Discussion Paper Series - 6

Aajeevika - Livelihoods in : Status, Constraints and Strategies for Sustainable Change

ARAVALI

(Association for Rural Advancement through Voluntary Action and Local Involvement)

The analysis and policy recommendations of this Paper do not necessarily reflect the views of the United Nations Development Programme, its Executive Board or its Member States. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Aajeevika research study would not have been possible without the efforts and ideas of numerous people ranging from villagers, to experts and of course the study team itself. In particular ARAVALI would like to acknowledge its gratitude to Sudrak, for critical inputs into the core study team. It would also like to thank Hiralal Sharma of Sahyog, A.K.Chaurasia of BAIF, Laxman Singh of GVNML and Ramchandra Barupal of UMBVS for logistical help and support in conducting fieldwork. ARAVALI would also like to thank all the villagers of Shobhji ka Guda and Ovra in Dhariawad, Kothya and Bhairoopura Ojha in Bundi, Rathora and Kelawa in Jaisalmer and Gagardu and Malyawas in Dudu for their enthusiastic support and participation during the field survey. Support from Government officials in all blocks is also gratefully acknowledged. Thanks are also due to the team of Research Associates including Amod Khanna, Krishnavtar Sharma, Ghulab Noor Khan and Meera Shrivastava for their insightful contribution and to the dedicated team of Reseach Assistants including Narayan Meena from Sahyog, Tej Singh and Ramgopal from GVNML, Mahavir Prasad and Suwa Lal from BAIF and Umardin Meher, Magaram and Dinesh Meghwal from UMBVS for their help during the field work. Special thanks go out to Neelima Khetan of Seva Mandir, Surjit Singh of IDS, and Viren Lobo for helpful comments on a draft version of the study report. ARAVALI would especially like to thank K. Seeta Prabhu, Head, HDRC, UNDP for providing the opportunity to carry out this research and Suraj Kumar, HDRC, UNDP for his support and involvement at each stage of the study. Thanks are also due to V.Srinivasan and Ritu Mathur of UNDP for their unfailing support and assistance in the course of the study and to Ananya Ghosh Dastidar, Delhi University for her help in editing this version of the Aajeevika research study. Finally ARAVALI would like to express a deep sense of gratitude to Sudhir Katiyar and Rajiv Khandelwal of Sudrak, and Sachin Sachdeva, Mukul Kumar, Jai Pal Singh, Lokesh Gupta, of ARAVALI and the entire team at ARAVALI, Jaipur and Sudrak, Udaipur for their critical inputs and untiring efforts in making this study possible. PROLOGUE

Livelihood is an oft-used term with many different connotations. The Aajeevika study considers livelihoods as a composite of entitlements and capabilities that determine the existence of a household, as it analyses how rural livelihoods are changing and diversifying in rural Rajasthan. Based on extensive fieldwork carried out in four development blocks in the State, the study reviews the chief livelihood strategies and the main livelihood sectors in the region. In particular, it analyses livelihood options before the poorest sections of the rural community and provides a set of recommendations for promoting sustainable livelihood options across the State. This paper is based on one of the studies commissioned by HDRC, as a follow-up to the State Human Development Reports, to have a deeper understanding of the livelihood situation in various States. ARAVALI is a development support organisation initiated by the to promote innovation in development and greater collaboration between the government and non-government organisations. PREFACE

The State of Rajasthan, located in the northwestern region of , occupies eleven per cent of total land area in the country, and shares an international boundary with Pakistan in the west. Sandy plains, mostly arid and infertile, constitute about sixty per cent of State area in the north and west, while the south eastern part is more diverse consisting of hilly ranges, wide vales and fertile table lands. Population in the State is over fifty six million (Census, 2001), population density being high in the eastern and central regions and extremely low in the desert regions in the west. Development indicators are poor, with high rates (89) and with substantially lower literacy rates, especially female literacy (20.4 per cent) compared to the rest of India. Total fertility rates (4.6) are high resulting in high decadal growth rates of population in the State. Indeed Rajasthan, a predominantly agricultural State, with over seventy seven per cent of the total population residing in rural areas, is among the poorer States in the country today. To capture the diversity of livelihood conditions across the State, the Aajeevika study covered four develop- ment blocks in Rajasthan, each representing a larger socio-ecological region of Rajasthan (viz., the Tribal South, the Desert West, the Irrigated East and the Semi-Arid North Central zones), with a view to identifying important livelihood options and constraints facing different segments of the population in each region. The study attempts to understand how rural livelihoods are changing and diversifying in rural Rajasthan and what factors determine access to new and productive livelihood opportunities for different sections of the rural population, especially the poor. Apart from reviewing the chief livelihood strategies and identifying the main livelihood sectors, the study focuses especially on livelihood options before the poorest sections of the rural community, as it explores various measures that can facilitate the rural poor in achieving successful sustainable livelihoods. A set of recommendations are provided for improving livelihood options in rural Rajasthan, where a novel suggestion made is that the State should foster the development of Resource Centers for facilitating migration out of rural areas. For, increasingly migration is becoming an important livelihood strategy for a significant proportion of the rural population in many areas in the State. Finally the study proposes a set of measures for operationalising some of the key recommendations aimed at improving the rural livelihood scenario in the state, identifying the main stakeholders and setting out the guidelines of an action agenda for implementation. It is hoped that this report would be found useful by both governments and NGOs in undertaking livelihood planning for Rajasthan.

iv CONTENTS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1

I THE AAJEEVIKA STUDY : ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK AND METHODOLOGY 2 Concepts and Definitions 2 Methodology 4

II RURAL LIVELIHOODS : AN OVERVIEW 7 Main Occupational Categories 7 Important Livelihood Strategies 8 Chief Livelihood Sectors 10

III RURAL LIVELIHOODS : A REGIONAL PROFILE 19 Livelihood Patterns Across Four Socio-Ecological Regions 19 Changes and Sustainability of Regional Livelihood Patterns 25

IV ACCESS TO PRODUCTIVE LIVELIHOODS : SOCIAL REALITY AND GOVERNMENT POLICY 28 Factors Governing Access to Productive Livelihoods 28 Rural Alleviation : Role of the Government 37

V IMPROVING RURAL LIVELIHOODS : LESSONS AND KEY INTERVENTIONS 44 Lessons and Best Practices 44 Recommendations for Improving Rural Livelihoods 46 Operationalising Key Interventions 51

VI CONCLUSION 61

v TECHNICAL NOTES 63

STATISTICAL ANNEXURES 64 Table 1 Occupational Classification of Workforce across Regions 64 Table 2 Changes in the Occupation Profile of Male Workers over the Last Decade 65 Table 3 Important Sources of Household Income 65 Table 4 Proportion of Poor Households across Regions 65 Table 5 Important Sources of Household Income for Poor Rural Households 66 Table 6 Extent of Irrigation across Regions 66 Table 7 Incidence of Leasing and Mortgage of Land across Regions 66 Table 8 Share of Animal Husbandry in Household Incomes of Different Economic Classes 67 Table 9 Migration across Regions 67 Table 10 Land Holding Size for Different Communities 67 Table 11 Distribution of Irrigated Land Among Major Communities 68 Table 12 Comparative Contribution of Different Sources to Household Incomes of Different Castes 68 Table 13 Literacy Rates across Regions 68 Table 14 Electricity Connections in Dhariyawad and Bundi 69 Table 15 Road Networks in Three Blocks Surveyed 69 Table 16 Progress of SGSY in Two Aajeevika Study Blocks 69 Table 17 Indicators of Material Well Being across Regions 70

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 71

vi ABBREVIATIONS

BDO Block Development Officer BPL Below Poverty Line CGWB Central Ground Water Board EAS Employment Assurance Scheme FO Farmers’ Organisation IGNP Indira Gandhi Nahar Pariyojna IRDP Integrated Rural Development Programme ITI Industrial Training Institute IWMI International Water Management Institute JRY Jawahar Rozgar Yojana MP Member of Parliament MLA Member of Legislative Assembly NABARD National Bank for and Rural Development NRM Natural Resource Management PA Promoter Agency PDS Public Distribution System PHED Public Health Engineering Department PIM Participatory Irrigation Management PS Panchayat Samiti PWD Public Works Division RSEB Rajasthan State Electricity Board SC Scheduled Castes ST Scheduled Tribes SGRY Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana SGSY Swarnajayanti Grameen Swarozgar Yojana SGWD State Ground Water Department SHG Self-Help Group WUA Water Users Association

vii GLOSSARY

Aajeevika Livelihoods Bhils A scheduled tribe community Bishnois A peasant caste Dangi Patels A peasant caste Dhakars A peasant caste Charnoi Pasturelands Dhaba An informal food stall Gram / Grameen Village Gram Sabha General body comprising all adult inhabitants of a village Gujars A peasant caste Gwar Cluster Beans Hamaali Physical labour involving loading- unloading Jagirdari A system of land tenure Jats A peasant caste Kharif Monsoon crop Khatedari Land records Mahakaal Conditions of extreme drought Meenas A peasant caste Meghwal A scheduled caste community Meos A peasant caste Mers A minority community Moong Green gram; a kind of pulse Nahar Canal Panchayati Raj Term referring to the system of local self-governance in villages Panchayat An administrative unit comprising of a few revenue villages Pariyojna Programme Patidar A peasant caste Pucca Paved or made of concrete Rabaris A traditional rural community Rabi A winter crop Raikas A traditional rural community Rajputs Traditionally a warrior caste, now mostly engaged in agriculture Rozgar Employment Sadak Road Samiti Committee or Association Sampoorna Complete Shramik Kendra Centre for Labourers Suthars Caste of Carpenters Swarnajayanti Golden jubilee Swarozgar Self-Employment Yojana Plan Zila Parishad The district level administrative unit viii Executive Summary

The Aajeevika livelihood study under- by an appraisal of the primary livelihood takes a detailed analysis of the problems sectors and strategies adopted by vari- facing rural livelihoods across ous groups across different socio-eco- Rajasthan. An extensive field survey was logical regions in the State. carried out in four blocks, each from a Next, there is a brief discussion of the different socio-ecological region, repre- main factors that govern access to pro- senting the diversity in livelihood op- ductive livelihoods across rural areas. In tions and constraints facing the rural this context, the role of the government population in the State. The survey, car- initiatives in addressing the problem of ried out from September 2002 onwards income generation in rural areas is re- An important finding was spread over a period of ten months. viewed. This analysis clearly points to from the Aajeevika The study provides an overview of the the need for rethinking rural poverty al- study is that even at rural economy of Rajasthan, assessing leviation in the State. the current the overall livelihood scenario in the State Thereafter, a set of recommendations is conjuncture, caste and identifying the chief livelihood op- provided for strengthening livelihood identities and access to tions available to various sections of the options especially for the rural poor social and political rural community. In particular, the im- across Rajasthan, along with suggestions networks are important portant livelihood sectors are studied and for operationalising key recommendations factors governing the main livelihood strategies adopted, by identifying the primary stakeholders access to productive especially by the poorest sections of the and specifying the broad guidelines for an livelihoods rural population, are reviewed. action agenda for implementation. Based on a detailed analysis of the find- An important finding from the Aajeevika ings from the field surveys and from an study is that even at the current conjunc- assessment of overall employment sce- ture, caste identities and access to so- nario in the State, a set of recommen- cial and political networks are important dations are suggested for improving live- factors governing access to productive lihood options, especially for the poor- livelihoods. In this context there is an est and most vulnerable segments of the important role for education in helping rural community. individuals overcome such barriers and To begin with, this paper sets out the constraints. In addition, the study iden- methodology and framework adopted tifies migration as another important for analysing the current status, con- strategy, used especially by the backward straints and opportunities regarding ru- and poor sections in the rural economy, ral livelihoods, followed by an overview to gain access to productive livelihoods of the rural economy. This is followed and break away from social oppression.

1 SECTION I

The Aajeevika Study : Analytical Framework and Methodology

The Aajeevika study explores the current development of livelihoods in a holis- livelihood scenario across regions in ru- tic setting, incorporating the natural and ral Rajasthan. The Human Development socio-political context and its interplay Report for Rajasthan (2001) critiqued with the overall institutional and the main livelihood and employment organisational framework, which to- sectors in the State and underscored the gether determine the livelihood profiles need for rigorous analysis of livelihood of individuals and communities. It generation and for rethinking the strat- thereby provides a much broader focus egy for strengthening livelihoods in than conventional analyses of separate specific regions and especially for economic sectors. vulnerable groups in the State. The At the very outset an important distinc- Aajeevika study addresses precisely these tion is made between livelihood re- The Aajeevika study concerns by undertaking a comprehen- sources and livelihood strategies. explores the current sive field based research study carried livelihood scenario out from September, 2002 onwards for Livelihood resources refer to the basic across regions in rural a period of ten months. assets which rural people and families Rajasthan possess for pursuing different livelihood 1.1 Concepts and Definitions strategies; these are not limited only to The working definition of livelihoods material assets like cash or land or live- adopted for the study follows Scoones stock, but also include skills, social net- (1998) : “A livelihood comprises the capa- works and natural infrastructure. In par- bilities, assets (including both material and ticular, for this study, livelihood re- social resources) and activities required for a sources include : means of living. A livelihood is sustainable z Natural Capital : , water, genetic if it can cope with and recover from stress and resources, etc. shocks, maintain or enhance its capabilities z Financial Capital : cash, savings, pro- and assets, while not undermining the natural duction tools and infrastructure. resource base.” z Human Capital : skills, knowledge, With this broad, inclusive definition of physical well being, etc. livelihoods, the study has adopted a ho- listic approach for assessing rural liveli- z Social Capital : social networks, af- hood options, based on the sustainable filiations and associations. livelihood model developed by the In- z Political capital : level of political stitute of Development Studies consciousness, extent of political net- (Scoones, 1998). This model locates works, etc.

2 AAJEEVIKA - LIVELIHOODS IN RAJASTHAN Livelihood resources are used in vari- Livelihood Diversification ous combinations to pursue livelihood The importance of livelihood diversifi- strategies. There are three main clusters cation is accentuated by the increasing of livelihood strategies practised by the pressure on land and water resources and rural people : the increasingly unfavourable returns to z Agriculture Extensification and In- agriculture leading to poverty. As such, tensification people are constantly attempting to di- z Livelihood Diversification versify out of farming into more lucra- tive activities to reduce the risk of agrar- z Migration ian livelihoods. This may involve The Aajeevika study uses this classifica- specialisation into secure, full time oc- tion while appraising livelihoods at the cupations or even into part-time and household, village, block and State levels. casualised activities with low returns and low security to make ends meet. The lat- Agriculture Extensification and ter, while essential for ensuring survival, Intensification are also associated with increasing pov- Agriculture extensification occurs with erty and vulnerability. the bringing in of new lands under cul- Migration is becoming In Rajasthan, diversification is widely tivation and productive use and this pro- an increasingly evident. However, diversification is not cess is aided by access to tools and tech- prevalent livelihood equally feasible in all regions, with nology and also via land reforms. How- strategy. Migration greater scope for diversification into al- ever, at the current conjuncture, the may be voluntary or lied agro-led sectors in high potential scope for bringing new land under culti- involuntary, seasonal agricultural areas. Further, opportuni- vation is limited. or permanent and its ties for diversification are negotiated effects on livelihoods In the context of the predominantly largely on the strength of capital and can vary considerably agrarian rural economy in the State, in- investment abilities. tensifying land use through enhanced in- Migration vestment on and application of technol- ogy, capital and labour is common, espe- Migration is becoming an increasingly cially for those who have already attained prevalent livelihood strategy, pervading a basic threshold level of food security. large sections of the rural population in Agriculture intensification under semi- depressed, low-endowment areas. Migra- arid and rainfed conditions in the State is tion may be voluntary or involuntary, primarily led by increased access to irri- seasonal or permanent and its effects on gation. Given supporting infrastructure livelihoods can vary considerably. Remit- with respect to improved varieties of tances may be used for basic family main- seeds, fertilisers, and marketing facilities, tenance or sometimes even for invest- improved irrigation can be an important ment in farming. factor underlying the transformation of Migration for wage labour is common existing enterprises in the crop and live- across Rajasthan and it takes many stock sectors into surplus driven, com- forms. In particular, construction, min- mercially viable entities. ing and quarrying and casual labour

The Aajeevika Study : Analytical Framework and Methodology 3 opportunities in high potential areas of Sample districts and blocks within an Delhi and Gujarat attract large propor- agro-climatic zone and villages within a tions of the casual labour work-force in block were selected with a view to en- the State. sure that these represented the distinc- tive characteristics of the overall region. 1.2 Methodology Presence of NGOs was another criterion 1.2.1 The Sampling Process used to select blocks within each region, since this research was carried out in close The Aajeevika study intensively covered partnership with such NGOs. four development blocks, in four differ- ent districts across the State, each dis- One district was chosen from each of trict representing a larger socio-ecologi- the four zones and one block was se- cal region of Rajasthan. lected from each district. Two villages were chosen from each block and de- The State was divided into four separate tailed household surveys were carried zones on the basis of agro-climatic char- out in each village, covering a total of acteristics, development of industrial ac- two hundred and eighty households in The Aajeevika study tivity, and development of irrigation : the four blocks. intensively covered z The Tribal South The following table specifies the dis- four development tricts, blocks and villages chosen for blocks, in four different z The Desert West the study, along with distinctive fea- districts across the z The Canal Irrigated East tures of the agro-climatic zone that State, each district z The Semi-Arid North Central Regions they represent. representing a larger socio-ecological region of Rajasthan Selected Districts, Blocks and Villages from Four Agro-Climatic Zones of Rajasthan District : Jaipur Semi-Arid North Central Block : Dudu z High level of urban and industrial Villages : Gagardu and Malyawas migration z Large non-farm sector employment potential because of urban proximity District : Bundi Canal Irrigated East Block : Taleda z Intensive farming system with high Villages : Kothya and Bhairoopura Ojha incidence of irrigation. District : Jaisalmer Desert West Block : Pokhran z Representing arid desert conditions Villages : Rathora and Kelawa z Extensive farming with high incidence of livestock and artisan work District : Udaipur Tribal South Block : Dhariyawad z Representing typically hilly and rainfed Villages : Ovra and Shobh ji ka Guda conditions with pockets of irrigation. z Predominantly tribal z Low rural non-farm sector potential

4 AAJEEVIKA - LIVELIHOODS IN RAJASTHAN Block Review 1.2.2 The Analytical Tools The primary unit of analysis was the Two separate indicators, viz. ‘occupation block (panchayat samiti). In each dis- status’ and ‘household income’ were used trict the aim of the block review was to assess livelihood status and strategies. to identify : An income criterion was used to identify poor households within each village and z Key economic activities income and asset criteria were used to z Key socio-political characteristics identify the poorest among the poor. z Important socio-economic and power Occupational Status: This indicates relations the economic activity that the person z A spatial map of key markets, infra- was engaged in throughout the year. As structure, and sites of production it is common to find the same person Village Studies engaging in more than one activity dur- ing the year, two responses were col- The village studies had two stages : lected – primary occupation and second- A general village census: A minimum ary occupation. Primary occupation was set of data was collected for each and what the worker did for most of the year every household in the village, which that is more than 183 days. Secondary Two separate generated reliable information about occupation was what the worker did for indicators, viz. two factors that guided subsequent a shorter period. ‘occupation status’ and study, viz. socio-economic differentia- The definition of occupational status ‘household income’ tion and livelihoods. and occupational categories (with some were used to assess Detailed household level data collec- change) were the same as that used in livelihood status and tion: Thirty to forty-five households the Census1. strategies were selected from each village for in Household income: This was used to depth study of institutional and eco- assess livelihood strategies adopted at nomic change. Further, thirty detailed the household level. case studies were compiled, capturing different aspects of livelihood strate- Household income was tabulated across gies adopted by households across ru- six main categories : ral Rajasthan. z Agriculture In each village households were selected z Animal husbandry in such a manner that they reflected : z Wage labour z The proportion of the major castes z Household industry in the village z Other income (comprising a variety of z The poor and the non-poor in the ra- activities in the non-farm sector) tio of 6:4 z Migration

1 For each occupational category changes in the share of workforce have been computed on the basis of comparison of the Aajeevika survey results with Census figures for 1991. The associated problems of comparability and how these are sought to be resolved are discussed in the Technical Notes (p.63). The Aajeevika Study : Analytical Framework and Methodology 5 Expenses incurred for carrying out an The study uses two criteria for identify- activity were subtracted from total in- ing the poorest of the poor households comes from the activity to arrive at net in rural areas : incomes. E.g., if during cultivation, seed z An income criterion : those with an- was purchased from the market; its cost nual incomes less than Rs. 10,000 was subtracted from the total output; per annum whereas, if in-house seed was used, its z An asset criterion : those with land cost was not accounted for and gross holding below a certain minimum, output was valued. where this minimum level (usually Therefore the livelihood status of house- the cut off point for small farm- holds is gauged using two categories of ers) varies from region to region information, viz., information on primary as follows : livelihood activities adopted and income z 2 hectares, in the Tribal South and The criteria used for from all such livelihood activities fol- Semi-Arid North Central regions identifying poor lowed by households. households was based z 4 hectares, in the Desert West Identification of Poor Households: on size of landholding, z 1 hectare, in the Canal Irrigated East animal holding, Exact definitions of poverty lines are an ownership of pucca issue of serious academic debate and es- The Aajeevika study therefore, has con- tablishing a poverty line is beyond the house and organised sidered livelihoods as a composite of scope of the Aajeevika study. Rather, ‘rela- sector job entitlements and capabilities that de- tive poverty’ is a matter of far greater con- termine the existence of a household cern, viz., identification of households who and explored the constraints acting are worse off in comparison to others, for upon both these aspects of poor house- analysis of their livelihood strategies. holds in rural Rajasthan, in order to Broadly the criteria used for identifying generate options for promoting sustain- poor households was based on size of land- able livelihoods. It has undertaken a holding, animal holding, ownership of pucca detailed field study to evaluate the house and organised sector job. ground reality regarding livelihood In general all households with incomes prospects and constraints faced by dif- less than Rs.20,000 are counted among ferent sections of the rural population, the rural poor. especially the poor.

