Form and Function in Two Traditional Markets of the Middle East: Souq Mutrah and Souq Waqif

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Article Form and Function in Two Traditional Markets of the Middle East: Souq Mutrah and Souq Waqif

Mark David Major * and Heba O. Tannous Department of Architecture and Urban Planning, College of Engineering, Qatar University, Doha 2713, Qatar; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +974-3136-0842

Received: 7 July 2020; Accepted: 24 July 2020; Published: 2 September 2020

Abstract: This paper presents some of the findings of a study comparing the form and function of two traditional markets on the Arabian Peninsula: Souq Mutrah in Muscat, Oman, and Souq Waqif in Doha, Qatar. Globalization and rapid urbanization characterize both Doha and Muscat, which share similar historical origins as coastal settlements despite stark differences in topography; Oman is mountainous, whereas Qatar is flat. We investigate the urban morphology, land use and function of the two souqs using several representational techniques typical of morphological research, including space syntax analysis. The purpose is to develop a deeper understanding of (1) the evolution of space and form in these marketplaces over time, and (2) the possible implications for their functioning as urban places. The analysis demonstrates the critical importance of the contextual relations at the macro- and micro-scale of the urban environment for understanding the complex nature of these souqs as places today, helping to deepen our knowledge about traditional markets in the Middle East.

Keywords: land use; markets; morphology; topography; urban studies

1. Introduction The economic viability and social sustainability of traditional marketplaces or ‘souqs’ is a hot-button issue in cities undergoing globalization and rapid urbanization in the Arabian/Persian Gulf and broader Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. MENA is an acronym lacking standard deﬁnition. Generally, it refers to the vast region stretching east-to-west from Iran to morocco and roughly synonymous with the Arab World. The following is a list of commonly-included countries: Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Palestine, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunisia, the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Yemen. Diﬀerent organizations sometimes include Turkey, Cyprus, Northern Cyprus, Sudan, Mauritania, Somalia and Chad as part of MENA as well. The loss of traditional urban fabric to contemporary development in many of the cities in these countries ties together issues of urban morphogenesis and the socio-economic sustainability of souqs. Space syntax theory and methods seem well-suited to objectively investigate the connection between urban morphology, evolution and the performance of these traditional marketplaces in the past, present and future. We utilize space syntax modeling techniques in this paper to contextualize two traditional souqs within their metropolitan region to describe the spatial processes at work in the urban street network. Such an approach can help us to tailor potential interventions based on the objective parameters of network science, making a sensitive link between the morphological evolution of traditional marketplaces in cities and their long-term economic sustainability as urban places. In human history, marketplaces have played a critical role in the economic, political and social evolution of many settlements, from the agora and forum of the Ancient Greco-Roman World to Middle Eastern souqs and medieval European bastide towns to contemporary strip and

Sustainability 2020, 12, 7154; doi:10.3390/su12177154 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability Sustainability 2020,, 12,, 7154x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 19 21

Middle Eastern souqs and Medieval European bastide towns to contemporary strip and shopping shoppingmalls. Marketplaces malls. marketplaces often serve often as a focal serve point as a focalin the point physical in the and physical spatial andstructure spatial of structuresettlements of settlementsaround the world, around including the world, the including Arabian thePeninsula. Arabian The Peninsula. Arabian ThePeninsula Arabian consists Peninsula of six consists countries of sixforming countries the Gulf forming Cooperation the Gulf Council Cooperation (GCC)—Bahra Council (GCC)—Bahrain,in, Kuwait, Oman, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Oman, Arabia Qatar, and Saudi the 2 ArabiaUnited andArab the Emirates United Arab(UAE)—encompassing Emirates (UAE)—encompassing about 3.2 million about square 3.2 million kilometers square (km kilometers2) (Figure (km 1).) (FigureThe Levant1). The and Levant Arabian/Persian and Arabian Gulf/Persian define the Gulf peninsula deﬁne the to peninsulathe north and to the northeast, north and respectively. northeast, respectively.The Levant refers The Levant to a large refers area to in a largethe Eastern area in Mediterranean, the Eastern mediterranean, primarily in primarily Western inAsia Western associated Asia associatedwith the Ancient with the Near Ancient East, Nearconsisting East, of consisting Cyprus, ofJordan, Cyprus, Lebanon, Jordan, Palestine Lebanon, and Palestine Syria today. and Syria The today.Indian TheOcean Indian borders Ocean the borderspeninsula the to peninsula the south to and the the south Red and Sea the to Redthe west. Sea to Diverse the west. geography Diverse geographycharacterizes characterizes the Arabian the Peninsula, Arabian Peninsula, ranging from ranging a vast from central a vast plateau central plateauto the stony to the desert stony desertin the innorth, the north,dunes dunesto the toeast the and east coastlands and coastlands that are that resplendent are resplendent with withcoral coralreefs reefsin the in Red the RedSea and Sea andmountains mountains in Oman in Oman and andYemen Yemen to the to southeast. the southeast.

Figure 1. MapMap showing showing the the Gulf Gulf Cooperation Cooperation Council (GCC) countries in black, with Qatar and Oman highlighted in red. inin Arabic-speakingArabic-speaking countriescountries datedate backback toto at least the 6th (”(” ﺳﻮقTraditional marketplaces (souq “ñ Century BCEBCE [[1].1]. Generally,Generally, souqs souqs are are publicly-accessible publicly-accessible pedestrian pedestrian markets markets with with arcades, arcades, plazas plazas and numerousand numerous shops shops where where people people regularly regularly gather gather to purchase to purchase and sell and goods, sell goods, socialize socialize and walk. and walk. Some areSome street-oriented are street-oriented retail areas. retail Othersareas. Others are covered, are covered, outdoor outdoor or indoor. or Someindoor. are Some permanent, are permanent, whereas otherswhereas are others temporary. are temporary. There is noThere universally is no universally agreed definition. agreed definition. Initially located located outside outside city city walls, walls, souqs souqs shifted shifted to tocity city centers centers as asurban urban populations populations grew. grew. In InIslamic Islamic countries, countries, the theFriday Friday mosque mosque usually usually forms forms the heart the heart of the of settlement, the settlement, with withan adjacent an adjacent souq souqserving serving as an as important an important facility facility to tosupport support peop people’sle’s daily daily activities. activities. Friday Friday prayer prayer has has great significance.significance. The Qur’an invokes invokes the the importance importance of of Friday as a sacred day for worship when people gather and pray together in the main mosque. The The term term souqsouq possessespossesses many alternatives in different different parts of the world, including socco (a(a corrupted corrupted Spanish Spanish term) term) in in northern northern Morocco morocco and and bazaarbazaar inin Iran. Iran. Words inin thethe ArabicArabic languagelanguage tendtend toto be more expansiveexpansive in meaning, but we attempt to explain these terms in English. The The paper paper tends to use the Arabic word, souq. The The word word bazaarbazaar alsoalso tends tends to identify identify areas of a souq selling specialized goods, such as thethe ‘spice bazaar’ and ‘textile bazaar’ in the Old City of Jerusalem. However, However, locals often use the word word souq similarly, similarly, so there is a souq within a souq, i.e., i.e., the Gold Souq. The traditionaltraditional marketmarket of of Souq Souq Waqif Waqif emerged emerged near near a dry a dry river river bed bed known known as Wadi as Wadi musheireb Musheirebearly inearly the in founding the founding of Doha, of Doha, Qatar, Qatar, in the in 1820s the 1820s [2]. There [2]. There is evidence is evidence of communal of communal activity activity in the in area the aroundarea around Muscat, Muscat, Oman Oman dating dating to the to 6th the millennium 6th Millennium BCE, andBCE, Greek and Greek geographer geographer Ptolemy Ptolemy refers refers to the suitabilityto the suitability of Muscat of Muscat as a port as asa port early as as early the 1st as Centurythe 1st Century CE, calling CE, itcallingCryptus it PortusCryptus(‘the Portus Hidden (‘the Hidden Port’) [3]. Souq Mutrah in old Muscat dates to the early-to-mid 19th century, when Said bin Sustainability 2020, 12, 7154 3 of 21

Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 19 Port’) [3]. Souq Mutrah in Old Muscat dates to the early-to-mid 19th century, when Said bin Sultan re-establishedSultan re-established the naval the supremacynaval supremacy of Muscat of Muscat over the over Arabian the Arabian Gulf in Gulf an alliance in an alliance with the with United the StatesUnited [ 4States]. Said [4]. bin Said Sultan bin wasSultan the was last the ruler last of ruler the Omani of the EmpireOmani Empire from 1806–1856. from 1806–1856. Both souqs Both possess souqs apossess maze-like a maze-like series of series (mostly of pedestrian)(mostly pedestrian) pathways pathways leading in leading and out in of and the out area. of Theythe area. sell aThey variety sell of a goodsvariety and of goods services and and services attract and many attract diﬀerent many types different of users types today of users (Figure today2). (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Interior and aerial views of the (top) (top) Souq Mutrah in Muscat and (bottom) (bottom) Souq Waqif in Doha [[5].5].

