensis var. kurnoolia agriculture of the region, pastoral Ellis, C. perfoliata, C. sandoorensis farming occupied prime position. One Gamble, C. shevaroyensi, Cycas beddomei, of the reasons for this was that the Decaschistia cuddapahensis, D. rufa, region was endowed with rich livestock Eriolaena lushingtonii Dunn, Hildegardia diversity and land resources with populifolia (Roxb.) Schott & Endl., savannah grassland and thorny thickets Indigofera barberi, I. mysorensis DC., for their feed. Livestock rearing still Luffa acutangula var. amara Roxb., Oryza occupies an important status among officinalis ssp. malampuzhaensis Krish. resource-poor farmers. & Chand., Parahyparhenia bellariensis, Pimpinella tirupatiensis Balakr. and Asian Agri-History Vol. 17, No. 3, 2013 209

Subram., Pterocarpus santalinus, Rhyncosia Threatened species. Boswellia ovalifoliolata, beddomei, Rhyncosia filipes, Shorea an endemic and keystone species, is tumbuggaia, Syzygium alternifolium, and threatened and endangered due to the vivid geographical conditions and climatic change Terminalia pallida. Economically important (Savithramma et al., 2010). Other endemic representative endemic species of the region species commonly recorded threatened are are presented in Table 1. Acacia campbellii Arn., Aegle marmelos

Table 1. Representative plant species endemic to the South-Central Eastern Ghats. Species Family Habit Distribution Use Andrographis Acanthaceae Herb Tirupati, Kadapa, Medicine nallamalayana Nallamalai hills Boswellia Burseraceae Tree Southern-Eastern Wood and paper ovalifoliolata Ghats Crotalaria Fabaceae Shrub Southern-Eastern Genetic resource madurensis var. Ghats kurnoolia Crotalaria Fabaceae Undershrub Southern-Eastern Genetic resource paniculata var. Ghats nagarjunekondensis Cycas beddomei Cycadaceae Shrub Southern-Eastern Ornamental, cosmetic Ghats Decaschistia Malvaceae Shrub Tirupati, Kadapa, Leaves as vegetable cuddapahensis Nallamalai, and Seshachalam hills Indigofera barberi Fabaceae Shrub Tirupati, Kadapa, Genetic resource Nallamalai Luffa acutangula Cucurbitaceae Climber Southern-Eastern Genetic resource var. amara Ghats Oryza Poaceae Perennial Southern-Eastern Genetic resource offi cinalis ssp. herb Ghats malampuzhaensis Pimpinella Apiaceae Herb Tirupati, Kadapa, Medicinal (tuberous tirupatiensis Nallamalai roots) Pterocarpus Fabaceae Tree Southern-Eastern Wood for building santalinus Ghats and agricultural implements Shorea tumbuggaia Dipterocarpaceae Tree Tirupati, Kadapa, Timber, medicinal Nallamalai

Source: Nayar (1996). 210 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites var. mahurensis Zate, Albizia thompsoni, to the beginning of the Christian era. The Asparagus rottleri Baker, Ceropegia spiralis distinctive feature of the south-central region Wight., Crotalaria paniculata Willd. var. cultural sites are the ash mounds, consisting nagerjunekondensis Thoth, C. willdenowiana of large, heaped accumulations of cattle ssp. glabrifoliolata Ellis, Cycas beddomei, dung, which have been episodically burnt, Indigofera constricta (Thw.) Trimen, corroborating the presence of pastoralist Psilotum nudum L., Pterocarpus santalinus, camps (Allchin, 1963; Paddayya 1973, Rhynchosia beddomei, Shorea talura Roxb., 1992) in ancient times. The evidences from S. tumbuggaia, Syzygium alternifolium, and the animal and plant remains found from the Terminalia pallida (Nayar, 1996). Recently, excavated sites suggest the dominant role of Rao et al. (2011) have reported Hildegardia domesticated cattle, with supporting crops populifolia (Roxb.) Schott & Endl. to be such as millets, beans, the common pea, under threat. Reddy and Reddy (2008), based horse gram, black gram, and rice. During on IUCN Red List categories - 2000, assessed this period, the main source of food and stay 50 prioritized medicinal plant species found of the economy was probably cattle pastoral in Andhra Pradesh, of which 39 are under farming followed by millets farming (Murty, threat. Selected threatened species from the 2003). A number of excavated sites from the region are listed in Table 2. region also refl ected animal husbandry as the chief activity of human settlements with Associated culture and tribes the plant remains represented inadequately. However, in the excavation at Veerapuram The origin