6 AAJEEVIKA - LIVELIHOODS IN RAJASTHAN SECTION II

Rural Livelihoods : An Overview

This section examines the current sta- regions as well. However diversification tus of livelihood and employment in is more advanced in the North Central rural Rajasthan. The main occupational regions, with non-farm activities emerg- categories in rural areas, primary liveli- ing as an important alternative to agri- hood strategies followed by the rural culture based livelihoods in these areas. people and important livelihood sectors Animal Husbandry: This is a signifi- in the State are discussed in turn. cant occupation in all areas, engaging the 2.1 Main Occupational highest proportion of workforce in the Categories Semi-Arid North Central region and the lowest in the Tribal South. A reasonably The working population is divided into high proportion of the workforce are There has been a rapid five categories. The current situation and engaged in animal husbandry in the decline in the main trends regarding each of these cat- Desert West. proportion of egories across regions in Rajasthan are population engaged in discussed below. The share of workforce engaged in ani- agriculture, especially mal husbandry has remained stable and Owner Cultivation: This continues to in the Tribal South and changed only marginally in three of the be the predominant form of employ- Semi-Arid North four zones covered. Only in the Desert ment in the State in all regions (Table 1, Central regions West has this shown significant increase, p.64). However there has been a rapid from four to ten percent. However in decline in the proportion of population part this may reflect under enumeration engaged in agriculture, especially in the in the Census or over enumeration in Tribal South and Semi-Arid North Cen- Aajeevika survey. tral regions, while this proportion has re- mained stable in the Canal Irrigated East Agriculture Labour : This constitutes and the Desert West (Table 2, p.65). the highest share of workforce in the Canal Irrigated East, employing just un- Between 1991 and 2002, the proportion der a fifth of the population at 18.9 per- of male workforce engaged in agricul- cent and it is also significant in the Semi- ture and allied activities declined by Arid North Central zone. forty-five percent in the Tribal South and by twenty-nine per cent in the Semi-Arid Interestingly, agriculture labour is almost North Central region (Table 2, p.65). In negligible in the Tribal South. This is the Tribal South there appears to be a because the incidence of landlessness in large outflow from the cultivator cat- this area is low and the majority of egory to migration, a phenomenon which households own some land. However in holds for the Semi-Arid North Central most cases the landholding size of

7 households is quite meager, so that agri- 2.2 Important Livelihood culture in this area is mainly subsistence Strategies oriented and does not generate much Analysis of household incomes from dif- surplus or employment. ferent sources reveals the importance of Non farm Sector Activities2: The alternate livelihood strategies across ru- non-farm sector is most vibrant in the ral areas in the State. The study confirms Semi-Arid zone around Jaipur and that agriculture extensification and in- where it employs over a fifth of tensification, diversification into non- the workforce at 21.8 percent (Table1, farm activities and migration were the p.64). It is far less significant in main livelihood strategies adopted by the Desert West and in the Eastern re- households in various combinations in gions and it is almost negligible in the different regions. In particular, the live- Tribal South. lihood strategies adopted by the poor- est rural households are reviewed, in the The share of workforce involved in mis- context of their access to certain basic cellaneous non-farm activities has reg- livelihood resources. The share of workforce istered a steady increase in all areas, ex- involved in cept the Desert West, indicating a gen- The Aajeevika survey identifies six main miscellaneous non- eral increase in the extent of diversifi- sources of household incomes : farm activities has cation in the rural economy of the State z Agriculture registered a steady (Table 2, p.65). z Animal husbandry increase in all areas, Migration: This emerges as a signifi- z Wage labour except the Desert West, cant activity in all regions except the indicating a general z Household industry Canal Irrigated areas, which in fact at- increase in the extent z Other incomes (including activities in tract in-migration. It is highest in the of diversification in the the non-farm sector, other than mi- Tribal South, where over a quarter of rural economy of the gration) the workforce migrates. It is also sig- State z Migration nificant in Desert areas and in the North Central zone. 2.2.1 Livelihood Strategies of Rural Migration, however, is not a recognised Households in General category in the National Industrial Clas- Agriculture remains the single most sification (NIC) followed by the Cen- important source of household in- sus. As such, evidence regarding its in- come in most regions in the State. In creasing importance in rural livelihood fact, over half of household income portfolios, especially in the tribal areas is from agriculture Canal Irrigated Ar- in South Rajasthan is gathered from eas, accentuating the importance of household surveys, personal interviews the activity in the region. The Tribal and case studies conducted during South is an exception, where on aver- Aajeevika fieldwork3. age agriculture accounts for just over

2 This refers to all non-farm activities, other than those undertaken during migration. 3 In fact, it appears that the Census may not be able to capture accurately the occupational status of workers undertaking migration. See Technical Notes (p.63) 8 AAJEEVIKA - LIVELIHOODS IN RAJASTHAN a quarter (26.5 per cent) of household 2.2.2 Livelihood Strategies of Poor incomes (Table 3, p.65). Households Agriculture wage labour is an important Incidence of Rural Poverty: The pro- source of household income in all ar- portion of rural poor is around twenty eas, except the Tribal South. percent in three of the areas covered4, Animal husbandry is an important the exception being the Semi-Arid North source of supplementary income Central region, where the poor consti- throughout the State, accounting for tuted only nine per cent of the total ru- about fifteen per cent of household in- ral population (Table 4, p.65). comes across all regions (Table 3, p.65). The high incidence of poverty (twenty Other incomes also feature in all areas, six percent) in the Canal Irrigated areas varying from being less important in the is surprising, given the relative agricul- Tribal areas (less than ten per cent of tural prosperity of this region compared household incomes) to much more im- to the others. It appears that this is portant in the Desert areas (about eigh- largely because of the absence of diver- teen per cent of household incomes) sification among the poor and their al- (Table 3, p.65). most complete dependence on local ag- riculture labor markets, where wage rates Incomes from household industries is are low due to overcrowding. The dominant source of some significance in two areas, viz., of income of poor Analysis of Household Incomes: An Semi-Arid North Central and the Desert households in three analysis of the sources of household West, but is extremely low in the Tribal out of the four areas incomes gives important insights into South and virtually non-existent in the was local wage labour agriculturally developed areas in the the livelihood strategies of the poor Canal Irrigated East. (Table 5, p.66). Migration is the predominant source of The dominant source of income of household income in the Tribal South and poor households in three out of the four a significant source in the Desert West areas was local wage labour. In the Canal and Semi-Arid North Central regions. It Irrigated Areas, the share of wage la- accounts for over two-fifths of total bor accounted for almost seventy per household incomes in the Tribal South cent of household incomes and hov- and about twelve per cent in the North ered around the half way mark in the Central and Desert zones (Table 3, p.65). Semi- Arid and Desert areas. Income However it is virtually non-existent in the from this source was lowest in the Canal Irrigated East where agriculture Tribal South, where local wage options based livelihoods dominate – less than are very limited. one percent of household incomes in In fact agricultural income from owner cul- this region come from sources related tivation was the single most important to migration. source of income (at 31.6 percent) for

4 This refers to the poorest of the poor in rural areas who were identified in the course of the Aajeevika using an income and an asset criteria. The methodology used for identifying the poorest households is described in Section 1.2.2 above. Rural Livelihoods : An Overview 9 the poor in the Tribal South, where in- Access to Livelihood Resources: The cidence of landlessness is low. Income poor households have extremely low from agriculture is lowest for the poor endowments of human and physical in irrigated areas where landlessness capital (primarily land and water). is high. Human capital primarily refers to presence However in the Tribal Areas, even of skilled, employable workers in the though the distribution of land is even, household and a family with surplus la- holding sizes are small, so that agricul- bor can send some of its members to ture is subsistence oriented and income work outside to augment family in- from agriculture is low. As such the comes. For instance, traditional skills poor, who have no choice but to remain like carpentry command a premium in dependent on agriculture, remain pov- urban areas, while skills acquired erty stricken. through training and education also play Animal husbandry is another important a crucial role in acquiring stable, main- source of income, especially in tribal stream job opportunities. However typi- areas where it accounts for over a quar- cally the poorest families are unable to ter of household incomes. Share of ani- send out members, instead these are The overall mal husbandry is also significant in the dependent on local labour markets infrastructure and canal irrigated areas at 18.1 percent, but characterised by low and highly economic capital base negligible in the Desert West and the casualised wages. of the area tend to semi-arid zones, where household industry On the other hand, land is the most im- have a much more is far more important. portant physical capital for rural liveli- crucial bearing on the hoods, but the poor are either landless potential for economic The other category of income from non or have only small and marginal land activities for the poor farm activities, classified as “other in- comes” is important in all, except the ca- holdings, inadequate for meeting the nal irrigated areas. needs of the family. Rather, the overall infrastructure and economic capital base Notably, income from migration ac- of the area tend to have a much more counts for a low share of household in- crucial bearing on the potential for eco- comes for the bottom poor. The Tribal nomic activities for the poor. For in- South Region is an exception, where stance, good infrastructure and eco- migration accounts for a significant nomic base of the surrounding areas is source of income even for the poorer one of the key reasons for the relatively sections of the population. small proportion of poor households in This finding, that the contribution of the rural areas of the Semi-Arid North migration to the livelihoods of the Central region. poorest is significantly lower than the 2.3 Main Livelihood Sectors rest of the population, analysed later in the study, seems to indicate that the This section appraises the main liveli- bottom poor are actually unable to mi- hood strategies across rural Rajasthan grate and often remain trapped in pov- by adopting a sectoral approach. In par- erty for that reason. ticular the relevance of agricultural

10 AAJEEVIKA - LIVELIHOODS IN RAJASTHAN extensification and intensification, ani- conditions provided certain other con- mal husbandry and migration as viable ditions are favorable. options for the rural population across The process of agriculture intensifica- the State are discussed here. tion must be understood with reference 2.3.1 Agriculture to parameters like incidence of irrigation, share of cash crops in the cropping pat- Agriculture Extensification: Rajasthan tern, use of agriculture implements and underwent an agriculture extensification farm machinery, and changes taking process immediately after Independence place in tenurial relations. Each of these and once again in the seventies, after the issues are considered in turn. introduction of tractors. Independence and the passage of the Rajasthan Ten- Irrigation is one of the basic precondi- ancy Act in 1956 did away with the tions for the process of intensification. shackles of feudalism and released land Irrigation makes it possible to double the for cultivation by all sections of soci- productivity of land by taking a second ety. Emergence of tractor cultivation in crop and it has an important protective There is little land left the seventies led another drive for in- role in case of monsoon failure, which is for extensification and creasing land under cultivation. In par- common in the State. Significant propor- even village commons ticular, the extensification process was tions of cultivated land are now under have been encroached remarkable in the Desert West, where irrigation in different zones of Rajasthan upon. Many desert huge stretches of land, hitherto covered (Table 6, p.66). Irrigation is almost one areas have been with scrub, were brought under the trac- hundred percent in the canal irrigated ar- converted into tor plough. eas and over a third of cultivated land is agricultural land and under irrigation in the North Central and However there are indications that this the area under Tribal Zones; only in the Desert West is process has now come to an end. There cultivation is unlikely irrigation is still very limited. is little land left for extensification and to show any further even village commons have been en- Average size of irrigated landholdings increases croached upon. Many desert areas have also varies considerably across areas, been converted into agricultural land being higher in the Canal Irrigated (1.5 and the area under cultivation is unlikely hectares) and the Semi-Arid (1.2 hect- to show any further increases. ares) areas, which have witnessed a greater incidence of intensive agricul- Agriculture Intensification: Despite ture. Average size of irrigated landhold- low rainfall, many parts of Rajasthan ing is lowest in the Tribal South (0.3 have witnessed a process of agricultural hectares), reflecting the smallness of intensification. Among the four agro- average landholdings in the region, ecological zones studied, agriculture in- whereas the situation appears to be tensification is widespread in the Semi- somewhat better in the Desert areas (0.8 Arid North Central and Canal Irrigated hectares), no doubt owing to the effects East. Even in the other two areas, there of the IGNP. are pockets of agriculture intensifica- tion. Thus commercialization of agricul- Agriculture intensification is also accom- ture seems feasible even in rain-fed panied by cultivation of cash crops.

Rural Livelihoods : An Overview 11 While traditional cultivation involves Increasing commercialization of agricul- production for self-consumption, com- ture in rural Rajasthan has been accom- mercial agriculture is more market ori- panied by changes in tenurial practices. ented, involving crops that will fetch a Abolition of jagirdari in the post inde- good return in the market. pendence period and promulgation of In the regions with high incidence of Rajasthan Tenancy Act in 1956 had led intensive agriculture (Canal Irrigated to resumption of khatedari rights by East and the Semi-Arid North Central owner peasants. However the nature of region) the proportion of Kharif acreage5 large-scale owner cultivation is now under cash crops exceeds sixty percent, changing and a number of patterns are whereas it is as low as fourteen percent visible. The profile of the lessor, who in the Tribal South where agriculture is leases out land, the lessee, who leases far more poorly developed. in land, as well as the terms of agree- ment are all undergoing change. Surprisingly, even in the Desert West this acreage is high at forty three percent, The various types of owners who lease which indicates that commercial agricul- out their lands include : ture is possible even in desert climates z Feudal owners, who do not cultivate if other conditions are favorable. In par- land as it is considered demeaning, In most parts of ticular, a high incidence of cash crop- rather they let it out on lease. Mostly Rajasthan, except in the ping in the desert is possible by sowing Rajputs and other forward castes come Tribal South, ploughing gwar, which grows well even with very under this category. However this is by bullocks has been little rainfall. beginning to change as more and almost totally replaced more Rajput families are beginning to by tractor ploughing Use of agricultural machinery like trac- tors, threshers, and harvesting combines take up cultivation. is quite common in areas which have z Service class owners, who also lease out witnessed a high degree of agricultural land because the landowner holds a intensification. In fact, in most parts of full-time job in the organized sector. Rajasthan, except in the Tribal South, This class of owner lessor is increas- ploughing by bullocks has been almost ing as more and more medium to large totally replaced by tractor ploughing. rung farmers in rural Rajasthan get Only in the tribal areas where the ter- access to organized sector jobs. rain is hilly and landholdings are small z Labour tenancy, where the landowner does bullock ploughing still survive. gives out the labor component in to- Harvesting combines are beginning to be tal and negotiates an agreement for a used for harvesting wheat in the Canal fixed share of output, a practice com- areas and in all areas with good irriga- mon in intensively irrigated areas. tion facilities and high wheat acreage, z Reverse tenancy, where a small farmer even though most combines still come leases out land to a bigger landowner all the way from Punjab. who owns a tractor and wishes to

5 A similar analysis for Rabi was not undertaken. Wheat is the main Rabi crop in the surveyed villages, serving as a subsistence as well as cash crop, depending on prevalent area-specific and household-specific conditions. 12 AAJEEVIKA - LIVELIHOODS IN RAJASTHAN increase the size of his operational repays the loan. Normally interest is ser- holding. This practice is becoming in- viced by occupancy by the lender, creasingly common in rural areas of whereas at other times the lender may the State, especially in the agricultur- let the owner retain the occupancy, in ally prosperous areas. which case the owner becomes a tenant The profile of the lessee is also chang- on own land. ing, with agriculture becoming intensive, The incidence of leasing and mortgage requiring greater infusion of capital : of land is different across the study ar- z the traditional lessee mainly brought in la- eas (Table 7, p.66): bor power z tenancy is more widespread in areas z reverse tenancy has meant the entry of a where agriculture intensification is new class of lessee - these are big land high, viz. the Semi-Arid North Cen- owners who seek to lease land to en- tral and Canal Irrigated East hance their scale of operations. z incidence of mortgage is highest in z it is now increasingly difficult, if not al- Tribal South, a commentary on the most impossible for the landless and the poor precarious nature of agriculture live- people to undertake tenancy, an option lihoods in the region and the poor sta- Animal husbandry is of that seems open only for the medium tus of tribal farmers. special significance as level landholders. a rural livelihood 2.3.2 Animal Husbandry Terms of agreement are also undergo- strategy because it can Main Characteristics : Animal hus- ing change and a variety of agreements play a crucial drought bandry is of special significance as a ru- are in place, in keeping with variations proofing function in ral livelihood strategy because it can play in agro-climatic endowments of the dif- the context of specific a crucial drought proofing function in the ferent regions. agro-climatic context of specific agro-climatic condi- conditions in the State The traditional agreement made for an tions in the State. While crop output is equal sharing of expenses and harvested severally affected by the failure of mon- output, with labor being the responsi- soon and is a regular occurrence7, milk bility of the tenant. A major change now production does not decline by the same is that owners prefer to give out lands proportion. Milk cooperative dairies on a fixed rent basis, thereby passing on even report an increase in milk procure- 6 the entire risk to the tenant . ment with the onset of drought, which As for mortgages, farmers normally happens because farmers tend to maxi- mortgage their land only under extreme mize their attention to this source of live- economic duress, when no other option lihood under drought conditions. How- is open. This is an extreme form of ten- ever, drought also has a severe impact ancy where the farmer loses control over on animal husbandry with increasing fod- land for an extended period, till he der prices leading many farmers to even