Many people left the old city centers during the initial stages stages of of globalization, globalization, rapid urbanization and economic economic development development of of the the cities cities in the in theArab Arabianian Peninsula. Peninsula. It led to It leddeterioration to deterioration and neglect and neglectin many in traditional many traditional marketplaces marketplaces despite renewed despite renewedinterest in interest the inherent in the value inherent of public value ofspaces public in spacesgeneral inand general heritage and preservation heritage preservation of traditional of areas traditional in Arab areas cities in in Arab particular cities in[5–7]. particular Historically, [5–7]. Historically,the local economics the local of supply economics and demand of supply for andselling demand produce for goods selling drove produce these traditional goods drove markets. these traditionalThe effects markets.of globalization, The effects international of globalization, supply international chains, market supply demand chains, and market the evolution demand of and socio- the evolutioncultural characteristics of socio-cultural in Middle characteristics Eastern incities Middle contributed Eastern to cities a transformation contributed to of a transformationtraditional souqs. of traditionalMany continue souqs. to many thrive continue by embracing to thrive change, by embracing and new change, uses such and as new restaurants, uses such ascafés restaurants, and souvenir cafés andshops souvenir catering shops to international catering to internationaltourism. Others tourism. appear Others diminished. appear diminished.The spaces within The spaces souqs within often souqsfacilitate often a need facilitate for economic a need for exchanges, economic social exchanges, interactions social and interactions unplanned and encounters unplanned in encounterscommunal inlife communal among a diverse life among range a diverse of users. range Such of places users. can Such generate places cancivic generate value in civic support value of in community support of communitycohesion and cohesion enhance and the enhancequality of the urban quality space of urbanin promoting space in sustainable promoting cities sustainable [6]. cities [6]. The complexcomplex rolerole thatthat souqs souqs appear appear to to play play as as physical physical and and cultural cultural mechanisms mechanisms in everydayin everyday life oflife the of the urban urban environment environment is ais worthy a worthy subject subject of of investigation. investigation. This This paper paper conductsconducts morphologicalmorphological analysis toto understandunderstand better better how how Souq Souq Mutrah Mutrah in Muscatin Muscat and and Souq Souq Waqif Waqif in Doha in respondedDoha responded as spatial as objectsspatial toobjects the realization to the realization and transformation and transformation of a multitude of a multitude of factors of during factors rapid during urban rapid expansion urban overexpansion time. over At its time. heart, At the its fundamental heart, the fundamental question of thisquestion research of is:this what research are the is: morphologicalwhat are the characteristicsmorphological ofcharacteristics the two souqs, of the with two a subsetsouqs, questionwith a subset being: question how might being: they how be might alike they or di beff erentalike fromor different each other? from Theeach scope other? of The this scope research of isthis multidisciplinary, research is multidisciplinary, involving aspects involving of urban aspects studies, of architecture,urban studies, history architecture, and other history integrated and other social integrated sciences, social but sciences, is also specific but is also to issues specific of theto issues built environment,of the built environment, markets and markets urbanism and inurbanism the MENA in the region. MENA The region. goal isThe to understandgoal is to understand both souqs both as urbansouqs placesas urban beyond places mere beyond differences mere differences of style, how of style, these marketshow these fit markets and operate fit and within operate their within urban their urban context, and attempt to objectively describe these markets as urban places in the history, function and evolution of Muscat and Doha, respectively. To answer these questions, we summarize the methodology of the study and its limitations. We then briefly review the literature about souqs in general, urbanism in the Gulf Region—specifically Sustainability 2020, 12, 7154 4 of 21 context, and attempt to objectively describe these markets as urban places in the history, function and evolution of Muscat and Doha, respectively. To answer these questions, we summarize the methodology of the study and its limitations. We then briefly review the literature about souqs in general, urbanism in the Gulf Region—specifically with regards to Muscat and Doha—and the historical background and evolution of Souq Mutrah and Souq Waqif as urban places. We summarize some of the findings of the research into these two souqs. Finally, the paper concludes by discussing the implications for future research and design interventions in the traditional urban fabric of Middle Eastern cities.

2. Research Methodology and Limitations The research focus of this study is the urban morphology of the two souqs within their immediate and metropolitan urban context. Urban morphology is the study of form in cities, and the components of the urban tissue, such as streets, squares and other public spaces, that give shape to the spatial network. morphological research tends to focus on the formation and transformation of physical cities over time, the spatial pattern of street networks at different scales, and other physical characteristics that might inform appropriate design interventions in the promotion of sustainable urban development [8]. Such studies seek to understand the shape, form, arrangement, spatial structure and character of settlements by identifying the pattern of their components and the process of their development. This study analyzes the urban morphology of Doha and Muscat by utilizing several cartographic sources indicating building footprints and street layout, including historical maps where available. The methodology of the study aims to identify the key concepts and themes useful for understanding these souqs, the nature of the users, and how the souqs currently operate within their immediate context and metropolitan region. We take a generalist, interdisciplinary approach to the literature to summarize the historical evolution of souqs, and their nature as physical entities and social experiences of significance in the life of the city. The study includes qualitative descriptions of historic (where available) and contemporary materials such as maps and photographs to help pull together the story of Souq Mutrah and Souq Waqif. Time and resources limited the scope of the research. Other restrictions included a lack of documented resources and map inaccuracies. Researchers made site visits to Souq Mutrah in march 2019 and Souq Waqif in march, June and September 2019 for data collection, observations and mapping verification to compensate for these limitations. We had to utilize multiple methods of qualitative observation within a short time to compare the two souqs under similar circumstances. The researchers conducted extensive space syntax modeling of the souqs within their metropolitan surroundings at various scales, but only briefly summarize the most relevant findings of this analysis with reference to a previous paper [9]. The purpose is to describe the spatial processes at work in both cities using space syntax theory and demonstrate the fundamental relationship to their morphological evolution and long-term sustainability as urban places. Space syntax proves useful for a more in-depth understanding of the morphological differences between the souqs and their cities in helping to address a gap in our knowledge about Arabian cities. The study makes extensive use of figure-ground representations to compare, contrast and analyze the urban form, space, pattern, scale and edge definitions of the souqs using the poche technique where space is black and blocks/buildings are white. We created these figure-ground representations based on available maps and satellite imagery [10–16].

3. General Background about Souqs and Gulf Urbanism According to scholars, a multifunctional core of religious, educational and civic facilities, souqs, and single-story courtyard houses tends to characterize the oldest Islamic settlements. Components of this multifunctional core interconnected via narrow streets and passageways. The grand mosque complex formed the center. markets surrounded the complex, often immediately adjacent to its entry gates. Entry to the mosque required passing through the souq [17]. In The Image of the City, Sustainability 2020, 12, 7154 5 of 21

Lynch describes Islamic settlements as ‘inward cities’ because they often seem closed and private [18]. The street layout of such settlements seems to consist of a few main streets, many smaller local routes leading to narrow, blind alleys providing access to the intensely-private entrances of individual Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 19 dwelling units. Researchers often use the typological descriptions of public, semi-public, semi-private and private,private, derivedderived from from Alexander Alexander et al.,et al., to characterize to characterize the labyrinthine-like the labyrinthine-like street patternstreet pattern of Islamic of settlementsIslamic settlements [19] (Figure [19]3 (Figure). 3).

Figure 3. Aerial historical photographs of ( left) Old Muscat showing the Mu Mutrahtrah area circa 1900, and (right) Old Doha showing Souq Waqif inin thethe 1940s.1940s. The oldestoldest segment of the historic spine in Souq Waqif isis discerniblediscernible duedue toto thethe largerlarger urbanurban blocksblocks onon thethe leftleft sideside ofof thethe imageimage [[20,21].20,21].

However, Major Major et et al. al. argue argue using using space space syntax syntax that thatthe spatial the spatial and social and social logic logicof such of street such streetnetworks networks is very issophisticated, very sophisticated, which they which describe they as describe hierarchal as hierarchalseparation separationby linear integration by linear integration[22]. They argue [22]. that They such argue spatial that structures such spatial emerge structures naturally—based emerge naturally—based on Hillier’s laws on of Hillier’s spatial lawsemergence—from of spatial emergence—from the restricted random the restricted aggregation random of aggregation dwelling units of dwelling following units simple following rules, simplewhich rules,were first which described were first by described Hillier and by HillierHanson and about Hanson European about Europeansettlements settlements [23,24]. Major [23,24 et]. al. Major suggest et al. suggestthat this thatrepresents this represents a near-univers a near-universalal plan model plan in many model older in manysettlem olderents of settlements the world, of especially the world, in especiallythe Ancient in theNear Ancient East, Near more East, or moreless coinciding or less coinciding with withthe modern the modern MENA MENA region region [22]. [22 ].It It clearly clearly distinguishes between the center, edge and interstitialinterstitial streets in settlement form without requiring top-down planningplanning regulation regulation or or maximizing maximizing disconnections, disconnections, as in as American in American suburban suburban models. models. Islamic societiesIslamic societies merely adoptmerely two adopt additional two additional local rules local during rules thisduring restricted this restricted random random aggregation aggregation process, governingprocess, governing the location the of location dwelling of entrancesdwelling entr andances windows and overlookingwindows overlooking yards, which yards, gives which rise to gives their distinctiverise to their pattern distinctive as urban pattern places as urban over timeplaces [22 over,25]. time [22,25]. As traditional marketplaces in the Gulf Region, Souq Mutrah and Souq Waqif share several similarities. In the the same same way, way, Muscat and Doha shar sharee similarities as coastal coastal settlements settlements based initially around the pearling (the practice of diving for pearls) and fishingfishing industries, and later globalization and rapidrapid urbanization. urbanization. Both Both countries countries also also have have short short cool, drycool, winters dry winters and long and hot, long humid hot, summers, humid withsummers, average with temperatures average temperatures varying from varying 12 ◦C infrom January 12 °C to in 50 January◦C in July. to 50 However, °C in July. the However, evolutionary the transformationevolutionary transformation of Doha and Muscat of Doha as urbanand Muscat objects as di ffurbanered in objects significant differed ways in over significant time. Nonetheless, ways over bothtime. souqsNonetheless, played a fundamentalboth souqs played role in thea historicalfundamental development role in the and historical contemporary development nature of bothand citiescontemporary as distinctive nature socio-economic of both cities as and distinct culturalive entities socio-economic [25]. and cultural entities [25]. Like Dubai in the UAE and Riyadh in Saudi Arabia (both growing 15–20 times over in population fromfrom 1965–1995), 1965–1995), Muscat Muscat and Dohaand experiencedDoha experienced significant significant population growth,population demographic growth, changes,demographic infrastructure changes, developmentinfrastructure and development widespread and urban widespread expansion urban over theexpansion last half-century over the [last25]. Thehalf-century newly-formed [25]. The nation-state, newly-formed land speculation, nation-state and, land political speculation, and economic and competitionpolitical and for economic regional leadershipcompetition were for influentialregional leadership variables in were shaping influent globalizationial variables and rapidin shaping urbanization globalization in the region and [rapid7,26]. Large-scaleurbanization urbanization in the region is [7,26]. a relatively Large-scale recent urbani phenomenonzation is ona relatively the Arabian recent Peninsula phenomenon compared on the to theArabian rest of Peninsula the MENA compared region and to the worldrest of inthe general. MENA However, region and there the is world a long in record general. of settlements However, onthere the is Arabiana long record Peninsula, of settlements perhaps on dating the Arabian at least Peninsula, 5000 years perhaps ago, especiallydating at least along 5000 the years coast ago, of theespecially Arabian along/Persian the coast Gulf, of but the atArabian/Persian a smaller scale Gulf, than but in at the a smaller Ancient scale Near than East in [the9]. Ancient In the 1950s, Near East [9]. In the 1950s, the northeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula remained mostly barren wilderness. However, an entirely different landscape emerged over the last fifty years, mainly focused around capital cities. Cities in the region experienced three distinctive phases of urban growth during the Modern Era, beginning with the pre-oil period, then the discovery of oil and rapid growth, and the current post-oil transition to economic diversity underway in many Arabian cities [7,25] (Figure 4). Sustainability 2020, 12, 7154 6 of 21 the northeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula remained mostly barren wilderness. However, an entirely different landscape emerged over the last fifty years, mainly focused around capital cities. Cities in the region experienced three distinctive phases of urban growth during the modern Era, beginning with the pre-oil period, then the discovery of oil and rapid growth, and the current post-oil transitionSustainability to 2020 economic, 12, x FOR diversity PEER REVIEW underway in many Arabian cities [7,25] (Figure4). 6 of 19

FigureFigure 4.4. Representative sketches of the urban form in the (a)) pre-oilpre-oil settlementsettlement (three(three timestimes thethe scalescale relativerelative toto thethe otherother sketches), ((b)) oil city, andand ((cc)) post-oil metropolis ofof the Arabian Peninsula. Source: DrawingDrawing byby HebaHeba O.O. TannousTannous afterafter SalamaSalama andand WiedmannWiedmann [ 7[7,22].,22].

