Medieval Trade Routes in the Kadapa Basin: A Study of Chitvel Taluka Meghna Desai1 and Arvin Raj Mathur2 1. National Institute of Advanced Studies, Indian Institute of Science Campus, Bangalore ‐ 560 012, Karnataka, India (Email: [email protected]) 2. West Chester Township, Butler County, Ohio, USA (Email: [email protected]) Received: 26 August 2017; Revised: 21 September 2017; Accepted: 06 November 2017 Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 5 (2017): 343‐356 Abstract: Chitvel village (Kadapa district, Andhra Pradesh) is situated in between two centres of intense political and economic activity during medieval times: the Vijayanagar capital at Hampi and the port cities of the south eastern coast. The village sits between the Sheshachalam Hills and the Velikondas the southern portion of the Kadapa basin. This location, extending from the Chatravathi River to the Cheyyeru River is known historically as “Renadu” (7,000 villages). The Telugu Cholas incorporated Renadu, but were eventually driven out by the Pallavas. The Chola‐descended Matli chiefs maintained administrative control in Renadu and eventually formed a dependency of the Vijayangar Empire. The Matli chiefs sought to profit from the trade connecting Nellore district and Ballari. Trade in the eastern coastal region known as Rayalseema led to intense struggles to control the eastern coast. The resultant construction of Siddhavattam Fort provided the Matli ruler of Chitvel with a strategic vantage point along this trade route. Present‐day roads connecting Kadapa to Nellore pass through Chitvel village and cross the Velikondas. Although this road was constructed by the Public Works division of the Madras Presidency, the presence of a Vijayanagar Gopuram in the village’s temple to Varadaraja Swamy may indicate the possibility of an older route connecting Chitvel to the densely‐populated Nellore district, allowing for the smooth passage of trade goods from Siddhavattam Fort to the coastal ports of Krishnapatnam. Keywords: Vijayanagara, Andhra, Economy, Trade, Chola, Kadapa, Temple Introduction Chitvel (14.1728° N, 79.3290° E; Kadapa district, Andhra Pradesh) is a village in the southern Kadapa basin located 10 kilometres west of the Velikonda Range. The granite hills that surround Chitvel form a barrier to those travelling through the area. As a result, the culture of Chitvel developed in relative isolation from the major urban centres located outside of the basin. The presence of only two major roads connecting the area to regional centres lead the Public Works division of the Madras Presidency to describe the area as “. practically devoid of communications” (Brackenbury, 2000, p. 118), emphasizing the sequestered nature of the study area during historical times. The Kadapa basin lies on the path between the political power at Ballari and the port at ISSN 2347 – 5463 Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 5: 2017 Krishnapatnam (Nellore district, Andhra Pradesh), creating a necessity for travelers to locate passages through the mountainous terrain. The oldest road to Krishnapatnam extends from Kadapa to Badvel and then from Badvel to Krishnapatnam. A break in the Sheshachalam Hills creates an ideal passage through this natural barrier, therefore major roads connecting western Andhra Pradesh to the eastern coast routed through Badvel (see Figure 1: BKr1). This route’s principal disadvantage is the distance added when journeying to Krishnapatnam or Nellore city from an area south of Badvel, such as Kadapa. Figure 1: The Route/Highways from Ballari to Krishnapatnam. Bkr1 (NH 67 and Mydukur Road), BKr2 (Mydukur‐Krishnapatnam) and Bkr3 (Bellary/Ballari‐Nellore Road/Kadapa‐Gooty Road via Chitvel) Figure 2: Chitvel, Shows Presence of Modern Road Connecting Chitvel to the Eastern Portion of the Velikonda Range (India and Pakistan 1:250,000. Series U502, U.S. Army Map Service, 1955‐ ND 44‐05) In response to this problem, British civil engineers developed an alternative route from Kadapa, south of the Pennar River, along the Cheyyeru and across the Velikondas (Figure 2). The division of Public Works of the Madras Presidency organised this new 344 Desai and Mathur 2017: 343‐356 passage as an extension of the Kadapa‐Madras road. The new construction presently runs from Vontimitta through Chitvel to Nellore and provides travelers a route that is 20 kilometers shorter than its alternative (Figure 1; Brackenbury, 2000). Although the present‐day road appears to have opened Chitvel to regular contact with major urban centres, minor architectural evidence demonstrates the importance of the taluka during the medieval period. This evidence may also imply the presence of a previously unknown pre‐British passage through the