of agriculture in South India is in of the region, the food obscure. However, the various evidences grains of Oryza sativa, Hordeum vulgare, generated in the recent past suggest it to be Paspalum scrobiculatum, Pisum arvense, quite ancient, represented by the southern Dolichos bifl orus, Lablab purpureus, and Neolithic cultural complex. During the and fruit remains of Ziziphus last 150 years, more than 800 Neolithic sp. and Terminalia bellirica have been sites have been discovered from southern found, like other sites of southern India, states, with Andhra Pradesh (Rayalaseema) suggesting that the region had similar representing the highest number (200). In status in agricultural development as that fact the Neolithic-Chalcolithic culture of of the neighboring region of Andhra Pradesh forms part of the Deccan and Karnataka (Kajale, 1984). At Maski, in Neolithic-Chalcolithic culture along with Raichur, Acacia and Chloroxylon swietenia Karnataka and Maharashtra, overlapping were exploited for fi rewood from the early with the Iron Age by c. 1000 BCE. The fi rst millennium BCE to fi rst century CE. Iron Age of Andhra is characterized by elaborate burials called Megaliths. Some Recent, preliminary archaeobotanical results scholars associate these Megaliths with (Fuller et al., 2004) have produced further pastoral nomadalism. The Megalithic evidences to suggest that, with regard to period in Andhra approximately covers the plants, the earliest agriculture in South later part of the second millennium BCE India (predominantly including parts of this Asian Agri-History Vol. 17, No. 3, 2013 211

Table 2. Representative plant species under threat in the South-Central Eastern Ghats. Species Family Habit Threat status1 Use Acacia campbellii2 Fabaceae Tree VU Timber Aegle marmelos var. Rutaceae Tree R Fruit and medicinal mahurensis Albizia thompsonii2 Fabaceae Tree VU Wood Asparagus rottleri2 Liliaceae Sub-shrub DD Medicinal Boswellia Burseraceae Tree EN Wood and paper ovalifoliolata2 Ceropegia spiralis Asclepiadaceae Twiner VU Medicinal (ceropegine) Crotalaria Fabaceae Shrub R Genetic resource willdenowiana var. galbrifoliata Cycas beddomei2 Cycadaceae Small tree CR Ornamental, cosmetic Erythrina variegata Fabaceae Tree DD Medicinal (root extract) forma mysorensis Hildegardia Sterculiaceae Tree VU Fiber populifolia2 Indigofera constricta2 Fabaceae Shrub R Genetic resource Pimpinella Apiaceae Herb EN Medicinal (tuberous roots) tirupatiensis2 Pterocarpus Fabaceae Tree EN Sacred wood santalinus Rhynchosia beddomei2 Leguminosae Shrub VU Medicinal, genetic resource Shorea tumbuggaia Dipterocarpaceae Tree EN Timber, medicinal Syzygium alternifolium Myrtaceae Tree EN Fruits, medicinal Terminalia pallida Combretaceae Tree EN Medicinal

1. CR = Critically endangered; EN = Endangered; DD = Data defi cient; R = Rare; VU = Vulnerable. 2. Listed by the Ministry of Environment and Forests (Source: Reddy and Reddy, 2008). region) dates back to the third millennium millennium BCE. This study has evidences BCE. It was based on plants domesticated for staple crops of two pulses (Vigna in the region, which were subsequently radiata and Macrotyloma unifl orum) and enriched with introduction and adaption two millet-grasses (Brachiaria ramosa and of additional crops from other regions Setaria verticillata), which were indigenous into the subsistence system from the late to the Indian peninsula and might have third millennium BCE through the second been domesticated in this region. Wheat 212 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites

(Triticum diococcum, T. durum, or T. Over time, some of the crops have become aestivum) and barley (Hordeum vulgare), an integral part of the local culture; for and a few crops that originated in Africa, example, on the day of ‘Peddala amavasya’, including hyacinth bean (Lablab purpureus), a day for worshiping ancestors, foxtail pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum), and millet (Setaria italica) is cooked as a sweet fi nger millet (Eleusine coracana) present pudding, while chickpea (Cicer arietinum) at some of these sites, suggest limited is used for making bhaji. Pudding using cultivation of these introduced crops in groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) is also the later phase of agricultural