EnvironmentalEnvironmental circumstances, local construction materials such as mud, rock, coralcoral andand palmpalm fronds,fronds, andand thethe scarcityscarcity ofof waterwater tendtend toto definedefine thethe pre-oil settlements. Some located near to an oasis. ForFor others,others,wadis wadisor or valleys valleys provided provided seasonal seasonal water—originating water—originating in highlands in highlands due to annualdue to flooding annual forflooding settlements for settlements such as Muscat—or such as Muscat—or else they evolved else they near evolved to transitory near to transitory wells into thewells aquifer into the providing aquifer freshwaterproviding freshwater access, as in access, Doha. as The in FridayDoha. The mosque Friday usually mosque served usually as a served focal point as a offocal the point settlements of the forsettlements communal for events. communal There events. would There be an adjacentwould be souq, an adjacent often extending souq, often linearly, extending and nearby linearly, private, and residentialnearby private, areas residential with one-story areas dwellings. with one-story dwellings. TheThe oiloil citycity ledled toto economiceconomic prosperity.prosperity. ThereThere waswas aa dramaticdramatic growthgrowth inin thethe scalescale ofof settlementssettlements duedue toto peripheralperipheral housing housing developments, developments, which which led led to to an an outflux outflux of residentsof residents abandoning abandoning the oldthe cityold centers.city centers. New New high-rise high-rise business business districts districts emerged, emer andged, large-scale and large-scale industrial industrial areas toareas the southto the due south to predominantdue to predominant wind direction wind direction [7,25]. [7,25]. RisingRising concernsconcerns about about continuing continuing dependency dependency on oilon revenues,oil revenues and,their and potentialtheir potential decline decline arising fromarising increased from increased competition competition from Russia from and Russia the Unitedand the States, United drove States, investment drove investment plans for economicplans for diversificationeconomic diversification in the post-oil in cities the ofpost-oil the Arabian cities Peninsula of the [Arabian7,27]. Large-scale Peninsula infrastructure [7,27]. Large-scale projects (‘mega-projects’)infrastructure projects characterize (‘mega-projects’) much of this characteri transformation,ze much including of this transformation, land reclamation including projects in land the Arabianreclamation/Persian projects Gulf, in new the suburban Arabian/Persian districts, Gulf, andsatellite new suburban cities within districts, enlarged and metropolitansatellite cities regions. within Theenlarged MENA metropolitan region now regions. teems withThe MENA large-scale region urban now areas, teems operating with large-scale almost urban like city-states areas, operating within theiralmost respective like city-states countries. within They their have respective become desirable countries. locations They have for companies, become desirable academic locations institutions for andcompanies, tourists academic from around institutions the world. and The tourists initial fr productionom around andthe exportationworld. The initial of oil andproduction natural gas,and andexportation the subsequent of oil and transition natural togas, more and diversified the subseque economies,nt transition fed anto more explosion diversified of population economies, growth, fed prosperity,an explosion mega-projects, of population and growth, housing prosperity, development mega-projects, [28,29]. and housing development [28,29]. In 2019, the population of the MENA region was approximately 457 million people across about 8.9 million km2. It represents about 6% of the total population and land area in the world [30]. It possesses a significant amount of petroleum (~57%) and natural gas (~41%) reserves in the world, mostly concentrated in the Gulf States of the Arabian Peninsula [31]. These reserves make the MENA region a vital source of global stability. It also represents the source of rapid urbanization and globalization trends in the region over the last fifty years. How traditional marketplaces such as souqs might respond to such drastic changes to evolve and thrive in the new urbanscape has become critically important to both the governments and citizens of these rapidly modernizing Arabian societies. As we shall see, Souq Mutrah and Souq Waqif appear to provide different—but entirely Sustainability 2020, 12, 7154 7 of 21

In 2019, the population of the MENA region was approximately 457 million people across about 8.9 million km2. It represents about 6% of the total population and land area in the world [30]. It possesses a significant amount of petroleum (~57%) and natural gas (~41%) reserves in the world, mostly concentrated in the Gulf States of the Arabian Peninsula [31]. These reserves make the MENA region a vital source of global stability. It also represents the source of rapid urbanization and globalization trends in the region over the last fifty years. How traditional marketplaces such as souqs might respond to such drastic changes to evolve and thrive in the new urbanscape has become critically important to both the governments and citizens of these rapidly modernizing Arabian Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 19 societies. As we shall see, Souq Mutrah and Souq Waqif appear to provide different—but entirely appropriate—answers to this problem, which adapt to the challenges of the topography for urban growth in Muscat and Doha, respectively (Figure(Figure5 5).).

Figure 5. Bird’s eye views of the urban fabric in ( left) Old Muscat in Mutrah in 2005, and (right) Old Doha with Doha Bay and the modern skyscrapers of West BayBay inin thethe backgroundbackground inin 20102010 [[32,33].32,33].

4. About Souq Mutrah and Muscat Muscat Governorate is the capital city of the Sultanate of Oman. The governorate covers an area 2 of 3900 km2 and consists of six wilayat (Arabic for provinces or states; the singular is wilayah), which are As Seeb, Bosher, Al-Amerat, Mutrah, Muscat andand Qurayat. Muscat developed extensively within this capital region. Due to the mountainous, often inaccessible terrain surrounding the old city and port inin the the Mutrah Mutrahwilayah wilayah(basically, (basically, Old Muscat),Old Muscat), many individualmany individual settlements settlements developed developed separately beforeseparately their before eventual their incorporation eventual incorporatio into the expandedn into the cityexpanded of Muscat city[ of7,25 Muscat]. [7,25]. As TannousTannous and and Major Major argue, argue, these these topographical topographica conditionsl conditions had a profoundhad a profound eﬀect on effect the emergent on the spatialemergent structure spatial ofstructure metropolitan of Metropolitan Muscat today Muscat [9]. These today conditions [9]. These gave conditions rise to a predominantlygave rise to a linearpredominantly city growing linear east city to growing west along east the to west coastline, along principally the coastline, governed principally by Sultan governed Qaboos by Sultan Street andQaboos the MuscatStreet and Expressway. the Muscat At Expressway. the macro-scale At th ofe themacro-scale urban spatial of the network, urban spatial the metric network, distance the frommetric Old distance Muscat from to the Old metropolitan Muscat to edgethe metropolitan at its furthest edge extent at in its the furthest west is approximatelyextent in the west 45 km. is Toapproximately compensate 45 for km. this To linearity compensate at the macro-scale,for this linearity the localat the areas macro-scale, of Muscat the prioritize local areas compactness of Muscat 2 inprioritize street densitycompactness (65 streets in street/km densityin built (65 areas streets/km only, excluding2 in built areas mountains only, excluding and airport mountains lands) and,and byairport implication, lands) and, population by implication, density population at the micro-scale density at [ 9the,25 ].micro-scale It is about [9,25]. the sameIt is about street the density same asstreet manchester density as in Manchester the United in Kingdom, the United and Kingdo 86% ofm, thatand in86% Barcelona, of that in Spain Barcelona, [34]. Spain The resolution [34]. The ofresolution macro- of and macro- micro-scale and micro- demandsscale demands on the urban on the spatial urban network spatial network weaves weaves a polycentric a polycentric spatial structurespatial structure into the into metropolitan the metropolitan region centeredregion cent aroundered around the Old the Muscat Old Muscat (e.g., Mutrah), (e.g., Mutrah), Modern Modern Muscat, Al-AmaratMuscat, Al-Amarat and Mawaleh and Mawaleh areas [9] (Figureareas [9]6). (Figure The polycentric 6). The polycentric structure becomes structure apparent becomes in apparent the pattern in ofthe integration pattern of basedintegration on the based mean depthon the from mean the depth most from integrated the most street integrated (12.8)—a long,street central(12.8)—a segment long, ofcentral the Major segment east–west of the major Sultan east–west Qaboos Street—in Sultan Qab Muscat,oos Street—in excluding Muscat, all one-connected excluding all lines. one-connected Excluding one-connectedlines. Excluding lines one-connected provides a purer lines pictureprovides of a the purer distributive picture of network the distributive in the space network syntax in model the space of a citysyntax using model Major’s of a city methodology using Major’s [34,35 methodology]. [34,35]. The Mutrah wilayah possesses sixteen wadis (i.e., valleys/creeks) and two main falaj (i.e., ancient water channels providing irrigation for agriculture and domestic use). Mutrah is also known for several sur (‘walled communities’) like Sur Jibroo, Sur Ruwi, the Sur of Old Mutrah, and Sur Al- in Arabic) means a wall that could be a fence, rampart, enclosure, or ’ﺳﻮﺭ‘) Lawatiyah [11,25]. A sur fortification. It is a term referring to the walls of an enclosed community, similar to a bastide (‘fortified town’) in the Medieval European tradition or a presidio in the Spanish tradition during the colonization of the New World [36]. Sustainability 2020, 12, 7154 8 of 21 Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 19

Figure 6. PatternPattern of of integration integration (radius (radius == 13)13) in in the the space space syntax syntax model model of of Metropolitan metropolitan Muscat, Oman—based on mean depth from the most integrated street (12.8), i.e., a long, central segment of Sultan Qaboos Street in Modern Muscat—encompassingMuscat—encompassing 14,662 streets with withoutout one-connected lines, over an approximate area of 720 km22 in 2018.