6 Where tenancy arrangement is actually a labor contract, with other inputs being the sole responsibility of the owner, a finely worked out share of total produce is offered, depending upon the overall economic environment. 7 According to a local saying, only one in four years is a good crop year. For the rest of the time crop production is affected to a varying extent due to shortage and untimely nature of rainfall. Rural Livelihoods : An Overview 13 abandon their animals. Nevertheless, as well as from the analysis of house- productive animals are rarely abandoned, hold incomes. rather drought leads to the jettisoning of Household income analysis indicates the unproductive stock. that the contribution of animal hus- In terms of livestock reared, there are bandry is around fifteen percent all over two main types of practices. Rajasthan, varying from a low of 13.5 First is the milk animal based economy percent in the Tribal Areas to a high of where the animals reared are cows and 17.8 percent in the Semi-Arid zone. buffaloes. While Rajasthan was a tradi- Occupational classifications from Cen- tional cow area, recent years have seen sus, 1991 (the last census for which this increasing ingress of buffaloes. detail is available) put population en- The second is the small ruminant, sheep gaged in animal husbandry and other and goat based economy. land based activities like forestry and fisheries, at only 1.9 percent. In contrast In case of larger animals, animal hold- the Aajeevika household survey esti- ing is generally proportional to land hold- mates proportion of workers engaged in ing, while in the case of smaller rumi- this sector ranging from a high of 12.7 While animal nants, goat ownership is very common percent in the Semi-Arid areas to a low husbandry plays a among the poor, though generally, only of 6.3 percent in the Desert areas8. crucial role, its small numbers are reared. On the other importance is hand, sheep are generally reared in large While animal husbandry plays a crucial tempered by the fact herds. For smaller ruminants, there exist role, its importance is tempered by the that the rich benefit traditional communities who rear these fact that the rich benefit more from ani- more from animal animals in large numbers in most parts mal husbandry than the poor. However husbandry than the of Rajasthan, like the Gujars in the North there is significant variation across dif- poor Central and East and Mers, Raikas, ferent regions, as evident from the shares Rabaris in the North and Western parts. of animal husbandry in annual house- hold incomes for different economic Impact on Household Income Sta- classes (Table 8, p.67). tus: An important finding from the Aajeevika survey has been the signifi- In general, for the rural poor (i.e., those cance of animal husbandry in the liveli- with annual household incomes less that hood profile, across agro- climatic zones Rs.20,000), a lower share of total house- in rural Rajasthan, from the Tribal South hold income comes from this source in to the Desert West and from the Canal all regions, except the Tribal South, Irrigated East to the Semi-Arid North where the share of income from animal Central regions(Table 8, p.67). husbandry is slightly higher for the poor than for the rest of the population. The importance of animal husbandry emerges clearly both from the occupa- For the poorest classes (i.e., those with tional classification of the work force and annual household incomes less than

8 Taking into account the male bias of the census and comparing Aajeevika survey results for the male population reveals that a high proportion of male workers are engaged in animal husbandry, ranging from 9.7 percent in Desert areas to 1.6 percent in Tribal South. 14 AAJEEVIKA - LIVELIHOODS IN RAJASTHAN Rs.10,000), the share of income from hus- exodus from villages no longer occur. In bandry is even lower in two regions - Semi- fact, migration is no longer simply a Arid North and Desert West - whereas in drought induced phenomenon. Increas- the Tribal South and the Canal Irrigated ingly it is becoming integral to the work Areas, a higher share of household in- cycle of thousands of rural males, who comes comes from this source. migrate to augment household incomes For the Tribal South increased share of and this is occurring even among castes income of the poor from animal rearing who normally do not undertake wage is explained by the constraints faced by labor. As communication networks im- the rural poor. Mostly these sections are prove and even remote villages become unable to migrate from the area and are accessible by road and transportation, therefore dependent on supplementary migration is becoming a regular feature income from animal husbandry. In Ca- of the rural economy in the State. nal Irrigated Areas, on the other hand, The nature of migration and motivation prevalent conditions favor rearing of to migrate differs across regions and milk animals even by the landless, as across different segments of the popu- fodder is cheap. lation. For instance, in the Tribal South, Migration is no longer simply a drought Ultimately a higher share in household migration is almost universal amongst induced phenomenon. income does not imply higher absolute tribal families in view of the total lack Increasingly it is income levels, as the base incomes for of local livelihood opportunities. In the the general population are two to three same areas, non-tribals also migrate, but becoming integral to times that of the rural poor. for other reasons, e.g. in search of bet- the work cycle of ter opportunities. In the Desert West, thousands of rural 2.3.3 Migration families with small land holdings, belong- males, who migrate to Main Characteristics : Large parts of ing to scheduled castes and tribes mi- augment household Arid and Semi-Arid areas of Rajasthan grate the most, and other communities incomes have a tradition of migration during undertake opportunity-driven migration years of drought, for as crops dry up and in search of better incomes. In the Semi- fail, everyone is forced to look for work. Arid zone with a significant non-farm In years of extreme drought, locally sector, migration is more a result of pull known as mahakaal, entire households factors, with people migrating mainly to and villages would migrate in search of augment their earnings. Only in the Ca- food and fodder and local folklore and nal Irrigated East does migration appear literature is rich with vivid descriptions negligible (Table 9, p.67). of movements of people and cattle on Metropolitan economies of western In- 9 account of drought . dia generate a stable and high demand for While drought definitely increases mi- labor which is met by the migrating popu- gration, with the increasing reach of the lations from the State. For instance, the Welfare State, extreme effects such as Tribal South is the traditional catchment

9 ‘- teen mahakaal, jad ma na poot mila na paachha’, goes a Marwari saying. There are three years of extreme drought (in a century) when the mother and the son separate never to meet again.

Rural Livelihoods : An Overview 15 area for supply of manual laborers to poverty. Migration of tribal males from Gujarat. With increasing demand for la- South Rajasthan is of this “brink of sur- bor the boundaries of this catchment area vival” nature. have been expanding further north and In the same region, migration by non- include not just Udaipur and Dungarpur, tribal peasant communities is not under- but also the Rajsamand, Bhilwara and taken under conditions of distress, but Chittorgarh districts. with a view to exploit the improved op- While migration is undertaken by all portunity cost of their labor in other ar- segments of the population, households eas. In these cases, incomes earned and lower down the social order are more saved from migration are invested in likely to migrate than others, as it pro- agriculture or other enterprises at home. vides an escape from the local milieu Analyis of income patterns of the poor- of social and economic oppression. For est households (Table 5, p.66) shows instance, in the Semi-Arid North Cen- that there remains a very poor segment tral areas, migration provides an oppor- which is not able to migrate, as migra- tunity for castes lower down the social tion requires a certain level of human hierarchy to move out and augment and financial capital. Also households The proportion of their incomes. should be in a position to spare labour income remitted home Migration is almost exclusively a male from the daily chores of the household. is high in all the areas phenomenon in Rajasthan, with the Therefore migration is an option beyond studied. However, the household survey results showing female the reach of the poorest classes in the bulk of the remittances workers comprising less than four per- rural areas. tend to be used up for cent of total migrants. Also the over- The proportion of income remitted consumption whelming majority of migrants is in the home is high in all the areas studied age group of twenty to forty years as mi- (Table 9, p.67). However, the bulk of grant labour is expected to perform some the remittances tend to be used up for of the hardest physical tasks. Thus only consumption. In fact, only sixteen per- the young and robust are able to get ab- cent of respondents in Dhariyawad sorbed. Evidence from blocks such as (Tribal South), twenty-five percent in Dhariyawad suggests that even children Dudu (north central region), and forty as young as 14 years migrate with mi- percent in Pokhran (Desert West) re- grant shepherds from western Rajasthan. ported using remittances for invest- Remittances and Impact on House- ments at home, mainly on farm equip- hold Economy : Generally when migra- ment and assets. In addition, such earn- tion is undertaken under conditions of ings are also often used to repay loans distress because no other options are incurred in the past. available locally, incomes from migration The remittance from migration should are used to support household consump- be viewed in perspective of the fact that tion. In these cases there is no capital most often it is not easy to save from formation in the migrant’s household, the meager incomes the migrant popu- which continues to remain mired in lation earns from wage labour. For they

16 AAJEEVIKA - LIVELIHOODS IN RAJASTHAN incur major expenses related to lodging, considerably increases the expendi- boarding and travel, while food expenses tures they incur. constituted the highest proportion of From the overview of the rural economy total expenditure during migration in all at least three major trends regarding the the survey areas. changing pattern of rural livelihoods Problems faced in migration : Migra- become apparent. tion is a problem-ridden option for the First, the contribution of land based pro- poor and distressed. duction to rural livelihoods is steadily z Given the highly casualised nature of decreasing in significance and stability. the labour markets that the migrant This is borne out by the rapid decline in workers enter, security and stability share of workforce in agriculture and of employment is minimum. Most related occupations in the tribal (45 per- migrants are able to find only casual cent) and the semi-arid zones (29 per- employment and there are long peri- cent). In fact even for the other two re- ods during which they are laid off. gions, the share of agriculture in house- Lack of work is aggravated in times hold incomes is not as high as suggested of drought, when urban and industrial by the occupational classification regard- centres are flooded with migrant ing its share in employment. Also this It appears that even labour. share is declining and in particular for though diversification opportunities are z Hard manual labor and low dietary in- the rural poor, the contribution of land available, the rural take lead to a host of health related based livelihoods, to total household poor are only able to problems. The migrant workers often income is quite low as compared to the diversify into activities have to work long and difficult hours rest of the population. marked by low returns and may face serious exposure and Second, it appears that even though di- and low security risk to life and limb. As a result of versification opportunities are available, frequent sickness and injury, health the rural poor are only able to diversify related expenditures go up and there into activities marked by low returns and is a decline in the ability to maintain low security. While household incomes a working life. from non-farm sources are important for z Generally male adults are forced to the rural poor in the Semi-Arid North migrate alone and they leave respon- Central and Desert West (accounting for sibilities at home, which remain un- just over a third of total incomes), in the attended, thus affecting and disrupt- other two regions this proportion is ing family life. Further, the demands lower at around ten per cent. of agriculture related work at home, This study indicates that typically new force migrant workers to travel to and livelihood options for the rural poor fro, from their workplaces to their lie at the lower end of a changing and homes several times in the course of growing economy, either in traditional a year. In fact, on an average mi- skill based occupations (like hair cut- grants may be making as many as four ting, earthen pot making, flaying of to six trips home every year, which dead animals and even fortune telling),

Rural Livelihoods : An Overview 17 or in new occupations in retail sale, poor, in all except the Canal Irrigated like selling vegetables or vending Areas. However, there remains a very household items like bangles. Better- poor segment which is unable to migrate. off sections within the rural economy This is because migration requires a cer- are able to access more formal and tain amount of capital, both financial stable job opportunities in the govern- (e.g., investment in travel) and social (in ment and army. terms of networks that allow people to A third important emerging trend is that access jobs in distant markets). The very migration is playing an increasingly im- poor, who have access to neither, remain portant role in the livelihoods of rural trapped in poverty.

18 AAJEEVIKA - LIVELIHOODS IN RAJASTHAN SECTION III

Rural Livelihoods : A Regional Profile

This section highlights a number of in- through investments in groundwater teresting differences in patterns of ru- extraction. However, this intensifica- ral livelihoods across Rajasthan and tion process is mainly led by the non- analyses how these can be explained in tribal peasantry. terms of variations in region-specific z Animal husbandry is also a rela- endowments of livelihood resources and tively minor income source for the opportunities. In particular, livelihood tribals. Again it’s primarily the non- options available to the rural poor (who tribal peasantry with agriculture sur- are mostly landless or at best, marginal plus, who are able to undertake ani- and small farmers) in each region are mal husbandry as an economically analysed in the light of the specific con- viable activity. Migration has become straints faced by them. z Local wage labor generation in the the predominant In what follows specific livelihood pat- area is low, as the agriculture sector is source of income for terns in each region are discussed. The depressed. the region as a whole principal occupation categories used for z There is virtually no industrial activ- and for the tribal the analysis are: agriculture, animal ity with the potential to generate lo- communities in hubandry, wage labour, household cal employment. As such there is neg- particular industy, non-farm activities (other than ligible diversification in non-farm migration) and migration. sector activities in the Tribal South. Poor agriculture, weak infrastructure 3.1 Livelihood Patterns Across and access and low development of Four Socio-Ecological the service sector together indicate Regions that diversification has not occurred 3.1.1 Tribal South in this area. The household surveys for this region z Migration has become the pre- were carried out in two villages (Ovra dominant source of income for the and Shobh ji ka Guda) in the Dhariya- region as a whole and for the tribal wad block in . communities in particular. Typically the workforce originating from this Important Livelihood Strategies area undertake casual wage labor in z Agriculture intensification in the the unorganised, labor-intensive ac- Tribal South is low and limited, exist- tivities (such as mining, hamaali and ing in isolated pockets wherever mi- construction work) in Rajasthan cro-irrigation has been developed and beyond.

19 Livelihood Options for the Rural importance of migration in this area is Poor underscored by the fact that almost two The Tribal South region presents a spe- thirds of the families report migration cial case in that these areas have very and almost one half of total family in- equitable land holding and landlessness come is derived from this source. In par- is very low. In fact according to the ticular tribal families are more likely to Aajeevika survey, almost eighty eight migrate than non tribals, even though percent of farmers come under the cat- average income from migration for egory of marginal and small farmers and tribals tends to be lower than for the there are practically no large farmers (see non tribals. Table below), with the few medium farm- 3.1.2 Semi-Arid North Central ers present generally hailing from upper caste groups. The household surveys for this region were carried out in two villages However the contribution of agricul- (Gagardu and Malyawas) in the Dudu ture to family incomes is quite low block in . across the Tribal region. In the course of the survey, no alienation of land was Important Livelihood Strategies Low overall incomes observed, but the share of agriculture lower the opportunity z A high degree of agriculture intensi- in total household incomes seems to be cost of female labour fication is observed in this region. declining. who, for a variety of z Introduction of cash crops (at times reasons, often cannot This is mainly because of the extremely for markets as distant as Mumbai) migrate as the males meager land holdings, which continue to has been the main driving force be- do, and hence continue be operated because of lack of alterna- hind this intensification process. to work the land tive employment opportunities in the Cash cropping has overtaken the region. In particular low overall incomes traditional subsistence-based crop lower the opportunity cost of female production system labour who, for a variety of reasons, of- z There have been remarkable ten cannot migrate as the males do, and changes in sharecropping and tenur- hence continue to work the land. ial arrangements. For instance, re- Indeed agriculture in the Tribal areas verse tenancy has begun to feature plays a secondary role to other sources as a fairly common practice. Other of livelihoods, mainly migration. The features of agriculture in the region

Agriculture in the Tribal South Category Number Average Per hectare Per hh Share of agriculture of farmer land holding income income in hh income (in %age) Landless 3 0 0 10327 0 Marginal 53 0.61 8363 22828 22 Small 16 1.38 6128 23973 35 Medium 6 2.71 3631 70627 14 Source: Aajeevika household survey

20 AAJEEVIKA - LIVELIHOODS IN RAJASTHAN include mechanization and inten- the proximity to major urban and in- sive mining of the limited ground- dustrial centers offers a range of op- water available. portunities for wage labour on a regu- z Agricultural intensification is prima- lar basis. As such migration in this re- rily led by the affluent peasant gion is less casualised and not distress castes, some of whom have also driven as in case of the Tribal South. diversified into other sectors and are able to plough back surpluses on Livelihood Options for the Rural their lands. Poor z There has been significant diversifi- There is evidence to suggest that smaller cation in this region, evident from the land holdings are not sustainable in the fairly high incidence of service sec- Semi-Arid North Central zone. tor (transportation, small manufactur- z Returns per hectare from agriculture There has been ing, repairs, hotel and catering activi- tend to increase with size of land significant ties) activities and formal employ- 10 holding in the area (see Table below). diversification in this ment in government and private sec- z Also the share of agriculture in region, evident from tor jobs. Essentially the presence of household incomes increases with the fairly high an affluent peasantry and the proxim- holding size. incidence of service ity of the region to major urban cen- tres provide the overall context for z Even for medium-scale farmers only sector (transportation, diversification. However, mainly the a small proportion of total household small manufacturing, richer sections are able to diversify at incomes comes from agriculture, repairs, hotel and higher ends of the economy, while the whereas this share is substantial for catering activities) poor are unable to diversify beyond the larger farmers. activities and formal employment in locally available, low-value options. z This region has seen increasing inci- government and z Migration is also significant in this dence of reverse tenancy (with larger private sector jobs region, and is primarily fuelled by the land and tractor owners leasing in easing out of small and marginal farm- lands of small farmers for cultivation) ers from agriculture and household and the process is strengthened by the industry due to rising investment costs ample availability of wage labour in and poor returns. On the demand side, the surrounding areas. Agriculture in Semi-Arid North Central Region Number Average Per hectare Per hh Share of agriculture of hhs land holding income income in hh income (in %age) Landless 12 0 0 14990 3 Marginal 6 0.6 2436 20935 7 Small 9 1.2 1100 23299 5 Medium 17 2.7 1161 35513 9 Large 22 6.8 1889 41357 31 Source: Aajeevika household survey

10 The only exception is marginal farmers, but this finding may be discounted due to the smallness of the sample size. Rural Livelihoods : A Regional Profile 21 The main factors that tend to make small Important Livelihood Strategies holdings unviable in this region are as z In this region agriculture extensi- follows: fication has occurred on a large scale z High returns from cultivation of cash in the recent past, aided by the onset crops like moong and peas making it of tractor cultivation which has profitable for large owners to aggres- helped in the opening up of new lands sively pursue a policy of increasing the on a large scale, including pastures size of operational holdings. and fallow lands. z Typically the high returns in Semi-Arid z Agriculture intensification in the cash crop agriculture are also accom- Desert West has been very limited ex- panied by high risks (in event of fail- cept in two kinds of smaller pockets. ure of monsoon). As such most often First, in the command area of the commercial agriculture is not a viable IGNP canal and second, in areas option for smaller farmers with lower where tube well based irrigation has risk-taking capacities. been initiated. In fact wherever irri- z Alternative employment opportunities gation has been made possible, farm- and high wage rates tend to make it ers have changed over to cash crops The incidence of profitable for small and marginal farm- like gwar or chillies. ers to shift out of agriculture and take migration in the Semi- z Traditionally animal husbandry, par- up more remunerative options. Arid North Central area ticularly in smaller livestock like is significant, affecting Migration in this region is lower than in sheep and goats has been the main- a third of the total the Tribal South, nevertheless the inci- stay of the desert economy. However, number of households dence of migration in the Semi-Arid a number of changes are occurring in surveyed North Central area is significant, affect- the nature of livestock rearing and its ing a third of the total number of house- economy. Animal transhumance re- holds surveyed. mains a regular feature, though adver- There is not much difference between sities surrounding it are becoming the average land holding sizes of migrant more complex. Increasingly, smaller and non-migrant households, in fact it herds are becoming unviable and only is slightly higher for migrant households. larger herd owners are able to survive However the proportion of scheduled the market. caste families migrating is higher than z Diversification in the Desert West is other communities and average income also significant as borne out by the from migration for the scheduled caste high shares of “other income” and migrant families is also significantly “household industry” in household in- higher than for other migrant households. comes (Table 3, p.65). This is some- what surprising, as the engine of 3.1.3 Desert West growth is not immediately apparent. The household surveys for this region In fact both agriculture and industry were carried out in two villages (Rathora are poorly developed in the desert re- and Kelawa) in the Pokhran block in gion and the high income from other . sources is mainly due to remittances