evolution. prepared during the festival day of Ugadi. In addition, there is evidence for the Though the region is small in size, it has cultivation of cotton (Gossypium sp.) and contributed signifi cantly to Telugu, Tamil, linseed (Linum sp.), as well as of Ziziphus and languages, art, culture, and and two cucurbits, Cucumis cf. prophetarum literature. L. and cf. Luffa cylindrica (L.) Roem., from the gathered fruits. In historical literature, Technology and products Andhra Pradesh’s earliest appearance is The absence of perennial rivers, low rainfall, found in Aitareya Brahmana (800 BCE) as and unpredictable weather conditions have Dakshina Padh, a gateway to South India. resulted in the evolution of a network of Though most of the people of the region are water tanks constructed from the olden believed to be of Dravidian origin, but some times with the support of the public and theories suggest that they were Aryans by the rulers, a process that continued even during the British colonial period. For origin who moved south of the Vindhyas, these reasons, the area is known as a land and eventually mixed with the local non- of water tanks. In addition, for improved Aryans. The hilly areas of the region are management of water, reservoirs (cheruvus) inhabited by large tribal communities. were developed to store runoff water in The well known tribes of the region are Chittoor and Kadapa districts of the region. the Gonds, the Sarvas, the Bagatas, the Cheruvus are embankments that are fi tted Mandulas, the Yenadis, the Chenchus, the with thoomu (sluices), an artifi cial passage Gadabas, the Yerukulas, the Sugalis, and for water fi tted with a valve or gate for the Mathuris. The Banjaras (or gypsies) stopping or regulating the flow; alugu appears to be a later entry. The other major or marva or kalju (fl ood weir), a barrier tribes are Jatapus, Khonds (Samantas), across the passage designed to alter the Kondadoras, Konda Kammaras, Konda fl ow; and kalava (canal), channel for water Reddis, Koyas, Nuka Doras (Muka Doras), discharge. Savaras, and Valmikis. Some Negritos tribes like Irulas, Kodars, Paniyans, and Traditionally, pastoral farming is an Kurumbas are also found in patches. Most important strategy adapted in the upland tribes are professionally food-gatherers, areas of southern Deccan, particularly hunters, nomads, and small farmers. among resource-poor farmers, because of Asian Agri-History Vol. 17, No. 3, 2013 213 the low rainfall, and the dominant fl oristic muscular, and strong with short horns, wide expanses of savannah grassland and thorny legs, and a big hump. They are white and thickets of Albizia, Amara, and Acacia glossy in color with black spots on the head, species. This has led to the domestication hump, legs, dewlap, and tail. The dewlap of animal species from early times, evolving is large, pendulous, and hangs in folds and conserving genetic diversity in the form (Fig. 2). It is a dual-purpose breed: producing of potentially valuable breeds in several bulls good for heavy draft work, and the groups of animals, including poultry. Apart cows with an average milk yield of 6–14 from this, the favorable agro-econiches for L per day. The germplasm of has irrigation of agriculture in the riverine areas, been exported to other countries. It is a very the region is hospitable fi rst for pastoral popular beef-purpose animal in countries economy and second for dry farming (the like Brazil. Another breed, Punganur, found chief soil types are red and black sandy in is the world’s shortest, loams) based on gravity fl ow irrigation. humped cattle. Animals are white and light The pastoralists of this region are Kuruvas gray in color with a broad forehead and (called Kuruma in Telangana, and Kuraba short horns. Its average height is 60–100 in Karnataka) and the Gollas. The chief cm, and its weight is 115–200 kg. It is an economy of the Kuruvas and Gollas is amazingly effi cient milker with an average sheep/goat and cattle pastoral farming with milk yield of 3–5 L per day on a daily feed exclusive or mixed herds. This postaralism intake of 5 kg. Similarly, the Hallikar, falls in herdsman husbandry. Kuruvas though originated from Mysore, Karnataka, and Gollas live in permanent dwelling of is a very favorable/popular choice of the villages and are