TheSouq Mutrah Mutrahwilayah is the possessesoldest traditional sixteen wadismarketplace(i.e., valleys in Muscat./creeks) It and is adjacent two main to,falaj running(i.e., ancient along, waterand extending channels inward providing from irrigationthe Mutrah for Corniche agriculture on the and Gulf domestic of Oman. use). Corniche Mutrah is originally is also known a French for severalterm, butsur it is(‘walled common communities’) in the Gulf Region like today. Sur Jibroo, It means Sur ‘a Ruwi,road cut the into Sur the of edge Old of Mutrah, a cliff, especially and Sur Al-Lawatiyahone running along [11,25 a]. coast,’ A sur (‘ oftenPñ’ ininvolving Arabic) meansreclaimed a wall land that such could as be in a Muscat fence, rampart, and Doha. enclosure, [36]. The or fortification.central spine Itextends is a term from referring the main to the gate walls on the of anMutrah enclosed Corniche community, promenade similar along to a bastide the coast(‘fortified in the town’)north and in the splits medieval into two European directions tradition towards or a presidio gatewaysin the in Spanishthe south tradition (Figure during 7). Except the colonization for these ofgateways the New marking World [ 36the]. entry points, Souq Mutrah does not possess well-defined, two-dimensional boundariesSouq Mutrah in plan. is theIndividual oldest traditionalretail units marketplace tend to bleed in Muscat. into and It isblend adjacent withto, the running surrounding along, andresidential extending dwellings. inward For from this the study, Mutrah the research Cornicheers on defined the Gulf a boundary of Oman. based Corniche on where is originally residential a Frenchdwellings term, tend but become it is common more prevalent in the Gulf than Region retail un today.its. The It meansmost explicit ‘a road boundaries cut into the of edge Souq of Mutrah a cliff, especiallyare Mutrah one Corniche/Al-Bahri running along a coast,’Road to often the involvingnorth, Sur reclaimed Lawatiyah land to the such northwest, as in Muscat and and Mutrah Doha. High [36]. TheStreet central to the spine south extends and southeast. from the mainThe main gate on branch the Mutrah of the Cornichesouq spine, promenade Souq Al-Dhalam along the meaning coast in the‘darkness north andmarket’ splits in into Arabic, two is directions the residents’ towards name gateways for Souq in Mutrah. the south It (Figureappears7 ).to Except derive forfrom these the gatewaysdark and crowded marking thealleyways, entry points, which Souq required Mutrah hand-h doeseld not lamps possess to navigate well-defined, the market two-dimensional in the past boundaries[37]. in plan. Individual retail units tend to bleed into and blend with the surrounding residential dwellings. For this study, the researchers defined a boundary based on where residential dwellings tend become more prevalent than retail units. The most explicit boundaries of Souq Mutrah are Mutrah Corniche/Al-Bahri Road to the north, Sur Lawatiyah to the northwest, and Mutrah High Street to the south and southeast. The main branch of the souq spine, Souq Al-Dhalam meaning ‘darkness market’ in Arabic, is the residents’ name for Souq Mutrah. It appears to derive from the dark and crowded alleyways, which required hand-held lamps to navigate the market in the past [37].

Figure 7. The main spine of Souq Mutrah highlighted in red (left) on a 2019 satellite image, (center) an aerial view of the Mutrah area, and (right) in combination with the blocks (in black) defining the Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 19

Figure 6. Pattern of integration (radius = 13) in the space syntax model of Metropolitan Muscat, Oman—based on mean depth from the most integrated street (12.8), i.e., a long, central segment of Sultan Qaboos Street in Modern Muscat—encompassing 14,662 streets without one-connected lines, over an approximate area of 720 km2 in 2018.

Souq Mutrah is the oldest traditional marketplace in Muscat. It is adjacent to, running along, and extending inward from the Mutrah Corniche on the Gulf of Oman. Corniche is originally a French term, but it is common in the Gulf Region today. It means ‘a road cut into the edge of a cliff, especially one running along a coast,’ often involving reclaimed land such as in Muscat and Doha. [36]. The central spine extends from the main gate on the Mutrah Corniche promenade along the coast in the north and splits into two directions towards gateways in the south (Figure 7). Except for these gateways marking the entry points, Souq Mutrah does not possess well-defined, two-dimensional boundaries in plan. Individual retail units tend to bleed into and blend with the surrounding residential dwellings. For this study, the researchers defined a boundary based on where residential dwellings tend become more prevalent than retail units. The most explicit boundaries of Souq Mutrah are Mutrah Corniche/Al-Bahri Road to the north, Sur Lawatiyah to the northwest, and Mutrah High Street to the south and southeast. The main branch of the souq spine, Souq Al-Dhalam meaning ‘darkness market’ in Arabic, is the residents’ name for Souq Mutrah. It appears to derive from the Sustainabilitydark and crowded2020, 12, 7154 alleyways, which required hand-held lamps to navigate the market in the9 past of 21 [37].

Figure 7.7. The main spine of Souq Mutrah highlighted in red (left) on a 2019 satellite image, (center) an aerialaerial viewview ofof thethe MutrahMutrah area,area, andand ((rightright)) inin combinationcombination withwith thethe blocksblocks (in(in black)black) deﬁningdefining thethe boundary of the souq. Source: Drawings by Authors. Base satellite imagery courtesy of Google Earth/Maxar Technologies and middle image of Muscat Municipality [10,32].

The souq is opposite to the port of Mutrah, named Sultan Qaboos Port, which engaged in a great deal of trade during the age of the sailing ship due to its strategic location on the way to India and China. Today, it is primarily is a cruise terminal, attracting tourists from around the world, though the port also continues to provide support for the local ﬁshing industry. Souq Mutrah covers an approximate area of 50,000 square meters (m2), as measured using Google Earth tools. Mutrah was the commercial hub of Muscat from Portuguese occupation in the 16th century until the opening of the country during the reign of Sultan Qaboos from 1970–2020. Mutrah began to lose its importance as a commercial hub as the city expanded westward. Traditionally, Souq Mutrah consisted of two parts: one for retail goods and another for wholesale products such as food, textiles, household items and traditional Omani clothing. A diverse population of Arabs, Africans (primarily from East Africa), Pakistani, Indians and Persians characterized the area. However, Souq Mutrah evolved into a more localized souq catering more to residents in the immediate vicinity, as well as a growing expatriate community and tourists [25,37]. Today, Souq Mutrah still attracts local Omani customers, even as many locals shift their shopping habits to newer air-conditioned shopping malls in western Muscat. One of the most signiﬁcant changes has been the increase in Western tourists and expatriate (‘expat’ in slang) residents, and the gradual disappearance of Shiite (Lawatiya and Khoja) and Hindu (Banjans) traders from the souq. They still own many of the shops but tend to rent retail spaces to Indian and Pakistani expat residents [12,37,38].

5. About Souq Waqif and Doha The land in Qatar is generally flat along the coastline of the Arabian/Persian Gulf. It also tends to be extremely dry, with very few inlets. It was not always the case in the past along the Wadi musheireb inlet to the sea in Doha. The banks were frequently wet during the winter, which allowed merchants to sell goods while standing in the water. This curious characteristic gave rise to the name of Souq Waqif, which literally translates as ‘standing market’ (‘ ¯@ð ñ ’) [39]. Initially, the souq was a weekly market mounted by the local Bedouins to sell goods, fish and pearls to traders from southern Iran and other Gulf countries. Over time, Souq Waqif became a permanent market, selling goods from the Arabian Peninsula, India, Persia and East Africa. Shops aggregated and distributed linearly along a jetty perpendicular to the coast, forming what would become the historical spine of Souq Waqif. Residential quarters were adjacent to the northwest and southeast (refer back to Figure3, right). A cemetery, prayer ground outside of the Souq Waqif Mosque, and the Turkish fort Al-Kuwt (or Al Koot) south of the cemetery came to define the western and southern edges of the market. Eventually, retailers established Sustainability 2020, 12, 7154 10 of 21 specialized areas selling similar products such as the Gold Souq, Spice Souq, Pet Souq, Clothing Souq and others, which remain to this day [25,40]. Tannous and Major argue that the flat terrain in Qatar enabled the urban expansion of Doha to balance centrality and linearity at the macro-scale of the metropolitan region [9]. Doha grew in a relatively compact manner to the west, north, and south of Doha Bay; even somewhat to the east via land reclamation projects such as the Al Corniche, West Bay, The Pearl, Lusail City, Hamad International Airport and, to the extreme south, Hamad International Port. modern transportation planning helped to facilitate this compact nature of Doha through a successive series of ring roads, which gave shape to the distinctive superblock structure of the city today. The street density in metropolitan Doha is 36 streets/km2, excluding airport lands and large vacant tracts of land in the periphery. It is consistent with average street density in the city centers of 20 American cities and, specifically, street density in the city center of Baltimore, maryland [36]. The cumulative effect helps to maintain the shallowness of Old Doha to the expanding edges of the metropolitan region. It primarily occurs via the radial route sequence of Wadi msheireb and Salwa Road, which is the longest, straightest street from Old Doha to the southwestern edge of the metropolitan region. Souq Waqif and msheireb Downtown Doha border the easternmost segment of this radial route sequence, which also connects to every ring road in the city, including the most important, i.e., D-Ring/Doha Expressway. Because of this, the metric distance from Old Doha to the furthest extents of the metropolitan region to the north, west and south is only 17 km. This distance is nearly three times less than Old Muscat to the western edge of the Muscat metropolitan region [9]. This development pattern gave rise to a distinctive ortho-radial grid in the emergent spatial structure of metropolitan Doha, which is strongly consistent for the space syntax measures of integration and choice at the macro- and micro-scale [9,22] (Figure8). The configurational comparison of metropolitan Muscat and Doha in this research initially controlled for axial size, i.e., the number of streets represented as axial lines, based on Major’s previous methodology [34,35]. The axial size was 21,376 lines in Muscat and 22,478 lines in Doha, representing a marginal difference (<6%). The metric area of both metropolitan areas is also broadly similar: 720 km2 for Muscat and 650 km2 for Doha (<11% difference). However, more than 50% of the land area in Muscat is unbuilt mountainous terrain [22]. Removing all one-connected lines from the space syntax model leads to stark differences in axial size. Nearly 26% of all streets in Muscat are one-connected lines or cul-de-sac sequences, primarily due to the mountainous terrain. Only 8% of all axial lines in Doha are one-connected lines or cul-de-sac sequences, which is comparable to European city centers [34]. A fair comparison of synergy includes one-connected lines and cul-de-sac sequences to maintain comparability in axial size and metric area. Synergy is a second-order measure in space syntax based on the r2 relationship between global and local integration, i.e., where you are locally in the urban spatial network relates to where you are globally in that network. Because of the development patterns arising from differing topographical conditions in these cities, synergy is over three times greater in metropolitan Doha (R2 = 0.388) compared to metropolitan Muscat (R2 = 0.115). In the past, Souq Waqifused to bleed into and blend with surrounding residential neighborhoods (as shown in Figure3), similar to Souq Mutrah. Today, due to modern transportation planning, Major urban streets define the perimeter of the Souq Waqif: Abdullah Bin Jasim Street/Souq Waqif Park to the north; Ali Bin Abdallah Street to the south; Banks Street, constructed in the 1980s, to the east; and Al-Asmakh Street/Msheireb Downtown Doha to the west (Figure9). The Amiri Diwan complex, the royal palace of the Qatari Emir, sits to the immediate northwest of the souq. Ali Bin Abdullah Street is a continuation of the Salwa Road/Wadi msheireb radial route to the southwestern periphery of the metropolitan region. It eventually reaches the village of Abu Samra in the southwest corner of Qatar as one of only two roads providing overland access to Saudi Arabia. A continuation of Al Rayyan Road directly connects into the geometric center of Souq Waqif. Al Rayyan Road is another significant radial route in Doha that transitions into Al Rayyan Al Jedeed Street six kilometers (km) further to the west, and Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 19