22 AAJEEVIKA - LIVELIHOODS IN RAJASTHAN in the form of army pensions and ues to be a function of land holding rentals from local transport. In par- size and increases with increase in the ticular the latter is significant, as the size of holdings. vast distances in the desert regions The stability of small-scale agriculture need good means of transportation in the area can be traced to the follow- even for basic necessities like water. ing factors: z Migration out of the Desert West ar- z Low scope for cash crops and com- eas is also quite substantial and is di- mercial farming makes it impractical rected not only towards the agricul- for large farmers to pursue land ag- turally well-endowed region of the grandizement practices at par with IGNP command area and Punjab, but those in the semi arid regions. also to other urban and industrial re- z Given the relatively high availability gions for wage labour. As in the other of land, a further increase in size of regions, migration is distress driven operational holdings is not an imme- among the poor and opportunity in- diate concern of the larger farmers. duced among others. z Lack of alternative employment op- Livelihood Options for the Rural portunities for small and marginal Poor farmers, makes them adhere to their The small land agriculture holdings for longer. Evidence from the Aajeevika household holdings continue to survey suggests that the small land hold- Finally, in the desert areas the incidence provide a stable ings continue to provide a stable liveli- of migration is significant affecting around livelihood option in hood option in Desert areas. one sixth of the total number of house- Desert areas holds. The village listing of households z In the Desert West, unlike in the Semi- however indicated that over a third of the Arid zone, per hectare returns actu- households were involved in migration. ally tend to fall with an increase in land holding size (see Table below). Unlike in the Semi-Arid areas, land hold- This is a fairly common phenomenon ing of migrant households is significantly in Indian agriculture and is mainly in- lower than that of non-migrant house- terpreted as being the result of higher holds. labor inputs by small landholders. A point of similarity is the higher inci- z In this area the share of agriculture dence of migration among scheduled in total household incomes contin- caste and tribe families. In this context

Agriculture in the Desert West Number Average Per hectare Per hh Share of agriculture of hhs land holding income income in hh income (in %age) Landless 4 0 15025 0 Marginal 11 2.2 884 11303 17 Small 16 5.6 887 18023 27 Medium 18 9.3 617 13662 42 Large 19 24.0 468 31537 36 Source: Aajeevika household survey Rural Livelihoods : A Regional Profile 23 the numerically small community of Bhils z Local wage labor generation is high in the west deserve special mention – and reasonably stable in terms of wage almost all the Bhil households migrate rates and demand. As such, there is every year. However income from mi- negligible out migration from this re- gration for the scheduled caste and tribe gion and the Canal Irrigated East in families is significantly lower than that fact, attracts in-migration. of the other migrant families. Livelihood Options for the Rural 3.1.4 Canal Irrigated East Poor The household surveys for this region The Aajeevika survey results indicate that were carried out in two villages (Kothya relative incomes from agriculture are and Bhairoopura Ojha) in the Taleda higher for large land owners, whose per block in . unit returns are higher mainly because of the highly capital intensive nature of Important Livelihood Strategies farming. z In this region, agriculture intensifica- While comparative returns are lower for tion is the overwhelmingly dominant the smaller land owners, in absolute livelihood strategy, primarily led by terms these returns are fairly high, so In the Canal Irrigated the widespread coverage of canal ir- that even small holdings are viable in East, animal husbandry rigation and development of ground- this region. is an important water resources. There is a high de- secondary source of gree of mechanization of agriculture However, apart from viability of small income across all and a near complete shift in favour of scale agriculture, lack of opportunities sections of the high value, commercial crops based on in the non-farm sector is another factor population, including high cost inputs. that compels smaller land holders to the poor z Animal husbandry is an important sec- adhere to their land. ondary source of income across all Returns per unit of agricultural land are sections of the population, including also high. In fact, per hectare returns the poor. In fact a sound agricultural from agriculture are high for the mar- base is what makes animal husbandry ginal land holders, decreasing thereaf- a viable option across this region. ter for small farmers, only to increase z Diversification is also high across the with further increase in land holding region, again principally led by a well sizes, for medium and large farmers (see developed agricultural sector. Table below).

Agriculture in Canal Irrigated East Number Average Per hectare Per hh Share of agriculture of hhs land holding income income in hh income (in %age) Landless 15 0 0 11451 0 Marginal 28 0.5 8493 13843 31 Small 12 1.6 5411 23904 37 Medium 5 2.9 9498 35183 77 Large 9 4.7 11521 69800 78 Source: Aajeevika household survey

24 AAJEEVIKA - LIVELIHOODS IN RAJASTHAN Household incomes are also highly cor- age points in the Tribal South and by related with the size of land holding, twenty nine percentage points in the with the share of agriculture in total Semi-Arid North Central regions over the household income increasing with hold- past eleven years12. ing size. This share is around a third for However the underlying reasons for the the small and marginal farmers and marked change in the two areas differ : around three quarters for the medium and large land holders. z In the Semi-Arid North Central re- gion, change is led by a rapidly grow- However, the incidence of landlessness ing non-farm sector mainly because is high in the Canal Irrigated East, which of the presence of clusters of eco- is often the case in areas that develop nomic growth in nearby towns and intensively with irrigation and along the national highway that mechanisation in agriculture. passes through the region. A buoy- Finally, there is virtually no migration ant agriculture and well-established out of the Canal Irrigated East. In fact animal husbandry add to this, taking In the Semi-Arid North the region even attracts migrants from this region far ahead of the others in Central region, change other areas, which often serves to de- terms of economic indicators. press agricultural wages in the area. is led by a rapidly z The reasons underlying extreme growing non-farm 3.2 Changes and Sustainability changes in the Southern Tribal areas sector mainly because of Regional Livelihood are altogether different. The falling of the presence of Patterns share of workforce in agriculture in clusters of economic this region is primarily due to the rap- Having outlined some of the important growth in nearby idly increasing demand for wage labor livelihood strategies across regions, this towns and along the in the urban and rural areas of Gujarat section now comments on the nature of national highway that and the consequent rise in opportuni- changes in these livelihood patterns and passes through the ties for migration. on the sustainability of such changes. region In contrast, occupational profiles in 3.2.1 Changing Pattern of the desert areas do not reveal signifi- Livelihoods cant changes. This is an area with a Comparison of the Aajeevika survey recent history of agriculture extensifi- findings with the Census figures for cation, with marginal lands being 11 1991 reveal that the Tribal South and brought under the plough over the last the Semi-Arid North Central regions three decades. However the livelihood have exhibited the most change in terms profile indicates declining importance of occupational profile (Table 2, p.65). of agriculture, with opportunities for The share of agriculture and allied oc- diversification, including migration in- cupations declined by forty five percent- creasing gradually.

11 For issues relating to problems of comparability between Aajeevika survey results and Census figures, and how these are sought to be resolved, see the explanatory notes in the Appendix. 12 In part, this sharp decline may be attributed to methodological issues, but even then this is a sizeable decline given the short period under consideration. Rural Livelihoods : A Regional Profile 25 The Canal Irrigated Eastern area seems not lead to an irreversible deterioration to be the most stable in terms of occu- of natural resources and it is able to pational profile. Both occupational and overcome the effect of sudden changes. livelihood portfolios indicate a stable As such the sustainability of the major and well developed agriculture. Indeed A livelihood strategy is livelihood strategies is explored in the some changes are taking place in the re- sustainable if it does table below, where available livelihood gion but this is mostly linked to the not lead to an option for each region are classified as growth of agriculture related business irreversible being of high, medium or low potential opportunities. deterioration of natural based on an appraisal of the existing eco- resources and it is able 3.2.2 Sustainability of Livelihood nomic and natural environments. to overcome the effect Options Finally attention is drawn to an impor- of sudden changes The livelihood framework adopted for tant factor, viz., the viability of agricul- the Aajeevika study asserted that a live- ture, especially for the poor, small and lihood strategy is sustainable if it does marginal farmers.

Sustainability of Livelihood Strategies across Rural Rajasthan Strategy Area where Sustainability Analysis pursued Agriculture Canal irrigated Medium Water availability from Chambal canals may be declining on a long intensification east term basis as result of water harvesting structures coming up in the upstream parts of MP. If true, this will z increase conflict between head and tail end farmers z force the system to find a new equilibrium Semi-arid Medium Groundwater potential tapped fully and most parts have turned north central critical. However as surrounding areas continue to develop as a result of further growth in nearby economic clusters, reverse tenancy may increase, concentrating land in hands of a few large farmers. Desert West Medium/ Intensification in desert is taking place in two areas – IGNP and low tube well areas. However sustainability in both cases is in doubt. Low arrivals in IGNP areas have already led to reduction of land rates and a certain amount of de-settlement (where settled people have gone back). Sustainability of tube well irrigation is also in question. Diversification Semi arid High The surrounding economic clusters – Jaipur city, and weaving north central cluster at Kishangarh, and the NH – all seem poised for further growth. Migration Tribal South High/Low Demand from destination areas is likely to grow thus ensuring that migration will continue. However the social and human costs of migration are very high in terms of the toll it takes upon family and social life and the health of the individual. This adds an element of unsustainability. Semi arid High For the same reason as mentioned under diversification. north central

26 AAJEEVIKA - LIVELIHOODS IN RAJASTHAN In terms of contribution of agriculture z It remains viable in the Tribal South to the livelihoods of poor households it mainly because of lack of alternative was found that by and large opportunities z Agriculture is an unstable, non-remu- z Only in the canal irrigated conditions nerative enterprise for small landhold- of the east does agriculture become a ers in the Semi-Arid North Central viable enterprise for small and mar- parts of the State. ginal land holders. z It is a stable, but low return livelihood option for the resource poor in the Desert West

Rural Livelihoods : A Regional Profile 27 SECTION IV

Access to Productive Livelihoods : Social Reality and Government Policy

This section explores the wide range of 4.1.1 Livelihood Capitals in factors that influence and impinge on Rajasthan: A Socially the choice of new livelihood options. In Determined Reality particular the role of a number of social The resource base of a region on which and political factors is analysed, along livelihood development takes place with the importance of two specific fac- comprises a number of different capi- tors, viz. access to education and infra- tals, viz., Natural, Human, Social and structure, that are widely accepted as Political capitals and the distribution of important in influencing access to pro- these different capitals varies across dif- ductive livelihood opportunities. This is The resource base of a ferent communities. followed by an appraisal of existing gov- region on which ernment programs meant to address the For the purposes of this analysis three livelihood problem of rural poverty and sugges- socio-economic categories have been development takes identified13: place comprises a tions for rethinking official poverty alle- number of different viation strategies. z The lowest strata comprising of the scheduled caste and scheduled tribes capitals, viz., Natural, 4.1 Factors Governing Access to communities Human, Social and Productive Livelihoods Political capitals z The intermediate strata comprising In what follows, the importance of en- the intermediate castes and the lower dowments of various categories of live- strata of the peasant castes; lihood resources is assessed and in light z An upper strata comprising the three of this, the forces explaining changing savarna castes and the locally domi- access to employment opportunities are nant peasant castes. explored. This is followed by a specific analysis of two important factors widely The following discussion focuses on how perceived as having significant influence access to different livelihood capitals is on livelihood choices, viz., education governed by socio-political factors like and infrastructure development. caste, kinship and political ties.

13 While the first two categories parallel the castes classified under the statutory definition of the scheduled castes and tribes and other backward castes, these are not congruent. This is because in each strata a number of castes are included on the basis of their political strength rather than simply their socio-economic status. For instance, the Meenas in north central and east Rajasthan have been enumerated under intermediate castes; Jats have been included in the upper section for this study by this criterion.

28 AAJEEVIKA - LIVELIHOODS IN RAJASTHAN Natural capital has been the case with IGNP in western Land, water, and animal resources are Rajasthan where, following the align- the principal components of natural ment of the main canal, rich farmers capital considered. How these natu- have purchased land along its course. In ral resources are distributed and how the eastern areas of Chambal command area also, there has been an influx of well- that affects livelihood choices are ex- to-do Sikh farmers from outside the State plored here. who have managed to build up sizeable Historically the distribution of land in land holdings. India has been skewed and community This trend was clearly visible in areas specific. This pattern is reflected in where the Aajeevika field work was con- Rajasthan also. However, with the excep- ducted (Table 11, p.68) : tion of the canal irrigated areas, the State does not have high landlessness, as in case z In the Shobji ka Guda village in of a number of other States. However, Dhariyawad block, the small but rela- within this near universal land holding tively wealthy peasant community of pattern, holding size is highly correlated Dangis had access to better land, ly- to caste and community status (Table 10, ing in the downstream areas p.67). Holding size tends to be largest for z In the Taleda block of Bundi district the upper castes in all areas, except the in the Canal Irrigated East, the best The unequal nature of Tribal South, which is characterised by areas lying around the main river flow- land distribution is relatively homogenous societies. ing through the region are occupied further accentuated by by the peasant caste of Dhakars The unequal nature of land distribution differentiated access to is further accentuated by differentiated z In the Semi-Arid North Central region, water and irrigation access to water and irrigation. Histori- upper caste communities have almost cal patterns of settlement ensured that sixty-nine percent more land than the peasant communities settled in areas scheduled caste farmers; while this ra- with better surface and groundwater. In tio is 2:1 in the tribal areas. fact prior to Independence rulers of There are also strong community linked princely States often invited peasant patterns to livestock rearing in communities from other areas to settle Rajasthan. The State has traditional pas- in their area with a view to augment their toral communities whose chief source own State incomes. Naturally the new of livelihood is derived from livestock communities were allocated land with husbandry. This is the case with Gujars access to water14. in central and eastern parts and Rabari, This trend continues in more recent times Raika, and Mers in the western parts. as well. New areas have been covered by In some cases, changing land use pat- canal irrigation, where typically the bet- terns have led to pastoral communities ter off sections manage to purchase taking to farming. However the commu- land at the head-end of the canals. This nity-wise patterns of livestock continue

14 This trend led to settlement of Jat communities in the northern parts and Patidar communities in the southern parts of the erstwhile State of Mewar.

Access to Productive Livelihoods : Social Reality and Government Policy 29 to hold, particularly in the case of smaller in Canal Irrigated East and lowest in animals like sheep and goats, while the Semi-Arid North Central, reflect- milch cattle holding is generally corre- ing the level of income inequality, lated to agriculture prosperity. which is lowest in the Semi-Arid re- gions and highest in the Canal Irri- Human capital gated areas. Human capital is a key and critical re- z Scheduled caste communities have source in the negotiation of livelihood been catching up with the other castes choices and opportunities. In a tradition- in terms of education - in two of the ally unequal society, education is ex- four areas studied, viz., the Desert pected to upgrade human skills and help West and the Semi-Arid North Cen- people break out of the traditional tral regions, the difference between strangleholds of poverty and discrimi- the two communities is quite small. nation. Yet even today access to educa- z On the other hand, the Desert West In a traditionally tion continues to be highly dependent areas offer an interesting case study. unequal society, on caste status. Marked by generally low levels of education is expected While some communities have made use schooling, there is little difference be- to upgrade human of education and accessed new oppor- tween the upper caste Rajputs and the skills and help people tunities, others have lagged behind. For scheduled caste and tribes groups. break out of the example the Rajput community has taken Further, the latter fare even better traditional up government jobs in large numbers, as than the intermediate caste of Mers, strangleholds of have the Meenas of central and east a minority community. poverty and Rajasthan, who have used education and z The minority peasant castes in the discrimination. Yet reservation to move into government State are noted for their low educa- even today access to jobs. On the other hand, the Bhils and tional levels, which to some extent education continues to Meenas of South Rajasthan have not been also keeps them isolated from the be highly dependent able to adequately access educational mainstream. In fact in many ways, on caste status opportunities and have been unable to Mers parallel the case of Meos, another join the new and emerging sectors of minority peasant caste settled at the economic and political life. other extreme in the -Bharatpur region of Mewat. The Aajeevika study confirms that the maximum number of years an individual Social capital is able to attend school is highly corre- Social, community and kinship net- lated to the caste status of the family. works play an extremely important role Castes lower down the social ladder have in determining livelihood opportunities lower years of education, even though and outcomes.15 The primary social net- within this overall reality, there is sig- works in Indian society exist along caste nificant differentiation across regions: lines. The ability to work together for z Differences between castes in terms common economic objectives is what of educational attainment are highest transforms social networks into social

15 This is true even in advanced economies even though these are played out differently. 30 AAJEEVIKA - LIVELIHOODS IN RAJASTHAN capital. Nearly all Indian castes have wood workers) from Pokhran is a case some system of traditional social orga- in point. With growing urbanisation nization. However in most cases the and increasing demand for wood work organization remains restricted to social in cities, suthars have migrated in large issues as a forum for resolving commu- numbers, with nearly all of them head- nity conflicts and disputes and does not ing for areas around Pune in move on to addressing economic or de- Maharashtra, which indicates the high velopment issues. importance of kinship patterns in ex- The Aajeevika study confirms that castes plaining migration trends. and communities with an ability to bond The caste-wise pattern of livelihoods in- and coalesce for economic objectives are dicates the different livelihoods followed more likely to progress : by different caste groups in the survey z An example is the comparison be- areas (Table 12, p.68) : tween the Dhakar community with z Overall it is found that land-based live- that of the Meenas in the Taleda block lihoods like agriculture and animal hus- of Bundi district. The Dhakars have bandry are more important for upper Oral testimonies and a high degree of cooperation among caste communities in all the areas. discussions reveal the themselves and they have been able z Diversification into non-farm based importance of social to diversify well across a range of activities and migration are com- networks, especially in businesses, mainly because commu- paratively more important for the new and high-risk nity members can easily come together lowest strata of the scheduled castes ventures for the poor and enter into partnership deals for and tribes. viz., migration generating capital for business. How- ever this is not the case with Meenas z The position of intermediate castes and except for individuals who have lies between these two choices and been able to secure government jobs, varies across regions depending upon they continue to adhere to farming. the special socio-economic conditions prevalent in these regions. z Oral testimonies and discussions re- veal the importance of social net- In fact the livelihood strategies being works, especially in new and high-risk adopted by various caste and commu- ventures for the poor viz., migration. nity groups can be approximated in the The migration of Suthars (traditional table below. Livelihood strategy – Caste Linkage Caste Livelihood strategy

Upper castes z Intensification of agriculture z Diversification into agro-business z Government jobs

Intermediate castes z Migration Artisan castes z Diversification Poor castes z Wage labor z Migration z Diversification Source: Aajeevika household survey Access to Productive Livelihoods : Social Reality and Government Policy 31 The data also throws up some interest- is the task of distribution of societal ing regional contrasts with respect to assets and naturally enough the more livelihood strategies adopted by differ- powerful sections try to secure maxi- ent communities : mum benefits for themselves. z In the Semi-Arid zone, agriculture Electoral politics has seen a gradual emerges as the dominant livelihood widening of the social base of the source for the forward castes, for the communities that actively participate scheduled caste population migration and demand benefits in return. Prior accounts for over half of total house- to Independence, all power was in the hold incomes, whereas, other sources hands of the ruling feudal elite. Since are more important for the interme- then politics has gradually “opened diate caste groups. up” as more and more communities z In the Tribal areas there is not much have been mobilized around political variation in livelihood strategies issues and identities. across different communities, except A relatively new feature in Rajasthan for the fact that animal husbandry is has been the active participation of caste more important for the non-tribal associations in raising political demands. peasant castes settled in the area. Electoral politics has In older times caste associations seldom seen a gradual z In the Desert area, cultivation is intruded into political issues, because of widening of the social equally important for all three com- the essentially local nature of the caste base of the munities. However animal husbandry based organizations. Caste organizations communities that is important for the Muslim and up- were normally restricted to a certain actively participate and per caste communities while it occu- number of villages in regions populated demand benefits in pies a lower position for the sched- by members of the caste. return uled caste population. Wage labor is important for both Muslims and sched- This feature has begun to change, espe- uled castes, who also derive a signifi- cially for the more politically aware and cant part of their income from non- numerous castes, who have gone on to farm sources. In this area migration is form State level and even nation-wide most important for upper castes. organizations. The statewide organiza- tions often have very explicit political z In the Irrigated areas, by contrast, cul- agendas and at times are promoted for tivation is the most important source precisely this reason. One arena where of income for the upper and interme- caste organizations have been very ac- diate caste groups and wage labor for tive in Rajasthan is reservations in jobs. the scheduled caste sections. Social and political life in the Rajasthan Political capital villages is governed by the dominant Politics plays a critical role in livelihood peasant castes, which are present in large development at many levels. Communi- numbers and have maximum access to ties and areas that are politically well land, the main productive resource in connected ensure significant benefits for rural areas. As in the rest of the coun- themselves. At the societal level politics try, these were the first castes to enter

