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Developing a Theory of Subjectivity for Video Gaming Tony Miller a Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies in Partia

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Developing a Theory of Subjectivity for Video Gaming Tony Miller a Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies in Partia DEVELOPING A THEORY OF SUBJECTIVITY FOR VIDEO GAMING TONY MILLER A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS GRADUATE PROGRAM IN PSYCHOLOGY YORK UNIVERSITY TORONTO, ONTARIO August 2019 © Tony Miller, 2019 Abstract Video game studies in mainstream psychology are often limited to investigating the positive and negative effects of playing on mental health. The few studies that explore immersion in video games mostly adopt a pathologizing perspective towards the phenomenon of immersion. These studies adhere to a reductionist perspective trying to make a direct link between violence, depression, or anxiety and playing video games. I argue that to fully understand the subjective experience of video gaming, there is a need to develop a theory of subjectivity that can explain why and how immersion happens in the experience of playing video games. To develop this theory, I compare the experience of playing video games to the experience of watching a movie and then, based on preexisting subjectivity theories in cinema, I try to develop a similar theory for gaming experience. First, I review the literature on video gaming to illustrate the need to develop a coherent theory addressing video gaming subjectivity. Second, I unpack the suture theory in cinema which serves as a template for my theory for video games. Then, I present the collected empirical data with a qualitative inquiry mapping out the differences between video gaming and movie watching, as well as serving to understand the subjective experience of playing video games in gamers. Finally, based on the empirical data and my theoretical insights, I provide a theory of subjectivity which I call gaming-based suture, as opposed to cinema-based suture, which explains the subjective experience of playing video games. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... ii Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................... iii Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 1: Status of Traditional Research ...................................................................................... 4 Negative Effects of Video Games............................................................................................... 4 Addiction ............................................................................................................................... 4 Violence ................................................................................................................................. 5 Depression ............................................................................................................................. 7 Academic Achievement......................................................................................................... 9 Anxiety ................................................................................................................................ 10 Attention .............................................................................................................................. 11 Physical Health .................................................................................................................... 12 Potential Benefits of Video Gaming ......................................................................................... 13 Prosocial Behaviour............................................................................................................. 14 Educational Benefits ............................................................................................................ 14 Stress Relief ......................................................................................................................... 15 Cognitive Functioning ......................................................................................................... 16 Social Interaction ................................................................................................................. 16 Studies About Immersion in Video Games .............................................................................. 18 Significance of the Current Study ............................................................................................. 21 Chapter 2: Suture Theory .............................................................................................................. 24 Jean-Pierre Oudart’s “Suture in Cinema” (1969) ..................................................................... 25 Stephen Heath’s “Notes on Suture” (1978) .............................................................................. 27 Kaja Silverman’s “The Subject of Semiotics” (1983) .............................................................. 32 George Butte’s Phenomenological Suture ................................................................................ 35 Vivian Sobchack’s “Embodiment and Moving Image Culture” (2004) ................................... 38 Criticisms of Suture Theory ...................................................................................................... 41 Christian Metz’ “Cinema and Psychoanalysis” (1982) ............................................................ 44 Summary ................................................................................................................................... 45 Chapter 3: Methodology .............................................................................................................. 46 Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................................. 46 Research Design........................................................................................................................ 46 iii Research Questions ................................................................................................................... 49 Sampling Design ....................................................................................................................... 49 Instrumentation ......................................................................................................................... 50 Data Collection ......................................................................................................................... 52 Games ....................................................................................................................................... 53 Analysis..................................................................................................................................... 54 Chapter 4: Analysis and Results .................................................................................................. 56 Identification with Character .................................................................................................... 58 Identification with Narrative ..................................................................................................... 64 Camera Eye ............................................................................................................................... 69 The Embodied Experience ........................................................................................................ 75 Beyond Cinematic Experience .................................................................................................. 79 Discussion ................................................................................................................................. 84 Chapter 5: Suture Theory - From Cinema to Video Games ......................................................... 85 Similarities ................................................................................................................................ 86 Differences ................................................................................................................................ 92 The Problems of Traditional Immersion Theories in Psychological Literature ....................... 94 Limitations ................................................................................................................................ 96 Further Studies .......................................................................................................................... 97 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 98 References ................................................................................................................................... 101 Appendices .................................................................................................................................. 117 Appendix A: Interview Protocol ............................................................................................. 117 iv Introduction According to Newzoo’s latest Global Games Market Report (Wijman, 2018), about 2.3 billion gamers across the globe generated $137.9 billion in game revenues in 2018. This figure represents an increase of $16.2 billion, or 13.3%, from the year before. Hence, in 2018, the video
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