this radial route sequence, which also connects to every ring road in the city, including the most important, i.e., D-Ring/Doha Expressway. Because of this, the metric distance from Old Doha to the furthest extents of the metropolitan region to the north, west and south is only 17 km. This distance is nearly three times less than Old Muscat to the western edge of the Muscat metropolitan region [9]. This development pattern gave rise to a distinctive ortho-radial grid in the emergent spatial structure of Metropolitan Doha, which is strongly consistent for the space syntax measures of integration and choice at the macro- and micro-scale [9,22] (Figure 8). The configurational comparison of Metropolitan Muscat and Doha in this research initially controlled for axial size, i.e., the number of streets represented as axial lines, based on Major’s previous methodology [34,35]. The axial size was 21,376 lines in Muscat and 22,478 lines in Doha, representing a marginal difference (<6%). The metric area of both metropolitan areas is also broadly similar: 720 km2 for Muscat and 650 km2 for SustainabilityDoha (<11%2020 ,difference).12, 7154 However, more than 50% of the land area in Muscat is unbuilt mountainous11 of 21 terrain [22]. Removing all one-connected lines from the space syntax model leads to stark differences in axial size. Nearly 26% of all streets in Muscat are one-connected lines or cul-de-sac sequences, it into the Durkan Highway 14 km away from the souq. The Durkan Highway connects ultimately primarily due to the mountainous terrain. Only 8% of all axial lines in Doha are one-connected lines across the Qatar Peninsula to the town of Durkan on the west coast. or cul-de-sac sequences, which is comparable to European city centers [34].

Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 19 on the r2 relationship between global and local integration, i.e., where you are locally in the urban spatial network relates to where you are globally in that network. Because of the development patterns arising from differing topographical conditions in these cities, synergy is over three times greater in Metropolitan Doha (R2 = 0.388) compared to Metropolitan Muscat (R2 = 0.115). In the past, Souq Waqif used to bleed into and blend with surrounding residential neighborhoods (as shown in Figure 3), similar to Souq Mutrah. Today, due to modern transportation planning, major urban streets define the perimeter of the Souq Waqif: Abdullah Bin Jasim Street/Souq Waqif Park to the north; Ali Bin Abdallah Street to the south; Banks Street, constructed in the 1980s, to the east; and Al-Asmakh Street/Msheireb Downtown Doha to the west (Figure 9). The Amiri Diwan complex, the royal palace of the Qatari Emir, sits to the immediate northwest of the souq. Ali Bin Abdullah Street is a continuation of the Salwa Road/Wadi Msheireb radial route to the southwestern periphery of the metropolitan region. It eventually reaches the village of Abu Samra in the southwest corner of Qatar as one of only two roads providing overland access to Saudi Arabia. A continuation of Al Rayyan Road directly connects into the geometric center of Souq Waqif. Al Rayyan Road is anotherFigureFigure significant 8. 8. Pattern radial of of integration route integration in Doha (radius (radius that = 6) transiti =in 6)the in spons theace intosyntax space Al model syntax Rayyan of model Metropolitan Al Jedeed of metropolitan Street Doha, sixQatar— kilometers Doha, (km) Qatar—basedfurtherbased onto meanthe on west, meandepth and depthfrom it the frominto most the integrated mostDurkan integrated stHighwayreet (6.4), street i.e.,14 (6.4), kmSalwa i.e.,away Road—encompassing Salwa from Road—encompassing the souq. 20,473The Durkan 2 Highway20,473streets connects streets without without ultimately one-connected one-connected across lines the ov lines erQatar an over approximate Penins an approximateula area to the of area650 town km of 650of in Durkan2018. km2 in 2018. on the west coast.

A fair comparison of synergy includes one-connected lines and cul-de-sac sequences to maintain comparability in axial size and metric area. Synergy is a second-order measure in space syntax based

Figure 9. TheThe area area of of Souq Souq Waqif Waqif highlighted/outlined highlighted/outlined in in red red ( leftleft)) on on a a 2019 2019 satellite satellite image, image, ( (centercenter)) an aerial view of the Old Doha area, and ( right) the main spine (in red) in combination with the blocks/streetsblocks/streets (in(in black) black) deﬁning defining the the boundary boundary of the of souq.the souq. Source: Source: Drawings Drawings by Authors. by Authors. Base satellite Base satelliteimagery imagery courtesy courtesy of Google of EarthGoogle/Maxar Earth/Maxar Technologies Technologies [13]. [13].

6. A Morphological Comparison: Findings and Discussion The urban fabric of Souq Mutrah and Souq Waqif today bear the hallmarks of their early development based on a process of the restricted random aggregation; the former more so than the latter [22,24,25,35] (Figure 10). Adaptation becomes necessary as settlements become larger to maintain a degree of accessibility to the ever-expanding edges of the settlement in resolving Hillier’s paradox of the principles of centrality and linearity in urban form [23,35]. Blocks tend to become more rectangular, and streets become broader/longer based on geometric principles. This process is more Sustainability 2020, 12, 7154 12 of 21

Souq Waqif was originally adjacent to the oldest port area on Doha Bay. The main port (now referred to the ‘Old Port’) shifted ~1.5 km to the east due to the construction of Al Corniche during the late 1950s/early 1960s. The main port of Doha moved to the extreme south of the Al Wakrah settlement with the opening of Hamad International Port in 2018. However, portions of the Old Port still operate with a cruise terminal and fishing/recreation boat slips. It also includes the museum of Islamic Art with a surrounding park. One block away, Abdullah Bin Jasim Street parallels Al Corniche and the coast to the north. The approximate total area of Souq Waqif within these well-defined boundaries is 195,000 m2. However, this includes two large open plazas to the west (consistent with the old cemetery) and northeast, which account for about 20% of the effective area. The net area of the actual marketplace itself is 150,000 m2, or nearly three times the size of Souq Mutrah in Muscat [25]. ± 6. A Morphological Comparison: Findings and Discussion The urban fabric of Souq Mutrah and Souq Waqif today bear the hallmarks of their early development based on a process of the restricted random aggregation; the former more so than the latter [22,24,25,35] (Figure 10). Adaptation becomes necessary as settlements become larger to maintain a degree of accessibility to the ever-expanding edges of the settlement in resolving Hillier’s paradox of the principles of centrality and linearity in urban form [23,35]. Blocks tend to become more rectangular, Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 19 and streets become broader/longer based on geometric principles. This process is more apparent in Oldapparent Doha in in Old the Doha surrounding in the surrounding areas of Souq areas Waqif, of Souq especially Waqif, the especially amount the of open amount space of aroundopen space the perimeteraround the of perimeter the souq of due the to souq road due widening, to road wide surfacening, parking surface to parking the west, to thethe Amiriwest, the Diwan Amiri complex Diwan andcomplex its surface and its parking surface lotsparking to the lots northwest, to the northwest, and the and Souq the Waqif Souq ParkWaqif/Al Park/Al Corniche Corniche to the north.to the Somethingnorth. Something similar alsosimilar occurred also occurred in the Mutrah in the area,Mutrah but onarea, a smaller but on scalea smaller in relative scale terms;in relative specifically, terms; onspecifically, Al Corniche on Al along Corniche the coast, along the the broader coast, the southern broader segment southern of segment Mutrah Highof Mutrah Street High and theStreet blocks and furtherthe blocks to the further east, southto the andeast, southeast. south and The southeast. amount ofThe open amount space of in open the figure-ground space in the representationfigure-ground ofrepresentation the Mutrah areaof the is Mutrah primarily area due is primarily to coastline, due Alto coastline, Corniche Al and Corniche the Gulf and of the Oman Gulf to of the Oman north, to andthe north, mountainous and mountainous terrain to theterrain southwest to the southwes and southeast,t and southeast, where watchtowers where watchtowers are visible, are i.e., visible, small circulari.e., small block circular forms. block forms.

Figure 10. Figure ground ground representation representation (space (space in in black, black, blocks/buildings blocks/buildings in in white) white) of of a 1 a km 1 km2 area2 area of ofthe the urban urban fabric fabric in in(left (left) the) the Mutrah Mutrah area area of of Muscat Muscat and and ( (rightright)) the the Old Old Doha Doha area including SouqSouq WaqifWaqif andand partpart ofof msheirebMsheireb DowntownDowntown Doha Doha in in 2018. 2018.

However, their early development remains most ap apparentparent along along the the main main spine spine of of both both souqs. souqs. Both spines consist consist of of long long pedestrian-only pedestrian-only ro routesutes connecting connecting via via open-e open-endednded angles angles (within (within 15° of 15 a◦ ofdirect a direct continuation), continuation), with withmost mostshorter shorter routes routes conne connectingcting to the tospine the at spine righ att- or right- near-right or near-right angles angles[25,41] [(Figure25,41] (Figure 11). Retaining 11). Retaining these morphological these morphological characteristics characteristics of the traditional of the traditional urban fabric, urban fabric,including including smaller smaller block sizes, block is sizes, a crucial is a crucial compon componentent for promoting for promoting walkability walkability in both in bothsouqs. souqs. The Theoverwhelming overwhelming majority majority of routes of routes in both in souqs both are souqs only are for only pedestrians. for pedestrians. A pedestrian A pedestrian shed showing shed everything reachable within 300 and 400 m (m) from the approximate geometric center of both souqs ably illustrates this point. (Figure 12). We selected pedestrian shed radii of 300 m and 400 m due to the hot climatic conditions on the Arabian Peninsula during much of the year. The industry-standard practice is radii of 400 m and 800 m, consistent with a range of ¼ and ½ mile or a 10 min walk. A 300 m and 400 m radius represents an unimpeded 3–5 min walk based on an average human walking speed of 1.4 m/second. Almost the entire Mutrah area is reachable within a 3–5 min walk. The areas outside of a 400 m distance are in the extreme northwest, where Al Bahri Road turns inland heading west, and the extreme southwest, where Mutrah High Street and At Towain Street diverge into parallel roads for about 300 m before converging together anew. Both Al Bahri Road and Mutrah High Street/At Towain Street head towards the broader Muscat region.