32 AAJEEVIKA - LIVELIHOODS IN RAJASTHAN the electoral arena and challenge the he- case of the study block of Dudu, in Jaipur gemony of the old ruling elite. Most district in the Semi-Arid zone. rural areas of Rajasthan have one or 4.1.2 Factors Affecting Changes in more such castes : the Pattern of Livelihood: The z Jats, Rajputs, Gujars and Minas are the Role of Education and Rural dominant castes in the Desert West Infrastructure Development z Rajputs, Jats, Mers, Bishnois dominate In the light of the discussion above, it is the Semi-Arid North Central regions important to understand what factors z Meenas and Gujars are most powerful influence the changing pattern of rural in the Canal Irrigated East livelihoods in the context of a growing z Local tribes and Rajputs form integral economy with new opportunities arising parts of society in the Tribal South. This in different sectors across regions. The is the only area where social organiza- Aajeevika study indicates that, caste sta- tion is not governed by caste hierarchies tus, kinship networks, the overall eco- of traditional Hindu society. nomic environment and political clout However with the passage of time, more are some of the most important factors and more castes and communities have affecting these changes. Caste status, kinship been mobilized politically, including Kinship networks and political connec- networks, the overall those at the lowest rung of caste hierar- tions play an important role in livelihood economic environment chy. Findings from the Aajeevika field transformation. The area where this and political clout are survey reveal that while there are be- matters most is the entry into highly some of the most ginnings of political mobilization by the prized government jobs, as these jobs are important factors most oppressed castes, viz., the sched- the ultimate aspiration for most people. affecting the changing uled castes everywhere, its pace varies While there is a formal system of recruit- pattern of rural across regions. This section of society ment, in reality political connections to- livelihoods has been mobilized to the maximum gether with kinship networks can wield extent mainly in north central region. considerable influence. Given the social reality, political polar- Political clout can also be useful in ac- ization in rural areas mostly occurs cessing public finance, as was the case along caste lines. Naturally numerically with the heritage hotel scheme of the large castes tend to dominate, thereby Rajasthan government that benefited leaving out numerically smaller castes owners of old palaces and forts. The from effective political participation. importance of kinship networks in di- Finally, apart from access to different versifying livelihoods in the non-farm categories of livelihood capitals, the sector, especially in establishing or ex- adoption of specific livelihood strategies panding business networks by pooling is strongly influenced by the overall eco- financial and other resources has already nomic scenario. In particular, location been discussed. near clusters of economic growth is con- In what follows, the role of two specific ducive to development of the non-farm factors, viz., education and rural infra- sector, as for instance, was observed in structure development, are considered

Access to Productive Livelihoods : Social Reality and Government Policy 33 in turn, mainly because these are widely in education. While they still lag behind perceived as being instrumental in de- the dominant castes in rural areas, there termining access to livelihoods and in is evidence to indicate that in a number creating and strengthening existing live- of areas, they are gradually closing the lihood opportunities. In particular these gap. This holds immense potential for are seen as important enabling factors socio-economic change. that can potentially help individuals Enhanced education is not likely to lead overcome important socio-political con- to economic equality immediately, as straints in gaining access to productive economic opportunities are mediated livelihood options. through a complex web of legal politi- Education cal systems that remain under the con- trol of the dominant castes. However Education plays a critical role in liveli- education leads to increasing political hood development, opening up new vis- awareness and mobilization, which in tas of employment and improving returns. turn makes it possible to challenge the There are major differences in education existing status quo and seek a better deal. levels across the State (Table 13, p.68). This can be seen happening in the Education plays a Overall literacy rates are higher in North Pokhran block, a remote and highly feu- critical role in Central and Irrigated Eastern regions, dal area in the Desert West, where the livelihood areas that perform better economically, Meghwal community has begun to resist development, opening and lowest in the Tribal South, which is the centuries old exploitation by the up new vistas of one of the poorest areas in the State. The dominant Rajput class. employment and only exception is the Desert West region Comparing average household incomes improving returns where the rural community lags behind and education levels (measured by lit- in education despite being compara- eracy rates) in different regions reveals tively better off economically, owing to that the blocks with higher literacy lev- socio-cultural factors. els also have higher household incomes Education is also a great leveler. The (see Table below). The Tribal areas are scheduled caste communities, which an exception, for these have literacy have been most depressed socially and rates below Desert areas, even though economically, have made major strides household incomes are higher16.

Literacy rates and household incomes Tribal South Semi arid Desert West Canal irrigated North central East Literacy rate 31 60 42 57 Annual household 22,621 30,897 19,381 23,918 income (Rs.) Source: Aajeevika household survey

16 Extensive migration in the Tribal South explains the relatively higher levels of cash incomes for households as compared to the Desert West. 34 AAJEEVIKA - LIVELIHOODS IN RAJASTHAN The relationship between household in- income augmenting opportunities for comes and education can be seen at the employment. individual level also by relating house- Infrastructure Development hold incomes with the maximum edu- cation level of an individual in the Infrastructure plays a critical role in live- household17. Comparing years of school- lihood development of any area and the ing for the poor households with that key components of infrastructure that for the non-poor clearly shows that the were investigated under the Aajeevika latter have higher years of schooling for study included electricity and roads. all the regions. Given the uneven development of infra- Average maximum years of schooling structure across the State, it is generally for different regions are indicative of the found that the more developed areas also economic status of the region, with years have better infrastructure. Comparison of of schooling for the economically bet- infrastructure indices for the survey ter off regions being higher than years blocks also revealed the same picture. of schooling for comparatively poor re- Each aspect of infrastructure surveyed There is a positive gions. The better off Canal Irrigated and is considered separately below. correlation between North Central regions have almost education and Electricity : This is a critical resource double the years of education (average household incomes required for development of both farm years of schooling over eight) than the from various sources, and non- farm sectors. While electricity less developed regions in the Tribal observed across is absolutely essential for industrial ac- South and Desert West. regions, communities tivities, even agricultural development in Therefore there is a positive correlation and individual modern times is impossible without it. For between education and household in- households comes from various sources, observed one, falling water tables mean that irriga- across regions, communities and indi- tion by diesel pump sets from open wells vidual households. Better off regions is no more feasible. In fact open wells have have almost double the number of years disappeared from many farming areas and of education than the less developed re- been replaced by deep borewells which gions; poor households have fewer years require submersible motors that can only of education than richer households and be run by electricity. Even Canal Irrigated the better off communities have higher areas like Bundi have seen a rush for in- years of education than the compara- stallation of bore wells. tively backward communities. The electricity network in the study area However this correlation by itself does is varied (Table 14, p.69), gives figures not establish that education will lead to for electricity connections for different better economic opportunities. It sim- uses in two of the blocks surveyed) : ply means higher income levels are gen- z Electrification has expanded rapidly erally associated with higher education in the surveyed block in the Tribal levels, which in turn may open up newer South, but domestic connections

17 The maximum years of schooling for the family is equivalent to that of the individual in the family with the maximum number of years of education. Access to Productive Livelihoods : Social Reality and Government Policy 35 remain relatively few and use of elec- z A second case study of the Pokhran tricity for purposes of agriculture or block in the Desert West reveals the industry is quite limited. many challenges for public infrastruc- z In the Semi-Arid North Central region ture and development imposed by the there has been extensive electrifica- desert conditions and terrain. Being tion and its use is high in both domes- part of a border district with a con- tic and agricultural sectors. tinuous presence of army and air force personnel, Pokhran has a good z In the canal irrigated zone, electrifi- cation has been extensive, but the re- network of roads. The national high- lease of agriculture connections has way bisects the block and given the been very limited. Going by the size good network of roads, movement of potential demand, the number of across the district within and beyond connections is actually quite low in Pokhran is reasonably fast. The pat- comparison to other areas. tern of village settlement however presents a far more serious challenge Roads : The importance of roads in trig- in establishing connectivity since typi- gering regional economic development cally villagers live in isolated farms is well recognized. In this respect find- in distant hamlets that are not con- The importance of ings from Aajeevika survey highlight in- nected by roads. In fact these diffi- roads in triggering teresting differences in road networks culties in access have strongly influ- regional economic across rural Rajasthan (Table 15, p.69) : enced the reach of public services and development is well z The Dhariyawad block in the Tribal facilities such as health and education recognized South has a reasonable network of in the block. roads (two Major District Roads, It was hypothesised that the develop- seven Through Roads and fifteen Link ment of infrastructure which increases Roads), and its coverage by road has people’s access to the external economy grown in recent years. In fact all Gram and environment (such as roads, com- Panchayat headquarters and villages munication linkages, rural transport) are with a population of over one thou- likely to play a crucial role in reduction sand are connected with a road of of poverty and access to livelihood op- some kind. A Core Network Plan for tions. In general while there exists a re- road expansion has been prepared lationship between infrastructure devel- based on the location of markets opment and overall economic status of within the block. This plan will en- an area (for instance, the more devel- sure road connectivity to two hundred oped areas of Semi-Arid North Central and twenty-four villages with a popu- and Canal Irrigated East have better in- lation of more than one hundred and frastructure development), this study funds for the construction of roads was not able to gather sufficient data to will be made available through the prove the link conclusively. Prime Minister Gramin Sadak Yojana, the Central Road Fund and the MP/ The analysis in this section indicates that MLA Local Area Development Fund. actual choice and availability of livelihood

36 AAJEEVIKA - LIVELIHOODS IN RAJASTHAN options, even in a modern diversifying promote and protect interests of the economy, continues to be determined by poorest sections of the society. The social and caste identities and inequities. range of legislation varies from posi- This is largely true, with a minor qualifi- tive discrimination policies in govern- cation. Livelihood strategies being pre- ment, to labor laws that ensure decent determined by social and caste identities, working conditions for labourers in is especially true for natural resource-based the unorganized sector. livelihoods, for the distribution of natural z Second, implementing programmes capital is highly caste specific. And the that tend to benefit the rural poor di- inequities in the given distribution impose rectly. Direct programmes may be fur- a major constraint on the poorer sections. ther sub-divided into three categories: 4.2 Rural Poverty Alleviation: z Those which make foodgrains avail- Role of the Government able through the Public Distribution System outlets at subsidized prices The government plays an important role z Those that provide relief to the ru- in influencing access of the rural popu- ral poor by creating opportunities for lation, especially the rural poor, to live- wage labour employment Poverty alleviation has lihood options. In this context the z Those which attempt to improve in- been one of the key Aajeevika study reviews the existing ru- come levels of the rural poor by pro- objectives of the Indian ral poverty alleviation strategies of the viding them with assets which could State since government and underscores the need be used for income generation. Independence for a fresh approach towards rural pov- erty alleviation programmes18. The way they are structured, the first two categories aim at ensuring food se- 4.2.1 Existing Approaches for curity and at providing relief to the ru- Improving Livelihoods of the ral poor, respectively; while the third, Rural Poor specifically aims at lifting them above Poverty alleviation has been one of the the poverty line. key objectives of the Indian State since Each of these three direct programmes Independence and current efforts in of the government is discussed in detail. this direction could be classified under two streams : Public Distribution System (PDS) z First, creating enabling conditions for The State seeks to provide subsidized the poor to live gainfully and honor- foodgrain to all families below the pov- ably in a differentiated and stratified erty line (BPL) through an extensive society like ours. It consists of an ar- public distribution system and every ray of social legislation that seeks to panchayat has a designated ration shop.

18 In this context it is clarified that the Aajeevika study analyses different sources of livelihoods for the rural poor, but assessing the effectiveness of the government’s poverty alleviation strategies in detail is not a primary objective of the study. However such programmes do affect available livelihood options of the rural poor. Therefore the basic functioning of these programmes in rural Rajasthan is briefly reviewed and a few problem areas highlighted, and a few suggestions made for rethinking strategies for better addressing the issue of rural livelihood promotion. Access to Productive Livelihoods : Social Reality and Government Policy 37 However the PDS has been critiqued on alleviation in a sustainable manner. several grounds. For instance, the most While wages earned from these prog- common complaint relates to bad target- rammes have definitely brought succor ing of the poor households. Another to the poor, their contribution to house- important drawback associated with the hold incomes can only be termed as PDS has been the requirement of bulk marginal and incidental. purchases, which makes purchases by Typically physical works, approved by the poor difficult and forces them to ap- the Gram Sabha, are undertaken as part proach private traders who sell food- of the scheme, where the Gram Panchayat grains in small quantities. is the implementing agency and has to In fact, except for Kerala and Andhra accomplish the approved works, com- Pradesh, where a major share of the bining labor and material costs in the foodgrain requirements of the poor ratio of 75:25. Under the scheme, the comes from the PDS, in most other main works undertaken by Gram States the poor procure only a small frac- Panchayats are related to construction of While wages earned tion of their overall requirement from rural roads, river works, de-silting and from employment this source. so on. generation Nevertheless all such operational weak- One problem area relates to the ‘type programmes have nesses apart, the PDS is a well-inten- of works’ chosen under the scheme. definitely brought tioned programme aimed at providing Most projects are temporary in nature succor to the poor, their food security for the poor. which fail to create permanent assets contribution to and infrastructure in the village. Further, Employment Generation household incomes the ceiling of twenty five percent on Programmes can only be termed as material costs (which has now been re- marginal and Currently the main government rural laxed) militated against long-term infra- incidental employment generation scheme is the structure creation, which could substan- Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana tially benefit rural livelihoods even af- (SGRY). Earlier incarnations of employ- ter completion of the project. ment guarantee schemes like the Jawahar These programmes were designed with Rozgar Yojana (JRY), Employment Assur- the intention of providing basic mini- ance Scheme (EAS) and the Food for mum subsistence and temporary em- Work Programme were merged into the ployment opportunities to the poor and SGRY in 2001. From the early 1980s so fail to address the longstanding ob- these schemes have been looked upon jective of removing poverty. as major instruments of poverty allevia- tion. Further, the regular employment Poverty Alleviation Schemes generation scheme was also supple- Currently the main poverty alleviation mented by drought relief works that scheme is the Swarnajayanti Grameen were launched in different parts of the Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY), which came State in 2002. into operation in 1999, coalescing dif- However, not much has been achieved ferent programmes related to income via the programmes in terms of poverty generation. Under this programme

38 AAJEEVIKA - LIVELIHOODS IN RAJASTHAN there is provision for the involvement sectoral development strategy; it is not of individuals, as well as for Self-help planned along with other programmes of Groups (SHGs) formed by the rural area or sectoral development; it is a poor, to seek financial assistance (both household based programme and the credit and subsidies) for undertaking schemes are not integrated with the de- productive activities. velopment needs or resource base of the area” (Vyas et al., 1999, pp.181). The scheme was inspired by the good performance of NGO-sponsored SHGs Thus it would appear that poverty alle- in taking up income generating activi- viation programmes of the IRDP genre ties. However it has not taken off along have limited potential for eradicating expected lines even two years after its poverty as they do not consist of a se- introduction. This is largely due to the ries of directed efforts targeting the same fact that it still follows the earlier IRDP set of households. Rather these have be- (Integrated Rural Development Plan)- come separate programmes, which are mode of targeting the individual poor, not run in conjunction with a series of as borne out by data generated in the other initiatives whose ultimate targets course of this study. are addressing specific need of the eco- The trajectories of the nomically week. Operational problems poverty alleviation In two of the blocks surveyed, only a related to programme implementation, programmes are few groups were able to get any support such as shortage of credit, inadequate usually decided from the government (Table 16, p.69). understanding of the requirements of the without keeping in While a large number of groups were poor, lack of adequate technical support, view other sectoral reported to have been formed, only two lack of marketing opportunities, inap- efforts operative in groups in Dhariyawad and just four propriate selection of activities etc. all the area groups in the Taleda block were given spring out of this basic flaw. loans for productive purposes. In fact in Further, ARAVALI has been associated the Taleda block, of the three hundred with a study on DWCRA (Development and fifty-nine projects for which loans of Women and Children in Rural Areas) were disbursed, SHGs undertook only self-help groups, which brought out spe- ten, while the remaining were taken up cific operational issues affecting the pro- by individuals. cess of economic empowerment of 4.2.2 Poverty Alleviation groups (ARAVALI, 1999): Programmes: A Critique z Lack of proper guidance and steward- An important point worth stressing is ship for women’s groups while taking that the trajectories of the poverty alle- up enterprises viation programmes are usually decided z Women’s groups depended mainly on without keeping in view other sectoral captive markets and lacked market- efforts operative in the area. In fact, “the ing strategies which could give them strategy of IRDP has been questioned a competitive edge on the grounds that it is isolated from z There was no attempt to explore eco- the main growth process in terms of re- nomic diversification opportunities in source allocation, technology as well as trade and service sectors.