involved in fi eld agriculture Chittoor farmers, who call it the Ulsoor, in a supplementary capacity. because of its desirable traits. The Hallikar is tall and strong, known for its nimble and Further, as the region is endowed with swift movements. Its racing abilities are due rich livestock and land resources, most to its long and slender limbs. Gray to dark of the farmers rear livestock, particularly resource-poor farmers. Under this major and important agricultural economic activity, the local people have evolved several indigenous breeds, particularly among cattle, which in the recent past have signifi cantly contributed to the international pastoral farming with the sharing of their germplasm, which have been extensively used in breeding programs. For example, the Ongole breed, which originates from , Prakasam, and Nellore districts of Figure 2. The elegant Ongole dual-purpose south-coastal Andhra Pradesh, is adapted to breed of cattle that has contributed to global a hot, sultry climate. Ongole oxen are large, farming. 214 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites

Similarly, in the case of sheep, breeds like Recent, preliminary archaeobotanical Deccani (central peninsular region), Bellary results have produced further evidences (Bellary district), Kenguri (Raichur district), to suggest that, with regard to plants, and the Nellore with three varieties based the earliest agriculture in South India on color (indigenous to Nellore and parts (predominantly including parts of of Prakasam) are known globally and are this region) dates back to the third suited to arid and semi-arid environment. millennium BCE. They are being used in breeding programs to harness desirable economic gains. In poultry, the development and conservation gray in color, it has deep shadings on its fore of breeds like Aseel has contributed globally. and back quarters. Its horns are dark gray It has been considered as the chief resource in color, carried backwards, forwards, and for developing the different broiler breeds slightly inwards. It is a poor milker, with a across the world. milk yield of 1–3 L per day. Nevertheless, Hallikar germplasm has contributed to the To support pastoral farming, grazing over development of breeds like Amrit Mahal savannah grassland and thorny thickets is and Khillari. The population of Hallikar is the main activity. However, overexploitation declining, needing immediate conservation of these bioresources has been resulting efforts. Another breed, Turinjithalai, in degradation and depletion of forests, bred by Telugu-speaking people in areas leading to the loss of valuable biodiversity bordering with Tamil Nadu is known for with degradation of climate and land. drought hardiness. Nevertheless, the local tribes of the region have evolved practices for the use of Despite the potential economic value of residues of various food crops as fodder, these breeds for sustainability of lives under as the main source of food for the livestock the harsh dry environment and the desirable (60%), possibly recognizing the above traits, such as being more resistant to several environmental consequences and to ensure diseases and sturdiness under dry conditions food support to domesticated livestock (though with lower per capita productivity), throughout the year. all these breeds from the region unfortunately are under neglect and threat, needing strong To supplement the livelihood and ensure conservation measures for continued and availability of food and fodder throughout sustainable use. For example, the Punganur the year, the local tribes also progressed is virtually on the verge of extinction with only some 30 animals left. It is presently being reared on the Government Livestock Andhra Pradesh’s earliest appearance Farm, Palamaner, Chittoor district. But, in is found in Aitareya Brahmana (800 general, not much attention is being paid to BCE) as Dakshina Padh, a gateway to the declining population of these indigenous South India. breeds. Asian Agri-History Vol. 17, No. 3, 2013 215 with developments in field agriculture, suited to the predominantly dry climate. The well known tribes of the region are This resulted in the evolution of rainfed, the Gonds, the Sarvas, the Bagatas, the dryland agriculture, with crop species (both Mandulas, the