Figure 11. Illustration of the main spine composed of long lines connecting using open-ended angles with shorter lines connecting to the spine at right or near-right angles in (left) Souq Mutrah and (right) Souq Waqif. Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 19

apparent in Old Doha in the surrounding areas of Souq Waqif, especially the amount of open space around the perimeter of the souq due to road widening, surface parking to the west, the Amiri Diwan complex and its surface parking lots to the northwest, and the Souq Waqif Park/Al Corniche to the north. Something similar also occurred in the Mutrah area, but on a smaller scale in relative terms; specifically, on Al Corniche along the coast, the broader southern segment of Mutrah High Street and the blocks further to the east, south and southeast. The amount of open space in the figure-ground representation of the Mutrah area is primarily due to coastline, Al Corniche and the Gulf of Oman to the north, and mountainous terrain to the southwest and southeast, where watchtowers are visible, i.e., small circular block forms.

Figure 10. Figure ground representation (space in black, blocks/buildings in white) of a 1 km2 area of the urban fabric in (left) the Mutrah area of Muscat and (right) the Old Doha area including Souq Waqif and part of Msheireb Downtown Doha in 2018.

However, their early development remains most apparent along the main spine of both souqs. Both spines consist of long pedestrian-only routes connecting via open-ended angles (within 15° of a direct continuation), with most shorter routes connecting to the spine at right- or near-right angles Sustainability[25,41] (Figure2020, 12 ,11). 7154 Retaining these morphological characteristics of the traditional urban 13fabric, of 21 including smaller block sizes, is a crucial component for promoting walkability in both souqs. The overwhelming majority of routes in both souqs are only for pedestrians. A pedestrian shed showing showingeverything everything reachable reachable within within300 and 300 400 and m (m) 400 from m (m) the from approximate the approximate geometric geometric center center of both of souqs both souqsably ablyillustrates illustrates this point. this point. (Figure (Figure 12). 12We). Weselected selected pedestrian pedestrian shed shed radii radii of of300 300 m mand and 400 400 m mdue due to tothe the hot hot climatic climatic conditions conditions on on the the Arabian Arabian Peninsul Peninsulaa during much ofof thethe year.year. TheThe industry-standardindustry-standard 1 1 practicepractice is is radii radii of of 400 400 m m and and 800 800 m, m, consistent consistent with with a rangea range of of4 and¼ and2 mile ½ mile ora or 10 a min10 min walk. walk. A 300 A 300 m andm and 400 m400 radius m radius represents represents an unimpeded an unimpeded 3–5 min 3–5 walk min basedwalk based on an averageon an average human human walking walking speed ofspeed 1.4 m of/second. 1.4 m/second. Almost theAlmost entire the Mutrah entire areaMutrah is reachable area is reachable within a within 3–5 min a walk.3–5 min The walk. areas The outside areas ofoutside a 400 m of distancea 400 m distance are in the are extreme in the extreme northwest, northwest, where Al where Bahri Al Road Bahri turns Road inland turns inland heading heading west, andwest, the and extreme the southwest,extreme southwest, where Mutrah where High Mutrah Street Hi andgh AtStreet Towain and Street At Towain diverge Street into parallel diverge roads into forparallel about roads 300 m for before about converging 300 m before together converging anew. Bothtogether Al Bahri anew. Road Both and Al Bahri Mutrah Road High and Street Mutrah/At TowainHigh Street/At Street head Towain towards Street the head broader towards Muscat the region.broader Muscat region.

FigureFigure 11. 11.Illustration Illustration of of the the main main spine spine composed composed of of long long lines lines connecting connecting using using open-ended open-ended angles angles withwith shorter shorter lines lines connecting connecting to to the the spine spine at at right right or or near-right near-right angles angles in in (left (left) Souq) Souq Mutrah Mutrah and and (right (right) ) SustainabilitySouqSouq Waqif. 2020Waqif., 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 19

Figure 12. PedestrianPedestrian shed shed of ofa 3–5 a 3–5 min min walk walk from from the approximate the approximate geometric geometric center center of (left of) Souq (left) SouqMutrah Mutrah and (right and ()right Souq) SouqWaqif. Waqif.

In SouqSouq Waqif,Waqif, almost almost every every block block lies lies within within 300 300 m ofm theof the approximate approximate geometric geometric center center of the of area, the exceptarea, except for the for street the cornersstreet corners at the intersections at the intersecti of theons perimeter of the perimeter streets and streets building and frontagesbuilding frontages along Ali Binalong Abdallah Ali Bin StreetAbdallah to the Street south. to However,the south. these However, building these frontages building and frontages the street and corner the street intersections corner ofintersections Ali Bin Abdallah of Ali/Wadi Bin msheirebAbdallah/Wadi/Al-Asmakh Msheireb/Al-Asmakh Street to the southwest, Street Ali to Bin the Abdallah southwest,/Banks Ali Streets Bin toAbdallah/Banks the southeast, andStreets Banks to the Street southeast,/Abdullah and Bin Banks Jasim Street/Abdullah Street to the northeast Bin Jasim are Street easily to accessible the northeast from theare maineasily spineaccessible of the from souq. the A main large spine amount of ofthe open souq. space A large around amount the perimeterof open space of Souq around Waqif the is apparent.perimeter Almostof Souq allWaqif this spaceis apparent. involves Almost moving all andthis stationaryspace involves vehicular moving traﬃ andc, except stationary for Souq vehicular Waqif Parktraffic, to except the north for andSouq the Waqif public Park plazas to the to north the northeast and the andpublic immediate plazas to southwest the northeast (associated and immediate with the oldsouthwest cemetery) (associated of the geometric with the center.old cemetery) of the geometric center. The eeffectﬀect of of modern modern interventions interventions in Dohain Doha and and the tendencythe tendency towards towards a compact a compact density density in Muscat in leadsMuscat to leads a stark to contrasta stark contrast when comparing when comparing the amount, the amount, size and size shape and shape of all of all the of urban the urban blocks blocks and free-standingand free-standing buildings buildings accessible accessible within within 300 m 300 of them of geometric the geometric center center of both of souqs both souqs (Figure (Figure 13). There 13). areThere 314 are blocks 314 blocks or buildings or buildings accessible accessible within within this distance this distance from Souqfrom Mutrah,Souq Mutrah, with the with largest the largest block beingblock 82being m along 82 m its along most its extended most extended length. It length. includes It the includes blocks ofthe the blocks Al-Lawatiyah of the Al-Lawatiyah Sur (inaccessible Sur to(inaccessible non-residents), to non-residents), Mutrah Corniche Mutrah promenade Corniche onpromenade both sides on of both the sides street, of and the manystreet, blocksand many and blocks and buildings within the surrounding residential neighborhoods. In contrast, there are only 82 blocks or buildings accessible within this distance from Souq Waqif, with the largest block having a length of 90 m (+9.8%). This accessible distance includes portions of blocks in Msheireb Downtown Doha to the west, the open space of Souq Waqif Park to the north, and the entrances of the Gold Line Metro Station and Barahat Al-Jufairi Park to the southeast. It also covers one side of Al Corniche to the north but does not include the street corners where there are pedestrian crosswalks to navigate across high vehicular flows on this road. There are almost four times as many blocks and buildings accessible within 300 m of Souq Mutrah compared to Souq Waqif. It seems apparent that there are a large number of square- and square-ish-shaped blocks available in both areas within a short distance, again more so in Muscat than Doha. However, this stark difference is primarily attributable to larger block sizes. It is also the consequences of the emergent superblock pattern arising from modern planning interventions in Doha, the 2004–2008 Souq Waqif restoration project, and the recently- completed Msheireb Downtown Doha urban renewal project.

Figure 13. Rank ordering based on size—from largest to smallest—of all of the urban blocks and free- standing buildings accessible within a radius of 300 m from the geometric center of (top) Souq Mutrah in Muscat and (bottom) Souq Waqif in Doha, set to the same scale. Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 19

Figure 12. Pedestrian shed of a 3–5 min walk from the approximate geometric center of (left) Souq Mutrah and (right) Souq Waqif.