Velikondas, connecting Chitvel with Nellore district. History of the Study Area The eponymous village headquarters of Chitvel taluka presently derives its source of water from the seasonal Cheyyeru River, a southern tributary of the Pennar River, as well as the recently constructed Somasila Reservoir. Chitvel sits in the eastern periphery of the Telugu Chola domain known as Renadu, a collection of 7,000 villages extending from the Chitravathi River to the Cheyyeru River along the Pennar River (Figure 3; V.N. Reddy, 1999). The Cholas of Renadu were among the oldest of the Telugu Cholas and justify their Chola affiliation by claiming descent from the legendary king, Karikala Chola (Chetty, 1984). However, no evidence indicates the presence of their putative ancestors in Chitvel nor in Krishnapatnam (Figure 4). The records of the Buddhist pilgrim Xuanzang describes the Chuliyas (Cholas) of Renadu as a fierce people (Reddy, 1999). Xuanzang’s observations may indicate the development of a cultural mentality in response to constant warfare. This conflict with neighboring powers led the Telugu Cholas of Renadu to eventually meet their defeat at the hands of the Pallavas. These Cholas eventually began establishing new territories farther north towards Pottapi (Narasimham, 1984). Figure 3: The Territory of Renadu 345 ISSN 2347 – 5463 Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 5: 2017 Figure 4: The Area Showing the Kingdom of Karikala Chola The expanse of time following the Pallavas saw the transfer of control of Renadu to medieval chieftains of the Matli clan (Figure 5). These chiefs claimed descent from the Telugu Cholas and their domain included cities such as Kadapa, Badvel and Rajampet. The Matli’s established their administrative centre at Pottapi, then transferred to Yerraguntlakota, and was subsequently shifted to Chitvel in the late 1600s (Brackenbury, 2000). These Matli chiefs formed the governing structures that facilitated relations between the Kadapa basin and the Vijayanagar kings. Figure 5: The Key Towns Administered by the Matli Chiefs during the Early Vijayanagara Period 346 Desai and Mathur 2017: 343‐356 Siddhavattam Fort The Matli chiefs governing Chitvel constructed Siddhavattam Fort along the Pennar River approximately during the time of the Early Vijayanagar Empire. Siddhavattam holds prominence from ancient times where the temple of Siddheswara was built by the Cholas. Even prior to the construction of the fort, the location held prominence as a pilgrimage site (Sivaiah, 2011). The area chosen for the construction of Siddhavattam Fort is rather distant from Chitvel, and was likely chosen due to the area’s importance to the local culture. Renadu later became a dependency of the Vijayanagara Empire that was continually administered by the Matli chieftains. During this period of time, Siddhavattam Fort provided the Matli chiefs with an excellent vantage point along the Ballari‐ Krishnapatnam trade route (Figure 6). The abovementioned route BKr1 (see Figure 1) was the earlier route includes the fort of Siddhavattam implying that it may have served as a checkpoint or a location for the assemblage and redistribution of goods (Figure 7). Siddhavattam allowed the Matli chiefs to benefit from trade within the Vijayanagar Empire. Figure 6: The Location of Chitvel with Reference to Siddhavatam The first dynasty of Vijayanagar saw the rise of iron metallurgy in the Kadapa basin. Most of the area’s iron working aimed at creating implements for use in agriculture. This was accomplished through the use of ores mined from the veins of the Kadapa series. Chitvel taluka housed several furnaces used to mix ores from the Kadapa series with lateritic ore (Ball, 1881). In the Rayalseema (between the mouths of the Krishna 347 ISSN 2347 – 5463 Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 5: 2017 and Pennar Rivers) region, metal workers, such as blacksmiths, bronze‐smiths, and goldsmiths, and carpenters formed the Panchamavaru castes which are presently known as the Vishwakarmas who now trace their lineage to Vishwabrahma or the Brahmin community. Iron production in Kadapa district intensified the area’s importance to trade. Figure 7: Inside Siddhavattam Fort The rule of Devaraya in Vijayanagar is commonly associated with an emphasis on policies to boost trade by land and sea. According to the inscription found in Donyalasani (Siddhavatam taluk), Devaraya exempted craftspeople from all the taxes (Narasimham, 1984). An inscription at Siddhavattam only further emphasizes the importance of the fort as a centre for professional artisans and trade related activities (Figure 7). Persian Ambassador Abdul Razzaq mentions about 360 active ports in South India alone during the reign of Devaraya (Alam