Yenadis, the Chenchus, indigenous and introduced) requiring less the Gadabas, the Yerukulas, the water or with better water-use effi ciency Sugalis, and the Mathuris. The and/or genotypes tolerant to drought in Banjaras (or gypsies) appears to be most crops. For example, in minor millets, a later entry. The other major tribes variability exists in the form of landraces are Jatapus, Khonds (Samantas), with different desirable features (Fig. 3). Kondadoras, Konda Kammaras, Several of these landraces have resulted Konda Reddis, Koyas, Nuka Doras in the selection of varietal products. For (Muka Doras), Savaras, and Valmikis. example, in foxtail millet the variety SrA Some Negritos tribes like Irulas, 326 is a selection from the local landrace Kodars, Paniyans, and Kurumbas are from Garladinne village of Kurnool district also found in patches. (Seetharama et al., 2006). In fi nger millet, sources of several physiological traits have been identifi ed, such as GE-94 with with high leaf area, high dry matter, and low stomata number, low leaf area, high moderate to high photosynthetic effi ciency; photosynthetic efficiency, and higher GE-2338 with higher water-use effi ciency water-use effi ciency under stress, and DES- under stress, high biomass production, 172 and PR-202 for good germination in and high harvest index (>35%); GE-1179, crusted soil. Besides, the unique landrace GE-2327, GE-500, GE-3302 with high IS-530, with bristled ears from the Andhra biomass production and high harvest index Pradesh area and genotypes like GE-187, (>35%), and IE-2643, IE-3200, IE-2333 with low stomata number, low leaf area, with drought tolerance from Karnataka area high photosynthetic effi ciency; GE-1097 have been collected. In Karnataka, unlike other regions, the pearl millet landraces are late and tall with larger and broad leaves and small spikes.

In rice, the region is known for variability in sticky nature of rice and the popular varieties, like Sona Masuri. The other common farmers’ varieties from the region are Thella sanna vodlu, Yerra sanna vodlu, Bandapalaka vadlu, Budamodlu, Basmati, and Vonkodlu. In addition, there are varieties with specialized Figure 3. Promoting traditional minor millets features, like Chennangi Vadlu, a variety (Source: www.deccanherald.com). with horns-glutinous contents, grown in 216 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites patches where the farmers have saline/ alkaline soils, and scented varieties like Similarly, in the case of sheep, breeds Gangasara vadlu grown by a handful of like Deccani (central peninsular farmers. Some of these have contributed region), Bellary (Bellary district), to the development of varieties like RNR Kenguri (Raichur district), and the through selection. In bread wheat, the Nellore with three varieties based on Karnataka area is known for variability color (indigenous to Nellore and parts in grain weight per spike, 1000-grain of Prakasam) are known globally weight, and grain color. In durum wheat, and are suited to arid and semi-arid the region is known for variability in leaf environment. color at fi fth leaf stage, spike-awn length, grain weight per spike, grain number per spike, 1000-grain weight, etc. (Singh et Also, in saffl ower, the variety A-300 has been al., 2006). In Karnataka, even dicoccum derived from a local landrace. wheat is grown. Triticum dicoccum (emmer wheat) variety Khapli is known Among vegetable crops, the region has to have curative properties for treating recorded high variability in brinjal (Solanum diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. melongena) represented by landraces such It is well known for quality, stem rust as Sanna vanga, Saara vanga, Tella mulaka, resistance, and is being widely used in and Tella vanga, and in chili (Capsicum breeding programs. annuum) for fruit color, shape, size, and plant type. Similarly, variability has been Among pulses, signifi cant variability has been recorded in okra for various desirable observed in crops like pigeonpea, in the form features related with the fruit. In onion, the of landraces like Natu kandi, Peda kandi, variability for bulb traits has been found in Tota kandi, and in fi eld bean with landraces landraces such as Chinna erragadda, Erra Anapa and Natu anumulu. Among oilseed gadda, and Tella