In Souq Waqif, almost every block lies within 300 m of the approximate geometric center of the area, except for the street corners at the intersections of the perimeter streets and building frontages along Ali Bin Abdallah Street to the south. However, these building frontages and the street corner intersections of Ali Bin Abdallah/Wadi Msheireb/Al-Asmakh Street to the southwest, Ali Bin Abdallah/Banks Streets to the southeast, and Banks Street/Abdullah Bin Jasim Street to the northeast are easily accessible from the main spine of the souq. A large amount of open space around the perimeter of Souq Waqif is apparent. Almost all this space involves moving and stationary vehicular traffic, except for Souq Waqif Park to the north and the public plazas to the northeast and immediate southwest (associated with the old cemetery) of the geometric center. The effect of modern interventions in Doha and the tendency towards a compact density in Muscat leads to a stark contrast when comparing the amount, size and shape of all of the urban blocks and free-standing buildings accessible within 300 m of the geometric center of both souqs (Figure 13). There are 314 blocks or buildings accessible within this distance from Souq Mutrah, with the largest Sustainability 2020, 12, 7154 14 of 21 block being 82 m along its most extended length. It includes the blocks of the Al-Lawatiyah Sur (inaccessible to non-residents), Mutrah Corniche promenade on both sides of the street, and many buildingsblocks and within buildings the surroundingwithin the surrounding residential neighborhoods.residential neighborhoods. In contrast, thereIn contrast, are only there 82 blocksare only or buildings82 blocks or accessible buildings within accessible this distancewithin this from distan Souqce Waqif,from Souq with Waqif, the largest with blockthe largest having block a length having of 90a length m (+9.8%). of 90 m This (+9.8%). accessible This distanceaccessible includes distance portions includes of portions blocks in of msheireb blocks in Downtown Msheireb DohaDowntown to the west,Doha theto the open west, space the of open Souq space Waqif of Park Souq to Waqif the north, Park andto the the north, entrances and the of the entrances Gold Line of the metro Gold Station Line andMetro Barahat Station Al-Jufairi and Barahat Park toAl-Jufairi the southeast. Park to It the also southe coversast. one It side also of covers Al Corniche one side to theof Al north Corniche but does to notthe includenorth but the does street not corners include where the street there corners are pedestrian where crosswalksthere are pedestrian to navigate crosswalks across high to vehicularnavigate ﬂowsacross on high this vehicular road. There flows are on almost this road. four timesThere as are many almost blocks four and times buildings as many accessible blocks and within buildings 300 m ofaccessible Souq Mutrah within compared 300 m of Souq to Souq Mutrah Waqif. compared It seems apparentto Souq Waqif. that there It seems are a apparent large number that there of square- are a andlarge square-ish-shaped number of square- blocks and square available-ish-shaped in both areas blocks within available a short in both distance, areas again within more a short so in distance, Muscat thanagain Doha. more so However, in Muscat this than stark Doha. diﬀerence However, is primarily this stark attributable difference tois largerprimarily block attributable sizes. It is to also larger the consequencesblock sizes. It of is the also emergent the consequences superblock patternof the emergent arising from superblock modern planning pattern interventionsarising from inmodern Doha, theplanning 2004–2008 interventions Souq Waqif in restorationDoha, the project,2004–2008 and Souq the recently-completed Waqif restoration msheirebproject, and Downtown the recently- Doha urbancompleted renewal Msheireb project. Downtown Doha urban renewal project.

Figure 13. RankRank ordering ordering based based on on size—from size—from largest largest to smallest—of to smallest—of all of all the of urban the urban blocks blocks and free- and free-standingstanding buildings buildings accessible accessible within withina radius a of radius 300 m offrom 300 the m geometric from the center geometric of (top) center Souq ofMutrah (top) Souqin Muscat Mutrah and in (bottom) Muscat andSouq ( bottomWaqif in) Souq Doha, Waqif set to in the Doha, same set scale. to the same scale.

Based on this, we could characterize the planning strategy for Souq Mutrah and the Mutrah area of Muscat in general terms as careful intervention along its perimeter, especially the northern edge associated with Mutrah Corniche/Al Bahri Road and the coastal port, and minimal intervention (or highly-localized interventions related to actions on individual dwelling units) within its interior. Muscat Municipality’s Souq Mutrah Development Plan, the Development of Souq Mutrah and Corniche Mutrah, and the Beautification of Mutrah projects in 2004–2005 reflect this incremental approach to the preservation of Souq Mutrah. They focused on drainage, electrical distribution, security improvements, beautification along Mutrah Corniche and the construction of gateways at the northern and southern ends of the central spine on the perimeter to help denote main entry points to the souq (Figure 14). In contrast, extensive intervention at its perimeter and in the surrounding urban context with more careful intervention within its interior appears to characterize the planning strategy for Souq Waqif in Doha. The 2004–2008 Souq Waqif Restoration project reflects this approach, despite involving the wholesale demolition of any buildings constructed after 1950. The reasons for and consequences of these differing planning strategies become apparent when we compare the accessibility catchment area of both souqs within their metropolitan region using space syntax. This analysis uses step-depth (e.g., changes of direction) in space syntax terms, based on the mean depth from the most integrated street as a common point of reference. For Muscat, this is 12.8, rounded off to 13, based on the mean depth from a long, central segment of Sultan Qaboos Street in Modern Muscat. For Doha, this is 6.4, rounded off to 6, based on the mean depth from the longest, straightest segment of Salwa Road. Both models utilize the fully-distributed urban spatial network, removing all one-connected lines and cul-de-sac sequences. Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 19

Figure 14. ViewsViews of the North North Gate Development Project ((toptop leftleft)) exterior exterior situation before, (top (top right) right) interior situation before, (bottom (bottom left) left) the the render render of the design proposal, and ((bottombottom rightright)) after completion [[42].42].

InThe contrast, local catchment extensive area intervention of all of the at routesits perimeter within, and passing in the into, surrounding and defining urban the context perimeter with of moreSouq Mutrahcareful upintervention to 13 changes within of direction its interior away appears encompasses to characterize an approximate the planning built areastrategy of only for 6Souq km2 Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 19 (FigureWaqif in15 ).Doha. It includes The 2004–2008 the Mutrah, Souq Bayt Waqif Al Fajal Restorat and Ruwiion areasproject in thisreflects part ofthis Muscat, approach, mostly despite south involving the wholesale demolition of any buildings constructed after 1950. metroof the east–westregion via routeDoha of Expressway, Bab Al mathaib Salwa Street, Road which and Al merges Wakra to Road become to the part north of Sultan (~22 km), Qaboos west Street (~22 The reasons for and consequences of these differing planning strategies become apparent when km)further and west. south At (~12 its furthestkm), respectively linear extent, (Figure this 16). only extends a distance as the crow flies of 3.5 km. we compare the accessibility catchment area of both souqs within their metropolitan region using space syntax. This analysis uses step-depth (e.g., changes of direction) in space syntax terms, based on the mean depth from the most integrated street as a common point of reference. For Muscat, this is 12.8, rounded off to 13, based on the mean depth from a long, central segment of Sultan Qaboos Street in Modern Muscat. For Doha, this is 6.4, rounded off to 6, based on the mean depth from the longest, straightest segment of Salwa Road. Both models utilize the fully-distributed urban spatial network, removing all one-connected lines and cul-de-sac sequences. The local catchment area of all of the routes within, passing into, and defining the perimeter of Souq Mutrah up to 13 changes of direction away encompasses an approximate built area of only 6 km2 (Figure 15). It includes the Mutrah, Bayt Al Fajal and Ruwi areas in this part of Muscat, mostly south of the east–west route of Bab Al Mathaib Street, which merges to become part of Sultan Qaboos Street further west. At its furthest linear extent, this only extends a distance as the crow flies of 3.5 km. In contrast, the local catchment area for all of the routes within, passing into, and defining the perimeter of Souq Waqif up to 6 changes of direction encompasses approximately 130 km2 of the urban fabric in Doha. It is nearly 22 times more area than that of Souq Mutrah. It includes almost everywhere within the C-Ring Road, except for large areas of the Al Mansoura and Najma neighborhoods to the south. It extends to every ring road in a westerly direction and incorporates the entire perimeter of and distribution streets into the Industrial Area in the southwest of the Figure 15. Step-depthStep-depth based based on on 13 13 changes of directio directionn from all streets within, passing into, and metropolitan region. Furthermore, it includes linear extensions along major routes to all edges of the definingdefining the perimeter of Souq Mutrah in the spacespace syntax modelmodel ofof metropolitanMetropolitan MuscatMuscat inin 2018.2018.

In contrast, the local catchment area for all of the routes within, passing into, and deﬁning the perimeter of Souq Waqif up to 6 changes of direction encompasses approximately 130 km2 of the urban fabric in Doha. It is nearly 22 times more area than that of Souq Mutrah. It includes almost everywhere within the C-Ring Road, except for large areas of the Al mansoura and Najma neighborhoods to the south. It extends to every ring road in a westerly direction and incorporates the entire perimeter of and distribution streets into the Industrial Area in the southwest of the metropolitan region. Furthermore, it includes linear extensions along Major routes to all edges of the metro region via Doha Expressway,

Figure 16. Step-depth based on 6 changes of direction from all streets within, passing into, and defining the perimeter of Souq Waqif within the space syntax model of Metropolitan Doha in 2018. Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 19

metro region via Doha Expressway, Salwa Road and Al Wakra Road to the north (~22 km), west (~22 km) and south (~12 km), respectively (Figure 16).

Sustainability 2020, 12, 7154 16 of 21

Salwa Road and Al Wakra Road to the north (~22 km), west (~22 km) and south (~12 km), respectively Figure 15. Step-depth based on 13 changes of direction from all streets within, passing into, and (Figure 16). defining the perimeter of Souq Mutrah in the space syntax model of Metropolitan Muscat in 2018.

Figure 16. Step-depth based on 6 changes of direction from all streets within, passing into, and Figure 16. Step-depth based on 6 changes of direction from all streets within, passing into, and deﬁning defining the perimeter of Souq Waqif within the space syntax model of Metropolitan Doha in 2018. the perimeter of Souq Waqif within the space syntax model of metropolitan Doha in 2018.

The validity of these findings appears strengthened if we examine the local area effect, or grid intensification, of both souqs [23,35]. The scatter of integration (radius = n vs. radius = 13) in the space syntax model of metropolitan Muscat demonstrates a clustering effect related to the polycentric spatial structure of the city. The Al-Amaret, Mutrah, Mawaleh and Modern Muscat areas clearly distinguish (in ascending order for global integration) from one another. All of the routes within Souq Mutrah form a relatively focused grid intensification within the Mutrah cluster, hovering above the slope of correlation for the entire metropolitan region for Muscat (Figure 17, left). It appears to follow the clustering for the whole of the Mutrah area. Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 19

The validity of these findings appears strengthened if we examine the local area effect, or grid intensification, of both souqs [23,35]. The scatter of integration (radius = n vs. radius = 13) in the space syntax model of Metropolitan Muscat demonstrates a clustering effect related to the polycentric spatial structure of the city. The Al-Amaret, Mutrah, Mawaleh and Modern Muscat areas clearly distinguish (in ascending order for global integration) from one another. All of the routes within Souq Mutrah form a relatively focused grid intensification within the Mutrah cluster, hovering above the slope of correlation for the entire metropolitan region for Muscat (Figure 17, left). It appears to follow the clustering for the whole of the Mutrah area. On the other hand, the routes within Souq Waqif appear to form a straightforward, or traditional in Hillierian terms, local area effect. There is a grid intensification in the relationship of synergy (correlation between global integration, radius = n vs. local integration, radius = 3) crossing over the slope of correlation for Metropolitan Doha as a whole into the higher ranges of local integration [23,35] (Figure 17, right). The scatter of routes in Souq Waqif excludes two lines of sight extending from the Al Souq area about 50 m into the western portions of Souq Waqif, due to the contemporary creation of the northeast plaza. The construction of new retail units is currently underway in the northeast plaza of Souq Waqif, which will eliminate the extension of these two Al Souq routes into Sustainability 2020, 12, 7154 17 of 21 the souq, terminating them on its perimeter at Banks Street.