Access to Productive Livelihoods : Social Reality and Government Policy 39 The main constraints found in the were mainly facilitated by contacts DWCRA programme are generic in na- with friends or relatives in the city. ture and will be faced by any programme Those who relied on agricultural in- or project on micro-enterprise develop- comes have invariably remained poor. ment. The new government programme The study concludes that, “people in this SGSY faces similar problems. region have overcome poverty mostly as Ultimately income generation is a com- a result of their own initiatives and with plex activity, which requires setting up the help of their relatives and friends. of a high degree of strategic linkages Government assistance – or even assis- across different support structures. tance from any other external parties, Therefore such programmes can effec- including NGOs, business houses, and tively address the problem of rural pov- political parties - has very little to do erty in the long run only when the poor with these results… programmes of di- are made more capable of undertaking rect assistance account collectively for individual enterprise or when support- a relatively small fraction of households The destitute and the ive agencies provide them with the nec- escaping poverty” (Krishna, 2003, pp. considerably poor essary training, market and credit link- 538). The author therefore, suggests re- households need ages. In fact the IRDP has been more orientation of such programmes, where special attention and a successful with the poor who are rela- in particular he is emphatic about the patient, long-term tively close to the poverty line and less importance of provision of information approach, rather than with those who are lower. This is borne regarding job opportunities via employ- the urgency, out by a study conducted in the North- ment exchanges. immediacy and target- ern and Eastern districts of Rajasthan Even as the Aajeevika study broadly orientation associated (Gyanchandani et al.,1987). agrees with this argument, it should also with these government be stressed that the poverty alleviation programmes This serves to underscore the fact that the destitute and the considerably poor programmes can actually become more households need special attention and a effective if handled with greater caution, patient, long-term approach, rather than planning and sensitivity towards the spe- the urgency, immediacy and target-ori- cific needs, capabilities and endowments entation associated with these govern- of the poor. A few specific suggestions in this direction are made below. ment programmes. Recent research based on twelve vil- 4.2.2 Rethinking Poverty lages in two Southern districts of Alleviation Rajasthan indicates that over eighty The findings of the Aajeevika study point per cent of households escaping pov- to the need for thinking afresh on cur- erty, managed to do so without gov- rent approaches to poverty alleviation. ernment assistance (Krishna, 2003). A Few Concerns This was possible due to income di- versification, with at least one family The existing approaches to poverty alle- member taking up additional occupa- viation are based upon the concepts of tion in the informal sector, where jobs rural regeneration and reconstruction,

40 AAJEEVIKA - LIVELIHOODS IN RAJASTHAN with the basic objective being to promote Generally, the micro-enterprise develop- local employment generation and to dis- ment approach has not delivered. De- courage migration and urbanization. The spite huge investments in income gen- latter is evident from the complete lack eration and micro-enterprise promotion of focus on the needs of the large num- schemes like IRDP and now the SGSY, bers of rural poor who regularly migrate their impact on the ground has been lim- to cities in search of work. ited. While several clusters of micro- enterprises are flourishing, the majority The conceptual underpinnings of this of the State sponsored micro-enterprises line of thinking may be traced back to have failed. As such the search for the the Gandhian concept of self-sufficient ideal package that will promote entre- village republics. However the villages preneurship amongst rural poor contin- and the encapsulating environment have ues, despite the unenviable track record significantly changed since then. It may of most schemes launched so far. be argued that traditionally also, villages were never autarchic and conditions The usefulness of investments in NRM for the poor has also been limited due to have changed tremendously since the Villages are far more the vagaries of weather, or due to low time of Gandhi. Villages are far more integrated with the access of the poor to natural capital, or integrated with the wider economy than wider economy than due to bad targeting of projects. The ever before, a fact which has direct im- ever before, a fact Aajeevika study also shows that the share plications for approaches to poverty al- which has direct of land based livelihoods has been de- leviation. This study emphasizes pre- implications for clining in the rural livelihoods portfolios, cisely such issues while thrashing out a approaches to poverty and more so for the rural poor. However, strategy for rural poverty alleviation. alleviation investments in land based activities can Within the overall ambit of rural regen- still benefit the poor indirectly through eration, a variety of State initiatives cur- additional food security in the long run, rently exist, which can be classified into and via wage labor availability in the the following categories : short and medium term. z Approaches based on natural resource Over the past decade or so, the contri- management (NRM) and develop- bution of migration to livelihoods of the ment (e.g., irrigation and watershed rural poor has also been highly signifi- development) cant in certain parts of the State, which z Approaches based on micro enterprise points to the need for projecting migra- development (e.g, the IRDP followed tion as a sub-sector that needs immedi- by the SGSY schemes) ate attention and follow-up. z Approaches aimed at wage labor This also raises questions regarding the generation usefulness of heavy investments on The findings of the Aajeevika survey in- NRM, which do not yield returns over dicate that while the last one continues the short run (as it depends on rainfall, to be extremely relevant, the effective- pressure of human population on re- ness of the first two is a moot point. sources and a host of other factors). In

Access to Productive Livelihoods : Social Reality and Government Policy 41 the recent past such investments in cer- of local opportunities for gainful em- tain resource deficit areas of the State, ployment, and of the dynamism of the proved insufficient for meeting subsis- new economic order which opens up tence requirements of the poor in the space for the rural workforce to be en- short run. The subsequent income gap gaged in the industrial metropolis. was met with earnings from migration As such this new approach seeks to pro- and from other employment generation mote linkages of the rural poor with the programmes of the government (includ- wider economy, and it strives to achieve ing drought relief work). However ulti- improved food security and local em- mately there can be no gainsaying the ployment, without compromising the fact that investment in NRM has a sig- emergent need of looking upon wage nificant role in improving the ecological labour as a key resource of the poor and niches, in which people live and earn making the most of it. their livelihoods. The Aajeevika study also showed that A New Approach there remains a very poor section in ru- ral areas, which is not able to access wage The Aajeevika study suggests a new ap- labour opportunities away from home. proach to poverty alleviation which en- Investment in NRM has The specific needs of this category of visages making the most of newly avail- a significant role in the poor must also be addressed via lo- able opportunities, while consolidating improving the cal wage labour generation and appro- the natural resource base which is the ecological niches, in priate social security schemes which can main foundation for livelihoods of the which people live and be accessed by them. rural people. This approach strives to earn their livelihoods take care of both the short–run subsis- The new approach also stresses the need tence requirements of the rural poor as for continued investment in rural natu- well as the long-run need for improving ral resources infrastructure which remains and maintaining the sustainability of the important even for the small and mar- ecological locales in which people live. ginal farm families, for whom migration is mostly involuntary in nature. This calls This approach recognises that the ma- for targeted investments in NRM, which jority of the rural poor enter the eco- are clearly directed towards improving nomic mainstream as wage workers, household food security and diversifica- rather than as ‘entrepreneurs’. And it tion, rather than being subsumed in a aims at helping the rural poor gain new, package of overall and generalised NRM, competitive advantages in the new eco- as was the case earlier. nomic order, instead of keeping them engaged within the rural areas and in In particular the Aajeevika study suggests their poor communities, independent of three main strands of future action : the urban mainstream. It envisages meet- z It stresses that wage labour, migration ing short-run livelihood requirements by and urbanization be rendered into a creating local wage labour opportunities positive opportunity for those and facilitating migration alongside. For amongst the rural poor who have few migration is largely a product of the lack other options.

42 AAJEEVIKA - LIVELIHOODS IN RAJASTHAN z It highlights the need for ensuring z It stresses the need for targeted and a minimum livelihood support for critical investments in natural resource all those who are unable to migrate management for improving food se- owing to poor capabilities and curity and agriculture diversification endowments. among the rural poor.

Access to Productive Livelihoods : Social Reality and Government Policy 43 SECTION V

Improving Rural Livelihoods : Lessons and Key Interventions

In this section the lessons and best prac- property resources, a NRM led approach, tices from the analysis of the livelihood supported by other interventions, would situation across the regions and commu- be quite useful for the poor. nities are identified. Within this broad Of the four regions covered by the overall framework, two sets of specific Aajeevika survey two, viz., the Canal Irri- recommendations are formulated, in- gated areas and the Semi-Arid zone were volving suggestions for enhancing rural economically more vibrant than the oth- livelihoods in general and for improving ers. However of these two regions, the the livelihoods of the rural poor, in par- Semi-Arid zone is more vibrant and has ticular. Each set of recommendations is lower poverty and inequality, as is appar- Experience shows that discussed below and thereafter concrete ent from a comparison of indicators of wages in agriculture suggestions are made for operationa- material well-being for the two blocks in remain depressed even lising a few key interventions. these areas (Table 17, p.70). in areas experiencing 5.1 Lessons and Best Practices The relatively high incidence of poverty widespread in the Canal irrigated areas, despite the Several lessons can be drawn from the agricultural large irrigation coverage and well devel- analysis of livelihood strategies carried intensification oped agriculture in the area can be un- out above. Attention is drawn to a few derstood as follows. Development in the such important lessons, taking each one Canal Irrigated East (Taleda block in in turn. Chambal command area) has been pri- First, it appears that a Non Farm Sector marily agriculture led. The diversifica- (NFS) led strategy is now increasingly more tion observed in the region has also been effective for poverty alleviation in some areas agriculture led, consisting primarily of as compared to a Natural Resource Manage- agro-processing industries and supply of ment (NRM) led strategy. agro-inputs. The distribution of natural capital (pri- Even though the poor benefit mainly marily land and water) is highly skewed. from wage labor generation, experience As such, attempts at strengthening the shows that wages in agriculture remain de- productivity of natural resources tend to pressed even in areas experiencing widespread disproportionately benefit those sections agricultural intensification. This occurs be- which exercise greater control over these cause rural wage labor can be highly resources. Where there is fairly equitable mobile. During peak demand periods, access to natural resources or, where there is extensive in-migration of labor people depend substantially on common from other, economically depressed

44 AAJEEVIKA - LIVELIHOODS IN RAJASTHAN areas, which tends to keep wages low Canal Irrigated East, with the former area even in peak seasons. This is seen in offering high potential for goat rearing on most agriculturally developed areas. For a small scale, and the latter having greater instance, the Chambal command areas potential for milch cattle. experience in-migration of labor from Third, an important lesson drawn from Bihar during rice sowing and trans- Aajeevika survey relates to migration emerg- planting season. ing as a critical livelihood strategy for the ru- By contrast, the engines of growth in ral poor, even though the poorest sections the Semi-Arid zone (Dudu block) are are not able to migrate as it involves cer- more diverse. The difference becomes tain investments and risks. immediately apparent from a compari- The Aajeevika survey indicates an in- son of workforce engaged in agricul- creasing incidence of migration across ture and related activities, which is as the State, except in the canal irrigated high as seventy-eight percent for the areas. Also the contribution of migration canal irrigated areas and only forty- to total household incomes is increasing seven percent in the semi arid zone. The scheduled castes across rural Rajasthan. While migration While agricultural intensification has and tribes and those is undertaken by all segments of the also occurred in the Semi-Arid zone, a lower down the social population, the nature of migration and significant proportion of household in- order are more likely to motivation to migrate differs across vari- comes (over half) in the area is derived migrate than others, as ous segments of the population and from non-farm sources. for them migration across regions. This suggests that in some areas a NFS seems to provide an led strategy may be more effective in The scheduled castes and tribes and those lower escape from local reducing poverty than one which relies down the social order are more likely to mi- social and economic more on natural resource management. grate than others, as for them migration oppression seems to provide an escape from local Second, animal husbandry appears to be social and economic oppression. In the critical to livelihood profiles in rural Desert and Semi-Arid areas, migration Rajasthan, serving the crucial function of is mostly undertaken by the scheduled drought proofing in case of monsoon fail- caste and tribes population, in the Tribal ure. The significance of animal hus- areas it is almost universal, given the lack bandry seems to be true across agro-cli- of alternative livelihoods within the lo- matic zones in Rajasthan, as borne out cal economy. by the relative importance of this activ- ity both in terms of the occupational However, ultimately income patterns of classification of the work force, as well the poorest households indicates their as the analysis of household incomes. inability to migrate, mainly owing to the lack of initial endowments required for However the importance of animal husbandry migration and their inability to bear as- is tempered by the fact that the rich benefit more sociated risks. from this activity than the poor. Nevertheless, this may be a viable means for poverty Fourth, another important point that alleviation in the Tribal South and the emerges from the livelihood analyses is

Improving Rural Livelihoods : Lessons and Key Interventions 45 that diversification can provide opportunities over half of household earnings, in all for the poor to augment their household in- areas except the Tribal South. comes. Household incomes from non- Wage labor is especially important for farm sources were seen to be quite im- the poorest households, as they have low portant for the rural poor in the Semi- entitlements being either landless or pos- Arid North Central and Desert West re- sessing extremely small plots of land. gions, while it was not so in the other Further, non-agriculture related options two areas. are also not easily accessible for them, Availability of local since diversification and migration, re- wage labor However the options for the rural poor ap- quires at least some capital. opportunities play a pear to lie at the lower end of diversification critical role in the opportunities, mostly in traditional, low in- 5.2 Recommendations for livelihoods of the poor come, skill based occupations while Improving Rural Livelihoods and therefore must be more secure jobs in the formal sector provided at all times (both government and private) are typi- 5.2.1 Rural Livelihoods in General cally accessed by the better-off sections This set of recommendations is focused of the rural population. at enhancing rural livelihoods in general Finally, availability of local wage labor op- in the State. The key features of the vari- portunities play a critical role in the livelihoods ous livelihood strategies are discussed, of the poor and therefore must be provided at together with an enumeration of their all times. In fact, wage labor was found to principal, ruling constraints. be the most important source of income The key interventions in each sector are for the poorest households, accounting for described in the table below.

Enhancing Rural Livelihoods in General : Key Interventions Tribal South Semi-Arid North Desert West Canal Irrigated East Central Agriculture Targeted land 1.Groundwater pilots Groundwater pilots 1.Groundwater pilots intensification and water 2.Rural energy projects 2.Rural energy projects development aimed at reducing aimed at reducing the consumption of consumption of energy in energy for pumping pumping 3.PIM Animal Promote animal Promote animal Interventions aimed at Promote animal husbandry husbandry husbandry husbandry through addressing problems through breed through breed breed improvement, of sheep rearers (high improvement, marketing improvement, marketing cost of transportation, marketing no support in drought) Diversification 1.Development Development around 1.Development around around Highway – Highway – dhabas, Highway – dhabas, dhabas, machine machine repair machine repair repair 2.Agro services sector 2.Agro services sector 3.Agro processing 3.Agro processing

46 AAJEEVIKA - LIVELIHOODS IN RAJASTHAN Understanding Key Interventions Infrastructure for this already exists with Agriculture Intensification : Two of the State groundwater department, which the four regions studied (viz., the Canal is often approached by some of the more Irrigated East and the Semi-Arid North enterprising farmers. However this needs Central zones) exhibit the process of to further become an extension depart- agricultural intensification in full scale, ment or its services should be appended while in the remaining areas there are to the existing extension machinery. pockets of agriculture intensification. Also there is need for establishing a regu- Given the importance of this livelihood latory framework which promotes sustainable There is need for strategy across the State, the main fea- extraction of groundwater. This is clearly establishing a tures of a few emerging constraints to more difficult than the first as it requires regulatory framework the process of agricultural intensifica- changes in property regimes and a high which promotes tion are listed in the table below. level of cooperation amongst various sustainable extraction Various interventions meant to over- user groups. Efforts have been made in of groundwater come the constraints operating in agri- this direction but these have not borne culture are described in brief below : much fruit. One option is to initiate small-scale pilots prior to adopting wide First, pilot projects promoting suitable arching legislation. and cost effective development of ground- water should be undertaken. Of particu- In the current situation, the time seems lar importance in this context is under- ripe for promoting pilot projects that are taking groundwater studies and making aimed at integrated management of irriga- these available for use by farmers. tion water, both canal and groundwater.

Constraints to Agriculture Intensification Constraint Main features High consumption of High energy consumption in pumping irrigation water is emerging as the main problem. energy in agriculture in The problem is compounded by the highly inefficient end use devices. This has turned pumping water into a vicious cycle, with power companies trying to minimize supply to agriculture sector to cut their losses and farmers in turn being forced to resort to expensive diesel to irrigate their crops. Emerging shortage of Most parts of the State are seeing rapid development of ground water for irrigation. water as water table goes However it is taking place in a haphazard manner. Farmers get borewells dug without any down and water quality pre testing. A number of borewells fail, increasing costs incurred by farmers. Indiscriminate deteriorates at some digging of borewells results in interference between borewells located near each other. places Reducing water in Most large surface irrigation projects in Rajasthan are inter- state projects, with the catchment surface irrigation projects area lying in other States. However over a period of time, water flow in the reservoirs has reduced. One reason is erection of water harvesting structures in the up stream of the rivers. Both the major river projects of Rajasthan – the Chambal and IGNP – are experiencing this problem. Land relations Land relations are undergoing changes. While tenancy continues toflourish, the phenomenon of reverse tenancy is also emerging in certain parts.

Improving Rural Livelihoods : Lessons and Key Interventions 47 Conceptually these pilots will be similar and subverting true decentralization as to the watershed projects that are un- often happens in case of Panchayati Raj dertaken. However the focus in this case Institutions. would be on sustainable management of Therefore the process of PIM needs to water and its regulated use. Watershed be monitored by external agencies that projects have so far tended to focus on can act as vigilantes and ensure that the harvesting of water and recharging of initiative is implemented in true spirit. groundwater without going into issues of regulating extraction of groundwater. Finally, an intervention geared to en- hance agricultural development relates Second, another intervention suggested to the role of rural energy projects aimed at to overcome constraints in agriculture agricultural demand side management. En- relates to strengthening efforts at participa- ergy use in irrigated agriculture is caught tory irrigation management (PIM) of canal in a vicious circle, for electric utilities water. Canal irrigated areas suffer from are forced to supply electricity at subsi- problems of inadequate funds for canal dized rates to agriculture consumers. upkeep and improper regulation of irri- The utilities in turn try to minimize the Water Users gation water use, leading to head areas supply, thereby forcing consumers to Associations (WUAs) diverting maximum water and tail areas resort to the use of very costly diesel. have been set up all going dry or receiving inadequate water. High inefficiency of end use devices over the State and The Irrigation Department of the State further complicates the issue. these have been given of Rajasthan has embarked on an ambi- A pilot project in this respect can seek the rights to collect a tious project of transferring management to break this cycle for a small area, at- water cess and use the of canals to people’s committees to tempting to improve services, reduce revenue for the upkeep overcome both these problems. Water high distribution losses, and improve of canals Users Associations (WUAs) have been efficiency of end use devices. set up all over the State and these have been given the rights to collect a water Animal Husbandry : Apart from agri- cess and use the revenue for the upkeep culture, animal husbandry is another sig- of canals. nificant occupation and source of liveli- hood almost all over the State. The pri- However the transfer of powers from mary constraint with respect to this ac- the State irrigation department to tivity relates to under-developed market- WUAs is not going to be easy. In par- ing channels and links for the products. ticular, two interest groups which can sabotage this process include irrigation Typically State dairies are unable to buy department officials who stand to lose all the milk that is offered for sale and out on lucrative contracts, and the rich the problem facing producers is com- peasantry which could seek to control pounded owing to the glut in the mar- the WUAs and its resources using these ket. This is somewhat ironical in view for their own personal gains. Further, of the low consumption levels preva- there is even the possibility of these lent in the State. In this scenario, it two interest groups coming together appears there may be a case for State

48 AAJEEVIKA - LIVELIHOODS IN RAJASTHAN purchase of milk for supply to schools Second, a promising area for diversifi- via mid-day meal schemes. cation is agro services, catering to the need Diversification : Finally, there is ample for a wide range of services and inputs scope for diversification in non-farm sec- required in the agricultural sector, rang- tor activities all across the State, with ing from electric motor repair to deep the possible exception of the Tribal boring machines. In fact in all areas South where prospects are truly bleak. where agricultural intensification is The main areas around which diversifi- present, there is a vibrant agro services cation is feasible are: sector and these are often the first shops to come up in smaller towns, after daily In all areas where First, development around national highways. provision stores. agricultural Rajasthan is criss-crossed by a number intensification is of important state and national high- Finally, agro processing, involving pro- present, there is a ways and new highways are also being cessing of agricultural produce is an- vibrant agro services developed following a number of na- other significant area for diversifica- sector tional schemes. As such there is good tion, especially in areas that are agri- scope for development of businesses culturally vibrant. along the highways to cater to the needs 5.2.2 Livelihoods of the of those using the highways. In this re- Rural Poor spect, two prominent sub-sectors are ca- tering and automobile repair. In addition, The recommendations for enhancing there are ancillary industries to both livelihoods of rural poor across differ- these main sub-sectoral enterprises ent regions of the State are given in the which would develop alongside. table below.