gadda. crops, signifi cant genetic diversity has been observed in Karnataka in the case of niger, There is signifi cant variability in ginger for medium seed size, and high oil content and turmeric. The region is also known for (40–43%). The drought-tolerant selections variability in seed spices like coriander, No.71 (KRN1) and RCR66 are from local where several varieties have been landraces of Raichur (Duhoon et al., 2004). developed from local collections through mass selection. For example, Sadhna was developed from the Alour collection, Nevertheless, Hallikar germplasm Swathi from the collection, and has contributed to the development of Sindhu from a local collection (Ravindran breeds like Amrit Mahal and Khillari. et al., 2005), and APHU Dhania-1 from a The population of Hallikar is declining, landrace (SH-3466/LCC-170/NIC-18231/ needing immediate conservation efforts. IC-574503) from Koikuntla in Kurnool district. Asian Agri-History Vol. 17, No. 3, 2013 217

The region is known for variability in Future perspective tropical fruits. For example, in mango, Because of unsuitable government policies, the variability is represented by some of farmers have switched over to paddy the popular traditional varieties such as cultivation from coarse cereals. Since Banganpalli, Totapari, Cherukurasam, paddy is not the traditional crop of the Himayuddin, Suvarnarekha, etc. The region, this has led to digging of dug-wells custard apple, though introduced in the and tube-wells indiscriminately leading to recent past, has shown good adaptability depletion of the water table, and drought to diverse ecologies of the region, showing followed by drought, forcing the farmers signifi cant variability in fruit traits. to leave the major part of their drylands as fallow lands. This has resulted in the For useful and profi table cultivation, the spread of fallow lands on the one hand, and region has developed some unique practices migration of farmers to nearest towns and and intercropping systems; for example, cities in search of livelihood on the other, intercropping of marigold with chili for needing reinvention of traditional practices control of pests and nematodes. Besides, for sustainable agriculture. botanicals like neem (Azadirachta indica) are widely used for control of insect pests. The change in cropping pattern towards Neem is being traditionally used by the water-intensive crops is also creating local farmers for manuring and pest control problems of irrigation and depletion of paddy. Neem cake, after oil extraction of groundwater and incidence of land is used for application to crops. However, degradation in Rayalaseema regions, where the direct use of neem seeds is known to agriculture was predominantly dryland- be more effective than the oil cake. Neem based, dependent on rainfall (Reddy, 2003). seeds are collected during the season and Degradation in some parts of the regions are crushed and applied to the plots. has reached irreversible levels leading to desertification. Erosion due to water In addition, the local people have identifi ed and wind is leading to the degradation of and have been using a number of alternative agricultural lands on the one hand, and sources of food, which can be considered dwindling of green cover in the common as under-utilized edible greens and fruits, property resources and forestlands on which serve as life-supporting species the other, accelerating the desertifi cation during periods of scarcity caused by process. The direct erosion due to fl oods and vagaries of monsoon rains. The forest areas surface runoff and indirect erosion due to of the region are known for sandalwood excess or inappropriate use of water is also (Santalum album) and the red sanders causing salinity and alkalinity in some areas. tree (Pterocarpus santalinus), which are This situation demands greater research considered sacred, but are under severe on management of natural resources, threat because of overexploitation from the particularly water, and re-exploring of natural habitat. traditional systems for combating drought, 218 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites famine, and unsustainable agricultural perusing the manuscript and sharing some progress. information.

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