FigureFigure 17.17. Scatter of ((leftleft)) integrationintegration (radius(radius == nn vs.vs. radius = 13) in metropolitanMetropolitan Muscat,Muscat, withwith aa characteristiccharacteristic distributiondistribution lineline forfor allall ofof thethe routesroutes withinwithin SouqSouq MutrahMutrah highlightedhighlighted inin red,red, andand (right) globalglobal integrationintegration (radius(radius == n)n) vs.vs. local local integrat integrationion (radius = 3)3) in metropolitanMetropolitan Doha, with aa characteristiccharacteristic distributiondistribution lineline forfor allall routesroutes withinwithin SouqSouq WaqifWaqif highlighted highlighted in in red. red. On the other hand, the routes within Souq Waqif appear to form a straightforward, or traditional These conditions arose from the challenges of urban growth and development in the differing in Hillierian terms, local area effect. There is a grid intensification in the relationship of synergy topographical conditions of these cities, and the need to adopt different strategies to preserve the (correlation between global integration, radius = n vs. local integration, radius = 3) crossing over the long-term sustainability and viability of Souq Mutrah and Souq Waqif as traditional marketplaces slope of correlation for metropolitan Doha as a whole into the higher ranges of local integration [23,35] [9,25]. Urban development in Muscat prioritizes linearity at the macro-scale and an intense form of (Figure 17, right). The scatter of routes in Souq Waqif excludes two lines of sight extending from the Al centrality or locality at the micro-scale in giving rise to the emergent polycentric spatial structure of Souq area about 50 m into the western portions of Souq Waqif, due to the contemporary creation of the the urban pattern in the growing metropolis. Urban development in Doha balances both centrality northeast plaza. The construction of new retail units is currently underway in the northeast plaza of and linearity at the macro-scale. In combination with a formal superblock pattern at the micro-scale Souq Waqif, which will eliminate the extension of these two Al Souq routes into the souq, terminating in defining locality, this collectively helps to maintain the shallowness of old Doha within the them on its perimeter at Banks Street. emergent ortho-radial spatial structure of the growing metropolis (Figure 18). Because of this, Souq These conditions arose from the challenges of urban growth and development in the differing Mutrah operates out of necessity as a local, everyday market for residents living in the immediate topographical conditions of these cities, and the need to adopt different strategies to preserve the vicinity. It does cater to tourists and residents making the occasional, specific trip from further inland long-term sustainability and viability of Souq Mutrah and Souq Waqif as traditional marketplaces [9,25]. in Muscat, the cruise terminal in the old port, or both. However, this is supplementary to its primary Urban development in Muscat prioritizes linearity at the macro-scale and an intense form of centrality role as a local traditional marketplace. Doha grew in a manner enabling Souq Waqif to fully transition or locality at the micro-scale in giving rise to the emergent polycentric spatial structure of the urban from a local traditional marketplace into a cultural heritage district catering to everyday trips from pattern in the growing metropolis. Urban development in Doha balances both centrality and linearity at almost everywhere in the metropolitan region. This transition became necessary due to a significant the macro-scale. In combination with a formal superblock pattern at the micro-scale in defining locality, loss of residents living within the immediate vicinity of the souq. However, urban regeneration this collectively helps to maintain the shallowness of Old Doha within the emergent ortho-radial spatial efforts supported by the Qatari government are well underway to bring residents (especially Qataris) structure of the growing metropolis (Figure 18). Because of this, Souq Mutrah operates out of necessity back to old Doha, such as the mixed-use Msheireb Downtown Doha project [7,25]. as a local, everyday market for residents living in the immediate vicinity. It does cater to tourists and residents making the occasional, specific trip from further inland in Muscat, the cruise terminal in the old port, or both. However, this is supplementary to its primary role as a local traditional marketplace. Doha grew in a manner enabling Souq Waqif to fully transition from a local traditional marketplace into a cultural heritage district catering to everyday trips from almost everywhere in the metropolitan region. This transition became necessary due to a significant loss of residents living within the immediate vicinity of the souq. However, urban regeneration efforts supported by the Qatari government are well underway to bring residents (especially Qataris) back to Old Doha, such as the mixed-use msheireb Downtown Doha project [7,25]. Sustainability 2020, 12, 7154 18 of 21 Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 19

FigureFigure 18. 18.IllustrationIllustration of ofHillier’s Hillier’s principles principles of of cent centralityrality (represented(represented as as circles) circles) and and linearity linearity (represented(represented at lines) at lines) at atwork work during during urban urban growth growth overover timetime in in (left (left) six) six time time periods periods of Muscat, of Muscat, right 1987–2016,1987–2016, and and(right ( ) ten) time ten timeperiods periods of Doha, of Doha, 1937–2013, 1937–2013, giving giving rise to rise their to distinctive their distinctive emergent emergent spatial. spatial. 7. Implications for Future Research and Design Interventions 7. Implications for Future Research and Design Interventions Like many traditional markets in Arab cities, Souq Mutrah and Souq Waqif experienced a period ofLike decline many during traditional globalization markets and in rapidArab urbanization.cities, Souq Mutrah It fed the and shift Souq of commercial Waqif experienced development a period of declineand activities during toglobalization new, modern and centers—such rapid urbaniza as indoortion. shoppingIt fed the malls, shift of due commercial to the harsh development climatic and conditionsactivities to in thenew, region—outside modern centers—such of the oldest as areas indoor of the shopping city. The malls, result wasduethe to negligencethe harsh andclimatic conditionsdegradation in the of region—outside traditional marketplaces of the oldest such as areas souqs. of Inthe both city. of The the casesresult in was this the paper, negligence it meant and physical and economic adaption to survive. Catering to international tourism became an essential degradation of traditional marketplaces such as souqs. In both of the cases in this paper, it meant attribute of their continuing socio-economic success as sustainable urban places, to one degree or physicalanother. and For economic Souq Waqif adaption in Doha, to this survive. meant aCateri significantng to urban international renewal project tourism to restore became its buildingan essential attributefabric of and their reinvigorate continuing the souqsocio-economic as a public place succe ofss significance as sustainable in the urban city center. places, For to Souq one Mutrah degree or another.in Muscat, For Souq this meantWaqif anin economicDoha, this adjustment meant a signif to theicant realities urban of the renewal expanding project urban to fabricrestore in its the building city, fabricand and some reinvigorate specialization the ofsouq the goodsas a public sold in place the market of significance catering to in residents the city living center. in theFor immediate Souq Mutrah in Muscat,vicinity. this Importantly, meant an these economic case studies adjustment demonstrate to the that realities there isof not the any expanding ‘one size fitsurban all’ fabric solution in the city, toand the some issue ofspecialization socio-economic of sustainability the goods sold for traditional in the market marketplaces catering in theto residents Middle East; living in fact, in the immediatethe opposite. vicinity. It suggests Importantly, that applying these case the solutionsstudies demo of onenstrate city to anotherthat there in anyis not design any intervention‘one size fits all’ solutionfor traditional to the issue markets of socio-economic might prove sustainability problematic without for traditional carefully marketplaces accounting for in the the contextual Middle East; in fact,relationship the opposite. of such It places suggests within that their applying city using th objectivee solutions tools of such one as city space to syntax. another in any design intervention8. Conclusions for traditional markets might prove problematic without carefully accounting for the contextual relationship of such places within their city using objective tools such as space syntax. We presented some of the findings for a study comparing form and function in two traditional markets: Souq Mutrah in Muscat, Oman, and Souq Waqif in Doha, Qatar. Globalization and 8. Conclusions rapid urbanization have characterized both Doha and Muscat over the last fifty years. Both cities have sharedWe presented historical originssome of as the coastal findings settlements, for a butstudy with comparing stark differences form in and topography. function We in investigatedtwo traditional markets:the urban Souq morphology, Mutrah in land Muscat, use and Oman, functioning and Souq of these Waqif souqs in using Doha, several Qatar. representation Globalization techniques and rapid urbanizationtypical of morphologicalhave characterized research both to contextualize Doha and theseMuscat marketplaces over the withinlast fifty their years. metropolitan Both cities region have sharedon objectivehistorical terms origins using as tools coastal such settlements as space syntax, but analysis. with stark The paperdifferences was able in totopography. develop an We understanding of (1) the evolution of space and form in these marketplaces over time, and (2) the investigated the urban morphology, land use and functioning of these souqs using several implications for their functioning as urban places today. The analysis demonstrated the critical representation techniques typical of morphological research to contextualize these marketplaces importance of contextual relations at the macro- and micro-scale of the urban environment for withinunderstanding their metropolitan the complex region socio-economic on objective nature term ofs theseusing souqs. tools It such helped as tospace deepen syntax our knowledge analysis. The paperabout was traditional able to develop marketplaces an understanding and contemporary of urbanism(1) the evolution in the Arabian of space GulfRegion. and form In doing in these marketplaces over time, and (2) the implications for their functioning as urban places today. The analysis demonstrated the critical importance of contextual relations at the macro- and micro-scale of the urban environment for understanding the complex socio-economic nature of these souqs. It helped to deepen our knowledge about traditional marketplaces and contemporary urbanism in the Arabian Gulf Region. In doing so, we demonstrated a critical link between the morphological evolution and economic vitality of markets, whereby different topological conditions and planning strategies for intervention can promote different solutions for the long-term sustainability of Sustainability 2020, 12, 7154 19 of 21 so, we demonstrated a critical link between the morphological evolution and economic vitality of markets, whereby different topological conditions and planning strategies for intervention can promote different solutions for the long-term sustainability of significant urban places. As we saw in this study, sustainable solutions remain fundamentally related to well-defined and understood spatial processes in all cities, including those of the Arabian Peninsula.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, methodology, Software, Validation, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Data Curation, Writing—Original Draft Preparation, Writing—Review and Editing, Visualization, Supervision, Project Administration, Funding Acquisition; m.D.M. Conceptualization, methodology, Software, Validation, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Data Curation, Resources, Writing—Original Draft Preparation, Writing—Review and Editing, Visualization, Project Administration; H.O.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding: Some portions of this research involving the space syntax model of Metropolitan Doha in Qatar were supported by an internal grant from Qatar University (Grant ID: QUSD-CENG-2018/2019-4). Additional research was supported by a grant from the Qatar National Research Foundation (Grant ID: UREP25-002-5-001). Open access publication of this paper was jointly supported by Qatar National Library and the Qatar National Research Foundation. Conﬂicts of Interest: The authors declare no conﬂict of interest.

References and Notes

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