Recommendations for Enhancing Livelihoods of the Rural Poor

Strategies Tribal South Semi-Arid North Desert West Canal Irrigated Central East NRM based Promote land and Rainfed farming Land distribution if water regeneration – development possible activities Animal Promote goat Promote milk - Husbandry rearing animal based – – livestock development through easy credit Wage labor Government labor Government labor Government labor Government labor generation schemes generation schemes generation schemes generation schemes Diversification Promote diversification Promote diversification – through micro through micro credit – creditand training and training Migration Resource center for Resource center for Resource center for migrant workers migrant workers migrant workers –

Improving Rural Livelihoods : Lessons and Key Interventions 49 Understanding Key Interventions all areas as generation of wage labor is a Agriculture : In view of the universal critical component of the poverty alle- landholding patterns, and the significant viation schemes. These schemes must be continued and even guaranteed, as contribution of agriculture to house- provision of wage labor locally is one holds of the poorest sections (who are of the first best ways of providing food unable to migrate), there continues to security and income stability. be logic for sponsoring land and water regeneration programmes, especially in Diversification : There is need to pro- the Tribal South. These will serve the mote diversification in the Desert West and function of stabilizing agriculture by im- Semi-Arid North Central regions. These proving water availability and enhanc- areas have fairly good potential for non- ing food security. farm sector development. Micro enter- prises in these areas may be promoted, Land distribution strategies assume greater given appropriate training opportunities importance in the Irrigated areas. For even for skill formation and adequate provi- though availability of land in the area is sion of credit facilities. Animal husbandry is a limited, redistribution may make for a viable means of viable livelihood option for the poor, as Migration : Resource centers must be pro- livelihood even for the in these areas, even small holdings were vided for facilitating migrant workers across landless, easy access to found to be viable. the Tribal South, Desert West, and the Semi- credit should be Arid North Central regions. These centers Animal Husbandry : Promoting goat rear- ensured for purchase should be set up in areas with a high in- ing in the Tribal South appears important of animals and support cidence of migration and they should as a supplementary source of income, services like good undertake a series of tasks aimed at in- especially for the poorest sections that veterinary care and creasing returns from migration and al- are unable to migrate. This activity may insurance should be leviating the harsh working conditions be promoted by providing easy access provided faced by migrants. to credit and breed improvement pro- grams, as well as by setting up improved A few of their activities could include : marketing linkages. z Market scan for wage labor and iden- Promoting milch animal based livestock devel- tifying niches (both urban and rural) opment in irrigated areas should be another where rural labor may be utilized important concern given that these ar- z Training and human capacity en- eas have a significant population of the hancement for absorption of rural la- landless. For animal husbandry is a vi- bor into these identified niches able means of livelihood even for the z Providing support services at the landless in these areas. In particular, easy point of employment (i.e. in the cit- access to credit should be ensured for ies or rural areas where migrants get purchase of animals and support services employed) like good veterinary care and insurance z Initiation of social security schemes should be provided. for migrant workers Wage Labour Generation : Government z Introduction of services aimed at labor generation schemes must be promoted in meeting the specific needs of migrant

50 AAJEEVIKA - LIVELIHOODS IN RAJASTHAN workers like communication, money farmers in particular. The logic for these courier etc. measures derives from rural growth theo- z Advocacy and public awareness cam- ries which suggest that growth in the ag- paigns aimed at enhancing awareness ricultural sector will ultimately lead to of the general public towards specific better agricultural wages for the rural poor. programs run by the centers Groundwater Pilots 5.3 Operationalising Key There is urgent need for the adoption of Interventions groundwater pilots in areas where This section identifies concrete action groundwater has reached a critical stage areas for five of the key recommenda- (meaning that extraction is eighty-five tions outlined above. Of these, recom- percent or more of the recharge). Large mendations relating to groundwater and parts of Rajasthan are suffering from rural energy pilots affect the farming serious problems of depleting water community in general and large farmers tables. Of the areas studied, the prob- in particular, whereas natural resource lem has acquired serious proportions in management, animal husbandry and two of them, viz., the Semi-Arid North measures for facilitating migration tar- Central and Canal Irrigated East regions. However the blocks declared critical are get the rural poor. Large parts of spread across the State. Two interventions suggested, viz., natu- Rajasthan are suffering ral resource management and animal Rationale: Surface water resources in from serious problems husbandry are fairly common and tradi- Rajasthan are limited with only few pe- of depleting water tional and are discussed only briefly. The rennial rivers. As such, groundwater is tables novelty with respect to these lies in the the chief source of both irrigation and identification of specific areas and tar- drinking water in the State and the last get groups. The other recommendations few decades have seen rapid expansion are new and have not really been tested of area under irrigation by groundwater. or implemented before. These are dis- This has led to depleting water tables cussed in greater detail. with the result that more than a fourth of the total number of blocks in the The basic framework for describing these State had been declared critical or over- recommendations involves the defining exploited by June 2000. By now this fig- the underlying concepts and rationale, ure would only have increased. specifying the action agenda and identi- fying the institutional mechanisms re- The intensive exploitation of groundwa- quired for carrying out this agenda. ter has resulted in serious problems. Given the over-exploitation of this re- 5.3.1 Targeting Rural Livelihoods in source, open well irrigation has become General extinct in many parts where it used to This section focuses on recommenda- be the norm and the water table has tions for groundwater pilots and rural reached a depth of five to six hundred energy pilots that would benefit the feet in some parts of the State. In addi- farming community in general and large tion, a falling groundwater table has led

Improving Rural Livelihoods : Lessons and Key Interventions 51 to serious problems in the quality of the z Government policies: Government groundwater extracted. In particular, sa- policies have encouraged exploitation linity and fluorosis are the two main problems. rather than sustainability. In particu- The population in large parts of the State lar, groundwater departments kept an- is suffering from fluorosis, and the Gov- nouncing a large potential, based on ernment has been forced to undertake an overall assessment till very lately20. large scale drinking water supply Further, the power tariff policy en- schemes to address the problem. courages extraction of groundwater at Main Constraints : Given the current very cheap rates. situation in the State, a major challenge z Political hostility: The major stake- is to put in operation a range of correc- holder class, the rich peasantry, per- tive mechanisms, broadly involving a ceives regulation as a threat and as transition from resource development to an attempt to nationalize a private re- resource management. In fact this shift source. It therefore opposes any at- from management to development has been tempts at regulation. Compounding talked about for quite some time now and the problem is the fact that this class is also politically powerful. A major challenge is to is the subject of numerous academic ar- put in operation a ticles. However, there has been little ac- However there are also positive develop- range of corrective tion at the ground level. The reason for ments. For instance, the increasing criti- mechanisms, broadly this is that the issue is very complex and cality and scarcity of water makes some involving a transition involves changes in the existing property regulation imperative, with the State from resource regime, which are not easy to bring about. declaring a Water Policy that establishes development to In particular, the main constraints that primacy of urban drinking water sup- resource management have prevented any action are : plies over irrigation. Further, now that the impending groundwater crisis is be- z Lack of Regulation : Despite quite a his- tory of efforts19, there has been almost ing experienced by all classes, farmers no progress on this score. In Rajasthan, are also beginning to get affected by it. a draft Groundwater Act has been in So there may be a new willingness by circulation for some time for discussion the farming community to examine vari- amongst various stake-holders, but ous available options. there has been no further progress. Action Agenda : This entails at least z Lack of Cooperation : The number of four important steps: farmers in very large (as com- z Information Systems and Resource pared to other places in the world Planning : There is only a limited or where such efforts have made greater non-existent information base on headway) and there is a great deal of groundwater availability, quality, petty rivalry amongst farmers that pre- withdrawal and other variables in a vent cooperative action. format useful for resource planning.

19 The first groundwater model bill was circulated by the Central Ministry for Agriculture in 1970. 20 A flaw in the optimistic assessments made by the Groundwater Department is that these are based on the assumption that seventy percent of irrigation draft becomes available for reuse and joins groundwater as recharge. However researchers have contested this assumption, saying that this is an overestimate. 52 AAJEEVIKA - LIVELIHOODS IN RAJASTHAN The first step to managing the re- Stakeholders: A diverse set of actors source is to understand it through are involved in groundwater manage- appropriate systems for groundwater ment and any groundwater initiative will monitoring on a regular basis, and in- need support from a diverse range of corporate the monitoring data in plan- stakeholders, including: ning the use of the resource. The next z Owners of Agriculture Tube Wells: step is to undertake systematic and These normally comprise large land scientific research on the occurrence, holders from the dominant peasant use and ways of augmenting and man- castes of the State namely, Jats, aging the resource. Rajputs, Bishnois, Gujars, Dangi Patels, z Demand-Side Management : The sec- and others. ond step is to put in place an effec- z Drinking Water Users’ Representa- tive system for regulating the with- tives: As groundwater is also used as drawals to sustainable levels, where drinking water, whoever manages such a system may include, register- drinking water will also be a stake- ing of users through a permit or li- holder. This could be a government cense system; creating appropriate department like the PHED or the lo- laws and regulatory mechanisms and cal panchayats or municipal bodies. In pricing system that aligns incentives Groundwater fact the general public also becomes for groundwater use with the goal of resources need to be a stake-holder as everybody needs sustainability; and promoting “preci- planned and managed drinking water. sion” irrigation and water-saving crop for maximum basin- production technologies and ap- z Technical Departments Monitoring level efficiency proaches. Groundwater: There are technical de- partments for monitoring groundwa- z Supply-Side Management: The third aspect of managing groundwater is ter levels, e.g. the Central Groundwa- augmenting groundwater recharge ter Board (CGWB), which is the nodal through mass-based rainwater-har- authority and also the State Ground- vesting and groundwater-recharge water Department (SGWD). By vir- programs and activities; maximizing tue of their mandate, these depart- surface water use for recharge; and ments also become important stake- improving incentives for water con- holders in any groundwater initiative. servation and artificial recharge. z Agriculture Development Organi- z Groundwater Management in the sations: As groundwater is the main River Basin Context: Groundwater source of irrigation, organisations con- resources need to be planned and man- cerned with the agriculture depart- aged for maximum basin-level effi- ment, such as NABARD also become ciency. As such, there is need for iden- stakeholders. In fact the classification tifying a groundwater district, similar of groundwater zones into critical, to a watershed, where the planned in- semi critical, and safe is a NABARD terventions can be tested out. led initiative.

Improving Rural Livelihoods : Lessons and Key Interventions 53 z Research Organisations: Research tion campaign to disseminate informa- organisations, like the IWMI that have tion about the gravity of the situation water as their mandate, can also be and to convince this class of the neces- stakeholders. Even general rural de- sity of such an initiative. velopment organisations can be in- Education and awareness campaigns volved in groundwater projects in view should be followed by the formation of a So far the farmers’ of its critical importance. farmers’ organisation representing the vari- lobby has actively The most critical of all the stakeholders are ous communities and sections. Further, scuttled all efforts at the tube well owners. They are the primary in view of the lack of accurate, reliable, regulation and users, yet mobilising them is the most and usable information on the ground- management of difficult as they have to be convinced water situation, it is imperative to gather groundwater, sensing a and organised first. In fact, so far the accurate information on the current situ- threat to their interests farmers’ lobby has actively scuttled all ation and monitor changes. efforts at regulation and management of In this context, the emerging tasks and groundwater, sensing a threat to their roles for a Promoter Agency are sum- interests. So the immediate task for any marised below, along with a list of po- new initiative is to undertake an educa- tential collaborating agencies. Emerging Tasks and Roles for the Promoter Agency (PA) Sl Task Role to be Performed by the Other Collaborating No. Promoter Agency (PA) Institutions 1 Information Systems and Resource Planning PA can set up a research wing SGWD that will undertake data CGWB collection and analysis. Research institutions like Education and dissemination IWMI 2 Registering of users through a permit or PA promotes a Farmers’ FO license system Organisation (FO) SGWD 3 Creating appropriate laws and regulatory Advocacy In collaboration with other mechanisms agencies 4 A system of pricing that aligns the incentives Advocacy As above for groundwater use with the goal of sustainability 5 Promoting conjunctive use Advocacy FO Pilot implementation esp. in context of local canal system 6 Promoting “precision” irrigation and water- Education and dissemination Agriculture extension saving crop production technologies and Manufacturers of micro approaches irrigation equipment 7 Mass-based rainwater-harvesting and Pilot demonstration groundwater-recharge programs and activities 8 Maximizing surface water use for recharge Pilot demonstration 9 Improving incentives for water conservation Advocacy and artificial recharge 10 Groundwater Management in the River In collaboration with other Basin Context agencies

54 AAJEEVIKA - LIVELIHOODS IN RAJASTHAN Rural Energy Projects electricity utilities. Further, with the This set of recommendations underscores slow pace of release of new connec- the need for undertaking rural energy tions, there are often there are long projects aimed at reducing losses from dis- waiting lists. tribution and improving the quantity and The rationale underlying this recommen- quality of electricity supply. dation must be viewed in proper per- Rationale : Groundwater is the main spective. There are huge distribution source of irrigation in Rajasthan, ac- losses in supply of electricity (with losses counting for seventy percent of the to- exceeding fifty percent in many rural ar- tal area irrigated. Given that groundwa- eas), due to both technical and commer- ter needs pumping from depth, it ex- cial (primarily theft) reasons. An oft- plains why energy requirements of such cited reason for theft is the existence of agriculture are high. long waiting lists is farmers waiting for electricity connections simply tap the There are two alternatives before farm- supply from the mains. Rural energy projects ers, diesel and electricity. Electricity should strive for works out several times cheaper than Therefore a vicious cycle operates, ow- reduction of diesel, but provision of electricity for ing to which the losses keep mounting distribution losses by agriculture is a major political issue and both quantity and quality of elec- checking theft, across the country. In Bundi for example, tricity supply to farmers also keeps re- initiation of more in the absence of electricity connections ducing. In this situation the farmer is rational policies and for irrigation, farmers are forced to use the ultimate loser, while vested interest release of new diesel to run generators, which is many groups among both electricity utility connections; and times costlier than electricity. employees and farmers’ representatives improvements in terms derive benefits from this state of affairs. During the green revolution the govern- of both the quality and ment promoted the use of electricity by In this scenario there is considerable quantity of electricity subsidizing both the capital and running potential for rural energy projects to supplied costs, but this is no more the case. Subsi- tackle the many aspects of this problem. dies for capital costs (erection of poles In particular, the projects should strive for transmission lines) have been gradu- for reduction of distribution losses by ally phased out, while tariff subsidies re- checking theft (both by farmers and util- main a bone of contention between elec- ity employees); initiation of more ratio- tricity distribution utilities and farmers. nal policies and release of new connec- tions; and improvements in terms of With the new phase of reform under- both the quality and quantity of elec- way in the power sector, there is im- tricity supplied. mense pressure on distribution utilities to increase tariffs. While distribution Action agenda : The modus operandi utilities have not been able to phase out for achieving the above objectives will agriculture tariff subsidies, they have involve responded by curtailing supplies to the z Formation of consumers’ committees sector, which has given gives rise to that will take up village level manage- new tensions between the farmers and ment functions.

Improving Rural Livelihoods : Lessons and Key Interventions 55 z Transfer of the basic operating unit social mobilisation and organizational of distribution utility to a new entity change, with a team leader heading which will have representation of all the operations. the stake-holders. Second, a stake-holders’ association, z Detailed study and development of a comprising all the stakeholders, that system which will set up a base line will act as a governing council for the and draw up proposals for technical project. It would co-ordinate various rehabilitation of the system. stake-holders and exercise overall su- z Undertaking agricultural demand side pervision of the project and its role management measures aimed at im- would primarily be advisory. The imple- proving efficiency of end use devices. menting unit would be a basic operat- Stakeholders : The institutional mecha- ing unit of electricity distribution, a nism for implementing the project will distribution sub- division. require cooperation across a range of 5.3.2 Targeting the Rural Poor stake-holders, including Some of the key strategies for address- z Farmers who have electricity connec- ing the problem of rural poverty alle- Land and water tion or who are potential consumers. viation are described below. regeneration In this respect larger farmers who are programmes aimed at bigger consumers will be bigger stake- Natural Resource Management building food security holders. (NRM) Based Strategy z The Electricity Distribution Utilitity: are recommended as a A NRM based strategy should especially These will be primary stakeholders as good strategy for target the rural poor. The Aajeevika study they are responsible for supply of mitigating poverty in has identified two areas, viz., the Tribal electricity. the Tribal South South and the Canal Irrigated East as z Employees of Distribution Utilities. having some potential for NRM based z Development Research Agencies. interventions. The areas and the inter- This project does not require replace- ventions that are feasible are as follows: ment of existing utilities, rather it seeks Tribal South : Land and water regenera- improvement in its functioning and in- tion programmes aimed at building food volvement of the consumers and em- security are recommended as a good ployees of the utility. It could be strategy for mitigating poverty in this operationalised through a management area. Land holding is almost universal takeover of the local unit of the utility in the region and even though there is by an external intervention team. extensive migration, a very poor section Two sets of new organizational mechanisms of the population remains primarily de- are envisaged to carry out the proposals: pendent upon land for their livelihoods. First, a management change team, In these areas agriculture would always comprising professionals across a range need to be supplemented with other of needed specialisations, including sources of income as land holding sizes technical (power distribution), finance, are very small. Nevertheless, increasing

56 AAJEEVIKA - LIVELIHOODS IN RAJASTHAN productivity of land would enhance lands, which may be used for distribu- food security and make it possible for tion to the landless, viz., the pasture poor households to take up other liveli- lands, classified as charnoi in revenue hood options. In this context, the chief records. These lands are owned by the intervention required in the Tribal South village panchayat and it is possible to is targeted land and water regeneration, access these for redistribution wherever rather than generalised watershed devel- they are available. In fact this has been opment. These would include soil and done in Madhya Pradesh where the water conservation measures, water har- State government undertook a large vesting and micro irrigation and intro- scale land distribution program recently. duction of suitable crop technology for In fact there is a government regulation enhancing productivity. that allows for conversion of all pas- Usually a major concern with large land ture lands into cultivated land, once an based programs is that typically, maxi- area comes under the command area of mum benefits are cornered by relatively a canal irrigation scheme. better off sections which own more Yet another source of land can be cre- land. However, this is less of an issue ated with the government acquiring good farm- in the Tribal areas where there is little land for the purpose of redistribution to the Distribution of surplus social stratification and land holdings are rural poor. In almost all rural areas the revenue land to the fairly even. richest sections among the farmers are landless has been a Canal Irrigated East : Redistribution of normally the first to get access to orga- long-standing policy land to the landless may hold the key to nized sector jobs. These farmers then objective of the poverty alleviation in this area. Distri- give out their land on lease to others. This government bution of surplus revenue land to the category of farmers has been increasing landless has been a long-standing policy over the recent past. As such, the gov- objective of the government, even ernment can frame a policy for acquir- though the past decade has seen little ing such land by purchasing it at market such distribution in practice. One rates and then redistributing these to the ground on which this policy has been poor and landless rural families. critiqued is that it creates a class of small Distribution of land involves a whole range land holdings which are not viable. How- of policy measures. For one, it needs policy ever this argument may not apply to the advocacy at the highest level for deci- Canal Irrigated Areas where even small sions need to be taken at the top and holdings are viable, given the availabil- there should be sufficient political ity of cheap irrigation water. backing to make redistribution mean- The main issue that arises in this con- ingful, as was the case in Madhya text is whether or not surplus land is avail- Pradesh. Besides, the distribution will able for distribution, as it appears that all have to be monitored at the village level cultivable surplus revenue lands have to ensure that the beneficiaries are ac- already been distributed. However tually able to maintain possession in the there remains another class of common longer run.

Improving Rural Livelihoods : Lessons and Key Interventions 57 Animal Husbandry z Marketing support for ensuring a A second set of key interventions relates good price for the products. to promoting animal husbandry for ru- Animal husbandry projects are not new ral poverty alleviation. Large scale, com- and in fact this was the major activity mercial animal husbandry is generally financed under IRDP. This study does beyond the scope of the rural poor since not dwell further on operation-alising this activity is land based, so that only this set of recommendations. the larger land owners are able to rear Facilitating Migration large stocks of animals. The final set of recommendations for The Aajeevika survey has identified addressing the specific problems of live- niches in two of the areas studied (viz. lihoods for the rural poor relates to the the Tribal South and the Canal Irrigated development of a resource center for areas) where animal husbandry could be migrant workers and wage labourers a means for alleviating rural poverty : across rural Rajasthan. z Milch animal based livestock devel- The objective of the resource center Large scale, opment in Irrigated Areas commercial animal would be to help render migration and z Developing livelihoods in goat rear- wage labour into a positive opportunity husbandry is generally ing in South Rajasthan. beyond the scope of by undertaking a range of activities the rural poor since this Extensive irrigation in the Canal areas aimed at reducing the hardships faced activity is land based, has led to easy availability of fodder, in by migrant laborers and maximizing their so that only the larger fact dry fodder is practically free, while earnings. For all practical purposes the land owners are able to green fodder is also available cheaply, center would function like a rural em- rear large stocks of which makes it possible for even land- ployment exchange, matching workers against requirements and also serve as animals less households to rear large animals and sell milk to augment household incomes. a node for building capacities and skills. Existing employment exchanges cater to In contrast, in the hilly terrain of South the urban middle classes and primarily Rajasthan where only a small part of the white-collar jobs, while this rural ex- total land is cultivated, it is feasible for change would cater specifically to the very poor households to only rear small requirements of manual workers. numbers of goats, which is reflected in the wide incidence of goat ownership in Rationale : Nearly all rural migrant the tribal areas. workers manage to find work only in the unorganized sector, whereas entry into An animal husbandry project seeking to organized sector jobs leads to perma- increase incomes of the very poor people nent migration along with the family. For must have three essential components : a long time academicians, social activ- z Credit for financing purchase of animals. ists, and development workers have re- z Technical back-up in the form of alized that growth in off farm employ- training for improved animal hus- ment is almost exclusively in the unor- bandry practices, access to insurance ganized sector, while employment in the and adequate veterinary services. organised sector has actually been

58 AAJEEVIKA - LIVELIHOODS IN RAJASTHAN shrinking. Many argue that this phenom- z Labor Force Mobilization: The re- enon can be traced to the nature of capi- source center would have to set up talist growth in the country. registration systems keeping track of In this scenario there have been a num- labor and their requirements, with con- ber of efforts to improve the lot of those tacts being maintained at both source employed in the unorganized sector, in- areas and at destination work places. cluding introduction of a separate act This task requires establishing an ini- for migrant workers; an act for construc- tial communication phase followed by tion workers; and a social security act activities undertaken to win the con- for workers in the unorganized sector fidence of the workers. (under draft). z Human Capacity Enhancement: La- In this context the main difference be- bor would be also have to be trained tween the proposed initiative and past in emerging skills, with the market efforts lies in the underlying approach. scan ascertaining the nature of nec- There have been a Past efforts have focused on regulation essary skills and with appropriate in- number of efforts to in favor of unorganized sector workers, puts from various training institutes improve the lot of but the progress of legislation has been like ITIs and Shramik Kendras for de- those employed in the tardy and the acts often remain signing training and upgradation unorganized sector, unimplemented due to lack of political programs. including introduction of a separate act for will. By contrast the proposed initiative Stakeholders : In this case the relevant migrant workers; an act is primarily market led, even as it recog- stakeholders are nizes the importance of legislation and for construction z The Migrant Workers who are the big- the role of advocacy for making work- workers; and a social gest stake-holders, but do not form an ing conditions for migrant labour con- security act for workers organized body. However community genial and comfortable. in the unorganized associations in their villages of origin sector Action agenda : This must focus on the can provide some representation, following key areas: while participation can also be secured z Market Scan: There is need for creat- at individual levels. ing awareness regarding the specific z Private Sector Organisations, including nature of labour requirements in des- employers and key agents in the busi- tination locations (e.g. Gujarat, for ness and trade networks in the desti- South Rajasthan). For this, institu- nation areas. tional linkages with associations of employers like industrialists, traders, z NGOs active in both areas of origin and shopkeepers, and farmers must be es- destination of the migrant workers. tablished; studies and research under- z Research Institutes, especially those taken into the nature of labor require- interested in the issues of labor, de- ments in various sectors; and the skill velopment, and poverty, such as the profile of workers must be evaluated V.V. Giri National Labor Institute to identify exactly where there is a (NOIDA, Uttar Pradesh) and the shortage in supply. Gandhi Labor Institute (Ahmedabad).

Improving Rural Livelihoods : Lessons and Key Interventions 59 z Government Agencies, especially those be conducted at a significantly large concerned with poverty alleviation, scale. For instance, if the focus is on such as the BDO office, Zila Parishad Gujarat and other existing and emerg- and so on. ing destinations, a pilot needs to be tried In terms of organisational arrangement, the out at least at block level. resource center will need to be a dy- In the final analysis it should be noted namic, action research type entity, un- that this initiative is a novel one and dertaking new studies and data collec- there is no existing government depart- Institutional anchoring tion in completely uncharted areas and ment directly compatible with the roles would be best vested at the same time implementing pilots proposed for the resource center. It ap- in an autonomous that actually benefit the target client, pears that the institutional anchoring agency that is capable viz., the migrant workers. would be best vested in an autonomous of performing Three separate sets of skills would be agency that is capable of performing in- innovative roles required, keeping in mind the three key novative roles. This could be a local tasks envisaged above, in terms of mar- organisation, or a State level agency with ket scan, worker mobilization, and hu- competence in livelihood development man resource development. Further, the like ARAVALI. Government participa- scope of the initiative calls for at least a tion would also be desirable as it would certain scale of operations, mainly be- lend legitimacy and facilitate inter-state cause activities such as market scan must work co-ordination.

60 AAJEEVIKA - LIVELIHOODS IN RAJASTHAN SECTION VI

Conclusion

The Aajeevika study was undertaken as metropolis. In this context, the specific a follow up study to the Human Devel- measure recommended is the establish- opment Report, Rajasthan. It was meant ment of resource centers whose main to analyse the current situation regard- aim would be to facilitate migration by ing rural livelihoods in the State and in helping workers find viable opportuni- the light of the analysis, recommend a ties outside the village economy. set of strategies for livelihood promo- Other important recommendations tar- tion, especially targeting the rural poor. geting the rural poor take into account The main insights from the study in this region-specific endowments that are regard can be summarised as follows. likely to impinge on the choice and The issue of livelihood generation for sustainability of livelihoods. the rural poor must be viewed in proper An important strategy For instance, animal husbandry is seen perspective. The poorest sections in ru- targeting the rural poor as a promising option in all areas, espe- ral areas lack access to the most basic involves helping them cially because this can serve a crucial livelihood resources in terms of physi- gain access to drought proofing function in context of cal, human and social capitals. As such productive livelihood the specific agro-climatic conditions the most appropriate strategy targeting strategies beyond the prevalent in the State. However, while these sections should involve wage boundaries of the local livestock rearing based on large animals labour generation, via government em- village economy ployment generation schemes and via like cows and buffaloes is feasible in ar- general land and water regeneration eas with adequate irrigation and easy programmes that would serve the dual access to fodder (e.g., Canal Irrigated task of creating demand for wage labour areas); rearing small animals like sheep and contributing to agricultural devel- and goats are more suitable in areas that opment in the region. are relatively water scarce (e.g., Tribal South and Desert West). Another important strategy targeting the rural poor involves helping them gain Further, targeted rural land and water access to productive livelihood strate- generation schemes are more suited for gies beyond the boundaries of the local enhancing agricultural productivity and village economy. In fact this should be thus improving incomes and livelihoods seen as part of a broader strategy that in areas with fairly even distribution of envisages greater integration of the land (e.g. Tribal areas). In areas where re- hitherto isolated village economy, with source distribution is more skewed (e.g., the wider, more dynamic growth oppor- Canal Irrigated areas), there is need for tunities evolving elsewhere in the land redistribution policies for providing

61 the poor with access to more viable means and implementable steps regarding such of livelihoods based on agriculture. Ob- a policy are outlined, where the need to viously garnering political will is the most spread awareness among farmers regard- important challenge for making redistri- ing the seriousness of this issue is par- bution policies a reality. ticularly emphasised. For ultimately, On the other hand, in areas with rela- farmers are an extremely important stake- tively low prospects for agricultural de- holder with their entire livelihood depen- velopment in the immediate future (e.g., dent on this critical resource. Need for pursuing the Desert areas), as well as in areas in In the context of overall agricultural policies for sustainable close proximity of urban centres (e.g., development in the State, the need for agricultural the Semi-Arid areas), there is need for viable rural energy projects, with spe- development in the stressing diversification of rural liveli- cial focus on demand side management, State is underscored hoods, especially based on opportunities is also emphasised. in the non-farm sector. In the ultimate analysis these measures Finally, the need for pursuing policies for would mainly benefit large farmers and sustainable agricultural development in those with access to land, but they also the State is underscored. In this context have tremendous potential for contrib- an important area of concern is the adop- uting to the livelihoods of the rural tion of sustainable groundwater manage- poor, by fostering agricultural develop- ment, given that water is a critical re- ment and leading to sustainable employ- source in Rajasthan. The broad contours ment creation within the rural economy.

62 AAJEEVIKA - LIVELIHOODS IN RAJASTHAN Technical Notes On the Comparability of Aajeevika Survey Results and Census Figures

To examine how rural livelihoods are studies conducted during the Aajeevika changing, results of the Aajeevika sur- field work confirm that migration has vey valid for 2002 are compared with been increasing over the decade, espe- Census figures for 1991. However there cially in the tribal areas of South are two methodological problems in this Rajasthan. It appears that in fact the comparison. First, the Census typically Census may not be able to accurately cap- under-enumerates work participation by ture the occupational status of workers females. Second, the categories of oc- undertaking migration. For instance, in cupations defined in the Aajeevika study the 2001 Census, the proportion of in the Census. workforce engaged in cultivation in The first of these limitations has been Dhariawad is as high as seventy-seven overcome by comparing male Work Par- percent, which is at variance with the ticipation Rate (WPR) figures, as these Aajeevika household survey figures of are likely to be more realistic in the cen- forty-five percent (Table 2). The reason sus enumeration. Table 1A below com- for this discrepancy can be explained as pares WPRs for males and females for follows. With landlessness being low in the study blocks. tribal areas, migrant workers often come On the second count, certain re-group- back during peak agriculture seasons like ing of classifications has been carried out at the time of sowing, when there is a for realistic comparisons. For instance, strong likelihood of their being recorded migration is not a recognised category in as cultivators in the Census operation. the National Industrial Classification This serves to explain the inflated share (NIC) followed by Census. Yet the house- of workers in cultivation in the Census hold survey, personal interviews and case as compared to the Aajeevika study results.

Table 1A : Comparison of Work Participation Rate Figures (Census and Aajeevika Survey)

Work Participation Rates Source of Estimates Dhariawad Dudu Pokhran Bundi Census 2001 Male 53.4 48.4 51.5 53.6 Female 48.1 37.8 39.7 41.7 Aajeevika Male 72.5 50.4 44.6 49.9 Female 76.0 50.9 35.9 47.3

Source: Aajeevika household survey and Provisional results of 2001 Census

63 Statistical Annexures

Table 1 : Occupational Classification of Workforce across Regions (proportion of workforce)

Tribal South Semi-Arid North Central Desert West Canal Irrigated East Agriculture and Allied Sectors Cultivators 64.9 45.1 75.9 61.3 Animal Husbandry 6.3 12.8 9.2 7.5 Agriculture Labor 0.3 7.2 4.0 18.9 Non-Farm Sectors Quarrying 0.0 0.4 0.6 0.0 Household Industry 0.3 8.1 1.1 0.9 Construction 0.3 0.9 0.0 0.9 Trade 0.0 0.9 1.1 1.9 Govt. job 0.8 1.7 0.0 0.5 Private job 0.3 1.3 0.0 0.9 Other Activities 1.4 8.5 2.3 5.7 Migration 25.6 13.2 5.7 1.4

Note : “Other Activities” includes a variety of miscellaneous activities in the non-farm sector. Source: Aajeevika Household Survey, 2002.

64 AAJEEVIKA - LIVELIHOODS IN RAJASTHAN Table 2 : Changes in the Occupation Profile of Male Workers over the Last Decade (proportion of workforce)

Tribal South Semi-Arid North Central Desert West Canal Irrigated East 2002 1991 2002 1991 2002 1991 2002 1991 Agriculture and Allied Sectors Cultivators 45 88 35 60 76 72 58 60 Animal Husbandry 2 1 7 7 10 4 5 3 Agriculture Labour 0 4 5 9 3 5 16 12 Non-Farm Sectors Quarrying 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 12 HHI 1 1 10 3 1 2 2 1 Construction 1 0 2 4 0 2 2 1 Trade 0 3 2 5 0 2 4 4 Other 4 3 17 13 3 14 11 7 Migration 48 22 8 3

Note : “Other Activities” includes a variety of miscellaneous activities in the non-farm sector. Source: Aajeevika Household Survey, 2002 and DCHs of 1991 Census for respective districts.

Table 3 : Important Sources of Household Income (proportion of total household income)

Tribal South Semi-Arid North Central Desert West Canal Irrigated East Agriculture 26.5 32.4 31.7 51.7 Animal Husbandry 13.5 17.8 16.7 13.7 Wage Labour 7.7 15.1 14.6 22.6 Household Industry 2.5 6.6 6.5 0.3 Other Income 8.1 13.3 18.2 10.8 Migration 41.7 12.6 12.4 0.8

Source : Aajeevika Household Survey, 2002.

Table 4 : Proportion of Poor Households across Regions

Tribal South Semi-Arid North Central Desert West Canal Irrigated East Share of Poor Households 22 9 21 26 Note : The poor in this case refer to the poorest strata in the areas surveyed, with incomes less than Rs.10,000 p.a. Source : Aajeevika household survey, 2002.

Statistical Annexures 65 Table 5: Important Sources of Household Income for Poor Rural Households (proportion of household income)

Tribal South Semi-Arid North Desert West Canal Irrigated Central East Agriculture 31.6 15.1 18.9 6.1 Animal Husbandry 26.8 7.0 0.0 18.1 Wage Labour 15.1 49.6 45.8 69.4 Household Industry 0.0 13.9 19.1 3.2 Other Income 14.1 14.4 13.4 3.2 Migration 12.4 0.0 5.3 0.0 Note : The poor in this case refer to the poorest strata in the areas surveyed, with incomes less than Rs.10,000 p.a. Source : Aajeevika Household Survey, 2002.

Table 6 : Extent of Irrigation across Regions

Agro-Climatic Percentage of Cultivated Land Zones under Irrigation Tribal south 38 Semi arid north central 38 Desert west 7 Canal irrigated east 88 Source: Aajeevika household survey, 2002.

Table 7 : Incidence of Leasing and Mortgage of Land across Regions

Lease Mortgage Taken in Given out Given out Taken in Tribal south N11104 Land (in ha) 2.6 0.2 7.0 6.6 Semi Arid North Central N201470 Land (in ha) 88.3 35.6 15.0 0.0 Desert West N3100 Land (in ha) 15.6 3.0 0.0 0.0 Canal Irrigated East N6640 Land (in ha) 51.5 57.5 9.7 0 Note: N = Number of lease and mortgage agreements recorded by the survey. Source: Aajeevika household survey, 2002.

66 AAJEEVIKA - LIVELIHOODS IN RAJASTHAN Table 8 : Share of Animal Husbandry in Household Incomes of Different Economic Classes (proportion of total household income)

All Rural poor Absolute poor (Annual hh income (Annual hh income

Source: Aajeevika household survey, 2002.

Table 9 : Migration across Regions

Tribal Semi Arid North Desert West South Central %age hhs migrating 64 35 16 %age income from migration 46 25 12.4 Average land holding (ha) 0.88 3.18 10.8 Average landholding of migrant hhs (ha) 0.85 3.23 7.6 Proportion of SC/ST families migrating (%) 67 43 18 Proportion of non SC/ST families migrating (%) 50 30 15 Average income of SC /ST hhs (Rs) 14432 33810 8960 Average income of non SC/ST hhs (Rs) 16873 13004 19800

Source: Aajeevika household survey, 2002.

Table 10 : Land Holding Size for Different Communities

Tribal Semi-Arid North Desert West Canal Irrigated East South central SC/ST 0.9 2.2 8.9 0.2 Intermediate Castes NA 2.7 8.0 1.4 Upper Castes 0.9 5.0 15.1 2.0

Statistical Annexures 67 Table 11 : Distribution of Irrigated Land Among Major Communities

Tribal South Semi-Arid North Central SC/ST 0.3 1.6 Intermediate Castes NA 1.7 Other Castes 0.6 2.7

Note : Figures for the irrigated areas and desert areas are not given. In irrigated areas, almost all land is irrigated and distribution will be the same as the previous table. In desert areas, proportion of irrigated areas is very low. However allotments in IGNP areas have benefited SC communities. Source: Aajeevika household survey, 2002.

Table 12 : Comparative Contribution of Different Sources to Household Incomes of Different Castes

Agriculture Animal Wage HHI Other Migration Husbandry Labor Sources Dhariawad ST/SC 27 11 8 1 8 46 Other 26 20 8 8 8 30 Dudu SC 8.7 7.4 10.9 11.0 6.0 56.1 Intermediate 9.9 8.0 7.1 11.0 52.0 12.0 Others 35.3 15.6 5.0 4.7 27.9 11.5 Pokhran SC/ST 30.5 7.4 22.6 12.1 16.7 10.7 Moslem 30.6 23.6 21.7 1.3 16.3 6.5 Others 37.8 23.8 4.2 2.5 10.7 21.1 Bundi SC 5 10 79 0 4 1 Intermediate 62 12 18 1 6 2 Others 59 16 10 0 15 0

Source: Aajeevika household survey, 2002.

Table 13 : Literacy Rates across Regions

Tribal South Semi arid Desert West Canal irrigated North central East Male 43 76 58 77 Female 17 44 23 35 Total 31 60 42 57 Source: Aajeevika household survey, 2002.

68 AAJEEVIKA - LIVELIHOODS IN RAJASTHAN Table 14 : Electricity Connections in Dhariyawad and Bundi

S. No Categories Dhariawad Bundi 1. Domestic Connection 5000 10447 2. Commercial Shops 1100 1058 3. Agriculture 600 1075 4. Waterworks 23 18 5. Small Industrial Connection 160 230 6. Medium Industrial Power Connection Nil 13 7. High tension Connection Nil 3 Note: Dhariawad data relates to 248 villages and Bundi data to 112 villages. Source: RSEB offices, Dhariyawad and Bundi, 2002.

Table 15 : Road Networks in Three Blocks Surveyed

Block Villages with road Metalled road Total Road Major road networks connectivity connectivity Length Dhariawad 343.66 kms 2 major district roads 7 through road 15 link roads Pokhran 177 86 560 kms Nachna – Pokhran – Falsund Pokhran – Kelawa – Devikot Taleda 381 kms National Highway 70 kms State Highway 40 kms District roads 5Village roads

Source: PWD offices in the blocks, 2002

Table 16 : Progress of SGSY in Two Aajeevika Study Blocks

Dhariyawad Taleda Groups formed 105 112 Grade 1 (eligible for revolving fund) 51 49 Given revolving fund 19 16 Grade 2 (eligible for loan) 15 NA Sent to bank 6NA Given loan last year 24 Progress 424 families sanctioned Rs. 115 lakhs loan

Source: Offices of PS

Statistical Annexures 69 Table 17 : Indicators of Material Well Being across Regions

Indicators Tribal South Semi-Arid North Central Desert West Canal Irrigated East Average household income 22621 30896 19381 23917 Proportion of Rural Poor1 48 23 31 48 Poverty gap 0.25 0.24 0.35 0.35

Note : 1The rural poor in this case are all those with income below Rs.20,000 p.a. Source: Aajeevika household survey, 2002.

70 AAJEEVIKA - LIVELIHOODS IN RAJASTHAN Selected Bibliography

ARAVALI (1999): “Rethinking Roles : Towards a Krishna, A. (2003): “Falling Into Poverty, Other Strategy for Empowering Women’s Eco- Side of Poverty Reduction”, Economic and Po- nomic Empowerment Initiatives under litical Weekly, February 8-14. IRDP, Lessons from DWCRA, A Study Com- Scoones I. (1998): “Sustainable Rural Livelihoods: missioned by UNFPA. A Framework For Analysis” IDS Working Gyanchandani D., Sharma R, and Narula, N. (1987): Paper No. 72, Sussex. “A Target Missed: An Evaluation of IRDP in Vyas,V.S. and Bhargava, P. (1999) : “Poverty Re- Northern and Eastern Rajasthan”, IDS, duction in Developing Countries”, Rawat Jaipur. Publications, Jaipur and New Delhi.

Government Publications Used District Census Handbooks, 1991 for Jaipur, Provisional Population Totals, Rajasthan, Paper 3 Udaipur, Bundi, and Jaisalmer. of 2001 District Statistical Handbooks, 2001 for Jaipur, State Profile, 1991, India, Census of India Udaipur, Bundi, and Jaisalmer

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